SUPPORT & MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS Why is locomotion important to animals? escape unfavourable conditions...
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SUPPORT & MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS Why is locomotion important to animals? • To escape unfavourable conditions, e.g. predators, • To find food; • To seek mates; • To disperse to new habitats; • To seek favourable environments; e.g. shelter
SUPPORT & MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS Why is locomotion important to animals? escape unfavourable conditions To escape unfavourable conditions, e.g. predators,
SUPPORT & MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS Why is locomotion important
to animals? escape unfavourable conditions To escape unfavourable
conditions, e.g. predators, food To find food; seek mates To seek
mates; disperse To disperse to new habitats; seek favourable
environments To seek favourable environments; e.g. shelter Why is
locomotion important to animals? escape unfavourable conditions To
escape unfavourable conditions, e.g. predators, food To find food;
seek mates To seek mates; disperse To disperse to new habitats;
seek favourable environments To seek favourable environments; e.g.
shelter
Slide 3
Locomotion in Unicellular Organisms Involves using; Pseudopodi
Pseudopodia e.g. amoeba. flagellum flagellum e.g. Trypanosoma spp.
cilia cilia e.g. Paramecium spp. Involves using; Pseudopodi
Pseudopodia e.g. amoeba. flagellum flagellum e.g. Trypanosoma spp.
cilia cilia e.g. Paramecium spp.
Slide 4
Locomotion in Multicellular organisms Requires; Muscles
Muscles, a contractile tissue, which provide a source of power
Skeleton Skeleton, on which muscles can act to bring movement
Requires; Muscles Muscles, a contractile tissue, which provide a
source of power Skeleton Skeleton, on which muscles can act to
bring movement
Hydrostatic (hydraulic) Mechanical support is provided by an
internal fluid-filled system. E.g. most invertebrates like
earthworm, leeches, caterpillars and maggots. Mechanical support is
provided by an internal fluid-filled system. E.g. most
invertebrates like earthworm, leeches, caterpillars and
maggots.
Slide 7
arthropodschitin E.g. arthropods made of chitin, Exoskeleton
forms a hard casing Exoskeleton forms a hard casing enclosing the
softer tissues of the arthropod body, antagonistic muscles, Jointed
limbs movements are due to antagonistic muscles, attached
internally, The Muscles are attached internally, arthropodschitin
E.g. arthropods made of chitin, Exoskeleton forms a hard casing
Exoskeleton forms a hard casing enclosing the softer tissues of the
arthropod body, antagonistic muscles, Jointed limbs movements are
due to antagonistic muscles, attached internally, The Muscles are
attached internally,
Slide 8
Endoskeleton E.g. chordates made up of; bones, cartilage
tissue, cartilage tissue, made up of; bones, cartilage tissue,
cartilage tissue,
Slide 9
General Functions of the Endoskeleton The Endoskeleton has nine
main functions: Provide shape and support, Provide shape and
support, Provide Attachment, Provide Attachment, Provide a frame
work for Movement, Provide a frame work for Movement, Provide
Protection, Provide Protection, Site of Blood cell production, Site
of Blood cell production, Provide Storage, Provide Storage,
Involved in pH buffering, Involved in pH buffering, Involved in
Detoxification, Involved in Detoxification, Involved in Sound
transduction, Involved in Sound transduction, The Endoskeleton has
nine main functions: Provide shape and support, Provide shape and
support, Provide Attachment, Provide Attachment, Provide a frame
work for Movement, Provide a frame work for Movement, Provide
Protection, Provide Protection, Site of Blood cell production, Site
of Blood cell production, Provide Storage, Provide Storage,
Involved in pH buffering, Involved in pH buffering, Involved in
Detoxification, Involved in Detoxification, Involved in Sound
transduction, Involved in Sound transduction,
Slide 10
The Mammalian Skeleton
Slide 11
Slide 12
axial skeleton The axial skeleton has five areas; Skull, Skull,
Ossicles bones, Ossicles bones, Hyoid bone in the throat, Hyoid
bone in the throat, Vertebral column, Vertebral column, Chest,
Chest, The axial skeleton has five areas; Skull, Skull, Ossicles
bones, Ossicles bones, Hyoid bone in the throat, Hyoid bone in the
throat, Vertebral column, Vertebral column, Chest, Chest,
Slide 13
Appendicular Skeleton
Slide 14
Skull The Skull: Consists of cranium, facial bones and two
jaws, At the base of the cranium, are occipital condyles which
articulate with the first vertebral bone, atlas, The Skull:
Consists of cranium, facial bones and two jaws, At the base of the
cranium, are occipital condyles which articulate with the first
vertebral bone, atlas, Functions of the Skull; Mechanical
protection of brain & sensory organs. Upper & lower jaws
used for chewing food.
A TYPICAL VERTEBRA A main parts of typical vertebra; neural
canal neural canal- passage of spinal cord, Neural arch Neural
arch- surrounds neural canal, Neural spine- Neural spine- projects
upwards/dorsally, Centrum Centrum (plural-centra)- ventrally
located and fits into intervertebral discs on both sides Transverse
processes Transverse processes- on either side of neural arch,
Zygapophyses Zygapophyses (singular- zygapophysis)- articulation
smooth facets with adjacent vertebra, A main parts of typical
vertebra; neural canal neural canal- passage of spinal cord, Neural
arch Neural arch- surrounds neural canal, Neural spine- Neural
spine- projects upwards/dorsally, Centrum Centrum (plural-centra)-
ventrally located and fits into intervertebral discs on both sides
Transverse processes Transverse processes- on either side of neural
arch, Zygapophyses Zygapophyses (singular- zygapophysis)-
articulation smooth facets with adjacent vertebra,
Distinguishing features of cervical vertebrae All 7 cervical
vertebrae have; vertebrarterial canals, transverse processes
flattened out to form cervical ribs, large neural cavity, small
centrum, All 7 cervical vertebrae have; vertebrarterial canals,
transverse processes flattened out to form cervical ribs, large
neural cavity, small centrum,
Slide 20
Atlas vertebra dorsal view Features of the Atlas vertebra; Very
large Neural canal, Prominent cervical ribs (transverse processes),
Large hollow facets (articulate with occipital condyles) Reduced
centrum, Reduced neural spine, Large Postzygapophyses to articulate
with prezygapophyses of axis, Features of the Atlas vertebra; Very
large Neural canal, Prominent cervical ribs (transverse processes),
Large hollow facets (articulate with occipital condyles) Reduced
centrum, Reduced neural spine, Large Postzygapophyses to articulate
with prezygapophyses of axis,
Slide 21
Atlas anterior view Showing the articulation surface with the
occipital condyles of the skull
Slide 22
Atlas posterior view
Slide 23
Axis vertebra lateral view Features of Axis vertebra; Large
centrum forming Odontoid process, large neural spine, large neural
spine, Flat cervical ribs, Flat cervical ribs, postzygapophyse s
postzygapophyse s Features of Axis vertebra; Large centrum forming
Odontoid process, large neural spine, large neural spine, Flat
cervical ribs, Flat cervical ribs, postzygapophyse s
postzygapophyse s
Slide 24
Axis Vertebra Anterior view
Slide 25
Axis Vertebra posterior view
Slide 26
3 rd 7 th Cervical vertebra anterior view All 7 cervical
vertebrae have; vertebrarterial canals, transverse processes
flattened out to form cervical ribs, large neural cavity, small
centrum, All 7 cervical vertebrae have; vertebrarterial canals,
transverse processes flattened out to form cervical ribs, large
neural cavity, small centrum,
Slide 27
3 rd -7 th Cervical vertebrae Posterior view
Slide 28
Adaptations of cervical vertebrae broad neural arch for
protection of the spinal cord. forked and short transverse
processes for the attachment of neck muscles. Atlas has broad
surfaces for articulation with the occipital condyles of the skull
to permit nodding movement of the skull. vertebrarterial canals for
passage of neck blood vessels and nerves. broad neural arch for
protection of the spinal cord. forked and short transverse
processes for the attachment of neck muscles. Atlas has broad
surfaces for articulation with the occipital condyles of the skull
to permit nodding movement of the skull. vertebrarterial canals for
passage of neck blood vessels and nerves.
Slide 29
continued Axis has odontoid process; a projection of the
centrum to permit rotator movement of the skull. The odontoid
process acts as a pivot; for the atlas and skull. short neural
spine for attachment of neck muscles. wide neural canal for passage
of the enlarged spinal cord. Axis has odontoid process; a
projection of the centrum to permit rotator movement of the skull.
The odontoid process acts as a pivot; for the atlas and skull.
short neural spine for attachment of neck muscles. wide neural
canal for passage of the enlarged spinal cord.
Slide 30
Thoracic Vertebrae (lateral view) Distinguishing features of a
thoracic vertebra; Long neural spine projecting upwards &
backwards, Short transverse processes, Tubercular facet (on ventral
side of transverse processes), Capitular demi-facet, Other
features; Large centrum, Large neural canal, Prezygapophyses,
Postzygapophyses, Neural canal, Distinguishing features of a
thoracic vertebra; Long neural spine projecting upwards &
backwards, Short transverse processes, Tubercular facet (on ventral
side of transverse processes), Capitular demi-facet, Other
features; Large centrum, Large neural canal, Prezygapophyses,
Postzygapophyses, Neural canal,
Slide 31
Thoracic vertebra Anterior view
Slide 32
Adaptations of thoracic vertebrae neural arch for protection of
the spinal cord. centrum for attachment of the transverse
processes. pre and post zygapophyses facets for articulation with
those of the next vertebrae. neural arch for protection of the
spinal cord. centrum for attachment of the transverse processes.
pre and post zygapophyses facets for articulation with those of the
next vertebrae.
Slide 33
Continued tubercular and capitular facets for articulation with
the tuberculum and capitulum of the rib, reduced transverse
processes for attachment of muscles, long neural spine for
attachment of the back muscles, tubercular and capitular facets for
articulation with the tuberculum and capitulum of the rib, reduced
transverse processes for attachment of muscles, long neural spine
for attachment of the back muscles,
Slide 34
Lumbar Vertebrae (Anterior view) Distinguishing features of a
lumbar vertebra; Broad neural spine pointing upwards & forward,
Large, thick centrum, (supporting the weight of the animal), Large
transverse processes, (abdominal muscle attachment), Metapophyses,
(abdominal muscle attachment), Anapophyses, (abdominal muscle
attachment), Hypapophyses, (abdominal muscle attachment),
Distinguishing features of a lumbar vertebra; Broad neural spine
pointing upwards & forward, Large, thick centrum, (supporting
the weight of the animal), Large transverse processes, (abdominal
muscle attachment), Metapophyses, (abdominal muscle attachment),
Anapophyses, (abdominal muscle attachment), Hypapophyses,
(abdominal muscle attachment),
Slide 35
Lumbar vertebrae (anterior & lateral view)
Slide 36
Lumbar Vertebra Dorsal view
Slide 37
Lumbar vertebra posterior view
Slide 38
Rabbits Lumbar vertebra lateral view
Slide 39
Lumbar vertebrae (anterior & lateral view)
Slide 40
Adaptation of lumbar broad neural spine for attachment of
powerful back and abdominal muscles. long and well developed
transverse processes for attachment of muscles that maintain
posture and flexes the spine. metapophyses projections provide
additional surface for muscle attachment. broad neural spine for
attachment of powerful back and abdominal muscles. long and well
developed transverse processes for attachment of muscles that
maintain posture and flexes the spine. metapophyses projections
provide additional surface for muscle attachment.
Slide 41
continued hypapophyes projections provide additional surface
for muscle attachment. Thick and compact centrum for support. pre
and post zygapophyses for articulation between the vertebrae
hypapophyes projections provide additional surface for muscle
attachment. Thick and compact centrum for support. pre and post
zygapophyses for articulation between the vertebrae
Slide 42
SACRAL VERTEBRAE (Ventral view) Distinguishing features of
Sacral vertebrae; sacral vertebrae are fused to form, sacrum, 1 st
Sacral vertebrae transverse processes are large & fused with
the pelvic girdle, Numerous foramen (canals), Reduced metapophyses,
Large centrum, Narrow neural canal, neural spine reduce
posteriorly, Distinguishing features of Sacral vertebrae; sacral
vertebrae are fused to form, sacrum, 1 st Sacral vertebrae
transverse processes are large & fused with the pelvic girdle,
Numerous foramen (canals), Reduced metapophyses, Large centrum,
Narrow neural canal, neural spine reduce posteriorly,
Adaptations of the Sacral Vertebrae Numerous canals for passage
of blood vessels and nerves, Sacral vertebrae are fused to provide
strength and firmness, Numerous canals for passage of blood vessels
and nerves, Sacral vertebrae are fused to provide strength and
firmness,
Slide 45
continued The 1 st sacral vertebra has well developed
transverse processes, which are fused to the pelvic girdle to
provide support and mechanical protection to lower abdomen organs.
The 1 st sacral vertebra has Large neural spine & transverse
processes provide attachment to lower back & thigh muscles, The
1 st sacral vertebra has well developed transverse processes, which
are fused to the pelvic girdle to provide support and mechanical
protection to lower abdomen organs. The 1 st sacral vertebra has
Large neural spine & transverse processes provide attachment to
lower back & thigh muscles,
Slide 46
Coccyx (caudal) vertebrae Consists of four coccygeal vertebrae,
Neural spine, transverse processes & neural canal reduced,
Consists of four coccygeal vertebrae, Neural spine, transverse
processes & neural canal reduced,
Slide 47
Ribs Twelve ribs; Seven true ribs, Three False ribs, Two
floating, The rib has two parts; Vertebral part; bearing tuberculum
& capitulum,, Sternal part; Twelve ribs; Seven true ribs, Three
False ribs, Two floating, The rib has two parts; Vertebral part;
bearing tuberculum & capitulum,, Sternal part;
Slide 48
Rib cage
Slide 49
sternum Consists of three sections; Manubrium articulates with
1 st two pairs of ribs, Body articulates to ribs 3 rd -7 th,
Xiphoid cartilage supports abdominal muscles, Consists of three
sections; Manubrium articulates with 1 st two pairs of ribs, Body
articulates to ribs 3 rd -7 th, Xiphoid cartilage supports
abdominal muscles,
Scapula Adaptations of the scapula; Spine; large surface area
for shoulder muscles attachment, Acromion; for clavicle
articulation & muscle attachment, Glenoid cavity; form a ball
socket joint with head of humerus, Adaptations of the scapula;
Spine; large surface area for shoulder muscles attachment,
Acromion; for clavicle articulation & muscle attachment,
Glenoid cavity; form a ball socket joint with head of humerus,
Slide 53
Forelimb humerus Radius & ulna forelimb
Slide 54
Humerus Humerus; proximal end has a large, broad head, The head
of humerus is covered with cartilage, Bears Tubercles/
tuberosities, the greater tubercle and below it is deltoid
ridge/lesser tubercle, At the distal end the bone ends in two
condyles / trochlea, Humerus; proximal end has a large, broad head,
The head of humerus is covered with cartilage, Bears Tubercles/
tuberosities, the greater tubercle and below it is deltoid
ridge/lesser tubercle, At the distal end the bone ends in two
condyles / trochlea,
Slide 55
Adaptations of the Humerus The Humerus has a large head that
fits in the glenoid cavity of the scapula, to form a ball &
socket joint, The cartilage on the humerus head reduces friction in
the ball & socket joint, The greater tubercle & deltoid
ridge both provide surfaces for muscle attachment, Humerus condyles
articulate with the sigmoid notch of radius and ulna to form the
hinge joint, The Humerus has a large head that fits in the glenoid
cavity of the scapula, to form a ball & socket joint, The
cartilage on the humerus head reduces friction in the ball &
socket joint, The greater tubercle & deltoid ridge both provide
surfaces for muscle attachment, Humerus condyles articulate with
the sigmoid notch of radius and ulna to form the hinge joint,
Slide 56
Radius & Ulna Radius & Ulna form the elbow joint /hinge
joint with the humerus, The ulna is longer than the radius, The
ulna fits with humerus trochlea at the sigmoid notch, The ulna
extends to form the olecranon process/elbow, Radius & Ulna form
the elbow joint /hinge joint with the humerus, The ulna is longer
than the radius, The ulna fits with humerus trochlea at the sigmoid
notch, The ulna extends to form the olecranon process/elbow,
Slide 57
Adaptations of the radius & Ulna the olecranon process;
provides insertion for triceps muscle Olecranon process; prevents
the overstretching of the joint, Radius; has an insertion for the
biceps muscles; ulna & radius; articulates with humerus
condyles in the sigmoid notch and forms the hinge joint at the
elbow, Radius & ulna; form flexible joints allowing for forearm
twisting, the olecranon process; provides insertion for triceps
muscle Olecranon process; prevents the overstretching of the joint,
Radius; has an insertion for the biceps muscles; ulna & radius;
articulates with humerus condyles in the sigmoid notch and forms
the hinge joint at the elbow, Radius & ulna; form flexible
joints allowing for forearm twisting,
Slide 58
Pelvic girdle & hind limb iliumPubisischium Pelvic
Girdle
Slide 59
PELVIC GIRDLE (Ventral view)
Slide 60
Pelvic girdle Adaptations
Slide 61
Continued/pelvic girdle adaptations
Slide 62
Functions of the Pelvic Girdle
Slide 63
Femur Femur small head that fits into the acetabulum socket of
the pelvic girdle forming a ball and socket joint, The head of
femur is covered with cartilage, femur bears condyles which
articulates with tibia to form the knee joint, Femur has
projections trochanters, Femur small head that fits into the
acetabulum socket of the pelvic girdle forming a ball and socket
joint, The head of femur is covered with cartilage, femur bears
condyles which articulates with tibia to form the knee joint, Femur
has projections trochanters,
Slide 64
Femur Note the rounded head of the femur
Slide 65
Adaptations of Femur Femur has a smaller head that fits into
the acetabulum socket of the pelvic girdle forming a ball and
socket joint that permits movement in all planes. The head of femur
is covered with cartilage that reduces friction during locomotion.
Femur has a smaller head that fits into the acetabulum socket of
the pelvic girdle forming a ball and socket joint that permits
movement in all planes. The head of femur is covered with cartilage
that reduces friction during locomotion.
Slide 66
Continued adaptations of femur At the distal end femur bears
two rounded condyles which articulates with tibia to form the knee
joint which is an example of a hinge joint. Femur has a long shaft
for muscle attachment and for support. Femur has projections,
trochanters that provide surfaces for muscle attachment. At the
distal end femur bears two rounded condyles which articulates with
tibia to form the knee joint which is an example of a hinge joint.
Femur has a long shaft for muscle attachment and for support. Femur
has projections, trochanters that provide surfaces for muscle
attachment.
Slide 67
Tibia & Fibula Tibia & fibula are fused on distal end,
to form tibio- fibula, Tibia Tibia (larger) articulates with the
femur, Enemial crest Enemial crest of the tibia, provide a firm
attachment of muscles, Fibula Fibula (smaller) long to provide
muscle attachment, Tibia & fibula are fused on distal end, to
form tibio- fibula, Tibia Tibia (larger) articulates with the
femur, Enemial crest Enemial crest of the tibia, provide a firm
attachment of muscles, Fibula Fibula (smaller) long to provide
muscle attachment,
Slide 68
Tibia & Fibula tibio-fibula Note the tibio-fibula
Slide 69
JOINTS A joint is a point of articulation, Joints are
classified on the basis of; Function, Structure, A joint is a point
of articulation, Joints are classified on the basis of; Function,
Structure,
Slide 70
Types of joints (structural basis) Fibrous joint; fibrous
tissues support articulating, Cartilaginous joint; cartilage join
two bones, Synovial joint; synovial fluid & ligaments join two
bones, Fibrous joint; fibrous tissues support articulating,
Cartilaginous joint; cartilage join two bones, Synovial joint;
synovial fluid & ligaments join two bones,
Slide 71
Types of joints (functional basis) Immovable joint; e.g.
sutures in the skull, (fibrous tissue join the bones) Slightly
movable joint; e.g. pubis symphysis (cartilage bind the
bones),intervertebral joints, Freely movable joint; e.g. elbow
joint, knee joint Immovable joint; e.g. sutures in the skull,
(fibrous tissue join the bones) Slightly movable joint; e.g. pubis
symphysis (cartilage bind the bones),intervertebral joints, Freely
movable joint; e.g. elbow joint, knee joint
Slide 72
Movable joints The main structures of a synovial joint A
cartilage lines the end of the bones which reduce friction between
the two bones. synovial fluid which absorbs physical shocks.
Synovial fluid nourishes the cartilage. synovial membrane secretes
& nourishes the synovial fluid, The two bones are held together
by the capsular ligament, which is flexible but tough; Preventing
dislocation of the two bones. The main structures of a synovial
joint A cartilage lines the end of the bones which reduce friction
between the two bones. synovial fluid which absorbs physical
shocks. Synovial fluid nourishes the cartilage. synovial membrane
secretes & nourishes the synovial fluid, The two bones are held
together by the capsular ligament, which is flexible but tough;
Preventing dislocation of the two bones.
Slide 73
SYNOVIAL JOINT The main structures of a synovial joint
cartilage synovial fluid synovial membrane capsular ligament, The
main structures of a synovial joint cartilage synovial fluid
synovial membrane capsular ligament,
Slide 74
Types of Movable Joints Hinge joint; allows one bone to move
like a door swings open or shut at its hinges. e.g. elbow, the
knee, digits of the fingers and toes, the atlas and axis vertebrae,
Ball and socket joint; the rounded end, (head) of a bone fits into
a rounded cavity of another bone. Ball and socket joint permits
rotational and swinging movements of the arm e.g. hip and shoulder.
Hinge joint; allows one bone to move like a door swings open or
shut at its hinges. e.g. elbow, the knee, digits of the fingers and
toes, the atlas and axis vertebrae, Ball and socket joint; the
rounded end, (head) of a bone fits into a rounded cavity of another
bone. Ball and socket joint permits rotational and swinging
movements of the arm e.g. hip and shoulder.
Slide 75
Continued Types of movable joints Pivot joint: occurs between
the skull and the atlas vertebra, permits the nodding up and down
movement, of the head rotational movement (side-to- side movement)
of the head. Gilding Joints: e.g. between cervical, thoracic and
lumbar vertebrae, metacarpals, and metatarsals. One bone is
separated from the other by cartilage, and allow one bone to slide
smoothly against the other. Gliding joints make the vertebral
column flexible, allowing the bending or curving of the back, Pivot
joint: occurs between the skull and the atlas vertebra, permits the
nodding up and down movement, of the head rotational movement
(side-to- side movement) of the head. Gilding Joints: e.g. between
cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, metacarpals, and
metatarsals. One bone is separated from the other by cartilage, and
allow one bone to slide smoothly against the other. Gliding joints
make the vertebral column flexible, allowing the bending or curving
of the back,
Slide 76
Hinge joint e.g. elbow joint Showing the three joint bones;
humerus, radius & ulna,
Slide 77
Hinge joint /close up Note the olecranon process, the sigmoid
joint, and the three bones involved in the joint,
Slide 78
Types of joints
Slide 79
Comparing the Hip joint & Knee joint Hip jointKnee joint
Freely movable Rotational motionAngular motion Ball-like head fits
into a cup-like depression Convex surface fits into a concave
surface
Slide 80
MUSCLE TISSUE Types of muscles ; skeletal (or striated) muscle,
attached to endoskeleton, visceral (or smooth) muscle, occurs in
visceral organs, cardiac (or heart) muscle, occurs in the heart,
Types of muscles ; skeletal (or striated) muscle, attached to
endoskeleton, visceral (or smooth) muscle, occurs in visceral
organs, cardiac (or heart) muscle, occurs in the heart,
Slide 81
Common Features of Muscles Muscles are all contractile, Muscles
contain numerous mitochondria, Muscle cell membrane is electrically
charged, Muscles are all contractile, Muscles contain numerous
mitochondria, Muscle cell membrane is electrically charged,
Slide 82
Comparison between skeletal, visceral & cardiac muscl e
skeletalVisceral/smoothcardiac Alternative names Striated, striped,
voluntary Non-striated, unstriped, involuntary, smooth structure
Fibres formed from many cells fused Many nuclei in surface layer of
sarcoplasm Fibres consisted of individual cells, with a central
nucleus, Individual cells with a central nucleus, cell branched
& linked by intercalated discs
Slide 83
continued skeletalVisceral/smoothcardiac size
longestsmallestmedium myofibrils
conspicuousinconspicuousconspicuous Physiology/ function
Contractions rapid & powerful but short-lived, Contractions
slow & sustained Rapid contractions spread through linked
network,
Slide 84
continued skeletalVisceral/smoothcardiac controlNeurogenic;
contraction triggered by motor neurons of CNS Neurogenic; but
involves autonomic nervous system spread from cell to cell,
Myogenic; contraction triggered by muscle itself; but rated
controlled by autonomic nervous system, location Muscles attached
to bones, skin, diaphragm, Visceral organs, blood vessels, Ciliary
muscles of the eye Heart only
Slide 85
Role of muscles in movement of the arm in humans
Slide 86
FISH: LOCOMOTION
Slide 87
Explain how finned fish like tilapia are adapted to swimming?
streamlined body to reduce resistance of water; fins and scales
face backward to reduce the resistance; fish secrets mucus; to
lubricate its body ;reducing friction as it moves; streamlined body
to reduce resistance of water; fins and scales face backward to
reduce the resistance; fish secrets mucus; to lubricate its body
;reducing friction as it moves;
Slide 88
continued the myotomes; which are found on either side of the
vertebral columns; the backbone has little flexibility therefore
when the myotomes contracts the large caudal fin creates a
propulsive effect. Myotomes relax and contract antagonistically; to
brings about lateral movements in the caudal fin; The paired fins
(the pectoral and pelvic fins) help to maintain balance & steer
fish; the myotomes; which are found on either side of the vertebral
columns; the backbone has little flexibility therefore when the
myotomes contracts the large caudal fin creates a propulsive
effect. Myotomes relax and contract antagonistically; to brings
about lateral movements in the caudal fin; The paired fins (the
pectoral and pelvic fins) help to maintain balance & steer
fish;
Slide 89
continued pectoral and pelvic fins also control pitching; (the
tendency of the interior body parts to plunge fish vertically
downwards) The caudal fin has a large surface area; and when it is
slashed from side to side it displaces a lot of water and creates
forward movement; The caudal fin acts as a rudder; and kneel to
control direction; of movements and keep fish in an upright
position; pectoral and pelvic fins also control pitching; (the
tendency of the interior body parts to plunge fish vertically
downwards) The caudal fin has a large surface area; and when it is
slashed from side to side it displaces a lot of water and creates
forward movement; The caudal fin acts as a rudder; and kneel to
control direction; of movements and keep fish in an upright
position;
Slide 90
continued Presence of the swim bladders; between the gut and
vertebral column in some fishes enable them to change their
position in water; when the swim bladder is filled with air and
fish becomes lighter to float at higher water levels however the
fish moves deeper by emptying the air in the swim bladders and
allowing water to flow in making it to be heavier; The unpaired
fins, (the dorsal, anal and caudal fins) and yawing (the lateral
deflection of the interior part of the body as a result of
propulsive action); The large surface area; of the body sides also
reduces yawing; The large surface area highly sensitive; enables
the fish to respond to changes in vibration and pressure of water;
Presence of the swim bladders; between the gut and vertebral column
in some fishes enable them to change their position in water; when
the swim bladder is filled with air and fish becomes lighter to
float at higher water levels however the fish moves deeper by
emptying the air in the swim bladders and allowing water to flow in
making it to be heavier; The unpaired fins, (the dorsal, anal and
caudal fins) and yawing (the lateral deflection of the interior
part of the body as a result of propulsive action); The large
surface area; of the body sides also reduces yawing; The large
surface area highly sensitive; enables the fish to respond to
changes in vibration and pressure of water;