Game Speed Training in Baseball

Game Speed Training inBaseballRyan Crotin, MA, CSCSDepartment of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo,Buffalo, New York

S U M M A R Y

PROFESSIONAL SCOUTS, COLLE-

GIATE BASEBALL COACHES, AND

ELITE SUMMER LEAGUE COACHES

OFTEN ASSESS PLAYERS’ GAME

SPEEDS BY THEIR 60 YD DASH

PERFORMANCES. GAME SITUA-

TIONS AND SPORT DIMENSIONS

LIMIT BASEBALL PLAYERS IN

REACHING MAXIMUM LINEAR

VELOCITY, A CHARACTERISTIC

THAT IS MEASURED AT DISTANCES

GREATER THAN 102 FT. THERE-

FORE, IT IS HIGHLY POSSIBLE THAT

BASEBALL ACCELERATION TRAIN-

ING WILL ELICIT GREATER OFFEN-

SIVE RUNNING IMPROVEMENT

THAN THE MAXIMIZATION OF

LINEAR SPEED. THIS ARTICLE HAS

BEEN DESIGNED INTO 3 PARTS TO

PRESENT STRATEGY AND IMPOR-

TANCE IN THE TRAINING OF INITIAL

AND TRANSITIONAL ACCELERA-

TION, LEADOFF TO ACCELERATION

(STEALING SECOND BASE), AND

CURVILINEAR ACCELERATION.

INTRODUCTION

The essentials of baseball move-ment training for position play-ers entail specific speed, power,

and agility (acceleration, deceleration,and redirection) components. Specificityin programming is determined by move-ment dimensions, integrated planes ofmovement (frontal, sagittal, and trans-verse), and positional attributes (3,11).Strength coaches should be active ingame observation to modify and in-dividualize the team conditioning pro-gram to cater to all players’ performanceneeds. Observation will indicate

frequencies in running linear base dis-tances; maximum lateral, forward, back-ward, and rotational runningmovements(governed by position and situation);and braking and starting mechanisms inmaking plays, stealing bases, etc.

Concurrent strength programmingmust be considered when preparingthe annual baseball movement trainingprogram. Both strength and speedtraining must be organized in a logicalformat to target bioenergetic needs,monitor and rectify overtraining,undertraining and noncompatabilitytraining before the competitive season(1,3,5,8,12). Program flexibility, undu-lating training cycles, and open com-munication should be emphasized topromote beneficial adaptation and animprovement in game speed (8).

GAME SPEED TRAINING INBASEBALL

The development of maximal strength(.85% 1 repetition maximum training)and power (the product of force andvelocity) is critical to the improvementof running speed (covering a distancein the shortest period) and initial andtransitional acceleration (vector quan-tities indicating the rate of speeddevelopment) (1,3,4,11,12). As statedby Szymanski and Fredrick (11), initialacceleration in baseball occurs froma starting position or post-hittingcontact to within the first 15 m(49.21 ft) and transitional accelerationoccurs from 16 to 30 m (52.5–98.43 ft).Ironically, baseball players never reachmaximal velocity (occurring within31–60 m or approximately 102–197 ft)at any point in game movement, ascurvilinear baserunning and linear

distances of 90 ft or less do not permitmaximum velocity, neuromuscular ac-tivation (11,14).

Traditionally, the 60 yd (180 ft/55 m)dash time has been used as the goldstandard evaluation method for assess-ing players’ speed (5). However, the 60 yddash may not indicate true demon-strations of players’ game speedsaccording to game distances and 2-base advance running situations (5,11).According to Coleman (5), Jeff Bagwell(1B, Houston Astros) had been clockedat 7.0 seconds in the 60 yd dash whiledemonstrating first to third times (180 ft)in the range of 6.80–6.85 seconds.

The disparity between game speedevaluation and the traditional 60 yddash assessment tool should steerstrength coaches, baseball coaches, andprofessional scouts to place more em-phasis on acceleration (a game speedproperty) over traditional maximumspeed assessment. With respect tobenchmark game speeds, home to firsttimes when a ball is contacted in theinfield for a possible infield hit or beatingout a double play should be between 4.0and 4.2 seconds for left-handed hittersand between 4.1 and 4.3 for right-handedhitters at the average to above averagerating (5,11). First to third as well assecond to home times should be lessthan 7.0 seconds, with average speedsoccurring from 6.8 to 6.9 seconds (5).

The purpose of this 3-part article isto present ‘‘game speed’’ conditioningdrills designed to improve initial and

KEY WORDS :

acceleration training; baseball; curvilinearrunning; plyometric-preparatory actions

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Copyright © . N ational S trength and Conditioning A ssociation. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited

transitional acceleration involved inbase-stealing, sprinting up the first baseline, and the enhancement of curvilin-ear speed for 2-base and 3-baseadvances.

PART I: INITIAL ANDTRANSITIONAL ACCELERATIONTRAINING

Acceleration toward bases from start-ing positions (i.e., primary base-stealingleads or lateral secondary leads) isarguably more important than theachievement of top speed. Accordingto Verkhoshansky (14), acceleration isthe physical expression of an athlete’shighest capability in generating energyin the shortest period. Maximumcellular utilization of adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) by high activationmotor neurons and correspondingmuscle fibers (fast twitch, type IIx)permits greater amounts of muscularforce to be produced by the body(1,14). Large muscular forces gener-ated by the body act on the groundproducing large opposite ground re-action forces that translate to produceforward motion (4,14). Essentially, abase runner’s ability to rapidly impartpeak muscular and ground reactionforces, for his given body mass, willcontribute to greater relative accelera-tion capabilities (acceleration = forceproduced/mass of body) (4).

Neuromuscular recruitment in gener-ating maximal force is executed bygraded increases in alpha motor neu-ron firing frequency, motor unit re-cruitment, and the fiber characteristicsof the motor unit pool (1,14). The sizeprinciple states that motor units arerecruited from smallest to largest.Thus, acceleration training exercisesmust be carefully selected by thebaseball strength coach to challengethe neuromuscular system to recruitthe largest motor units at the fastestpossible rate (1,3,14).

ACCELERATION TRAININGCONCEPTS: PLYOMETRIC-PREPARATORY ACTIONS

Linear and rotation-to-linear accelera-tion can be enhanced by implementingplyometric-preparatory actions (PPAs)(7). Immediately after a PPA’s eccentric

phase, an increased contractile stretchof muscles’ passive and contractileelements will propagate a rapid transferof elastic energy, as well as increasedcontractile recoil (1,3,8,14). Ultimately,the application of a powerful prepara-tory stretch-shortening cycle will con-tribute to greater concentric forcesexerted by the body against the groundin generating forward linear motion(1,3,8,14). Running distances toaccompany PPAs should alternatebetween 10, 15, 20, and 30 m toencompass natural variance and gra-dation in stride frequency and stridelength ingrained in initial and transi-tional acceleration (4,11,14).

An adequate movement and strengthbase should be established beforeintroducing PPAs due to the forceneeds in generating power, accelera-tion, and absorption of shear andcompression forces (8,10). As a generalguideline, it is suggested that an athletebe clear of orthopedic injury anddemonstrate a relative barbell squatstrength ratio (weight lifted divided bythe body weight) of at least 1.5 (10).The athlete may also participate inlow-intensity plyometric training asstated by Shiner et al. (10). Basicpretraining movement programs mustdevelop proper running technique,posture, stride cycling, and decelera-tion and redirection capacities. With-out a solid grasp of sprintingfundamentals, points of decelerationwill become more evident with greaterphysical challenges. As a safety note,PPA training should be performed onabsorbent surfaces to reduce compres-sive loads and if administered on theplaying field, cleats should be worn forenhanced traction and reduced slip-page. PPAs should always be avoidedin wet weather conditions and avoidpracticing on loose warning trackgravel.

Squat jump sprint. The squat jumpsprint (SJS) (Figure 1a and 1b) is theleast complex PPA movement (triplejoint flexion–triple joint extension tolanding in sagittal plane) and should beutilized for learning technique forfuture training success. Strength

coaches should overemphasize landingstrategies, which must be ingrained forprogression and future success. Withrespect to coordinated landings, theathlete should try to soften impact bylanding with flexed joints, in opposition(right hand–left leg or left hand–rightleg) and coordinate powerful arm andleg actions as rapidly as possible ingenerating force for acceleration.

Reverse squat jump sprint. The re-verse squat jump sprint is a progressionof the SJS and can be conditioned toallow for rotation takeoff from left- andright-hand sides. Again, landing strat-egy must be practiced and optimizedfor improved acceleration.

Triple jump sprint. The triple jumpsprint is a dynamic PPA in which theathlete executes 3 consecutive boundsto initiate a sprint. Athletes shouldavoid increasing bound length, asexcessive eccentric loads on the ham-string group before takeoff maybeinjurious. Instead, athletes should at-tain greater vertical heights in prepa-ration for the acceleration component.

Lateral hop sprint. The lateral hopsprint coordinates rotational accelera-tion and the force transfer generated bythe outside leg transmitting throughthe external–internal obliques, trape-zius, serratus, rhomboid groups, andposterior deltoid of the outside shoul-der. Redirection actions occur syner-gistically in combination with powerfulinternal and external hip rotation inproducing forward acceleration.

Shuffle hop shuffle. The shuffle hopshuffle provides an increase in momen-tum applied to PPA in a lateral di-rection (frontal plane movement). Thisparticular drill introduces a secondarylead. The athlete should concentrateon powerful shoulder abduction onlanding and the avoidance of increas-ing or decreasing shuffle length (foot tofoot clearance)

Mountain hiker sprint. The mountainhiker sprint (Figure 2a, 2b, and 2c)generates acceleration to build eleva-tion. This particular drill has the athletealternate the lead foot once as it regainsits position before takeoff. The athlete

VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 200914

Game Speed Training in Baseball


should condition both feet as lead feetand emphasize high stride frequencyover length early on in the drill.

Catcher sprint. The catcher sprint isdesigned specifically for catchers. Froma comfortable crouch position, thecatcher will perform a PPA into a throw-ing position, as if he was trying to throw

out a runner and then sprint immediatelyon foot landing. This action will co-ordinate acceleration throughout thereceiving–throwing sequence as appliedground reaction forces in throwing outof a crouch are overexaggerated.

Burpee Sprints. The burpee sprint isa complex movement, which rapidly

accelerates the center of body massupward and outward from a groundposition. The athlete is lying prone ina push-up position. He coordinatesa ground plyometric by performing anexplosive push-up while driving theknees toward the chest and recoveringin a crouch position. The crouchposition is immediately followed by an

Figure 1. (a) Squat jump sprint (SJS) transition and (b) SJS landing position.

Figure 2. (a) Mountain hiker sprint (MHS) start, (b) MHS transition, and (c) MHS contralateral symmetry.

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 15


explosive squat jump, followed by linearacceleration on landing. Landing strat-egies must be coordinated in a similarfashion to the SJS, as the squat jump isthe latter portion of the PPA.

ACCELERATION TRAININGCONCEPTS: OVERCOMING ASTATIC POSITION

Drills are carefully selected to createsituations where the athlete must over-come whole-bodied, large, mass mo-ments of inertia (resistance to linear andangular accelerations) through variousstatic preparatory positions. The drillsmay include perceptual cues (eithervisual or auditory) to initiate forcesrequired to produce explosive, linear,and angular motion; overcoming theweight of the segments; their anatom-ical relationship to respective joints andmusculature; and gravity. The cuingcomponent acts in a similar manner toreading pitchers or responding to a firstbase coach in the incidence of anoverthrown pick-off attempt. Forcesynergism and maximum accelerationare the performance needs of interest,and therefore, distances should beestablished at 5–10 yd.

Get up series. Lying prone or supinewith hands directed forward or

backward, the athlete responds toa cue and instantaneously coordinatesupward and forward motion from anextreme static position. The ability toraise and accelerate one’s center ofmass (CM) from a ground position willtranslate to baseball-specific actions inaccelerating the body during baserun-ning, fielding, and catching situations.

Lateral ground hop. In the frontalplane single-leg kneeling position withcontralateral knee and hand position-ing, the athlete will generate powerfulhip extension and abduction in pro-pelling the body laterally (Figure 3aand 3b).

Knee ups. In a sagittal plane dual-legkneeling position, the athlete sits on hisheels with his arms back behind hisbody. From this position, in a coordi-nated fashion, the athlete rapidly flexeshis trunk forward and swings his armsupward rapidly, producing hip flexionto land on his feet.

The movement can be 2 part in raisingthe center of gravity (CG) from theground surface when finishing in knee–hip extension from a squat.

Knee ups plus. In a sagittal planesingle-leg kneeling position with arms

back, the athlete propels himself up-ward, rapidly raising the ground knee.In air, the athlete raises the lunge legknee and lands on the contralateralground leg. Therefore, the athlete mustaccelerate both leg masses while in air(Figure 4a and 4b).

ACCELERATION TRAININGCONCEPTS: SLOW TO FAST

There are certain competitive instanceswhere athletes commence rapid accel-eration from a slow preparatory mo-tion. This can be seen when cornerplayers act on a bunted ball or whena base runner on third base takes hissecondary lead toward home plate andscores on a contact play. The followingdrills are designed to accelerate theCM under conditions of loweredinertial properties (when the CM isalready in motion). Similarly, the CG(vertical distance of the CM from theearth’s surface) will also be constantwhen employing such drills.� Walk-sprints initiated by walkingand then rapidly accelerating tolinear motion. The strength andconditioning professional can arbi-trarily decide upon how many paceshis or her athletes will walk untilpowerful acceleration. Similarly, due

Figure 3. (a) Lateral ground hop (LGH) start and (b) LGH propulsion.




to the low impact nature of this drill,sprint distances may also vary.Athletes can be cued to take off oncommand or be debriefed on howmany paces they must initiate beforetakeoff.

� Walk-back sprints has the athletestart on the finish line facing thestarting line. The athlete walks for-ward toward the starting line, andthen on command, he will rapidlyrotate his body and initiate forwardacceleration through the finish line.The athlete may be instructed toturn to his left and to his right tocondition both left and right footstarts.

� Backward walk-sprints (BWS) occurwhen the athlete starts at the finishline facing the strength and condi-tioning coach and proceeds to walkbackward toward the starting line.When appropriate, the strengthcoach will cue forward acceleration.

� Forward jog sprints will have theathlete jog for 10 yd, sprint for 10 yd,jog for 10 yd, and finish with a sprintfor 10 yd.

� Backward jog sprints are similar tothe BWS, as the athlete will haveincreased braking force by the

hamstring in coordinating forwardacceleration from a backward jog. Aproper backward jog entails havingthe athlete run with his head forward‘‘nose over toes’’ position in combi-nation with trunk flexion. This willallow the athlete to be more efficientin braking to produce forwardacceleration.

PART 2: LEADOFF TOACCELERATION (STEALINGSECOND BASE)

From personal observation, movementpatterns from a primary lead in stealingfirst base have shown many inconsis-tencies across amateur, collegiate, andprofessional levels. Offensive playersare often taught to crossover their leadfoot (foot closest to second base) withtheir lag foot (foot closest to first base)in an effort to generate a steal start.This action is known as a ‘‘crossoverstep’’ start, which may prove to beineffective (4). Similarly, the primarylead has many different angles of hipflexion, spinal extension, knee flexion,and arm placement. Most joint anglesand body segment positions are pre-determined or ingrained by the athleteby comfort. At present, research hasnot presented the effectiveness of joint

position or steal-start kinesiology inscientific journals.

With respect to anatomical resistanceto human movement, linear inertiaand angular moments of inertia (seg-ment masses and their moments ofinertia) are primary items of whichforces must overcome in an effortto produce acceleration of the CM(15). Inertial properties are anthropo-metric and therefore can entertainminimal change. If segment massesand lengths are not highly variable, theprimary focus to examine motion resis-tance considers body positioning andits effect on increasing stability (15).Variance in one’s ability to generaterapid steal-start motion will entailmanipulation of the body’s CG, beingthe vertical distance of the CM fromthe ground surface, and the base ofsupport (BOS), which is the footplacement distance perpendicular tothe vertical line of action impartedby the body’s CM (15). Essentially,evaluating the CG position andadded mass below the CG, as theyinteract with the body’s BOS, shouldprovide the necessary frameworksfor scientific investigation into base-stealing kinesiology.

Figure 4. (a) Knee ups plus (KUP) ground knee drive and (b) KUP lunge knee drive.



It is not atypical to observe baserunners at first base displaying widebases of support, often angling theirknees medially (valgus position), handslow to the ground with the trunk masssupported outside the BOS throughtrunk flexion greater than 90�. Al-though primary leads are completelyindividual with respect to propriocep-tive response and kinesthetic aware-ness leading to initial movement, thereare some considerations to assess inproviding the body with its best chanceto reach maximum acceleration.

STANCE

Increased stability (widened BOSbeyond shoulder width and loweredCG with increased knee flexion andhip flexion), increased friction andresistance to movement (valgus kneeposition), and the addition of armweight (hands inside BOS and belowCG) may contribute to reduced accel-eration rates. The baserunning coachshould observe the athlete to find whatcombinations provide the greatestacceleration and ease in movement. Ifthe leadoff position causes the athleteto expend great effort in achievingrotational-to-linear motion (i.e., pow-erful upward motion from a crouchedposition in moving to the directionof second base), further attention isneeded. In essence, the base runnershould gradually ascend in generatingacceleration forces, rather than de-scending from a heightened initialposition, such as coming out of a lowstance (4). Video analyses may providethe best insight whether the athlete iswasting muscular effort and time inachieving his best horizontal lean(approximately 45�) from the horizon-tal plane (4). Similarly, the strength andconditioning coach should select orcreate appropriate exercises to condi-tion the athlete to maintain consistencyand efficiency in coordinating steal-start motions, as well as conditioningmaximum acceleration at approxi-mately 45� from the ground surface(4). The following body segmentevaluation from ground to head mayenhance performance in developingthe best possible primary positions

transitioning from start to maximumacceleration.� Foot position—the athlete should startwith his stance slightly greater thanshoulder width, with the right footslightly open toward second base. Theleft foot should be directed to homeplate and slightly above the right footto create a foot laneway on rotation.

� Tibial angle—the knee should bealigned over the foot to allow forbalance and reduced resistance toleftward or rightward motion.

� Knee flexion—dynamic concentricquadriceps strength is maximizedat 55–60� knee flexion (13). Greaterdegrees of knee flexion will add tolowering the CG (adding to greaterstability and greater upward move-ment before rotational motion) andmay increase the time to peak forceapplication. Knee extension beyond55� may not allow the quadriceps to

achieve an optimal length–tensionrelationship in producing peaktorque (13).

� Trunk–hip flexion—the placement ofthe trunk and hips should be bal-anced within the BOS. The in-creased flexion at both instanceswill require initiation of back exten-sion torques and overcoming exces-sive hamstring loading from a bent-over position. Both back extensionand increased eccentric hamstringloading (extension to flexion toextension) provide extrapreparatorymovement versus the primary leadbiomechanics required in accelera-tion (flexion to extension of joints).

� Arm position—the left hand shouldbe placed at the left hip, and the righthand placed approximately 6 in.from the umbilicus. Elbows shouldbe flexed, and shoulders should berelaxed.

Figure 5. Leadoff stance at first base.




� Head—the head must be in a neutralposition (Figure 5)

FIRST STEP

Asmentioned previously, many athletesinitiate frontal to sagittal movement(movement in the transverse plane) byusing a crossover step. The crossoverstep increases reliance on the lag leg (legclosest to first base) for initial forcegeneration. In examination of sprinters,2 feet are employed in producingtremendous ground reaction forces offthe starting blocks. If not executedefficiently, the crossover step startmethod may increase the time of whichan athlete is in single support (1 foot ona ground surface to initiate groundreaction forces) and thereby reducingacceleration force production (4).

The crossover step also has thetendency to put the athlete in ipsilat-eral symmetry (flexion of the same legand arm), which causes the athlete to

reorient his arms to coordinate maxi-mum acceleration (Figure 6). Ulti-mately, a good start is one that hasthe athlete’s head, joints, and CMdirected to second base as fast aspossible. Again, the crossover methodmay not be the best practice in rapidlyorienting the body toward second base.

The ‘‘push to drop’’ method has beendesigned to increase the instance ofdouble support (2 feet to generateprimary ground reaction forces) whileconcentrating on lead leg (right leg)force reliance in propelling the CM.Similarly, the arm path and upper-body synergism is designed to orientthe body toward second base as aprimary action before linear accelera-tion may take place. Rapid orientationof full body joints to allow for powerfulflexion–extension actions in the di-rection of second base is pivotal (4).Such joint alignment will allow for

maximal muscular recruitment andreduce the incidence of weaker abduc-tion actions to generate forward accel-eration (4).

The push and drop concept may proveto be a better technique in stealingbases and is not well documented inscientific literature. Starting from theleadoff stance mentioned above, theathlete is to push from the lag leg inmoving the CM in the direction ofsecond base while opening and drop-ping the lead foot behind the migratingCM in propelling the body forward.Opening and dropping the foot, behindthe migrating CM, must occur byminimally clearing the ground to placeflexed lead leg joints (ankle, knee, andhip) under or slightly behind the CM.As the CM shifts over the lead hip andfoot, the athlete will initiate driving thebody toward second base with double-support (2 feet) ground reaction forces,as the lag leg transfers energy to thelead leg. The base stealer will graduallyascend to an appropriate sprint heightin continuation of powerful accelera-tion from a 45� angle to the horizontalsurface (4).

The above lower-body sequence isactually initiated by powerful armand torso rotation actions to orientthe body toward second base. The lefthand will thrust forward as the righthand pulls back to the hip, improvingrotation of the torso and hips. Suchupper-body actions increase the effi-ciency of horizontal abduction by thelag leg in moving CM and coordinatinginitial contralateral orientation of theright leg and left arm, which issometimes inefficient in crossover stepstarts (Figure 7).

CONDITIONING FOR STEALING

Conditioning exercises should coordi-nate push and drop actions, allowingthe athlete to manipulate the horizon-tal displacement of the CM. Similarly,work distances should emphasize theathlete’s ability to achieve 45� hori-zontal lean in acceleration. The fol-lowing exercises are such examples.� Walk-into steal drills have the athletetake a crossover step, land on his

Figure 6. Ipsilateral symmetry.



lead leg, and take off with 2-ftground reaction.

� Pivots (PV) have the athlete execute3 violent PV (push and dropmethod). On the fourth PV, he willtake off.

� Mini-lateral bound to steal exerciseshave the athlete produce small,lateral translatory movements, andthen the athlete coordinates a land-ing strategy to accelerate from a pushand drop action.

PART 3: CURVILINEARACCELERATION

Predominant speed training tacticsfor professional, amateur, and colle-giate baseball focuses on linear runningpatterns and variation in metabolicdemand (5,6,11). In combination tolinear motion, it is important to con-sider angular or centripetal motion asbase runners, pitchers, and outfielders

run curvilinear patterns of varying radii.Most conditioning programs executedby strength and conditioning coachesand baseball coaches consider base-running as the principle activity inconditioning curvilinear running tech-nique and efficiency (5,6,12).

Curvilinear running performance canbe further enhanced by manipulatingthe radius of curvature (2). In curvilin-ear running, the athlete must make allattempts to reduce deceleration froma linear path and accommodate forinertial changes and centripetal forceacting on the body (external rotaryforce directed to the center axis of acurvilinear motion arc) (2).

Through curvilinear running drills, theathlete will condition foot supinationand pronation strength and enhancearm action in diminishing the effectsof deceleration and inertia (2). When

running bases, the inside foot (left foot)is in a modified supinated position,whereas the outside foot (right foot)is in a modified pronated position tocounter inertia and accommodate forcentripetal force. Such joint orienta-tions help maintain appropriate groundreaction contact (2).

Drills must be carefully selected andvaried in the training week to reducethe incidence of overuse injuries (2).Drills can incorporate open curves andclosed curves to decrease or increasethe effort exerted by the musclescausing motion about the subtalar joint(2). It is also essential to train bothdirections for strength symmetry in-volving the left and the right subtalarjoints (foot inversion/eversion) (2).Athletes should be on a surface thatallows for appropriate friction andcleats should be worn. When perform-ing such drills in an indoor setting, thecoach must make sure that all athleteshave appropriate footwear to supportlateral traction and stability (crosstrainers and no worn soles) and thatthe court surface or running surface isclean and dry.

The following exercises are examplesof such drills ranging from novice toadvanced training (open to closedcurvilinear running drills).� Drop step arc conditions the athleteto initiate curvilinear sprinting withan open drop step (low to moderateradius of curvature) (Figure 8).

� Snow cone arc has the athletebegin his sprint on a linear path,running around the arc, and thencontinue running linearly to thestarting point (moderate radius ofcurvature).

� Circle arc involves running in a con-tinuous circle. Changing the radiusof curvature will alter force applica-tions (smaller circle is advanced tolarge circular running).

� Strength band training has theathlete performing plantar flexion,dorsi flexion, ankle inversion, andeversion to strengthen the musclesabout the subtalar joint using elasticresistance.

Figure 7. Push and drop steal start.




PERIODIZATION CONCERNS

Exercise prescriptions concerning allthe previously mentioned drills mustcoordinate with strength programs,skill training, the demands of thecompetitive season, and metabolicneeds. The primary energy sourcesfor baseball motion are ATP-CP andfast glycolysis (15–30 seconds of high-intensity work) (5,11,12). The durationof effort should vary between bothenergy systems to ensure that runningeffort and neuromuscular activationcoincide with baseball distance–timerelationships (approximately 4–5 sec-onds for home to first, 7–8 seconds forhome to second, 10–12 secondsfor home to third, and 14–16+ secondsfor home to home). Rest shouldcorrespond to activity intensity, repe-tition (reps), and distances. Generally,an activity to rest ratio of 1:8 early inthe season should suffice for most

durations, especially for tempo running(under 100% effort) (5,11). As effortincreases, one may increase the activityto rest ratio from 1:8 to 1:12–20 forATP-CP conditions (11).

As preseason and in-season approach,the training designmust feature low rep,high-intensity work, and training ses-sions should be no more than 20–25minutes in length. Often, conditioningsegments in professional baseball occurbefore fundamental skill work. The goalis to prime the athlete before games ona daily basis, not to create fatigue beforegames. For neuromuscular consistencythroughout the season, it may be betterto run low volume (4–6 reps) at 100%rather than high volume, low-intensityeffort training (5).

Training response and overtrainingtendencies are highly individual, as someathletes will request greater stimulation,

whereas others will desire less work inseason (8). Player communication andgame speed assessment should providethe basis for program evaluation andadjustment in such instances where theathlete has no perception of his totalwork and effort needs.

Off-season training is best suited for anundulating pattern (alternating intensi-ties). As such, athletes can experiencehigh-load and low-load training tocombat central nervous system fatigue,overuse injury, and metabolic ineffi-ciency (8). Again, player communica-tion and drill speed assessment willallow the strength coach to findflexibility in programming and under-standing as to where one has toincrease volumes, intensities, or reducetraining effort (Tables 1–3, off-season,preseason, and in-season).

CONCLUSIONS

From a professional baseball stand-point, directors and individuals ingeneral management positions assessbaseball prospects by their raw athleticqualities in combination with statisticalpresence. Within the prospect pool,players are designated by promise andproof of performance. The evaluationof an athlete’s physical and emotionalquality concerns his ability to demon-strate proficient, projectable ‘‘tools,’’or skills, in addition to competitivebehavior and psychology. A baseballplayer’s competitive demeanor andemotional control combine to forman intangible performance factorknown as ‘‘player make-up.’’ With re-spect to the tools criteria, characteristicwithin this particular assessment fieldincludes an athlete’s ability to run,throw, field, hit for contact, and hitfor power to all fields. ‘‘Tools’’ playersfall under the umbrella of athletes whodemonstrate 4–5 skill-related attributesprojected at high quality, one beingrunning speed (9). The ‘‘numbers’’players refer to the division of prospectsthat represent strong statistics but maylack a combination of physical toolsconsidered to be at high professionalquality. Numbers players are often oldercollegiate-experienced players whohave shown an advanced ability to

Figure 8. Drop step arc moderate curvature.



Table 1Nonlinear/flexible training format (November to January)

Week #: Elapsed time for 1 rep (i.e., ,5 s, effort must completed in less than 5 s)

D #: Weekly training day and corresponding drills

STB 2 3 20*: consistent exercise prescription

D3: All sprint times/distances are based on forward running component

D2: (# sets 3 # reps)

Squat jump sprint (SJS) Lateral ground hop (LGH) Catcher sprints (CS)

Reverse squat jump sprint (RSJS) Triple jump sprint (TJS) Burpee sprints (BS)

Lateral hop sprint (LHS) Shuffle hop shuffle (SHS) Knee ups (KU)

Get up series (GU) Mountain hiker sprint (MHS) Knee ups plus (KUP)

Walk-sprints (WS) Walk-back sprints (WBS) Backward walk-sprints (BWS)

Forward jog sprints (FJS) Backward jog sprints (BJS) Walk-into steal (WIS)

Pivots (PV) Mini-lateral bound (MLB) Drop step arc (DSA)

Snow cone arc (SCA) Circle arc (CA) Strength band training (SBT)

November

� Week 1 , 5 s, week 2 , 4 s, week 3 , 3 s, 1:10 work to rest ratio

D1: SJS, RSJS, LHS, GU (week 1: 3 reps) (week 2: 6 reps) (week 3: 9 reps)

D2: LGH, KU, KUP, PV, MLB, DSA (week 1: 4 3 4) (week 2: 4 3 3) (week 3: 4 3 2)

� Week 1 , 14 s forward, week 2 , 11 s forward, week 3 , 7 s forward, 1:20 work to rest ratio

D3: WS, FJS, BJS, STB 2 3 20* (week 1: 2 sets) (week 2: 2 sets) (week 3: 2 sets)

W4: Regeneration—90-ft dash evaluations (best average speed over 3 trials)

December


D1: SJS, LHS, TJS, GU, CS, BS (week 1: 2 reps) (week 2: 4 reps) (week 3: 6 reps)

D2: LGH, KU, KUP, PV, WIS, MLB, DSA (week 1: 6 3 4) (week 2: 5 3 3) (week 3: 4 3 2)


D3: WS, FJS, BJS, CA (30 feet diameter), SCA, STB 2 3 20* (week 1: 2 sets) (week 2: 2 sets) (week 3: 2 sets)


January


D1: SJS, LHS, TJS, GU, CS, BS (week 1: 6 reps) (week 2: 6 reps) (week 3: 6 reps)

D2: LGH, KU, KUP, PV, WIS, MLB, DSA (week 1: 6 3 3) (week 2: 5 3 3) (week 3: 4 3 2)

� Week 1 , 14 s forward, week 2 , 11 s forward, week 3 , 7 s forward, 1:20 work to ratio

D3: WS, FJS, BJS, CA (20 feet diameter), SCA, STB 2 3 20* (week 1: 3 set) (week 2: 2 sets) (week 3: 3 sets)

W4: 90-ft dash evaluations (best average speed over 3 trials)

Rep = repetition.




reach base and perform well offensively

against proven talent at the collegiate

level. Generally, these prospects often

lack speed and defensive prowess,

which may not be deemed important

to offense-seeking organizations (9).

With respect to both prospect desig-

nations, optimizing an athlete’s speed,

power, quickness, and redirection ca-pabilities will most definitely translate

to an increase in player value andwinning percentages bearing that theathlete has developed game instincts(5,12). A faster, more athletic defensivefielder has an opportunity to protectruns by taking away hits. On offense,a player who demonstrates a highpercentage of ability to steal secondbase should be worth 0.50 runs to hisorganization the majority of timeshe reaches base (9). Similarly, an

enhanced ability to beat out infieldground balls, double plays, advance 2bases per hit, or advance on a bobbledball will further add to a player’sscoring potential (9). The enhance-ment of a team’s scoring potentialand run prevention capabilities is justone of the many ways by which thestrength and conditioning coordinatorin baseball contributes to a winningorganization.

Table 2Nonlinear/flexible training format (February to March)

Week #: Elapsed time for 1 rep (i.e., ,5 s, effort must completed in less than 5 s)

D #: weekly training day and corresponding drills

STB 2 3 20*: consistent exercise prescription

D3: All sprint times/distances are based on forward running component

D2: (# sets 3 # reps)









February

� Week 1 , 5 s, week 2 , 4 s,w 3 , 3 s, 1:10 work to rest ratio

D1: MHS, LHS, SHS, CS, GU, CA (20 feet diameter) (week 1: 6 reps) (week 2: 6 reps) (week 3: 9 reps)

D2: LGH, KUP, PV, 23 10 yd MLB, 23 10 yd WIS, 23 15 yd DSA, 23 15 yd SCA (week 1: 33 3) (week 2: 33 3) (week 3: 33 3)


D3: DSA, WS, FJS, BWS, BJS, WBS, STB 2 3 20* (week 1: 2 set) (week 2: 3 sets) (week 3: 3 sets)


March


D1: SJS, LHS, TJS, GU, SHS, BS, CA (15 feet diameter) (week 1: 2 reps) (week 2: 2 reps) (week 3: 4 reps)

D2: LGH, KUP, PV, 53 10 yd MLB, 53 10 yd WIS, 23 15 yd DSA, 23 15 yd SCA (week 1: 33 2) (week 2: 33 2) (week 3: 33 2)


D3: DSA, WS, FJS, BWS, BJS, WBS, STB 2 3 20* (week 1: 1 set) (week 2: 2 sets) (week 3: 3 sets)


Rep = repetition.



Ryan L. Crotin

is a baseballphysiologist anddoctoral candi-date in theDepartment of

Exercise Science at the University atBuffalo and is also an associate minorleague strength coach for the St. LouisCardinals and an assistant strength andconditioning coach for the University atBuffalo baseball program.

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Table 3Nonlinear/flexible training format (April to September)









� In-season training response is highly individual (encourage communication)

� Based on a professional baseball schedule (6–7games weekly)

� Encourage maximum regeneration during playoffs

� Minimum of 2 off days in the competitive week

� Neuromuscular stimulation training goal (minimize pregame fatigue)

� Select low compression force PPAs

Monday (15min—all 10 yd): GU 23, LHS 23, MHS 23, PV 23, WIS 23

Tuesday (15min): WS (13 14 s), BJS (23 7 s), FJS 2 times

Wednesday: off

Thursday (15min): 20 yd DSA 23, 40 yd DSA 23, 60 yd DSA 23, STB 1 3 20

Friday (15min—all 10 yd): LGH 53 left/right, SHS 23, BS 23, MLB 43, WBS (23 11 s)

Saturday (15min): 15 yd BJS 53, 90-ft dash 23 (take weekly times to assess training status)

Sunday: off

PPA = plyometric-preparatory actions.




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Documents

Game Speed Training in Baseball