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Anna Strömberg, RN, PhD, FAAN, Professor
University of California Irvine, Program in Nursing
Department of Medical and Health Sciences, Linköping university
Department of Cardiology, Linköping university hospital
Gain insights through discovering meanings
Comprehension of the whole, not causalities
Depth, richness and complexity of a phenomena
Is dependent of the context
Researcher is part of an iterative process, but should not influence the informant
Glaser & Strauss 1965 studied ”awareness of dying”
Practice at the time: people should not be told they were dying The health care ”protected” the patient from knowing
This approach created loneliness and isolation
Kübler-Ross studies 1969 "On Death and Dying” five stages of grief: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and
acceptance
Hospice – enviroment for end-of life care changed
• Quantitative method: facts• Describe, quantify
• e.g percentage of men/women, length of in hospital stay, symptoms
• Find correlations and causalities• Uni- och multivariate analysis• Generalisability – random samling
• Qualitative method: understanding • Partly unknown phenomena• Complex phenomena
Qualitative QuantitativeParadigm Naturalistic Positivistic
Design Open, can vary and be altered
Fixed, predetermined
Data Text, narratives, deeper content
Numbers
Sample Small sample Larger sample
Role of the researcher
Closer to the contex, interaction with studysubjects
Neutral
Generalisability Transferability Generalisability
Quality RigourTrustworthiness:• Confirmability
Credibility• Transferability• Dependability
ValidityReliability
Bernard, H. R. (1996). The Cultural Anthropology Methods Journal, 8(1), 9–11.
v
v
Empirics – ”the reality”
Theory
Inductive
Deductive
8
(ROBERT FROST 1874-1963)
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-I took the one less traveled by,And that has made all the difference
10
• When the goal is to explore or understand the meaning of a phenomenon
• Research areas:• Lived experiences, perceptions, thoughts,
expectations, motives and attitudes
How do patients' and family members' perceive disclosure of healthcare incidents?
Can patient and family interviews derive principles of effective disclosure?
Iedema R et al. Patients' and family members' views on how clinicians enact and how they should enact incident disclosure: the "100 patient stories" qualitative study. BMJ. 2011;343:d4423.
What matters to older people with assisted living needs? A phenomenological analysis of the use and non-use of telehealth and telecare.
Greenhalgh T et al. Soc Sci Med. 2013;93:86-94
Identify potential risks and benefits associated with bloggingand determine if social media can play a role in supportingpatients with multi-drug resistant tuberculosis
Horter S et al Plos One 2014;9;e108591
Generate hypothesis
Confirm and deepen quantitative findings
Produce in-depth knowledge before creating an instrument or intervention, a definition, theory or model Develop PROM - instruments developed to mirror the voice of
patients Alternative end-point Quality registries
As part of a mixed method Evaluate complex interventions
Systematic review and meta-analysis of qualitative studies
How do women who are being abused by their partners want their health care providers to react to the disclosure of this abuse?
Feder GS et al. Women exposed to intimate partner violence: expectations and experiences when they encounter health care professionals: a meta-analysis of qualitative studies. Arch Intern Med2006;166(1):22-37
Early infant male circumcision (EIMC) is simpler, safer and more cost-effective than adult circumcision.
In sub-Saharan Africa, there are concerns about acceptability of EIMC which could affect uptake.
In 2009 a quantitative survey of 2,746 rural Zimbabweans (aged 18-44) indicated that 60% of women and 58% of men would be willing to have their newborn son circumcised.
Willingness was associated with knowledge of HIV and male circumcision.
This qualitative study was conducted to better understand this issue.
Mavhu W et al. Acceptability of Early Infant Male Circumcision as an HIV Prevention Intervention in Zimbabwe: A Qualitative Perspective. Plos One 2012;7(2):e32475. Epub 2012 Feb 27
Lewin S et al. BMJ 2009;339:b3496
19
Campbell et al BMJ 2000:321:694-696
Phase 1 Item development from a content analysis of the literature and qualitative interviews
Phase 2 Content validity assessment and pilot testing
Phase 3 Field testing, factor analysis, and reliability estimation
22
Discipline Research method Area of inquiry
Antropology Ethnography Holistic meaning of a culture, a cultures shared rules, semanticrules
Sociology Grounded theory Social structural processes in a social settingSocial interactions
Psychology/Philiosophy
Phenomenology Experiences of individualslifeworld
Method Focus Sample Size
Ethnography Context or culture --
NarrativeIndividual experience &
sequence1 to 2
Phenomenological
People who have
experienced a
phenomenon
5 to 25
Grounded TheoryDevelop a theory from
grounded in field data20 to 60
Case StudyOrganization, entity,
individual, or event --
Stemming from a theoretical or epistemeological position
Grounded theory Ethnography Phenomenology
Flexible and independent of theory
Content analys Thematic analysis
• Conventional – Inductive– Manifest or latent– Data guide development of categories
• Directed– Deductive– Theory guide development of categories
• Summative – Identifying and summing of key-words
Hsieh H-F. & Shannon S.E. Qualitative health research 2005;15;1277-88, Graneheim U & Lundman B. Nurse Education Today 2004; 24: 105–112
(1) Death as a natural part of life (38%)
(2) Death as a relief from symptoms and disability (13%)
(3) Death as fearful (22%)
(4) Arrangements for time after death (7%)
(5) A wish for an extended life (20%)
Strömberg A & Jaarsma T. Eur J Heart Fail. 2008
Inductively describe emotional reactions of terminally ill patients who are receiving hospice care
Deductive validation of Kubler-Ross five stage of grief (denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance)
The summative occurence of the terms die, death and dying in comparison to euphemisms like passing, going to a better place etc.
Thematic analysis is the most common form of analysis in qualitative research
Themes are patterns across data sets that are important to the description of a phenomenon and are associated to a specific research question
Thematic analysis is performed in six phases : familiarization with data generating initial codes searching for themes among codes reviewing themes defining and naming themes producing the final report
Flexibility - can be applied across a variety of epistemologies
Well suited to large data sets
Great for multiple researchers.
Interpretation of themes supported by data
Allows for categories to emerge from data
Reliability is a concern due to wide variety of interpretations from multiple researchers
Thematic analysis may miss nuanced data
Flexibility makes it difficult to concentrate on what aspect of the data to focus on
Discovery and verification of themes and codes mesh together
Limited interpretive power if analysis excludes theoretical framework
Developed in sociology, symbolic interactionism
Glaser & Strauss 1967
A method to develop new models and theories
Data collection and data analysis is done in parallel“constant comparison”
Saturation
Literature review after development of a new theory
Glaser, B. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press
Interpretation supported by data
Can be used to study topics beyond individual experiencese.g. cultural norms, social processes
Does not include quantification
Time consuming to deal with larger data sets
• Roots in philosophy- Husserl, early 20thcentury
• Many schools
• Lived experience of a phenomenon
• Four steps• “Bracketing”• Narrative reading• Coding• Define essens of the phenomena
…asks for the very nature of a phenomenon, for that which makes a some”thing” what it is and withoutit could not be what it is
Good for smaller data sets
Has latitude to explore data deeply and extrapolatebeyond the text
Focus only on human experiences
May interpret too far beyond data
Not necessarily systematic
48
Flexible, evolve as the study progress
Some decision has to be made during design
Seldom strict protocols and forms Form for sociodemographic data Interview questions/guide
Creativity for workable solutions in problematic situations
Research questions/aims
Literature review? • Can be done before or after the analysis
• Pre-understanding and prejudice
N=?
Information-rich cases
Non-probability sampling Convenience sampling Quota sampling to include underrepresented groups, ensure variation
Purposive (judgemental) sampling Most representative or informative participants
Theoretical sampling GT - constant comparative method Emerging findings guide sampling to ensure representation of important
themes “saturate categories”
Network sampling Snowball - referrals from earlier participants
Interview
Observation
Document analysis medical charts, patient diaries
External Participation - lowest degree of involvement. Observing situations on television or videotape.
Passive Participation - researcher is present but does not interact or participate. Role of a bystander or spectator.
Balanced Participation - researcher maintains a balance between being an insider and being an outsider. The researcher observes and participates in some activities, but does not participate fully in all activities.
Active Participation - researcher generally does what others do. While beginning with observation to learn the rules, as they are learned the researcher becomes actively engaged in the activities of the setting.
Total Participation - researcher is a natural participant. Highest level of involvement and usually comes about when the researcher studies something in which he or she is already a natural participant.
Structured unstructuredseminstructured
Unstructured narrative interview with little interference by the interviewer
Level of control
Structured, standardised with exact, predetermined questions asked in the same order
Semistructured open interview with six to eight questions/areas
Polit D & Beck C. Nursing Research. 2012
Ask How did you react? Instead of Where you upset?
Open questions will give good quotations
Open questions begin with Tell me about…How did you…What did you experience/do/think… Can you describe…
Can you describe your experience of living with breast cancer… The diagnosis Time before surgery Hospitalisation after surgery Discharge Out-patient treatment: radiation or chemotherapy Rehabilitation and follow up
Ryan F et al. Int J Therapy Rehab 2006;16:309-14
Individual interview Focusgroups Telephone interviews Repeted interviews
• Information to the participant
• Possible scenario
• Pilot interview
• Place for interview
• Tape recording
• Gain trust
• Be involved, but keep distance
• Debriefing
• The art of active listening
• The art of asking the right questions• Trigger narratives
• Structuring & standardisation• Fixed questions, guide or one open question• Avoid directed, imprecise and general questions• Be open and let the informant have the initiative initially,
be more guiding and reflecting at the end
• Follow up questions• To clarify, develop, deepen
• Can you tell me more about…• Can you explain how you mean…• Previously you said that...
• Be “nagging” at the end...
Exploring question: Can you tell me about your experiences having a myocardial infarction…
Structuring questions: I would not like you to move on to a different topic…
Follow up questions: Could you say some more about that…, What do you mean by….
Probing question: You mentioned feeling angry, can you tell me more about that…
Specifying questions: What did you do then…
Interpreting question: Do you mean that…
“warm up” and closing question
Evaluate with participant
Ask for a later contact for validation of interviews if planned
Offer support/telephone contact
Write notes/memos
Transcribe interviews verbatim
o 24 group discussions were held across Zimbabwe with participants from seven ethnic groups.
o Key informant interviews were held with private paediatricians who offer EIMC (n=2) plus one traditional leader.
o Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, translated into English (where necessary)
o For coding NVivo 8 was used
o Data was analysed using grounded theory principles.
Mavhu W et al. Acceptability of Early Infant Male Circumcision as an HIV Prevention Intervention in Zimbabwe: A Qualitative Perspective. Plos One 2012;7(2):e32475. Epub 2012 Feb 27
Begin analysis during the fieldwork; make notes and memos Inventory and organize data Fill in the gaps in the data as soon as possible Protect the data Reaffirm the purpose of inquiry Make decisions about software Schedule intense dedicated time for analysis Clarify and determine initial analysis strategy Be reflective and reflexive Keep an analysis journal
Code dataFind patternsLabel themesDevelop category systems
Matrix analysisInterpreting findings
Meningful units
Codes
Essence
Theory
Themes- subthemes
Category -subcategory
NVIVOAtlas
Organise and analyse unstructured information Interviews, pictures, sounds, videos
Can handle all Microsoft applications
Transcribe, code, comment, structure the material
Make searches, visualise correlations, analyse
Different user can work jointly Colour coding
Make graphs, tables, reports
Core category Categories Properties
Striving to resume command in one’s life
Economizing resources Restricting oneselfMaking plans
Distracting oneself Avoiding lonelinessSuppressing thoughts
Submitting to one’s fate Becoming dependentSeeking support
Reevaluating life Feeling gratitude for survivingAccepting the ICD
The conceptual model: Striving to resume command in one’s life as emerged from data in ICD recipients, N = 16
STRIVING TO RESUME COMMAND
Economizing one’s resources
Distracting oneself
Submitting to one’s fate
Re-evaluating one’s life
J FAM NURS.
to elucidate the whole family’s experience, from each family member’s perspective, when a child in the family is diagnosed as having diabetes.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Swedish+families%E2%80%99+lived+experience%E2%80%A6%E2%80%A6.+when+a+child+is+first+diagnosed+as+having
Qualitative investigation of patient adherence to 5‐aminosalicylic acid therapy in patients with ulcerative colitis
Qualitative investigation of patient adherence to 5‐aminosalicylic acid therapy in patients with ulcerative colitis
Qualitative investigation of patient adherence to 5-aminosalicylic acid therapy in patients with ulcerative colitis
Tetyana Moshkovska MD1,*,
Margaret Stone PhD2,
Richard Baker MD2,
John Mayberry MD1
Inflammatory Bowel DiseasesVolume 14, Issue 6, pages 763-768, 19 FEB 2008 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.20404http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ibd.20404/full#fig1
1
Adapted model of 5‐ASA adherence in UC.
© This slide is made available for non-commercial use only. Please note that permission may be required for re-use of images in which the copyright is owned by a third party.
Quoting is a process that requires the proper balance between scientific reporting and the taking of artistic license
Quotes are used to: support researcher findings illustrate results illuminate experience evoke emotion provoke response
76
New methodology that evolved the last 25 years
Endorse two different perspectives in one study
Strengths and challenges
Researchers/team need to be skilled at both methods
Differnt types of designs
Qualitativedatacollection and
analysis
Quantitativedatacollection and
analysis
Compare Interpretation
Quantitativedatacollection and
analysis
Quantitativedatacollection and
analysis
Qualitativedatacollection and
analysis
Interpretation
Interpretation
Qualitativedatacollection and
analysis
Follow upresults
Develop
EXPLANATORY DESIGN
EXPLORATORY DESIGN
CONVERGENT DESIGN
Categories Qualitative findings (n=15) Quantitative results (n=14)Median (Q1; Q3)
Merged findingsoutcome
Adapting to the caring needs and illness trajectory
The partners were involved in relation to the patient’s’ health situation and needs. The needs varied from being limited to extensive. Partners were involved in personal care, self-care, drug treatment, and practical tasks at home
Performing caregiving tasks:Personal care 1.2 (1.1; 1.6)Motivational care 1.7 (1.1; 2.0)Practical and treatment related tasks 2.5 (2.0; 2.9)
Converge and expand
Mastering caregiving demands
The partners’ willingness to participate in care revealed a span ranging from no will to be involved to being utterly involved. Partners expressed their responsibility and duty to support the patient, reflecting both positive and negative emotions
Overall satisfaction participation in care* 8.0 (7.0; 9.5) Participated to the extent they wanted 4.0 (3.0; 4.0) Perceived too high demands 2.0 (1.0; 3.0)
Expand
Interacting with health care providers
The partners were present during visits, but their activity level varied. They communicated their knowledge and information to the health care professionals who listened and were interested, and discussed the care and treatment.
Participation in care* 11.0 (7.5; 12.0), 92% of max score
Converge
Lewin S et al. BMJ 2009;339:b3496
92
Question-answering process may be complex involving several cognitive steps
Some processes are consious and some automatic
Cognitive interviews reveal information on the process
Verbal Probing Techniques
99
Development of instrument Revision/adaptation of instruments Translation of instruments
100
Literature review questionnaires and patients experiences
Patient interviews
→ Item generation Expertpanel – nurses, patients, phycians
→ Evaluating items (adding/deleting/changingitems)
Initial testing of items and answering alternatives via ThinkAloud interviews
→ Rephrasing Data collection for validation
102
If there were only one thruth, one could not paint hundreds of canvases on the same theme.
Pablo Picasso 1966
The findings are “worth paying attention to” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p.290).
Four issues of trustworthiness: Credibility - confidence in the 'truth' of the findings Transferability - showing that the findings are applicable in other contexts Dependability - showing that the findings are valid, consistent and could be
repeated Confirmability - a degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a
study are shaped by the respondents and not researcher bias
Traditional Criteriafor Judging
Quantitative Research
objectivity
internal validity
external validity
reliability
Alternative Criteria
for Judging
Qualitative Research
confirmability
credibility
transferability
dependability
In qualitative method the subjective judgement of the researcher is considered an asset. Subjectivity is essential for the understanding of human experience.Polit, D. F. Beck, C. T. Nursing Research. 8th Ed, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2008
Confirmability is a measure of how well the findings are supported by the data collected. (Lincoln & Guba, 1985)
In-depth methodological description to allow results to be scrutinised
Data audit of decisions made and procedures described Admission of researcher preunderstanding, beliefs and
assumptions Triangulation to prevent investigator bias Testing rival explanations Negative cases Recognition of limitations
Credibility is an evaluation of whether or not the research findings represent a “credible” conceptual interpretation of the data drawn from the participants’ original data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985)
Quality of the research “rigour” Sampling
Data collection
Interviews, observation
Tape recording, transcripts
Established authority of researcher
Data analysis - How well categories and themes cover data. No relevant data have been excluded or irrelevant data included.
The hermenutic spiral
Integrity in the analysis Independent coding → consensus discussion
The whole is build of the parts
To motivate the interpretation of the whole the meaning of the parts need to be interpreted
The interpretation of the parts has to be in conjunction with the whole.
Context -decontext
Triangulation Methods Theory/perspective Analyst
Test the inter- and intra-rater reliability of the coding scheme Co-examiner Level of agreement (65-100%) Cohen’s kappa
Empirical ground Agreement/concordance with ”reality” Check with participants/experts
Accordance with previous research
Transferability is the degree to which the findings of this inquiry can apply or transfer beyond the project (Lincoln & Guba, 1985)
“Generalisability”
Comparison of sample to demographic data
Theoretical or purposive sampling
Rich descriptions
Describe in detail the research context and the assumptions that were central to the research.
The person who wishes to "transfer" the results to a different context is then responsible for making the judgment of how sensible the transfer is
Dependability is an assessment of the quality of the integrated processes of data collection, data analysis, and theory generation (Lincoln & Guba, 1985)
The degree to which data change over time and
alterations made in the researcher’s decisions during the analysisprocess. Evaluating inconsistency during data collection and analysis.
Peer examination Code-recode Dense description of research method allow the study to be repeated
We do not see things as they are, we see things as we are.
Talmudic Saying
To develop a checklist for explicit and comprehensive reporting of qualitative studies (indepth interviews and focus groups).
Comprehensive search in Cochrane, Medline, CINAHL, systematic reviews of qualitative studies, author or reviewer guidelines of major medical journals and reference lists of relevant publications for existing checklists used to assess qualitative studies.
Seventy-six items from 22 checklists were condensed into a comprehensive checklist with 32 items into three domains: (i) research team and reflexivity, (ii) study design and (iii) data analysis and reporting.
Personal characteristics
1. Interviewer/facilitator Which author/s conducted the interview or focus group?
2. Credentials What were the researcher’s credentials? E.g. PhD, MD
3. Occupation What was their occupation at the time of the study?
4. Gender Was the researcher male or female?
5. Experience and training What experience or training did the researcher have? Relationship with participants
6. Relationship established Was a relationship established prior to study commencement?
7. Participant knowledge of the interviewer What did the participants know about the researcher?
8. Interviewer characteristics What characteristics were reported about the interviewer/facilitator? e.g. bias, assumptions, reasons and interests in the research topic
Theoretical framework9. Methodological orientation and theory What methodological orientation was stated to
underpin the study? e.g. grounded theory, phenomenology, content analysis
Participant selection10. Sampling How were participants selected? e.g. purposive, convenience, consecutive,
snowball
11. Method of approach How were participants approached? e.g. face-to-face, telephone, mail, email
12. Sample size How many participants were in the study?
13. Non-participation How many people refused to participate or dropped out? Reasons?
Setting14. Setting of data collection Where was the data collected? e.g. home, clinic, workplace
15. Presence of non-participants Was anyone else present besides the participants and researchers?
16. Description of sample What are the important characteristics of the sample? e.g. demographic data, date
Data collection
17. Interview guide Were questions, prompts, guides provided by the authors? Was it pilot tested?
18. Repeat interviews Were repeat interviews carried out? If yes, how many?
19. Audio/visual recording Did the research use audio or visual recording to collect the data?
20. Field notes Were field notes made during and/or after the interview or focus group?
21. Duration What was the duration of the interviews or focus group?
22. Data saturation/redundancy Was data saturation/redundancy discussed?
23. Transcripts returned Were transcripts returned to participants for comment and/or correction
Data analysis
24. Number of data coders How many data coders coded the data?
25. Description of the coding tree Description of the coding tree?
26. Derivation of themes Were themes identified in advance or derived from the data?
27. Software What software, if applicable, was used to manage the data?
28. Participant checking Did participants provide feedback on the findings?
Reporting
29. Quotations presented Were participant quotations presented to illustrate the themes / findings? Was each quotation identified? e.g. participant number
30. Data and findings consistent Was there consistency between the data presented and the findings?
31. Clarity of major themes Were major themes clearly presented in the findings?
32. Clarity of minor themes Is there a description of diverse cases or discussion of minor themes?
Qualitative Methods�- What?Qualitative methodChange of practice due to qualitative findingsQualitative – Quantitative Bildnummer 5Bildnummer 6Bildnummer 7Bildnummer 8Qualitative Methods�- When?The Road Not Taken ��(Robert Frost 1874-1963)When to use qualitative method?PerceptionsLived experienceExplore new experiencesWhy increased interest in qualitative methods in medical researchGenerate hypothesisConfirm and deepen quantitative findings�Bildnummer 18Bildnummer 19Develop instruments� Bildnummer 21Bildnummer 22Qualitative Methods�- howResearch traditions that historically used quantitative methodsBildnummer 25Qualitative analysis can be �divided in two campContent analysisBildnummer 28Conventional -inductiveDeductive analysisDeductive analysisBildnummer 32Thoughts about death in patients with advanced heart failureThree examples of palliative care studiesThematic analysisstrengthLimitationsGrounded TheoryBildnummer 39Bildnummer 40StrengthsLimitationsPhenomenologyPhenomenology essence…StrengthLimitationsBildnummer 47Bildnummer 48Data collection �Data collection planStudy participantsData collectionObservationsBildnummer 54Open questionInterview guide -narrativesDifferent context for the interviewPrepare and introduce interviewsInterviewsTypes of questionsAfter the interviewFocus groups�Data analysisPerspective influence resultsData analysisData analysisData analysisComputer programs for data analysisNVivo Bildnummer 70Bildnummer 71Bildnummer 72Swedish families’ lived experience……. when a child is first diagnosed as having diabetes�Wennick et al. J Fam Nurs. 2006 Nov;12(4):368-89.Bildnummer 74The use of quotations in qualitative studiesBildnummer 76Mixed Methods�Mixed MethodMixed Method designsMixed Method - MultimethodologyConvergent designBildnummer 82Bildnummer 83Exploratory designBildnummer 85Bildnummer 86Explanatory designBildnummer 88Confirm, explain and deepen quantitative findings�Intervention Mixed Method designBildnummer 91Bildnummer 92Qualitative method to develop instrumentsBildnummer 94Cognitive process to respond to a questionBildnummer 96Bildnummer 97Bildnummer 98My journey of instrument development �from ”a near death experience” to fascinationBildnummer 100 Method Bildnummer 102Trustworthiness in �Qualitative MethodsOne thruthtrustworthinessBildnummer 106Objectivity and SubjectivityConfirmability (objectivity)�Credibility (internal validity)The hermenetic spiral/loop�To strenghten credibilityCredibility (internal validity)Transferability (external validity)Dependability (reliability)Bildnummer 114Consolidated Criteria for reporting qualitative studies COREQ 32 item checklistDomain 1: Research team and reflexivity�Domain 2: study design�Domain 2: study designDomain 3: analysis and findings��