GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Environmental Pollution is the unfavourable alteration of the

surroundings, wholly or largely as a by-product of man's actions, through direct or

indirect effects of changes in energy patterns, radiation levels, chemical and physical

condition and abundance of organisms. These changes affect man directly or

through his supplies of water and of agricultural and other biological products, his

physical objects or possessions, or his opportunities for recreation and appreciation

of nature [Anandavalli, 1986].

Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation destroy natural water

systems by the discharge of harmful eflluents into them, which bring about

unpredictable and deleterious changes in the fragile environment of the aquatic

organisms. Industries are of great concern and industrialisation contributing to

environmental pollution, especially water pollution, has reached to alarming

proportions. Less than five percent of the industries have provided adequate

measures for the treatment of eftluents and most of them have neglected this

totally (Tripathi and Pandey, 1990).

The water bodies of all sorts, l.e., seas, lakes, estuaries and rivers

have been used as sites for the disposal of wastes by virtue of their apparent

capacity to dilute and disperse the wastes dumped into them. Most of the

industrial eflluents, especially those from chemical industries, react with those

elements in the natural water systems and produce new compounds and new

environmental conditions.

Of the two types of industries, ViZ., dry process industries and

wet process industries, dry process industries cause less pollution because most of

them are engineering and assembling units, where as wet process industries

consume large quantities ofwater. Of the water used by these industries, the major

part is discharged as eflluent water, which gets access to the natural water systems.

1

These effluents are generally discharged into the neighbouring fields, rivers, lakes

and seas. The industrial effluents discharged into the neighbouring fields may even

be utilised for irrigation. Such effluents may contain chemicals that could stimulate

or retard the growth of crops (Rao and Nandkumar, 1981).

Pollution of the soil and water by the effluents is mainly due to toxic

chemicals, acidic and alkaline substances, suspended matter or by deoxygenation.

These affect the physical, chemical and biological factors of soil and water. The

industrial effluents may contain poisonous materialllike acids, alkalies, ammonia,

synthetic detergents, hydrogen sulphide, salts of heavy metals like copper, zinc,

lead, mercury, chromium, cadmium etc. Other pollutants may include dyes, oils,

radio active materials etc. Heat is another aspect of pollution which also seriously

affects the biota.

Today, many of the rivers of the world receive millions of litres of

sewage, domestic wastes, industrial and agricultural effluents with different

concentrations of pollutants. The estuarine systems and finally the seas are destined

to receive these massive loads of pollutants brought by the rivers. Though the vast

seas can, to a certain extent, withstand this immense load ofpollutants, the coastal

estuarine systems and the productive coastal marine waters are the most affected.

The Indian Peninsula has a coast line of over 6000 km. The fisher

folk of our country are dependent, for their livelihood, on the sea and other natural

water bodies. Fish forms the source of protein for a significant percentage of our

people. Majority of the industrial units in India, along the coast, discharge chemical

effluents into the coastal area. All the coastal states have contributed much for

polluting the estuarine and marine environments. A considerable amount of

polluting substances enter the Indian seas annually (Qasim et al., 1988).

Well known as the land of coconut trees, the state of Kerala is

situated on the south west coast of India between latitude 8° 18' and 12° 481 North

and longitude 75° 52' and 77° 2' East. The western ghats on the eastern border

2

protects the state from the hot, dry winds of the eastern plains of the Indian

subcontinent. The Lakshadweep sea on the western boarder has made Kerala a state

with hoary maritime traditions. The coast line of Kerala, extending to about

590 kIn, although highly irregular, exhibit varied and contrasting features like sand

bars, creeks, lagoons, lakes, sounds and cliff sections formed during the geologic

past (Anon, 1988). An outstanding feature of the Kerala coast is the presence of a

network of backwaters called 'Kayals' in the vernacular Malayalam language.

About 30 such Kayals are seen along the coast of Kerala. A few of them are

permanent estuaries, while others belong to the category of temporary estuaries

getting connected to the sea only during the period of heavy rain fall and land

drainage.

There are 44 rivers in Kerala originating from the western ghats.

Of these, three are flowing to the east and merge to the Bay of Bengal and the

remaining 41 are flowing to the west to meet the Lakshadweep sea. Even though

there are 44 rivers and some fresh water lakes in Kerala, scarcity of drinking water

exists. This is due to the fact that the majority of them are polluted. Several million

litres of waste waters are discharged into these water bodies. Of this, a major

portion is being discharged without any treatment, while a minor portion with

partial treatment.

There are over 200 medium and large scale industries and about

2000 small scale industries which contribute to pollution of water bodies in Kerala

(Vijayamohanan, 1991). Approximately two third of the industrial eflluents

generated in the state is discharged into tidal waters. Majority of the industries in

Kerala are located in the banks of the river Periyar near Udyogamandal. These

industries are situated in a narrow zone and this has resulted in the concentration of

the eflluent in a limited area. Mass death of fishes and other aquatic organisms in

this region is common. The ingredients of these waste materials get settled at the

bottom of the river. From there it is carried to other places through canals

(Chandrahasan, 1988).

3

Efiluents from the Gwalior Rayon factory at Mavoor, about 21 km

from Beypore, Kozhikode, has created a pollution hazard in the river Chaliyar.

The pollution problem is especially acute during summer season when little dilution

of the efiluents occurs. A large scale fish mortality was reported by Venkataraman

(1966) which was attributed to highly putressible organic matter creating almost

anaerobic conditions in the river with very low or nil oxygen. The estuary has

been rendered unfit for fishing for a distance of about 22 km from the sea mouth.

The Muvattupuzha river is being polluted by the black liquor

discharged from the Vellur plant of Hindustan Paper Corporation. The Punalur

Paper Mills, formerly discharged large quantities of untreated efiluents into the

Kallada river. The Ashtamudi estuary of Kollam District receives efiluents from

the Lekshmi Starch Factory, Kundara; Parvathy mills, Kollam and several other

industrial units located on the banks of the estuary, in addition to those brought

in by Kallada river.

Available information on the status of water pollution along the

Kerala Coast is very limited (Vijayamohanan, 1991). A few preliminary studies

have been conducted in the vicinity of Cochin, which indicate degradation of marine

environment. The increasing loads of sewage and industrial wastes in the Cochin

estuary have created conditions which are extremely destructive to plants and

animals, (Quasim and Madhupratap, 1981). Azis and Nair (1978) investigated the

nature of pollution in the retting zones of the backwaters of Kerala. The Kerala

State Pollution Control Board had in 1985 studied the water quality in Cochin

Port area and reported that the industrial efiluents in the Cochin estuary have

created conditions which are harmful to animals (Vijayamohanan,1991). The

effects of industrial pollution ofthis area are clearly seen in the form of depletion of

biota especially benthic organisms, fish mortality and presence of ammonia in water

(Ouseph, 1988). Some information is also available with regard to the degradation

of the Beypore estuary. Studies on the residual mercury in the sediment of

Beypore estuary showed higher values (Muraleedharan Nair, 1994). Pollution

4

tolerant and indicator species of the benthos ofBeypore estuary had been reported

by Saraladevi (1994).

Limited information is also available from other estuarine tracts

and fresh water bodies in Kerala. George Abe and Jayakumar (1996) studied the

salinity level in the Muvattupuzha estuary due to the Muvattupuzha valley

irrigation project. Atjunan et al., (1996) worked on the algae in relation to BOD

reduction from starch industry waste in stabilisation ponds. Padma et al., (1996)

studied on the dissolved and sedimented forms of nutrients in the estuarine waters

around the National Thermal Power Corporation site, Kayamkulam, and reported

low values of nitrogen and phosphorus. Marykutty et al., (1996) investigated the

potential effect of fertilizer residue on algae of Kuttanad. Harikumar et al., (1996)

studied the water quality problems related to excess flouride in Alappuzha and

Cherthala regions. Sabu and Azis (1996) studied the variations of phytoplankton

abundance in Peppara reservoir. Dhevendran and Sally (1998) investigated the

bacterial diseases in the polluted Poonthura backwater.

TITANIUM DIOXIDE INDUSTRY

Titanium dioxide is considered to be the whitest chemical known,

and is mainly used in paint industry. Titanium dioxide crystals are extremely minute

and can reflect almost all the rays ofthe visible spectrum. The crystals have the size

of 0.2 to 0.3J..l diameter. A very small quantity of titanium dioxide can spread to a

comparatively larger area. It is also extensively used in so many other industries

like rubber, textile, synthetic fibres, ceramics, paper and linoleum. Titanium dioxide

also acts as the base material for the extraction of Titanium metal for the

aeronautics and defence industries. The major portion of the chemical is used in

the paint industry (Pickaver, 1982). Titanium dioxide powder is an ideal addition

to paint due to the special surface properties of its pure white crystals. The non

toxic and fine structured chemical with its specifYing character makes face powder

ultrafine. The same property also makes the foundation creams inconspicuously

5

light. The application of Ti02 as a whitener replaced the highly hazardous lead

based derivatives which had previously been added to paints (Pickaver, 1982).

The ores used for the separation of titanium dioxide pigment are

ilmenite and rutile. Ofthe total ore resources of the pigment in the world, 12% is

in India. Ilminite was first discovered in Russia. 5 million tonnes are being mined

every year there. The world resources of these ores are spread over Australia,

America, Canada, Norway, Finland, Malaysia and India. The major exporter of

Ilmenite is Australia.

In India, the ores are distributed along the coasts of Kerala, Andhra

Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and West Bengal. Of the total Indian ore resources

(Dhanunjaya Rao et a/., 1989) 133 tonnes are estimated to be ilmenite and 7 million

tonnes rutile.

As per the estimates of Atomic Energy Commission, New Delhi, in

Kerala, along the coasts of Neendakara, Chavara and Kayamkulam of Kollam

District, there is a deposit of 17.5 million tonnes of ilmenite and 1.2 million tonnes

of rutile, spread over an area of 405 hectares ( Sachdeva, 1989). These ores are

more less in the superficial layer of the earth's crust. The ilmenite ores of Chavara

contain about 60% of titanium dioxide, which is the richest ilmenite ore found in

the world. In the rutile ore, the amount of titanium dioxide comes around 90-95%.

The other rare earths obtained from the ores of this area are monazite, zircon,

leucuxenes, silliminite etc.

It is estimated that a Titanium Dioxide Plant with a capacity to

produce 72 tonnes per day can function continuously for 60-70 years with the ores

obtained from this area alone. There are two methods for the production of Ti02

from their ores. The first method uses sulphuric acid and the second method uses

chlorine. Better quality products and higher profits are ensured by the second

method and hence it is being adopted by the modem units in the different parts of

the world.

6

The industrial production of titanium dioxide had begun way back in

the beginning of the twentieth century in Norway and America. Today the titanium

pigment has replaced almost all the other white pigments. The yearly per head

consumption of the product in America is 4830 g while it is only 91 g in India.

Even for such a low consumption the pigment had been importing completely till

the establishment of the first Titanium Dioxide Industry about 5 decades ago, in

Trivandrum, Kerala. Travancore Titanium Products (TTP), Trivandrum was the

sole manufacturer of titanium dioxide in India, till the second major Titanium

Dioxide Pigment Plant started functioning at Sankaramangalam in 1984.

Mis. F.X. Pereira and Sons (Travancore) Pvt. Ltd. were the

pioneers who established the first full fledged mineral separation industry in Chavara

area way back in 1932 using the dry separation process. They were mining and

separating the mineral sands into the various constituents like ilmenite, rutile,

leucoxene, silliminite, zircon and monazite. The first three, viz., ilmenite, rutile and

leucoxene are titanium bearing minerals and hence used for the manufacture of

titanium dioxide pigment and titanium sponge metal.

This firm was taken over by the state government of Kerala in 1972

and renamed as The Kerala Minerals and Metals Ltd. (KMML). The company

received a letter of indent in 1974 for the production of titanium dioxide pigment

(TiOz) using the cWoride technology.

KMML entered into technical collaboration with Mis. Benelite

corporation and Mis Kerr Molayee Chemical Corporation of U.S.A. and

Mis. Woodall Duckham of U.K. for the supply of basic technology for the above.

The Metallurgical and Engineering Consultants (India) Ltd. (Mecon), a Government

ofIndia undertaking did the detailed engineering.

The Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant construction was started in

1979 and commissioned in December 1984. It is one of the few such pigment plants

7

in the world based on the more recent chlorination-cum-oxidation route. The main

toxic and or flammable chemicals stored, handled or processed in this factory are

chlorine, liquid petroleum gas, liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, titanium tetra

chloride, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, caustic soda, methanol etc.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

Titanium dioxide pigment manufacturing process of KMML based

on chloride technology consists of the following steps:

1. Reduction and leaching of the raw ilmenite containing 55-60% TiOz to obtain

beneficated ilmenite of90-92% TiOz content (ilmenite benefication).

2. Regeneration of spent hydrochloric acid.

3. Conversion of beneficated ilmenite into TiOz pigment (chlorination, oxidation

and finishing)

1. Dmenite Benefication Plant (ffiP)

Raw ilmenite containing 55-60% TiOz is beneficated to 92% TiOz

which is the raw material for the pigment production plant. The ferric oxide in

raw ilmenite is first subjected to high temperature reduction to ferrous oxide in

presence of lecofines in a rotary roaster at a temperature of 850°C and the reduced

ilmenite is then cooled to 50°C. The cooled reduced ilmenite is sent to the digesters

where it is leached with 18-20% HCI. During leaching the ferrous oxide and other

impurities are dissolved in HCI. The spent leach liquor is sent to the storage tanks.

The leached ilmenite after washing and filtering is calcined at 550°C to remove

moisture and volatile matter. This calcined product is the beneficated ilmenite.

Chemical reactions ofthe reduction and leaching process are :

2C+Oz ~2CO

2CO + Oz ~ 2COz

COz+C ~2CO

FeZ03 + 2HCI ~ 2FeO + COz

FeO + 2HCI ~ FeCh + HzO

FeZ03 + 6HCI ~ 2FeCh + 3Hz

8

2. Acid Regeneration Plant (ARP)

This plant is designed to regenerate HCI from spent leach liquor

containing some free HCI and metallic chlorides obtained from the digesters after

leaching. The spent leach liquor from the pre-concentrator is processed in a spray

roaster in which the liquid spray entering the furnaces heated by fuel oil decomposes

to metal oxides and HCl. The HCI vapour is first cooled in the pre-concentrator

and then absorbed in the wash water generated in the IBP to get. 18% HCI, which

is recycled back to IBP:-

2FeCh + 2H20 + 'l1 O2 ---+ Fe203 + 4HCI

2FeCh + 3H20 ---+ Fe203 + 6HCI

3. Pigment Production Plant (PPP)

Pigment production plant consists of three units, namely:

1. Chlorination plant

ii. Oxidation plant

iii. Pigment surface treatment and finishing plant.

i. Chlorination Plant

In this plant, beneficated ilmenite from IBP is chlorinated to produce

TiC4. Chlorine reacts with Ti02 and other metallic oxide impurities in the

beneficated ilmenite in the presence of petroleum coke at a temperature of about

900°C in a fluidised bed chlorinator to produce chloride of titanium and other

impurity metals. The chlorides of the impurity metals are removed and TiC4 is

condensed in crude form. This TiC4 is further purified to obtain pure TiC4 liquid

which is stored in the storage vessels.

Ti02 (Impure) + 2Ch + C ---+ TiCl4 + CO2

Ti02 (Impure) + 2C + 2Ch ---+ TiC4 + 2CO

ii. Oxidation Plant

In this plant TiC4 is vapourised, pre-heated and oxidised with

oxygen to produce raw Ti02 at a temperature of about, 1080°C. The raw Ti02

9

obtained from this plant is slurried with H20 and· pumped to storage tanks for

surface treatment in the finishing plant. The chlorine liberated while oxygen reacted

with TiC4, as shown in the following equation, is recycled back to the chlorination

unit.

iii. Surface Treatment and Pigment Finishing Plant

The Ti02 slurry from oxidation unit storage tanks is pumped to the

treatment and finishing unit for sand milling, classification, surface treatment,

filtration, washing, drying and micronisation. In the treatment section Ti02 pigment

is surface treated with various chemicals such as sodium aluminate and sodium

silicate. The optimum particle size ofTi02 pigment (0.28 micron) is obtained by

micronising the filtered, washed and dried pigment. The micronised product is

bagged in paper bags of25 kg capacity.

The production capacity of the plant IS 72 tonnes per day

(22000 MTA), when it was commissioned in 1984. The yearly actual production

for the last eleven years from 1984-85 to .1994-95 is given in Table-l (personal

communication).

Table-I Yearly production data from 1984-85 to 1994-95

Year Production (MTA)

1984-85 1459.001985-86 4443.751986-87 4646.001987-88 6860.001988-89 9250.001989-90 . 5150.001990-91 9000.751991-92 10011.001992-93 9652.501993-94 14707.001994-95 18042.00

10

Most of the research on the effect of titanium dioxide eflluents on

the biology of aquatic organisms had been done abroad. Redfield and Walford

(1951) and Ketchum et al., (1958) had reported the harmful effects of titanium

dioxide eflluent during the disposal in the Atlantic ocean by United States factories.

Kinne and Rosenthal (1967) conducted experiments on the effects of sulphuric acid

water pollutants on fertilization, embryonic development and larvae of the herring,

Clupea harengus. They incubated the eggs in the presence of the waste under

laboratory conditions. Halsband (1968) and Kinne and Schumann (1968) separately

carried out laboratory tests which demonstrated toxic effects on adult fish which

were dependent upon the concentration ofFeS04.

Physical and chemical investigations on marine pollution by wastes

of a titanium dioxide factory by Weichart (1972) revealed a reduction in the pH of

the sea water and marked increase in the CO2 partial pressure. The ferrous

sulphate increases the iron concentration, and the Fe2+ is oxidised to Fe3+ and

precipitated as hydroxide. This reaction caused an oxygen deficit in the water.

Rachor (1972) studied the influence of industrial waste containing H2S04 and

FeS04 on the bottom fauna offHelgoland (German Bight). The animals observed,

produced mucus substance and showed iron flakes affixed to the mucus, and some

tests of the gut content of polychaets indicated a high proportion of iron shares.

Long term laboratory experiments were conducted by Winter (1972) on the

influence of Ferric hydroxide flakes on the filter feeding, behaviour, growth, iron

content and mortality in Mytilus edulis L. At higher application of the Fe(OH)2

flakes, the total amount of ferric hydroxide flakes was disposed of as pseudo­

faeces. At higher concentrations the shell movements were clearly associated with

frequent ejections oflarge quantities of pseudo-faeces. The dry weight of soft parts

decreases with increasing application of ferric hydroxide flakes. Ferric hydroxide

flakes caused 75% mortality of animals within three months.

Field investigations have shown that the eflluent is deleterious to

bottom dwelling organisms and to the fishes (Seppanen and Shemmikka, 1972).

11

George et al., (1973) conducted laboratory studies on the effects of acid waste on

copepods and found that substantial mortality of copepods occurred at

concentration of acid waste producing pH of approximately 6.5 and lower.

Nespital (1973) and Rachor and Dethlefsen (1973) independently

demonstrated that the concentration of iron in the sea water increases at TiOz

dump sites. Wilson and White (1974) kept flounders (Platiehthysjlesus) in cages

in Hamber estuary where the TiOz industrial effluent is discharged, and noted the

mortality. The acute toxicity of the effluent to various aquatic organisms, both

vertebrates and invertebrates, have been tested by Baggie and TIus, 1975. They

showed that the diluted acid in situ after dumping is still strong enough to dissolve

phytoplankton, kill zooplankton and causes a major shift in the buffer system.

Viopio and Neimisto (1975) in laboratory studies showed that the

perch (Perea fluviatilis) and white fish (Coregonus lavaretus) died after 96 hours

incubation at various concentrations of the effluent. They demonstrated that even

at a distance of 12 km from the point of discharge at Vourikemia in Finland, death

occurred when bottom dwelling species were used. Lehtinen (1975) reported that

upto a distance of 25 km and including an area of 250 km-z, herring catches in the

Baltic sea were reduced by 50% and bottom dwelling fish were absent. The reason

was attributed to the floating ferric hydroxide. Isotalo and Hakkila (1978) reported

that the Fe(OH)3 precipitate that forms as a result of dilution has negative effects

which appear gradually and bring about changes in the local fauna. The work of

Hakkila et aI., (1978) shows that Fe(OH)3 was found absorbed to the shell of the

marine bivalve Maeoma baliea. A direct correlation was obtained between the

amount of ferric hydroxide present, and the degree to which the shell was corroded

and the inability of the mollusc to reproduce. There existed a relationship between

the concentration of TiOz, and overall species variety and biomass, i.e., increase in

waste concentration leading to decrease in species number and biomass. Karjala

(1980) caught flounders with gill precipitates from a TiOz factory waste dumping

area. Larson et al., (1980) while investigating the biochemical and haematological

12

effects of a titanium dioxide industrial eftluent on fish found that the eftluent caused

significant dose-dependent reductions of sodium chloride concentrations as well as

the osmolality in the blood plasma. The blood glucose and blood lactate level also

increased. Increased values of haematocrit, haemoglobin content and number of

erythro blasts were also noted.

Lehtinen (1980) worked on the effects on fish exposed to eftluents

from a titanium dioxide industry and tested with rotary flow technique. He

displayed a statistically significant decrease in ability to compensate for torque in

the rotating current. The most viable effect of the eftluent was a brown precipitate

on the gills.

Milligan and Wood (1982) while studying the disturbances in

haematology, fluid volume, distribution and circulatory function associated with low

environmental pH in the rainbow trout, Salma giardneri observed a progressive

increase in heart rate, mean arterial blood pressure and haematocrit. Jarvinen (1982)

linked the effect of Fe(OH)3 to a disease of the eye in herring. Lehtinen and

Klingstedt (1983) have demonstrated that the gill precipitate also co-precipitated

with sulphur, potassium, phosphorus and calcium which interfere with the gaseous

exchange of the gills. He stated that the uptake of the metals on to the gill tissue is

temperature dependent with more being precipitated at lower temperatures.

Dethlefsen (1985) reported that since 1969, 45000 to 750000 tonnes

of wastes from titanium dioxide production were annually dumped into an area off

twelve nautical miles north west of the island of Helgoland within the central

German Bight of the Southern North sea. Increased heavy metal concentrations in

sea-water, sediments and epidermal tissue of dab (Limanda limanda) on the one

hand and increased prevalances of dab aftlicted with epidermal papilloma on the

other hand were found in the vicinity of the dumping area of wastes of titanium

dioxide production. He found a casual relationship existing between elevated

disease rates and the wastes dumped into the sea.

13

Jones et aI., (1987) reported that the fishes were initially hyper

active but become hypoactive with continued exposure in acid stress medium.

Feeding intensity and attraction to food extract were depressed throughout the

exposure period. Haematocrit, protein, cortisol and glucose increased, while

osmolality and Na+ decreased in acid exposed fish. Hughes and Nemcsok (1988)

conducted experiments on the effects of low pH alone and combined with copper

sulphate on blood parameters. They found that acidification significantly

potentiated the toxicity of copper sulphate to fish, causing serious disturbances in

physiological and biochemical processes.

In India, studies on the effects of titanium dioxide industrial

effluents on biota including the aquatic organisms are very scanty. Nair and Rajan

(1974) made some observations on the effect of effluents from the Titanium

Dioxide Factory at Trivandrum on the interstitial fauna. They examined the

magnitude of environmental deterioration and the resultant effects on the sand

microfauna. Rajan and Nair (1974) examined the effect of effluents from

Travancore Titanium Products, Trivandrum on mematodes, archiannelids and

polychaets collected from the sandy beach on varying concentrations. Madhupratap

et aI., (1979) studied the toxicity of effluents from Titanium Dioxide Factory on

certain marine animals. Menon et al., (1979) studied the faunal density and

distribution in a near-shore environment at Trivandrum into which effluents from

the titanium dioxide factory is discharged. Vijayamohanan (1991) held detailed

studies on the effect of effluents from TTP, Trivandrum, on the biology of fishes

and mesofauna. Bijumon et al., (1998) assessed the environmental degradation of

marine ecosystem at Veli due to the discharge of TTP effluents.

With regard to the toxicity of the effluents and their effects, nothing

IS known from India for a cWoride routed titanium dioxide industry. KMML

Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant at Sankaramangalam is the first and the only one of

its kind in India and hence the present study assumes great importance.

14

THE ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS OF CHAVARA-PANMANA AREA

SURROUNDING THE KMML TITANIUM DIOXIDE PIGMENT PLANT

The Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant of Kerala Minerals and Metals

Limited, is situated, facing the national high way 47 in between Kollam and

Kayamkulam at Sankaramangalam (9° 5' Lat N; 76° 31 1 Long E) and is 15 kIn

north to Kollam town (Fig. 1). It falls within the Panmana panchayat of

Karunagappally Taluk, Kollam District. Panmana, Thevalakkara, Thekkumbhagom

and Neendakara form the adjoining panchayats in the north, east, south east and

south respectively. The Lakshadweep sea forms the western boundary of the

panchayat. The factory is located on the western side of the national highway and

is in the midst of a thickly populated area. Part of the Trivandrum-Shomur canal

(T.S. canal) in this area is about 1 kIn behind the factory compound and it connects

the main Ashtamudi estuary in the south and the Vatta kayal in the north. The

Vatta kayal forming part of the Ashtamudi estuarine system, falls within Panmana

and Karunagappally panchayats. In between the T.S. canal and the sea there is a

narrow strip of coastal area which is also thickly populated.

Though the Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant of KMML started

functioning only in 1984, serious pollution problems had been raised by the public

and media during the period 1984-1992. It has been pointed out that the pollution

caused by the gaseous and liquid effluents from the factory is grave. The

production oftitanium dioxide from the mineral ilmenite through the chloride route

results in huge quantities of waste liquor consisting of dilute hydrochloric acid and

ferrous chloride.

A portion of the effluent, which is treated to some extent, is pumped

to the sea. The underground pipe which takes out this effluent (hereafter referred

to as effluent I[EF ID opens on the sea wall (Fig. 2), in the sea shore. Estimation

of the rate of flow by standard method showed that the hourly discharge was

33.33(± 12.75)m-3 h-l. The whole area appeared reddish brown due to the

15

1Figure 1 The KMML Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant at Sankaramangalam,

Kollam, ~erala

Figure 2 Effluent I pipe opening to the sea I

deposition of iron salts. Mild discolouration of the sea water was also noticeable

in the shore area. There were not much adverse visible effects along the coast.

Acidic eftluents, other than eftluent I were coming out of the factory

compound through other outlets. There was a well built straight canal with strong

walls on either side (hereafter referred to as eftluent II canal), which runs out of the

factory compound (Fig. 3) on the western side to open to the T.S. canal. The

eftluent (hereafter referred to as eftluent II[EF II]) coming out through this canal

was whitish at times due to the presence of titanium dioxide powder. At times,

there were discharges which were highly toxic resulting in fish mortality in

T.S. canal. The rate of flow was found to be 20(± 7.85)m-3 h-l. The eftluent II

canal opens on the eastern side, after traversing the factory compound and then the

NH through a culvert, to the paddy fields and other wet lands, thus contaminating

the soil and water of the neighbouring areas. Another well built canal (eftluent III

canal) also drained effluent (hereafter referred to as eftluent III[EF III]) from

the factory compou~d on the northern side (Fig. 4) to Vatta kayal which is

1.5 km north of the factory. The rate of eftluent flow was found to be

23.05(± 12.55) m-3 h-l through this canal. The region of the kayal which received

the eftluent appeared brownish and there were signs of pollution. In the eastern

side of the factory, i.e., the highway side, towards the northern side of the factory

compound, there was another outlet which was nothing but an outflow (hereafter

referred to as eftluent IV[EF IV]) from the eftluent neutralisation pond situated

within the factory compound. This outlet channel formed a small pond (eftluent

IV pond) in between the NH and the factory compound (Fig. 5). It is connected

to a sti11larger pond at the eastern side of the NH through a culvert (Fig. 6). Both

these ponds, get access to the nearby fields and water logged areas during monsoon

and post monsoon periods. Thus, the eftluents stored in the neutralisation ponds

within the factory compound had direct access to the surrounding areas. In

addition to these outlets, there were occasional overflow from the eftluent settling

ponds situated towards the north eastern side within the factory compound, to the

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Figure 3 Effluent II canal opening to the T.S. canal

Figure 4 Effiuent III canal within the factory compound - view from outside

Figure 4 Effiuent III canal emerging out of the factory compound

Figure 5 Effluent IV pond in between the factory compound andthe national highway

Figure 6 Emuent IV pond (larger) at the eastern side of the national highway'

Figure 7 View of the effluent contaminated a.'ea in summer at the northernside of the factory compound

Figure 8 View of the effluent contaminated area in summer at the northwestern side of the factory compound

nearby areas. When these areas got dried up in summer they also appeared

reddish brown (Fig. 7 and 8). Massive destruction of vegetation was seen in all

these areas showing the lethal nature ofthe eflluents.

The environmental scenario of Chavara-Panmana area was definitely

not the same after the commissioning of the KMML Titanium Dioxide Pigment

Plant at Sankaramangalam as the eflluents had started exerting a pollution load on

T.S. canal, Vatta kayal, the coastal marine waters and on the land and atmosphere

around. The fisher folk who depend on Vatta kayal for their livelihood, complained

that their catch from the kayal has come down to a mere 10% of their normal catch

they had before the functioning of the KMML Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant

(personal interview). The agricultural area surrounding the factory especially

northern side has turned acidic. The nearby wells of the local residents have already

became useless due to acidity. The agricultural loss to the nearby residents were

enormous during the period 1984-1992, due to the over flow of the eflluents from

the settling ponds inside the factory compound (apart from EF IV mentioned earlier

there is no overflow now as on December 1997, as one more eflluent settling pond

has been newly constructed). During the occasions of overflow and loss of

agricultural crops, the factory management used to settle the issue by compensating

the farmers (personal interview).

Thus it is evident that the eflluents from the KMML Titanium

Dioxide Pigment Plant at Sankaramanagalam pose grave environmental problems

which affect the local biota directly and indirectly. Hence, a detailed investigation

was carried out to elucidate the magnitude of environmental deterioration caused

by the eflluents discharged into the surrounding water bodies and on land. The

present research work was carried out for a period of three years starting from

October, 1992. The whole investigation is presented in four parts.

Part I deals with the analysis of the four eflluents to find out their

physicochemical characteristics and assess the toxicity. The analysis was done on

a montWy basis for a period of2 years from October, 1992 to September, 1994.

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