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MOLECULAR CELL

BIOLOGY & GENETIC

DISORDERS

THE CELL

Highly organized structure consist of various

organelles held by the cytoskeleton w radiates from

nuclear membrane to cell plasma membrane

The plasma cell membrane is bilayer of phospholipids

Polar hydrophilic head e.g. phosphatidyl choline

form bilayers (as complete circular structures)

effective barrier impermeable to most H2O-

soluble molecules

Non-polar (insoluble) lipid hydrophobic tail

(commonly 2 long-chain FA)

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The Cell Membrane

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CELL DYNAMICS Old cellular ptn mopped up by small cofactor molecule

(ubiquitin)

Small 8.5 kDa regulating ptn

Present universally in all living cells

Interacts e these worn ptn via their exposed

hydrophobic residues

A complex containing >5 ubiquitin molecules is

rapidly degraded by large proteolytic multienzyme

26S proteosome

Plays role in regulation of receptor tyrosine kinase

in cell cycle & repair of DNA damage

Failure to remove worn proteins chronic debilitating

disorders e.g. Alzheimer & frontotemporal dementias

(accumulation of ubiquinated ptn w are resistant to

ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis)

Resistant ubiquinated proteins inclusion bodies

found in myositis & myopathies causes

Point mutation in target ptn itself e.g. mutant p53

in cancer

External factor altering normal ptn conformation

proteolytic-resistant shape e.g. CJD

Free radicals It is any atom or molecule w contains 1 or more

unpaired electrons more reactive than the native

species

It is implicated in large number of human diseases

When free radical reacts e non-radical chain

reaction direct tissue damage by membrane lipid

peroxidation

The major free radical species produced in human

body

1) Hydroxyl radical (OH)

The most reactive but others can generate

more reactive species as breakdown products

Can cause genetic mutations by attacking

purines & pyrimidines

2) Superoxide radical (O2-)

Superoxide dismutases (SOD) convert

superoxide to hydrogen peroxide (protective

antioxidant mechanism)

Pt e dominant familial forms of amyotrophic

lateral sclerosis (MND) mutations in gene for

CuZn SOD-1 catalases

Glutathione peroxidases enzymes remove

hydrogen peroxide & generated by SOD in cell

cytosol & mitochondria

3) Nitric oxide (NO)

Alpha-tocopherol, urate, ascorbate & glutathione

remove free radicals by reacting directly & non-

catalytically -tocopherol ( vitamin E)

neurodegeneration

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The principal dietary antioxidants are vitamin E,

vitamin C, -carotene & flavanoids

Heat shock proteins The heat shock response is response to tissue stress

(heat, cytotoxic chemicals & free radicals) mediated

by activation of specific genes specific heat shock

proteins (HSPs)

Functions of HSPs

Transport of ptn in & out of specific cell organelles

Degradation of ptn (often by ubiquitination

pathways)

The unifying feature that activate HSPs

accumulation of damaged IC ptn

HSPs are expressed in a wide range of human cancers

& implicated in tumour cell proliferation,

differentiation, invasion, metastasis, cell death &

immune response

PHAGOCYTOSIS, PINOCYTOSIS & EXOCYTOSIS Phagocytosis

Specialized cells e.g. macrophages & neutrophils

Lysosomes rapidly fuse e phagosomes equally rapid

digestion of contents & recycling

Only triggered when specific cell surface receptors

(macrophage Fc receptor) occupied by their ligand

Pinocytosis Much smaller-scale model of phagocytosis

Continually occurring in all cells

In contrast to phagocytosis receptors for smaller

molecular complexes e.g. LDL surface clumping &

internal accumulation of a protein called clathrin

Clathrin-coated pits pinch inwards as clathrin-coated

vesicles

Clathrin prevents fusion of lysosomes (removal

lysosomal fusion & degradation)

Exocytosis Maintenance of clathrin coat transcellular transit

of contents & their exocytosis at another side of

plasma membrane i.e. apical to basal transcytosis

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Some of these vesicles rapidly fuse e plasma

membrane & exocytose their contents

Other vesicles do not immediately fuse e plasma

membrane

The clathrin-coated vesicles have additional lipid

bilayer embedded proteins called v-SNAREs (signal &

response elements) interact e target organelle

membrane proteins called t-SNAREs vesicle fusion

is therefore specific in the correct place & in the

correct time e.g. neuronal transmitter vesicles

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT & ION CHANNELS Plasma membrane is freely permeable to

Gases e.g. O2, CO2 and N2

Small uncharged molecules e.g. H2O (not H+ & OH)

& urea

Larger hydrophobic lipid-soluble molecules e.g.

steroids

Large uncharged molecules (G, aa & nucleotides) and

small charged ions (K, Na, Ca, Cl, Mg & HCO3) cannot

pass unless via specific transport ptn embedded in

plasma membrane

2 Structural types of transport molecules/complex

1) Channel proteins

Open a channel in the lipid membrane

Allow specific solute to pass through

2) Carrier proteins

Slower in action

Shuttling the solute across

Facilitating diffusion down a gradient across the

membrane OR actively pumping solutes against

the gradient using ATP as energy

RECEPTORS Membrane surface receptors pass their EC signal

across plasma membrane to cytoplasmic 2ry signalling

molecules

Membrane-bound receptors is subclassified according

to mechanism by which they activate signalling

molecules

Ion channel linked

G-protein linked

Enzyme linked

Structure of plasma membrane receptors

Serpentine 7 transmembrane domains e.g. LH

receptor

Transmembrane with large EC & IC domains e.g.

EGF receptor

Transmembrane with large EC domain only e.g.

macrophage scavenging receptors

Entirely linked to outer membrane leaflet by lipid

moiety known as GPI anchor (glycan phosphatidyl

inositol) e.g. T cell receptor

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Function of membrane receptors is to initiate 2ry

message activation of specific enzyme or DNA-

binding protein. This may involve

G-protein-linked receptors Once activated by ligand binds trimeric complex (,

, ) anchored to inner surface of plasma membrane

The complex is GTP-binding protein or G-protein then

interacts e enzyme complexes anchored to inner

leaflet of the membrane

These complexes 1 or all 3 of 2ry messengers

cyclic AMP (cAMP) Ca2+ ions

Inositol trisphosphate / diacylglycerol (IP3/DAG)

Enzyme-linked surface receptors These receptors usually have single transmembrane

spanning region & cytoplasmic domain e intrinsic

enzyme activity OR bind & activate other membrane

bound or cytoplasmic enzyme complexes

4 classes of enzymes have been designated

1) Guanylyl cyclase-linked receptors

e.g. ANP receptor w produce cGMP

In turn activates cGMP-dependent kinase (G-

kinase) binds to & phosphorylates serine &

threonine residues of specific 2ry messengers

2) Tyrosine kinase receptors

e.g. PDGF receptor

Specifically phosphorylate kinases on small set

of IC signalling proteins OR associate e ptn e

tyrosine kinase activity

3) Tyrosine phosphatase receptors

e.g. CD45

Remove phosphates from tyrosine residues of

specific IC signalling proteins

4) Serine/threonine kinase receptors

e.g. TGF- receptor

Phosphorylate specific serine & threonine

residues of IC signalling proteins

Many IC receptors that bind lipid-soluble ligands e.g.

steroid hormones (Pg, cortisol), T3/T4 often change

shape in response to binding their ligands enter the

nucleus & interact directly e specific DNA sequences

The fluid component inside the cell membrane

It contains many specialized organelles

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Consists of interconnecting tubules or flattened sacs

(cisternae) of lipid bilayer membrane

Cytoplasm

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It may contain ribosomes on the surface (rough

endoplasmic reticulum RER) & when absent (smooth

endoplasmic reticulum SER)

ER is involved in processing of ptn ribosomes

translate mRNA to 1ry sequence of aa of ptn peptide

chain

This chain is synthesized in the ER where it is folded

& modified into mature peptides

ER is the major site of drug metabolism

Golgi apparatus Consist of flattened cisternae similar to ER

Characterized as stack of cisternae from w vesicles

bud off from the thickened ends

The 1ry processed peptides of ER are exported to

Golgi apparatus for maturation into functional ptn e.g.

glycosylation of ptn to be excreted before packaging

into secretory granules & cellular vesicles that bud off

the ends

Lysosomes Dense cellular vesicles contain acidic digestive

enzymes

Fuse e phagocytotic vesicles from outer cell

membrane digest contents into small biomolecules

capable of cross lysosomal lipid bilayer to cytoplasm

Lysosomal enzymes can be released outside cell by

fusion of the lysosome e plasma membrane

Lysosomal action is crucial to function of macrophages

& PMNs in killing & digesting infective agents, tissue

remodelling during development & osteoclast

remodelling of bone

Peroxisomes Dense cellular vesicles contain enzymes catalyse the

breakdown of H2O2

They are involved in metabolism of bile & FA

Primarily concerned e detoxification e.g. d-amino acid

oxidase & H2O2 catalase

The inability to function rare metabolic disorders

e.g. Zellwegers syndrome & rhizomelic dwarfism

Mitochondria The powerhouse of the cell

Each mitochondrion has 2 lipid bilayer membranes

The outer membrane

It contain many gated receptors import raw

materials like pyruvate & ADP oxaloacetate &

ATP

Proteins of Bcl-2/Bax family are incorporated in

the outer membrane can release mitochondrial

enzymes that trigger apoptosis

The inner membrane

Highly infolded to form cristae toits effective

surface area

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Contains transmembrane enzyme complexes of

electron transport chain generate H+ ion

gradient drives adjacent transmembrane ATPase

complex to form ATP from ADP & Pi

The inner matrix

It possesses several copies of its own DNA in

circular genome

It contains enzymes of Krebs cycle that generate

substrates of both electron transport chain

(FADH2 & NADH) & central metabolism e.g.

succinyl CoA, -oxoglutarate, oxaloacetate

2ry messengers are molecules that transduce a signal

from a bound receptor to its site of action

There are essentially 4 mechanisms by which 2ry

messengers act (cross talk & rarely activated alone)

cAMP IP3/DAG

Ca2+ ions Protein phosphorylation

cAMP, IP3/DAG & Ca2+ ions Generation of cAMP by G-protein-linked receptors

cellular cAMP bind & activate specific cAMP

binding proteins dimerize & enter nucleus

interact e set DNA sequences (cAMP response

elements)

Cofactors in cAMP response element binding

proteins (CREB) are co-activated & interact e

phosphorylation pathway

Other G-protein complexes activate inner

membrane bound phospholipase complexes cleave

membrane phospholipid-polyphosphoinositide (PIP2)

1) Inositol trisphosphate (IP3) H2O soluble

molecule floats in cytoplasm interacts e gated

ion channels in ER (or sarcoplasmic reticulum in

muscle cells) rapid release of Ca2+

2) Diacylglycerol (DAG) lipid soluble that remains at

membrane activates a serine/threonine kinase

protein kinase C

The cellular calcium-binding proteins & ion pumps

rapidly remove Ca2+ from cytoplasm back into storage

compartment e.g. ER

Free Ca2+ interacts e target proteins in cytoplasm

phosphorylation / dephosphorylation cascade

activated DNAbinding proteins entering nucleus

Protein phosphorylation The principal route for ptn phosphorylation cascades

is from dimerization of surface ptn kinase receptors

Tyrosine kinase receptors phosphorylate each other

when ligand binding brings IC receptor components

into close proximity

Secondary Messenger

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Inner membrane & cytoplasmic targets of these

activated receptor complexes are ras, ptn kinase C &

ultimately MAP (mitogen activated ptn) kinase, Janus-

Stat pathways or phosphorylation of IB release its

DNA-binding protein, nuclear factor kappa B (NFB)

IC signalling proteins usually contain conserved non-

catalytic regions called SH2 & SH3 (SRC homology

regions 2 & 3) SH2 region binds to phosphorylated

tyrosine & SH3 domain is implicated in recruitment of

intermediates that activate ras proteins

Like G-proteins ras (& its homologous family

members rho / rac) switch between inactive GDP-

binding state & active GTP-binding state

NFB conformational change & enter nucleus

initiates transcription of specific genes

Lipid-soluble ligands e.g. steroids not need 2ry

messengers cytoplasmic receptors once activated

enter nucleus as DBP alter gene expression directly

Complex network of structural ptns w regulates

Shape of the cell

Cell ability to traffic internal cell organelles &

move in response to external stimuli

The major components

1) Microtubules

Made of 2 ptn subunits & tubulin (50 kDa)

Continuously change length highway

transporting organelles through cytoplasm

2 motor microtubule associated ptns (dynein &

kinesin) antegrade & retrograde movement

(dynein also beating of cilia)

During interphase microtubules rearranged

by microtubule organizing centre (MTOC) w

consists of centrosomes containing tubulin &

provide structure on w daughter Chr can

separate

The Cytoskeleton

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Another ptn involved in binding of organelles to

microtubules cytoplasmic linker protein

(CLIP)

Drugs disrupt microtubule assembly (colchicine

& vinblastine) affect positioning & organelles

morphology

Anticancer drug paclitaxel causes cell death

by binding to microtubules & stabilizing them

organelles cannot move mitotic spindles not

formed

2) Intermediate filaments

Form network around nucleus & extend to cell

periphery

They make cell-to-cell contacts e adjacent cells

via desmosomes

They make contact e basement matrix via

hemidesmosomes

Function structural integrity (prominent in

cellular tissues under stress)

Intermediate filament fibre ptns are specific to

embryonic lineage of the cell e.g. keratin

intermediate fibres only found in epithelial cells

3) Microfilaments

Muscle cells contain

o Actin highly ordered structure of actin

(globular ptn, 4244 kDa)

o Myosin filaments form contractile system

These filaments also present in nonmuscle cells

as truncated myosins (e.g. myosin 1), in cytosol

(forming contractile actomyosin gel) & beneath

plasma membrane

Cell movement is mediated by anchorage of

actin filaments to plasma membrane at adherent

junctions between cells non stressed

coordination of contraction between adjacent

cells of tissue (similarly, vertical contraction of

tissues is anchored across cell membrane to

basement matrix at focal adhesion junctions

where actin fibres converge)

Actinbinding ptns e.g. fimbria modulate

behaviour of microfilaments & their effects are

often Ca dependent

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Actin-associated ptns can be tissue type

specific e.g. actin-binding troponin is complex

of 3 subunits & 2 of these have isomers w are

only found in cardiac muscle

Alterations in cells actin architecture are controlled

by activation of small ras-like GTP-binding proteins

rho & rac involved in rearrangement of cell during

division dysfunctions of these ptns are associated e

malignancy

EC domains form junctions between cells to form

tissues

Types of junction between cells

1) Tight junctions (zonula occludens)

Situated at ends of margins adjacent to

epithelial cells e.g. intestinal & renal cells

Form barrier to movement of ions & solutes

across the epithelium (may be variably leaky to

certain solutes)

The ptns responsible for intercellular tight

junction closure (claudins) selective

expression ein tissue & regulate w ions pass

Mutations of claudin-16 (expressed in thick

ascending loop of Henle where Mg is

reabsorbed) abnormal Mg reabsorption of

Gitelmans syndrome

2) Adherent junctions (zonula adherens)

Continuous on basal side of cells

Contain cadherins

The major site of attachment of IC

microfilaments

Intermediate filaments attach to desmosomes

areas of thickened membranes of 2 adjacent

cells

Hemidesmosomes attach cells to basal lamina &

also connected to intermediate filaments

Transmembrane integrins link EC matrix to

microfilaments at focal areas where cells also

attach to their basal laminae

In blistering skin disorders auto-Ab damage

by attacking tight junction desmosomal proteins

e.g. desmoglein-3 in pemphigus vulgaris &

desmoglein-1 in pemphigus foliaceus

3) Gap junctions

Allow substances to pass directly between cells

eout entering ECF

Ptn channels (connexins) are lined up between 2

adjacent cells & allow solutes passage up to MW

1000 kDa e.g. aa, sugars, ions, messengers

Channels diameter is regulated by IC Ca2+, pH &

voltage

Intercellular Connections

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Connexins 6 subunits surrounding channel &

their isoforms in tissues are encoded by

different genes

Mutant connexins disorders e.g. X-linked

form of CharcotMarieTooth disease

Major families of cell adhesion molecules

1) Cadherins

Cadherins establish molecular links between

adjacent cells

They form zipper-like structures at adherens

junctions

Through these junctions, bundles of actin

filaments run from cell to cell.

Related molecules e.g. desmogleins form the

main constituents of desmosomes (anchoring

sites for intermediate filaments)

The expression of specific adhesion molecules in

the embryo is crucial for cell migration &

differentiation of tissues

2) Integrins

They are membrane glycoproteins e &

subunits w exist in active & inactive forms

They principally bind to EC matrix components

e.g. fibrinogen, elastase & laminin

The aa sequence arginineglycineaspartic acid

(RGD) potent recognition sequence for

integrin binding

Integrins replace cadherins in focal membrane

anchorage of hemidesmosomes & focal adhesion

junctions

The active form of integrin can come as result

of cytoplasmic signal that causes conformational

change in EC domain affinity for its ligand

o The inside-out signalling occurs when

leucocytes are stimulated by bacterial

peptides leucocyte integrin affinity for

Ig super families structures e.g. Fc portion

of Ig immunoglobulin

o The outside-in signalling follows binding of

ligand to integrin & stimulate 2ry signals

diverse events e.g endocytosis, proliferation

& apoptosis

Defective integrins are associated e many

immunological & clotting disorders e.g. Bernard

Soulier syndrome & Glanzmanns thrombasthenia

3) Ig superfamily cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)

Ig-like structures domains

Neural cell adhesion molecule (N-CAM)

o Predominantly in nervous system

o Mediates homophilic adhesion

Cell Adhesion & Molecules

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o When bound to identical molecule on another

cell N-CAM associate laterally with

fibroblast growth factor receptor

stimulate tyrosine kinase activity of that

receptor growth of neurites (Adhesion

molecules can trigger cellular responses by

indirect activation of other types of

receptors)

o The placenta and gastrointestinal

Placenta & GIT also express Ig superfamily

members but unclear function

4) Selectins

Selectins interact e CHO ligands or mucin

complexes on leucocytes & endothelial cells

(most adhesion molecules bind to other ptn)

L-selectin (CD62L) is found on leucocytes

homing of lymphocytes to lymph nodes

E-selectin (CD62E) appears on endothelial cells

after activation by inflammatory cytokines

small basal amount of E-selectin in many

vascular beds is necessary for leucocytes

migration

P-selectin (CD26P) stored in granules of

platelets & WeibelPalade bodies of endothelial

cells it moves plasma membrane upon

stimulation of these cells

All 3 selectins play part in leucocyte rolling

A nucleus is present in all eukaryotic cells that divide

Contains human genome & bound by 2 bilayer lipid

membranes, the outer is continuous e ER

Nuclear pores present in membranes allow passage

of nucleotides & DNA interacting ptns in AND mRNA

out

The genome consists of DNA plus all apparatus for

replication & transcription into RNA

The Nucleus & its responses

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Types of cell division

Meiosis

Occurs in germ cells only

Chromosome complement is halved (haploid) & at

fertilization the union of 2 cells restores full

complement of 46 chromosomes

Mitosis

Occurs in dividing cells after fertilization

Results in 2 identical daughter cells

Chromosomes are only visible during cell division

A nucleolus is dense area ein the nucleus rich in

ptns & RNA synthesis of rRNA & ribosomes

THE CELL CYCLE Cells in quiescent G0 phase (G, gap) of the cycle are

stimulated by receptor-mediated actions of growth

factors e.g. EGF, PDGF, IGF via IC 2nd messengers

Stimuli are transmitted to nucleus activate

transcription factors initiation of DNA synthesis

then mitosis & cell division

Cell cycling is modified by cyclin family of ptns

Cyclin & cyclin-dependent kinases Coordinated cyclic expression of cyclin-dependent

kinases (Cdk) drives cell replication cycle

Cell cycle is catalysed by Cdk w are activated by class

of ptns called cyclins (Cyc)

After stimulation from pro-mitotic EC signal e.g.

growth factor G1 cyclinCdk complexes (CycB

/Cdk4/6; CycE/Cdk2) become active to prepare cell

for S phase expression of transcription factors

expression of S cyclins (CycB/Cdk2) & enzymes

required for DNA replication

G1 cyclinCdk complexes degradation of molecules

that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them

for ubiquitination

Active S cyclinCdk complexes phosphorylate ptns

that make up pre-replication complexes assembled

during G1 phase on DNA replication origins serves 2

purposes

1) Activate each already assembled pre-replication

complex

2) Prevent new complexes from forming

This ensures that every portion of genome will be

replicated once only

Mitotic cyclinCdk complexes e.g. CycB/CdK2

(synthesized but inactivated during G2 phase)

initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream ptns

involved in chromosome condensation & mitotic spindle

assembly

Apoptosis (programmed cell death) Deliberate activation of constituent genes responsible

for their own demise

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Necrotic cell death

External factor e.g. hypoxia, toxins damages cells

physiology cell disintegration

Influx of water & ions cellular organelles swell

rupture

Cell lysis release of lysosomal enzymes in EC

environment acute inflammatory responses in

vivo

Apoptotic cell death

Chromatin aggregation + nuclear & cytoplasmic

condensation in distinct membrane bound vesicles

(apoptotic bodies)

Organelles remain intact

Cell blebs intact membrane vesicles

No inflammatory response

Cellular blebs & remains are phagocytosed by

adjacent cells & macrophages

This process requires energy (ATP) and several Ca2+ &

Mg2+ dependent nuclease systems activation cleave

nuclear DNA at the inter-histone residues

Endonuclease destroys DNA following apoptosis this

involve enzyme caspase (cysteine-containing aspartase-

specific protease) w activate CAD (caspaseactivated

DNase)/ICAD (inhibitor of CAD) system destroy

DNA

Regulated apoptosis is essential for

Tissue structure formation in embryogenesis

Wound healing

Normal metabolic processes e.g. autodestruction of

endometrium to cause menstruation

Chemotherapy & radiotherapy only work if they can

trigger tumour cells own apoptotic pathways

Several factors initiate apoptosis but in general there

are 2 signalling pathways

1) The extrinsic pathway

Involved in processes e.g. tissue remodelling &

induction of immune selftolerance

Triggered by death receptors on cell surface e

internal death domain complexes multiply pro-

caspase 8 molecules release of initiator caspase

8 cleaves pro-caspase 3 caspase 3 + other

effector caspases activate DNA cleavage, cell

condensation & fragmentation

Death receptors are members of TNF receptor

superfamily include CD95 (APO-1/Fas), TRAIL

(TNF-related apoptosis ligand)-R1, TRAIL-R2,

TNF-R1, DR3 & DR6

2) The intrinsic pathway

Initiated at the mitochondrial level centres on

release of cytochrome C from mitochondria

Cellular stress (growth factor withdrawal & p53

cell cycle arrest) expression of pro-apoptotic

Bcl-2 family of ptns, Bax & Bak tetrameric

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The Fas protein & Fas ligand (FasL) are 2 ptns that interact to activate apoptotic pathway. Fas & FasL are both members of TNF family Fas is part of transmembrane receptor family & FasL is part of membraneassociated cytokine family. When the homotrimer of FasL binds to Fas, it causes Fas to trimerize & brings together the death domains (DD) on the cytoplasmic tails of ptn. The adaptor protein, FADD (Fas-associating ptn e death domain), binds to these activated death domains & they bind to pro-caspase 8 through a set of death effector domains (DED)

complexes imbed to outer mitochondrial

membrane permissive pores

Cytochrome C released from mitochondria binds

Apaf1 complex called apoptosome activates

initiator caspase (caspase 9) activates effector

caspase (caspase 3)

Other ptns released from damaged mitochondria

(Smac/DIABLO & Omi/HtrA2) counteract

effect of IAPs (inhibitor of apoptosis ptns)

normally bind & prevent activation of pro-caspase 3

Antiapoptotic Bcl-2 ptn, when incorporated as

member of Bak/Bax pore complex mitochondrial

pore non-permissive to release of cytochrome C &

anti-IAPs

There is amplification link between extrinsic &

intrinsic apoptotic pathways caspase 8 cleaves Bcl-2

family member, tBid formation of Bcl-2/Bax/Bak

pore complexes if this complex is predominantly of

pro-apoptotic members of Bcl-2 family

apoptosome/caspase 9 & mitochondrial anti-IAPs

apoptotic activation of effector caspases 3

Conversely, overexpression of antiapoptotic Bcl-2

intrinsic & extrinsic apoptotic signalling

Stem cells The majority of our cells are terminally differentiated

& contain the blueprint to produce all the ptns of the

body but each tissue has permanently deactivated all

except those required for the specialized function of

the cells

Therefore we must have nests of cells ein all

different tissues that have not shut down their

genetic blueprint

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These stem cells give rise to daughter cell

(differentiated & limited ability to replicate) &

daughter cell w will not differentiate & has the

infinite ability to replicate

In mammals source categories of stem cells

Embryonic stem cells derived from blastocysts

Adult stem cells found in adult tissues

Cord blood stem cells found in umbilical cord

The source of stem cells can also be subcategorized

by potency (specifies the potential to differentiate to

different cell types)

Totipotent stem cells

Produced from fusion of egg & sperm cell

Produced by 1st few divisions of fertilized egg

Can differentiate to embryonic &

extraembryonic cell types

Pluripotent stem cells

The descendants of totipotent cells

Can differentiate to cells derived from any of

the 3 germ layers

Multipotent stem cells

Produce only cells of closely related family e.g.

haematopoietic stem cells RBCs, WBCs, etc.

Unipotent cells

Produce only 1 cell type

Have the property of self-renewal (w

distinguishes them from non-stem cells)

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Genetic information is stored in form of double-

stranded DNA

Each strand of DNA is made up of deoxyribose

phosphate backbone & series of purine (adenine (A) &

guanine (G)) and pyrimidine (thymine (T) & cytosine

(C)) bases of the nucleic acid

The length of DNA is generally measured in numbers

of base-pairs (bp)

The monomeric unit in DNA (& RNA) is the nucleotide

w is a base joined to sugarphosphate unit

The 2 strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen

bonds between the bases

There are only 4 possible pairs of nucleotides TA,

AT, GC & CG

The 2 strands twist to form double helix e major &

minor grooves

The large stretches of helical DNA are coiled around

histone ptns nucleosomes & further condensed into

chromosomes that are seen at metaphase

DNA Structure & Function

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Gene is portion of DNA that contains codes for

polypeptide sequence

3 adjacent nucleotides (codon) code for particular aa

e.g. AGA for arginine

Only 20 common aa but 64 possible codon combinations

make up genetic code most aa encoded by >1 triplet

Other codons used as signals for initiating or

terminating polypeptide-chain synthesis

Genes consist of lengths of DNA that contain

sufficient nucleotide triplets to code for the

appropriate number of aa in polypeptide chains of

particular ptn

Genes vary greatly in size (most extend over 2040

kbp) but few e.g. gene for muscle ptn dystrophin can

extend over millions of bp

In bacteria the coding sequences are continuous but in

higher organisms these coding sequences (exons) are

interrupted by intervening sequences that are non-

coding (introns) at various positions

Some genes code for RNA molecules w will not be

translated to ptns code for functional rRNA &

tRNA)

Micro RNAs single-stranded RNA molecules of

about 22 nucleotides inactivate specific mRNA &

disrupt expression of their ptns regulating cell

proliferation & apoptosis (in turn they are inactivated

by DNA methylation)

Conversion of genetic information to polypeptides &

ptns relies on transcription of sequences of bases in

DNA to mRNA

mRNA

Found mainly in nucleolus & cytoplasm

Polymers of nucleotides containing ribose

phosphate unit attached to base

The bases are A, G, C & uracil (U)

RNA is ss molecule but can hybridize e

complementary sequence ssDNA

Transcription & Translation

Genes

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Genetic information is carried from nucleus to

cytoplasm by mRNA act as template for ptn

synthesis

Each base in mRNA is lined up opposite to

corresponding base in DNA (C-G, G-C, U-A & A-T)

Gene always read in 5-3 orientation & at 5 promoter

sites w specifically bind enzyme RNA polymerase

(indicate where transcription is to commence)

2 AT-rich promoter sites are present in eurokaryotic

genes

1st (TATA box) is located about 25 bp before the

transcription start site

2nd (CAAT box) is 75 bp before the start site

Initial mRNA is complete copy of 1 strand of DNA

contains introns & exons

While still in nucleus mRNA post transcriptional

modification 5 & 3 ends are protected by addition

of inverted guanidine nucleotide (CAP) & chain of

adenine nucleotides (Poly A tail) activity of specific

5 mRNA nucleases is to remove the cap & further

regulated by Poly A tail w must 1st be removed by

other degradation enzymes

In higher organisms 1ry transcript mRNA is further

processed inside nucleus introns spliced out

(splicing by small nuclear RNA in association e specific

ptns)

Alternative splicing is possible whereby entire exon

can be omitted >1 ptn coded from same gene

Processed mRNA migrates out of nucleus to

cytoplasm polysomes (groups of ribosomes) become

attached to mRNA ribosomes consist of subunits

composed of small RNA molecules (rRNA) & ptns

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rRNA components are key to binding & translation of

genetic code held by ribosomes & triplets of adjacent

bases on mRNA called codons are recognized by

complementary sequences or anti codons in tRNA

each tRNA molecule carries aa that is specific to anti

codon

As the ribosome passes along mRNA in the 5-3

direction (zipper linking) aa transferred from tRNA

molecules & linked by ribosome polypeptide chain

1st 20 or more nucleotides are recognition & regulatory

sequences and untranslated but necessary for

translation

Translation begins when triplet AUG (methionine) is

Encountered all ptns start e methionine but it is

often lost as the leading sequence of aa of native

peptides is removed during ptn folding

Similarly Poly A tail is not translated & is preceded by

stop codon UAA, UAG or UGA

Gene expression is controlled at many points in steps

between translation of DNA to ptns

Ptns & RNA molecules are in constant state of

turnover

For many genes, transcriptional control is the key

point of regulation

Deleterious (even oncogenic) changes to cell may arise

through fault in expression of particular gene e.g. over

expression due to non-break down of mRNA

Pathway that stops gene expression by RNA

degradation (RNA interference, RNAi)

Transcriptional control Gene transcription (DNA to mRNA) is not spontaneous

event ? only result of interaction of number of DNA

binding ptns (DBP) e genomic DNA

Regulation of gene expression must 1st start e opening

up of double helix of DNA in the correct region of Chr

in order to do this ptn molecules that recognize

the outside of DNA helix has evolved these DBP

interact e major groove of DNA double helix

bp composition of DNA sequence can change geometry

of DNA helix to facilitate fit of DBP e its target

region e.g. C-G rich areas form Z structure DNA helix,

sequences such as AAAANNN slight bend & if

repeated every 10 nucleotides it produces pronounced

curves

DBP that recognize these distorted helices opening

up (or prevent opening) of the helix so the gene may

be transcribed

The Control of gene expression

20

Structural classes of DBP 4 basic DBP (according to structural motifs)

Class of DBP Examples

Helixturnhelix CREB (cAMP response element binding ptn) Zinc finger Steroid & thyroid hormone receptors

Retinoic acid & vitamin D receptors Bcl-6 oncogene product (lymphoma) WT1 oncogene product (Wilms tumour) GATA-1 erythrocyte differentiation & Hb expression factor BRCA 1 (familial breast cancer)

Leucine zippers c-jun cell replication oncogene c-fos cell replication oncogene

Helixloophelix myc oncogene mad oncogene max oncogene

Control regions & proteins DBP act as regulators of gene expression in 3

different ways promoters, operators & enhancers

Promoters

RNA polymerases bind to promoter region normally

adjacent to transcribed sequence of DNA

In eukaryotes active transcription is possible only

when number of DBP & DNA associated proteins

come together & interact (general transcription

factors) these ptns thought to assemble at

promoter sites used by RNA polymerases e.g. Pol II

that are characterized by specific motifs e.g.

TATA sequence

Operator

Other DNA regulator ptns operate in close

proximity to site of promoter binding (operator

ptns/regions & act either as repressors by binding

to DNA sequences ein promoter site or as +ve

regulators facilitating RNA polymerase binding

Enhancer

Enhancer sequences are >200 bp away from site of

transcription initiation

Binding of regulator ptns to enhancer regions

(several 100 bases from promoter site)

upregulates the expression

This turns out to be distance favourable for DNA

to loop back on itself eout straining backbone

bonds of DNA double helix

GAL4 enhancer of yeast aid binding of transcription

factors to TATA region of promoter catalyst for

general transcription factor assembly & RNA

polymerase activity

In mammals cAMP response element (CRE) acts to

IC cAMP activation & release of CREB

transcription rate (but may alsotranscription)

Repressors cantranscription of gene by binding to

regulatory sequence & blocking +ve regulators or by

interfering e promoter ptn assembly

21

CHROMOSOMES, INTRONS & THE SIZE OF HUMAN GENOME

Coiling around histones & structural regions e.g.

centromeres & telomeres requires regions of DNA

devoted specifically to the purpose of packaging

10% of human DNA is highly repetitive (satellite DNA)

long arrays of tandem repeats these regions tend

to be supercoiled around histones in condensed regions

(heterochromatin)

In contrast most other DNA regions are relatively

uncondensed (euchromatin)

The remaining DNA is either moderately repetitive

(30% of genome) or codes for unique genes (gene

families occupying 2% of genome)

PREPARATION OF GENOMIC DNA 1st step in studying DNA of individual involves

preparation of genomic DNA

It is simple procedure in w any cellular tissue including

blood can be used

Cells are lysed in order to open their cell & nuclear

membranes releasing chromosomal DNA

Digestion of all cellular ptn by add of proteolytic

enzymes genomic DNA is isolated by chemical

extraction e phenol

DNA is stable & can be stored for years

RESTRICTION ENZYMES & GEL ELECTROPHORESIS

Restriction enzymes cut dsDNA at specific sites

Whenever human genomic DNA is cut e EcoRI same

restriction fragments (restriction fragment length

polymorphisms, RFLPs) are produced

As DNA is ve charged molecule genomic DNA

fragments can be separated according to their size &

charge by electrophoresis through a gel matrix

DNA migrates to +ve anode & small fragments move

more quickly DNA fragments separate out

Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) can be used to

separate very long pieces of DNA (100s of kilobases)

HYBRIDIZATION TECHNIQUES When 2 strands separated(e.g. by heating) they will

always re stick because of their complementary base

sequences

Therefore presence of particular gene can be

identified using gene probe consisting of DNA or RNA

e base sequence complementary to the sequence of

interest

Tools for Molecular Biology

22

DNA probe is piece of ssDNA that can be labelled e

radioactive isotope (usually 32P) or fluorescent signal

will locate & bind to its complementary sequence

Hybridization is exploited in number of techniques

including

Southern blot DNA fragments separated by gel

electrophoresis & transferred onto membrane

sheet

Northern blot RNA separated by gel

electrophoresis & transferred onto membrane

sheet

In situ hybridization localization of native

nucleic acid sequences ein the cell & its component

organelles, including chromosomes

THE POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) Minute amounts of DNA can be amplified over million

times ein few hours

The technique has 3 steps

ds genomic DNA is denatured by heat into ssDNA

Then cooled to favour DNA annealing & primers

bind to their target DNA

Finally DNA polymerase extend the primers in

opposite directions using target DNA as template

After one cycle 2 copies of dsDNA, after 2 cycles

4 copies

Real-time PCR (RT-PCR) Also called quantitative real time PCR (QRT-PCR)

Simultaneous quantification & amplification of given

DNA sequence

It can be used to determine whether specific

sequence is present in sample e.g. viral genome & if

present, the number of copies in the sample

RT-PCR is combined e reverse transcription PCR to

quantify low abundance mRNA enabling researcher to

quantify relative gene expression at particular time in

particular cell/tissue

Expression microarrays/gene chips It is methodology developed to examine relative

abundance of mRNA for 1000s of genes present in

cells/tissue of different types e.g. to examine changes

in gene expression from normal tissue to that of

malignant colonic polyps

The basic technology is the ability to immobilize

sequences of DNA complementary to specific genes or

different regions of known genes onto solid surface in

precise microdot arrays

Total mRNA extracted from one tissue & labelled e

fluorescent tag Cy3-green & mRNA from 2nd tissue e

fluorescent tag Cy5-red The 2 fluorescent tagged

total mRNA samples mixed in 1 : 1 ratio & washed over

DNA gene chips mRNA for specific genes will bind

23

to their complementary microdot & detected by laser-

induced excitation of fluorescent tag position, light

wavelength & intensity recorded by scanning confocal

microscope relative intensity of Cy5-red : Cy3-

green is reliable measure of relative abundance of

specific mRNAs in each sample

Yellow equal binding of both fluorescent tagged

mRNA

Black no hybridization

Red overexpression

Green under expression

Power of the system many 1000s of genes screened

for expression & relative expression in normal &

diseased tissue

DNA CLONING Particular DNA fragment of interest isolated &

inserted to genome of simple self replicating organism

or organelles e.g. viruses & plasmids

Vectors include bacteriophage viruses; plasmids

Each vector takes optimum size of cloned DNA insert

(viruses accommodate only small sequences, larger

fragments can be inserted in plasmid & larger in yast

Chr)

Hybrid between plasmid & bacteriophage (cosmid)

constructed artificially & has ability to clone

reasonably large sequences as plasmids ein host

bacteria trick bacteriophages in packaging them to

viral body & this viral body is then able to infect

target bacteria efficient transfection rates

DNA fragment of interest is inserted in the vector

DNA sequence using enzyme ligase (in vitro) cloning

& creates many copies of recombinant DNA molecule

(in vivo)

Alternatively it could be cDNA w has been copied

from mRNA sequence by reverse transcriptase enzyme

ssDNA DNA polymerase dsDNA contains all

sequences necessary for functional gene but unlike

genomic DNA it lacks introns

HUMAN CHROMOSOMES Each diploid cell nucleus contain 6109 DNA bp in Chr

Chromosomes contain one linear molecule of DNA

wounded around histone in small units (nucleosomes)

Diploid human cells have 46 chromosomes (23

inherited from each parent) 23 homologous pairs

22 pairs of autosomes + 2 sex chromosomes(XY/XX)

Chromosomes classified according to their size &

shape (the largest is Chr 1)

The Biology of Chromosomes

24

The constriction in Chr is centromere metacentric

(in middle of Chr) or acrocentric (at one extreme end)

Centromere divides Chr into short arm (p) & long arm

(q) e.g. CFTR gene (of cystic fibrosis) maps to 7q21

on Chr 7 in long arm in band 21

Indications for chromosomal analysis

Antenatal

Pregnancies in women >35 years

+ve maternal serum screening for aneuploid

pregnancy

U/S features consistent e aneuploid fetus

Severe fetal growth retardation

Sexing of fetus in X-linked disorders

In the neonate

Congenital malformations

Suspicion of trisomy or monosomy

Ambiguous genitalia

In the adolescent

1ry amenorrhoea or puberty development failure

Growth retardation

In the adult

Screening parents of child e chromosomal

abnormality for further genetic counselling

Infertility or recurrent miscarriages

Learning difficulties

Certain malignant disorders e.g. leukaemias &

Wilms tumour

THE X CHROMOSOME & INACTIVATION 1 of 2 X Chr in cells of becomes transcriptionally

inactive cell has only 1 dose of X-linked genes (X

inactivation or Lyonization phenomenon)

Inactivation is random & can affect either X

chromosome

TELOMERES & IMMORTALITY Ends of Chr (telomeres) do not contain genes but many

repeats of hexameric sequence TTAGGG

Replication of linear Chr start at coding sites (origins

of replication) ein main body of Chr (not at 2 extreme

ends)

Extreme ends are susceptible to ssDNA degradation

back to dsDNA cellular ageing measured as genetic

consequence of multiple rounds of replication e

consequential telomere shortening Chr instability &

cell death

Stem cells have longer telomeres > daughter

Germ cells replicate eout shortening of their

telomeres because they express enzyme telomerase

(protects against telomere shortening by acting as

template primer at extreme ends of Chr)

Most somatic cells (unlike germ & embryonic cells)

switch off activity of telomerase after birth

Many cancer cells reactivate telomerase contributing

to their immortality

25

THE MITOCHONDRIAL CHROMOSOME In addition to 23 pairs of Chr in nucleus, mitochondria

in cytoplasm have their own genome

Mitochondrial Chr is circular DNA (mtDNA)

Approximately 16500 bp

Every bp make up part of coding sequence (no

introns)

Principally encode ptns or RNA molecules involved

in mitochondrial function (components of

mitochondrial respiratory chain)

Critical role in apoptotic cell death

Every cell contain 100s mitochondria 100s

mitochondrial Chr virtually all mitochondria are

inherited from mother (sperm head contain no or few

mitochondria)

GENETIC DISORDERS

Spectrum of inherited or congenital genetic disorders

classified as

Chromosomal disorders, including mitochondrial

chromosome disorders

The Mendelian disorders

Sex-linked single-gene disorders

Variety of non-Mendelian disorders & multifactorial

disorders all are result of mutation in genetic code

Chromosomal abnormalities are very common

1/2 spontaneous abortions have Chr abnormalities

Autosomal aneuploidy (differing from normal diploid

number) is severe > Sex Chr aneuploidies

ABNORMAL CHROMOSOME NUMBERS If Chr fail to separate (nondisjunction) either in

meiosis or mitosis 1 daughter cell will receive 2

copies of that Chr & 1 daughter cell will receive no

copies of that Chr

Non-disjunction can occur e autosomes or sex Chr

Chromosomal disorders

26

If non-disjunction occurs during meiosis ovum or

sperm e either

Extra Chr trisomy (3 instead of 2 copies of Chr)

No Chr monosomy (1 instead of 2 copies of Chr)

Examples

Only trisomy 13, 18 & 21 (Downs syndrome)

survive to birth (most children e trisomy 13 &

18 die in early childhood)

Full autosomal monosomies extremely rare &

very deleterious

Sex Chr trisomies e.g. Klinefelters syndrome

(44+XXY) are relatively common

Sex Chr monosomy e.g. Turners syndrome

(44+X0)

Occasionally non-disjunction during mitosis shortly

after 2 gametes fused 2 cell lines each e different

Chr complement (more often e sex Chr) mosaicism

Very rarely entire chromosome set will be present

in >2 copies triploidy (69 Chr) or tetraploidy (92

Chr) spontaneous abortion

ABNORMAL CHROMOSOME STRUCTURES Abnormal Chr structures can disrupt DNA & genes

Deletions

Deletions of portion of Chr disease if 2 copies

of genes in deleted region are necessary (the

individual will not be normal e the 1 copy remaining)

Deletion Duplication

Inversion Balanced translocation

copy remaining on the non-deleted homologous)

Example

Prader Willi syndrome cytogenetic events

deletion of part long arm of Chr 15

Wilms tumour deletion of part of short arm

of Chr 11

DiGeorge syndrome microdeletions in long

arm of Chr 22

Duplications

When portion of Chr is present on the Chr in 2

copies genes in that Chr portion are present in

extra dose e.g. CharcotMarieTooth disease (form

of neuropathy) is due to small duplication of region

of Chr 17

27

Inversion

End to end reversal of segment ein a chromosome

e.g. abcdefgh becomes abcfedgh (haemophilia)

Translocations

2 Chr regions join together (not normally do)

Chr translocations in somatic cells tumorigenesis

Translocations can be very complex involving >2 Chr

but most are simple & fall in 1 of 2 categories

Reciprocal translocation

o When any 2 non homologous Chr break

simultaneously & rejoin, swapping ends

o Cell still has 46 Chr (2 of them rearranged)

o Someone e balanced translocation is likely to

be normal unless the breakpoint interrupts a

o At meiosis when Chr separate in different

daughter cells translocated Chr will enter

gametes & any resulting fetus may inherit 1

abnormal Chr & have unbalanced

translocation e physical manifestations

Robertsonian translocation

o When 2 acrocentric Chr join & short arm is

lost only 45 Chr

o It is balanced translocation as no genetic

material is lost & the individual is healthy but

any offspring have risk of inheriting

unbalanced arrangement depending on w

acrocentric Chr is involved

o Clinically relevant is 14/21 Robertsonian

translocation in woman 1 in 8 risk of

having baby e Downs syndrome (male carrier

has 1 in 50 risk)

o 50% risk of producing carrier like

themselves genetic family study is

necessary

MITOCHONDRIAL CHROMOSOME DISORDERS

No introns in mitochondrial genes mutation has high

chance of having effect however as every cell contains

100s of mitochondria so single altered mitochondrial

genome is not noticed

As mitochondria divide likelihood of more mutated

mitochondria mitochondrial disease

Most mitochondrial diseases are myopathies &

neuropathies e maternal pattern of inheritance

Myopathies (CPEO) chronic progressive external

ophthalmoplegia

Encephalomyopathies (MERRF) myoclonic

epilepsy with ragged red fibres

MELAS mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic

acidosis & stroke-like episodes

KearnsSayre syndrome ophthalmoplegia, heart

block, cerebellar ataxia, deafness & mental

deficiency due to long deletions & rearrangements

28

(LHON) Lebers hereditary optic neuropathy

commonest cause of blindness in young men e

bilateral loss of central vision & cardiac

arrhythmias it is mitochondrial disease caused

by point mutation in one gene

Multisystem disorders Pearsons syndrome

(sideroblastic anaemia, pancytopenia, exocrine

pancreatic failure, subtotal villous atrophy, DM &

renal tubular dysfunction

Hearing loss may be the only symptom & 1 of

mitochondrial genes implicated predispose to

aminoglycoside ototoxicity

Other abnormalities retinal degeneration, DM &

hearing loss

ANALYSIS OF CHROMOSOME DISORDERS Cell cycle arrested at mitosis by colchicines staining

examine for abnormality

YAC-cloned probes labelled e fluorescently tagged

nucleotides in insitu hybridization

Mendelian & sex-linked single-gene disorders are due

to mutations in coding sequences & their control

elements

All cause dysfunction of the protein product

MUTATIONS Point mutation (Missense mutation)

The simplest type of change

Substitution of 1 nucleotide for another change

codon in coding sequence

Gene Defects

29

Example triplet AAA (codes for lysine) mutated

to AGA (codes for arginine)

Whether it produces clinical disorder depends on

whether it change critical part of ptn molecule

produced

Many substitutions have no effect as several codons

code for same aa

Some mutations have severe effect e.g. in sickle cell

disease mutation in globin gene change 1 codon from

GAG to GTG valine is incorporated into polypeptide

chain (instead of glutamic acid) w radically alters its

properties

Insertion or deletion Insertion or deletion of 1 or more bases is more

serious as it alteration of rest of the following

sequence (frame-shift mutation)

Example

If the original code was

TAAGGAGAGTTT

Extra nucleotide (A) is inserted

TAAAGGAGAGTTT

If 3rd nucleotide (A) is deleted

TA-GGAGAGTTT

In both cases different aa incorporated in

polypeptide chain

It is responsible for some forms of thalassaemia

Missense mutation

Nonsense mutation

Insertions & deletions can involve 100s of bp of DNA

examples

Large deletions in dystrophin gene remove coding

sequences Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Insertion/deletion (ID) polymorphism in ACE gene

genotypes II, ID & DD deletion of 287 bp

repeat sequence & DD is associated e higher

concentrations of circulating ACE heart disease

Splicing mutations If DNA sequences w direct splicing of introns from

mRNA are mutated abnormal splicing

Processed mRNA w will be translated to ptns by

ribosomes may carry intron sequences altering w aa

are incorporated in polypeptide chain

30

Termination mutations (Nonsense mutation) Normal polypeptide chain termination occurs when

ribosomes processing mRNA reach one of the chain

termination or stop codons

Mutations involving stop codons late or premature

termination

Example haemoglobin Constant Spring Hb variant

where instead of stop sequence single base change

insertion of extra aa

SINGLE-GENE DISEASE Monogenetic disorders involving single genes can be

inherited as dominant, recessive or sex-linked

Many syndromes show multiple forms of inheritance

pattern because multiple defects occur in given

disease associated gene or in separate genes for

example in EhlersDanlos syndrome AD, AR & XL

inheritance

Autosomal dominant disorders (AD) Overall incidence 7 in 1000 live births

AD disorder occurs when 1 of 2 copies of autosomal

Chr has mutation & ptn produced by normal gene

cannot compensate

Heterozygous individual e 2 different forms (or

alleles) of same gene manifest the disease

Offspring of heterozygotes 50% inheriting Chr

carrying disease allele also have the disease

Estimation of risk to offspring for counselling families

can be difficult because

Great variability in their manifestation

incomplete penetrance if patients have dominant

disorder but does not manifest clinically

appearance of the gene having skipped generation

Variable expression dominant traits are

extremely variable in severity e.g. mildly affected

parent may have severely affected child

New cases in previously unaffected family may be

due to new mutation risk of further affected

child is negligible e.g most cases of achondroplasia

are due to new mutations

Autosomal recessive disorders (AR) Overall incidence 2.5 in 1000 live births

31

Manifest only when individual is homozygous for

disease allele i.e. both Chr carry the mutated gene

Parents are generally unaffected healthy carriers

(heterozygous for disease allele)

Usually no family history (although defective gene

pass from generation to generation)

Offspring of affected person is healthy carrier unless

the other parent is also carrier

If carriers marry offspring

1 in 4 chance homozygous & affected

1 in 2 chance (2 in 4) being a carrier

1 in 4 chance being genetically normal

Clinical features of AR disorders are usually severe,

patients present in 1st first few years of life & high

mortality

Sex-linked disorders o Genes carried on X-Chr said to be Xlinked &

can be dominant or recessive

o Females have 2 X-Chr unaffected carriers

of X linked recessive diseases

o Males have 1 X-Chr any deleterious

mutation in X linked gene will manifest (no

2nd copy of gene)

X linked dominant disorders (XLD)

Females e heterozygous mutant gene & males e 1

copy of mutant gene manifest the disease

Affected mother 1/2 male or female offspring

are affected

Affected father all female offspring are

affected & all male offspring are unaffected

32

Affected males tend to have severe disease >

heterozygous female

X linked recessive disorders (XLR)

These disorders present in males & homozygous

female (usually rare)

Transmitted by healthy female carriers or

affected males if they survive to reproduce

Example of an XLR is haemophilia A (mutation in X

linked gene for factor VIII in 50% there is

intra Chr rearrangement (inversion) of tip of long

arm X-Chr one break point ein intron 22 of

factor VIII gene)

Offspring of carrier female + normal male

50% of girls are carriers inherit mutant allele

from their mother & normal allele from their

father

50% of girls inherit 2 normal alleles normal

50% of boys have haemophilia as they inherit

mutant allele from their mother (& Y Chr from

their father)

50% of boys are normal inherit normal allele

from mother & Y Chr from their father

Male e haemophilia + normal female normal male

offspring + carrier females

Y-linked genes

Genes carried on Y Chr are said to be Y linked

Only males are however no known examples of Y

linked single gene disorders

Sex-limited inheritance

Occasionally a gene can be carried on an autosome

but manifest only in one sex frontal baldness is

an AD in males but behave as AR in females

Other single-gene disorders These are disorders w may be due to mutations in

single genes but do not manifest as simple monogenic

disorders

They can arise from variety of mechanisms

Triplet repeat mutations

In gene responsible for dystrophia myotonica

mutated allele was found to have expanded

3UTR region in w three nucleotides (CTG) was

repeated up to 200 times

In families e dystrophia myotonica people e

late onset disease had 2040 copies of the

repeat but their children & grandchildren who

presented e disease from birth had increase

in number of repeats (up to 2000 copies)

number of triplets affects mRNA & ptn function

Mitochondrial disease

Imprinting

In some way (not yet clear), the fetus can

distinguish between Chr inherited from mother

33

& Chr inherited from father (although both give

23 Chr)

The Chr are imprinted maternal & paternal

contributions are different

Imprinting is relevant to human genetic disease

because different phenotypes may result

depending on whether mutant Chr is maternal or

paternal

Deletion of part of long arm of Chr 15 (15q11

q13) PraderWilli syndrome if it is paternally

inherited but deletion of similar region of the

Chr Angelmans syndrome if it is maternally

inherited

The affected gene is identified as ubiquitin

(UBE3A)

Significantly maternal Chr 15 UBE3A is

expressed in brain & hypothalamus defective

maternal ubiquitin in Angelmans syndrome

accumulation of undegraded ptn & neuronal

damage

COMPLEX TRAITS: MULTIFACTORIAL & POLYGENIC INHERITANCE

Combination of genetic & environmental factors are

said to be multifactorial

Those involving multiple genes are said to be polygenic

Measurements of most biological traits e.g. height is

variant thought to be due to additive effects of

number of alleles at number of loci many of w are

individually identified using molecular biological

techniques

There are sex differences e.g. congenital pyloric

stenosis is most common in boys but if it occurs in

girls larger number of affected relatives

Most human diseases e.g. heart disease, DM and

common mental disorders are multifactorial traits

Aims of genetic counselling

Obtain full history pregnancy history, drug,

alcohol ingestion during pregnancy & maternal

illnesses

Establishing accurate diagnosis of genetically

abnormal child

Genetic Counselling

34

Draw family tree & questions about abortions,

stillbirths, deaths, marriages, consanguinity

Estimate risk of future pregnancy being affected

Give information about prognosis & management

Continued support & follow-up

Genetic screening including prenatal diagnosis

PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS Should be offered to all pregnant women in UK but it

is offered to high risk mothers only

Investigations depend on gestation 711 Weeks

Vaginal U/S

Confirm viability, fetal number & gestation by

crown rump measurement

1113 Weeks & 6 days (combined test)

U/S for nuchal translucency measurement (normal

fold triple test

alone at 16 weeks

All serum marker are corrected for gestational

ages multiple of the mean (MOM) value for

the appropriate gestation week is necessary

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) at 1113 weeks under

U/S control to sample placental site

Amniocentesis at 15 weeks to sample amniotic fluid

1420 Weeks (serum triple or quadruple test)

The triple test for Chr abnormalities testing

maternal serum for

-fetoprotein (low) in neural tube defects

Unconjugated oestradiol (low)

Human chorionic gonadotrophin (high) for

Downs syndrome & neural tube defects

The quadruple test

The triple test + inhibin-A ( in Downs

syndrome)

If too late for triple test or previous option not

offered

1422 Weeks

U/S for structural abnormalities e.g. neural tube

defects, gestation period

The best time to detect congenital heart defects

is 1822 weeks

Reported detection rates for all congenital defects

vary from 14 to 61% for hypoplastic ventricle to

97-100% for anencephaly

35

Gene therapy entails placing normal copy of gene into

the cells of patient who has defective copy of the

gene (concentrating on recessive disorders e.g. cystic

fibrosis where the disease is due to absence of normal

gene product)

In dominant disorders it is difficult & complicated

2 major factors are involved in gene therapy

Introduction of functional gene sequence in target

cells

Expression & permanent integration of transfected

gene in host cell genome

Suitable diseases for current gene therapy include

Cystic fibrosis

CFTR gene

o Cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator

gene is the responsible for cystic fibrosis

o It was 1st localized to Chr 7 by linkage

analysis

o CFTR gene spans about 250 kbp & contains

27 exons

o DNA sequence analysis predicts polypeptide

sequence of 1480 aa

o CFTR gene also encodes a simple Cl- ion

channel

Mutation

o The commonest is single mutation e 3 bp

deletion in exon 10 removal of codon

specifying phenylalanine (F508del)

o Also >1000 different minor mutations of

CFTR gene e most mapping to ATP-binding

domains

Gene therapy experiments

o Still under trial to restore CFTR function by

transfection of cells e wild type receptor

o 2 different routes are tried

Placing CFTR gene in adenovirus vector

Placing CFTR gene in liposome (conveyed

to lung by aerosol spray) fatty surface

of liposome fuses e cell membrane to

deliver CFTR DNA into cell

o Topical nasal gentamicin (aminoglycoside AB)

expression of functional CFTR channels

Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency

Rare immunodeficiency disease introducing

normal human ADA gene in patients

lymphocytes reconstitute function of cellular

& humoral immunity in severe combined

immunodeficiency

Familial hypercholesterolaemia

It is due toLDL receptor gene

Gene Therapy

36

Gene therapy receptor gene is inserted in

hepatocytes (removed by liver biopsy) gene-

corrected hepatocytes reinjected in portal

circulation migrate back to liver

reincorporated start to produce LDL

receptor protein dramatically cholesterol

level

TREATMENT OF SOMATIC DISEASE Vascular disease

Neovascularization toblood flow & repair cardiac

tissue after MI temporary expression of angiogenic

factors at site of blockage new blood vessels

Local temporary expression of clot disintegrating

enzymes e.g streptokinase & lipases repair damaged

& diseased arteries

Deliver liposomes loaded e DNA or direct inject of

DNA plasmids to tissue ptn will be expressed by

cells (only 13% but it is sufficient for local effect

required)

Neuronal disease Neurotrophic factors can be transiently expressed

same as e vascular diseases nerve cell regeneration

& maintenance

Extend expression period of neurotrophin by injecting

transfected myocytes in damaged area fuse e any

adjacent muscle

Cancer Cancer is genetic disease & many genes are

deregulated

p53 is TSG apoptosis in cells e damaged genetic

material reintroduction & overexpression of

functional p53 in tumours is investigated

Since it is only likely to occur in rapidly dividing cells

perfect target for cancer gene therapy by repeat

exposure to vectors e.g. retroviruses, liposomes &

naked DNA plasmids

Tumour growth depends on development of new blood

vessels (angiogenesis) & inhibitors are under trial

Stem cell therapy Number of adult stem cell therapies already exist

particularly bone marrow transplants

It is anticipated to treat wide variety of diseases

require replacement of destroyed tissues e.g.

Parkinsons, spinal cord injuries & muscle damage

The blood in umbilical cord is available & rich source of

haemopoietic stem cells i.e. CD34 +ve & CD38 ve

colonize bone marrow & rapidly populating marrow e all

various cells (RBCs & WBCs)

Umbilical cord stem cell, dubbed cord blood-derived

embryonic like stem cells (CBEs) able to

differentiate to more types of tissue not simply

haemopoietic cells (super pluripotentiality)

37

Primitive monocyte derived multipotential cell (MOMC)

could be isolated from adult peripheral circulating

monocytes induced (given the correct paracrine,

environmental & adhesion signals) endothelia,

neurones, cardiomyocytes & mesenchymal lineages

Similar reports concerning adult stem cells isolated

from skin

THE HUMAN PROTEOME PROJECT Studying of ptn expression characteristics of normal

& diseased cells

Achieved by using 2D gel electrophoresis

Pattern of dots corresponds to different ptn

expressed non-, over- & underexpression of given

ptn can be detected by corresponding change on

proteome

Post-translational modifications of ptns show up as

change in either size or charge on proteome picture

2D gel electrophoresis comparing paired serum & synovial fluid in patient e RA. The circled ptns indicate major ptns w differ between the 2 biofluids.

Although serum contained many ptns not found in synovial fluid & 1 major ptn was found in synovial fluid but not in serum. This indicates that synovial fluid

is not simple transudate (exudate)

Cancers are genetic diseases & involve changes to

normal function of cellular genes

Multiple genes interact during oncogenesis & stepwise

progression of defects leads over proliferative of

particular cell to full breakdown of control ( apoptosis)

Susceptibility to development of particular form of

cancer can be inherited

Cancer tissues are clonal & arise from changes in only

one cell w then proliferates in the body

The genes that are primarily damaged by genetic

changes w lead to cancer fall in 2 categories:

oncogenes & TSG

Oncogenesis is multistep process number of

mutations or alterations to key genes are required

before malignant phenotype is expressed

Once mutations begun to cause unchecked clonal

expansion of 1ry tumour cells further mutations

occur ein subsequent generations of daughter cells

clones w are invasive & or form metastases

ONCOGENES Genes coding for growth factors, growth factor

receptors, 2ry messengers or even DBP would act as

promoters of abnormal cell growth if mutated

The Genetic basis of Cancer

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Viruses carry genes w when integrated to host cell

promote oncogenesis (v-oncogenes) & later their

normal cellular counterparts (c-oncogenes) were found

Oncogenes encode ptns that participate in regulation

of normal cellular proliferation e.g. erb-A on

chromosome 17q11q12 encodes for thyroid hormone

receptor

Examples of acquired/somatic mutations & proto-oncogenes

Point mutation K-ras

DNA amplification Myc HER2-neu

Chromosome translocation BCR-ABL PML-RAR Bcl-2/IgH c-myc & Ig

Pancreatic cancer

Neuroblastoma Breast cancer

CML, ALL APML Follicular lymphoma Burkitts lymphoma

CML, chronic myeloid leukaemia; ALL, acute lymphoblastic leukaemia; APML, acute promyelocytic leukaemia

Activation of oncogenes Non activated oncogenes w are functioning normally

(proto-oncogenes)

Transformation to oncogenes can occur by 3 routes

Mutation

Carcinogens e.g. cigarette smoke, ionizing

radiation UVR can cause point mutation in

genomic DNA

By chance some of these point mutations will

occur in regions of oncogene activation of

that gene

Not all bases in oncogene cause cancer if

Mutated but some do (those in coding region)

Chromosomal translocation If during cell division an error occurs & 2 Chr

translocate portion swaps over

translocation breakpoint in middle of 2 genes

If this happens end of 1 gene is translocated

on to beginning of another gene (fusion gene)

sequences of 1 part of fusion gene are

inappropriately

Example of fusion gene (Philadelphia Chr) in

GML

Similarly in Burkitts lymphoma translocation

replace the regulatory segment of myc

oncogene by regulatory segment of unrelated Ig

Viral stimulation When viral RNA is transcribed by RT to viral

cDNA & in turn spliced in cellular DNA viral

DNA may integrate & activate oncogene

Alternatively the virus may pick up cellular

oncogene DNA & incorporate it to its own viral

genome

Subsequent infection of another host cell may

expression of this viral oncogene e.g. Rous

39

sarcoma virus of chickens was found to induce

cancer because it carried ras oncogene

After the initial activation other changes occur

in DNA

TUMOUR SUPPRESSOR GENES (TSG) These genes restrict undue cell proliferation (in

contrast to oncogenes) & induce repair or self

destruction (apoptosis) of cells contain damaged DNA

Example germline mutations in genes found in non-

polyposis CRC responsible for repairing DNA

mismatches

1st TSG to be described was RB gene mutations in

RB Retinoblastoma

1 in 20000 young children

Familial variety of retinoblastoma 1st mutation is

inherited & by chance 2nd somatic mutation occurs

e the formation of tumour

Sporadic variety of retinoblastoma by chance

both mutations occur in both RB genes in a single

cell

Other TSG gene p53

Mutations in p53 have been found in almost all

human tumours including sporadic CRC, carcinomas

of breast & lung, brain tumours, osteosarcomas &

leukaemias

The ptn encoded by p53 is cellular 53 kDa nuclear

phosphoprotein (plays role in DNA repair &

synthesis in control of cell cycle, differentiation &

apoptosis)

p53 is DBP

Activate many gene expression pathways but it

is normally only short lived

p53 is likely to act as tetramer mutation in

single copy of gene can promote tumour

formation because hetero tetramer of mutated

& normal p53 subunits would still be

dysfunctional

In many tumours mutations that disable p53

function also prevent its cellular catabolism

although in some cancers there is loss of p53 from

both Chr in most cancers (particularly CRC) such

long lived mutant p53 alleles can disrupt normal

alleles ptn

How TSG work?

TSG products are involved in control of cell cycle

Progression through cell cycle is controlled by many

molecular gateways w are opened or blocked by cyclin

group of ptns that are specifically expressed at

various stages of the cycle

RB & p53 proteins control cell cycle & interact

specifically e many cyclin ptns (The latter are

affected by INK 4 acting on p16 ptns)

40

General principle being held at 1 of these gateways

programmed cell death

p53 induces expression of other genes & its own

expression is induced by broken DNA initially cause

expression of DNA repair enzymes, if repair is too

slow or cannot be effected then other ptns induced by

p53 will effect programmed cell death

Viral inactivation of tumour suppressors Suppression of normal TSG function by disabling

normal ptn (once it is transcribed) rather than by

mutating the gene

Viruses have developed their own genes w produce

ptns to do precisely this

The main targets of these ptns are RB & p53 to w

they bind & disable

Adenovirus E1A & HPV E7 gene products bind RB

Adenovirus E1B & HPV E6 gene products bind p53

SV40 virus large T Ag binds both RB & p53

Microsatellite instability Microsatellites are short (50300 bp) sequences

composed of tandemly repeated segments of DNA

2-5 nucleotides in length (di/tri/tetranucleotide

repeats) scattered throughout the genome in non-

coding regions between genes or ein genes (introns)

Many of these microsatellites are highly

polymorphic

Often used as markers for linkage analysis because

of high variability in repeat number between

individuals

These regions are inherently unstable & susceptible

to mutations

Somatic microsatellite instability (MSI) has been

detected in number of tumours

Detecting MSI involve comparing length of

microsatellite alleles amplified from tumour DNA e

the corresponding allele in normal tissue from same

individual

Recent studies indicate that MSI can be detected

in 90% of tumours from individuals e hereditary

non-polyposis CRC

The presence of these additional microsatellite

alleles (repeated segments) in tumour cells results

from inherent susceptibility of these areas to such

alterations & from mutations in DNA mismatch

repair mechanism that would normally correct

these errors

Tumour angiogenesis Once a nest of cancer cells reaches 12 mm in

diameter it must develop blood supply in order to

survive & grow as diffusion is no longer adequate to

supply the cells e O2 & nutrients

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As e all tissues, solid tumour cancer cells secrete

substances that promote formation of new blood

vessels (angiogenesis)

Substances identified to promote angiogenesis e.g.

angiopoietin-1, basic fibroblast growth factor

(bFGF) & vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)

Inhibitors of angiogenesis (part of cancer

treatment strategy)

Angiostatin polypeptide of 200 aa produced

by cleavage of plasminogen & binds to subunits

of ATP synthase exposed at surface of cell

embedded in plasma membrane

Endostatin polypeptide of 184 aa w is derived

from globular domain found at the C-terminal of

type XVIII collagen (specific collagen of blood

vessels) cleaved from the parent molecule

Several therapeutic vaccine preparations are under

development to produce range of host immunity

responses (humoral & cellular) against pro-

angiogenic factors & their receptors in tumours

1 approach has been directed at cell adhesion

molecules found in tumour blood vessels

Vitaxin monoclonal Ab against alpha-v/beta-3

vascular integrin shrinks tumours in mice eout

harming them