Part II of IVCritical Analysis and Reasoning Skills53 Questions90 Minutes

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Passage 1

From the very first stage of the postpartum period, infants show various emotional expressions such as crying and smiling, and their caregivers typically respond sensitively and automatically to these expressions. Many studies have investigated maternal physical and mental responses toward infants’ emotional expressions. For example, distress cries of infants evoke physiological responses in mothers, most of which involve accelerated cardiac activity, increased skin conductance, and a higher rate of respiration. Several researchers have suggested that this physiological arousal caused by infant cries functions as ‘preparation for action’. When a mother finds that her infant is crying, her stress response will prompt her to approach, pick up, and attempt to console her infant.

Given that these stressful responses are a fairly typical feature of parenting, how are such responses modulated, and can they be decreased? Levenson suggests that positive emotions facilitate the process of recovery from physiological arousal provoked by negative emotions. This is called the undoing effect. Indeed, Fredrickson and Levenson showed that cardiovascular activity induced by watching a negative film returns to baseline more quickly when followed by watching a cheerful film than after a sad or neutral film. The stimulation of positive emotions associated with the undoing effect may result in the restoration of homeostatic balance. Homeostasis is dependent on the dual operation of both sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous systems. When a person faces a stressful situation, sympathetic activity becomes dominant, causing an increase in skin conductance and heart rate, which helps prepare the person for an emergency. After the person is released from the stressful situation, parasympathetic activity becomes dominant and sympathetic activity decreases, with an associated reduction in skin conductance and heart rate, which is commonly associated with a person experiencing a (relatively) quiet, relaxed state.

In the course of daily childrearing experiences, mothers experience stress reactions to their infants’ expressions of negative emotion, and subsequent positive emotional expressions of the infants may moderate or ameliorate these stress reactions. Although a number of researchers have suggested that positive infant emotional expressions are important for effective

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mother-infant interaction, exactly how infant smiling affects maternal physiological states remains unknown. Some functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have reported that infants’ positive emotional expressions activate various maternal brain regions, including those underlying the reward system, motor planning, and inhibition of negative emotion; the activation of these regions is thought to be necessary to initiate positive parenting behaviors. However, these studies emphasized the effects of infant smiling on changes from a calm maternal state. It is possible infant smiling might have stronger recovery effects on physiologically negative stressful states, by means of the undoing effect. These studies could therefore have underestimated the positive effects of infant smiling on maternal physiological states. Thus, it is necessary to examine whether and how infant smiling brings about positive recovery effects on mothers' physiologically stressful states, including those states caused by exposure to infants’ distress cries. In the present study, we investigated whether the happy smiling of infants attenuate their mothers' physiological responses to their preceding cries.

1. The main purpose of the author’s new study in paragraph 3 is BEST described as showing which of the following?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 The impact of positive infant facial expressions on women with children.

2 The impact of positive infant facial expressions on their mothers.3 The impact of negative infant facial expressions on women with

children. 4 The impact of negative infant facial expressions on their mothers.

2. In the passage, the author illustrates the undoing effect with studies that measured responses to:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 electrical stimulation2 music3 lighting4 movies

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3. The undoing effect would predict which of the following about an individual exposed to pleasant music after seeing disturbing pictures?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Relief from stress with decreased heart rate and decreased skin conductance.

2 Relief from stress with decreased heart rate and increased skin conductance.

3 If they see the pictures again, they will no longer feel that they are disturbing.

4 The undoing effect applies only to maternal responses to infant stress.

4. Assume that a sample of mothers is assigned randomly to one of two groups. The average nervous system levels (both sympathetic and parasympathetic) are the same for the groups at the start of the experiment. In both groups, each mother observes a video showing her own infant’s distress cry. Each mothers in Group A is then shown a video of her infant smiling happily, while each mother in Group B is shown a video of her infant with a neutral expression. The undoing effect would predict that after watching the video of the infant smiling happily, mothers in Group A would have:I. decreased sympathetic nervous system activity relative to themselves after watching the crying infant video but before the smiling infant video.II. increased heart rate and increased skin conductance relative to mothers in Group B.III. increased parasympathetic nervous system activity relative to mothers in Group B.Please choose from one of the following options.

1 I only2 III only3 I and III only4 I, II, and III

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5. Which of the following assumptions about maternal emotional response is made by the author?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is an inadequate way to measure maternal stress.

2 Physiological responses measured in mothers directly correlate with the intensity of their stress.

3 Compared to men, women experience more physiological changes in response to distressed infants.

4 All mothers experience the same stress levels in response to their child crying.

6. According to the passage, homeostasis is achieved more quickly after physiological arousal provoked by negative emotions when followed by:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 a positive emotion.2 a difficult experience.3 neutral thoughts4 minimizing sensory stimulation.

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Passage 2

The greatest territorial expansion and the greatest power of the Hun Empire in the West was when the centre of their activities reached Pannonia under the leadership of Attila. Greek and Latin sources indicate that Attila was of royal lineage, a line which for generations had ruled the Huns. Attila was a great statesman who did great deeds. He was a wise ruler, a skilled diplomat, and a fair judge. With good reason he should be considered a prominent figure in the first millennium AD. The Hun land under Attila’s control consisted of four areas; the northern border of the kingdom stretched from the Hun’s homeland to the west of Germany. In the south, both Roman Empires (the Eastern Roman and the Western Roman Empire) were paying tribute to Attila. In terms of its territory and influence, Attila’s empire covered geographically almost all the four corners of the known world, from east to west and from north to south. The Hun territory ran from east to west - from Altai, Central Asia and the Caucasus to the Danube and the Rhine. The Hun’s Union in Central Asia contributed to the later emergence of the Kazakh nation and other Turkic peoples. By accumulating and concentrating power, the Hun ruler organized an invasion of Western Europe, in order to expand the territory of his state. And so the Catalaunian Fields in Champagne (Gaul) became the place for the decisive (major) battle. Parisians were frightened of Attila’s cruelty and anger, so they decided to send women and children and some belongings to a safe place. There St. Genovea turned up and she resolved to persuade women not to leave the city, in which they had been born and grown up, in the hour of danger and, moreover, to prepare themselves and their men to the defense. St. Genovea told the women to ask God for help and salvation. They listened to Genovea and decided to stay in the city and rely on God’s mercy.

In the evaluation of the largest battle, a number of Western history scholars, both modern and contemporary, drew on information from the chroniclers of the early Middle Ages, and used them uncritically. The objective evaluation of historical reality is always difficult. A Belgian historian - Pirenn concluded that Attila, getting through the Rhine in the spring of 451 AD, devastated everything up to the Loire. Aetius stopped him with the help of the Germans near Troyes. The Franks, Burgundians and Visigoths and others were good allies. The military art of the Romans and

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German bravery decided everything here. Attila's death in 453 AD resulted in the collapse of Hun power, and thereby saved the West. In our opinion, the situation in Gaul can be explained by the over-large scale of Attila’s campaigns and the inability to restrain dozens of tribes and entities that were not related to the Huns socially and ethnically within the vast territory under the unified leadership. But let us return to the momentous meeting of 452 AD. In the spring of 453 AD, the ruler of the Hun Empire, Attila, died.

7. Which of the following statements BEST expresses the passage author’s main message?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 The Hunnic Empire was complex and ethnically diverse.2 Atilla led a powerful empire and came close to conquering Western

Europe.3 Attila was greatly feared throughout the West.4 The Huns employed ultimately unsuccessful military tactics.

8. Which of the following passage assertions is presented as evidence that Attila should be considered a prominent historical figure?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Parisians were frightened of Attila’s cruelty and anger.2 Attila invaded Gaul.3 Attila was of a royal lineage.4 The greatest territorial expansion of the Hun Empire was under the

leadership of Attilla.

9. Which of the following statements does the author NOT imply about Attila?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 The Hun land under Attila’s control consisted of four areas.2 There were people who were frightened of Attila’s cruelty and anger.3 There are multiple sources that indicate that Attila was of royal

lineage.4 Attila was often cruel to his own people.

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10. Information in the passage MOST STRONGLY suggests that one scholarly disagreement about the Huns might entail:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 The factors that led to the Huns failing to conquer Western Europe.2 The influence Eurasian diet and religion on Hunnic culture.3 The emergence of the Kazakh nation and other Turkic peoples.4 The actual cause of Attila’s death in 453 AD.

11. Which of the following new pieces of evidence would weaken Pirenn’s explanations for the Hun defeat at Gaul?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 The Germans were generally regarded as cowards. 2 The Hun army was greatly weakened by the time they reached the

Loire.3 Atilla’s campaign was smaller in scale than previously thought.4 Both A and B

12. The author mentions tributes paid to Attila by the Romans in order to support which of the following claims about the Huns? The Huns:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 created a very sophisticated banking system.2 had a vast sphere of influence and political power.3 were unable to create a single, unified nation-state.4 were feared and respected.

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Passage 3

Nigeria's energy need is on the increase, and its increasing population is not adequately considered in the government’s energy development program. The present urban-centered energy policy is deplorable, as cases of rural and sub-rural energy demand and supply do not reach the center stage of the country's energy development policy. People in rural areas depend on burning wood and traditional biomass for their energy needs, causing great deforestation, emitting greenhouse gases, and polluting the environment, thus creating global warming and environmental concerns. The main task has been to supply energy to the cities and various places of industrialization, thereby creating an energy imbalance within the country's socioeconomic and political landscapes. Comparing the present and ever increasing population with the total capacity of the available power stations reveals that Nigeria is not able to meet the energy needs of the people. The rural dwellers still lack electric power.

The nature of Nigeria's energy crisis can be characterized by two key factors. The first concerns the recurrent severe shortages of the petroleum product market of which kerosene and diesel are the most prominent. Nigeria has five domestic refineries owned by the government with a capacity to process 450,000 barrels of oil per day, yet imports constitute more than 75% of petroleum product requirements. The state-owned refineries have hardly operated above a 40% capacity utilization rate for any extended period of time in the past two decades. The gasoline market is much better supplied than kerosene and diesel because of its higher political profile. This factor explains why the government has embarked on large import volumes to remedy domestic shortages of the product. The weaker political pressures exerted by the consumers of kerosene (the poor and low middle class) and diesel (industrial sector) on the government and the constraints on public financing of large-scale imports of these products, as in the case of gasoline, largely explain their more severe and persistent market shortages.

The second dimension of Nigeria's energy crisis is exemplified by such indicators as electricity blackouts, brownouts, and pervasive reliance on self-generated electricity. This development has occurred despite abundant energy resources in Nigeria. The electricity market, dominated on the

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supply side by the state-owned Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), formerly called National Electric Power Authority (NEPA), has been incapable of providing minimum acceptable international standards of electricity service reliability, accessibility, and availability for the past three decades.

Though the peak electricity demand has been less than half of the installed capacity in the past decade, load shedding occurs regularly. Power outages in the manufacturing sector provide another dimension to the crisis. In 2004, the major manufacturing firms experienced 316 outages. This increased by 26% in 2005, followed by an explosive 43% increase between 2006 and 2007. Though no published data exist, the near collapse of the generating system to far below 2,000 MW for prolonged periods of time suggests a reason for the number of outages in 2008 to be very high. This poor service delivery has rendered public supply a standby source, as many consumers who cannot afford irregular and poor quality service, substitute more expensive captive supply alternatives to minimize the negative consequences of power supply interruptions on their production activities and profitability. An estimated 20% of the investment into industrial projects is allocated to alternative sources of electricity supply.

13. Which of the following passage assertions is presented as a reason why the gasoline market is better supplied than kerosene?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 because the electricity market is dominated on the supply side by the state-owned PHCN.

2 because consumers of kerosene are less likely to have the ability to influence energy policy.

3 because the major manufacturing firms experienced 316 outages in 2004.

4 because the Nigerian government has limited refinery capacity.

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14. The author’s attitude toward the Nigerian government is best described as:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Critical2 Neutral3 Sympathetic4 Optimistic

15. The author uses “great deforestation” in Nigeria to support which of the following claims?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 The Power Holding Company is incapable of supplying reliable service in urban areas.

2 People in rural areas lack electric power. 3 Petroleum imports exceed exports.4 Diesel fuel suffers even greater shortages than gasoline.

16. In the discussion of Nigeria’s energy crisis, what is the significance of the statement, “The state-owned refineries have hardly operated above a 40% capacity utilization rate for any extended period of time in the past two decades.” (paragraph 2).Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Nigeria has a surplus of crude oil. 2 Nigeria has been unable to satisfy petroleum product demand

domestically.3 Nigeria’s domestic energy crisis would be easily solved by free trade

agreements.4 Nigeria’s domestic energy crisis is primarily caused by its reliance on

imports.

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17. Which of the following recommendations most clearly follows from ideas in the passage:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Nigeria would benefit from greater government regulation of energy companies.

2 Nigeria should focus on alternatives, such as solar and nuclear power.

3 Nigeria should more fully exploit domestic solutions to the energy crisis.

4 Nigeria should reduce the total amount of energy that its people consume.

18. The author argues that the Nigerian government has been unable to provide reliable electrical power to its citizens. Extending the author’s reasoning, which of the following would provide the BEST evidence of an improvement in the Nigerian government’s delivery of electrical power?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 An increase in the number of blackouts and brownouts. 2 An increase in export of petroleum products.3 A decrease in the profits of manufacturing firms.4 A decrease in reliance on self-generated electricity.

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Passage 4

While the origins and possible function of jealousy have been debated, most theorists agree on one defining feature: It requires a social triangle, arising when an interloper threatens an important relationship. A common assumption has been that the elicitation of jealousy involves, and perhaps requires, complex cognitive abilities, including appraisals about the meaning of the rival threat to one's self (e.g., self-esteem) and to one's relationship.

One possibility is that jealousy first evolved in the context of sibling-parent relationships where dependent offspring compete for parental resources. An implication of this hypothesis is that jealousy may have a primordial or core form that can be triggered without complex cognition about the self or about the meaning of the social interaction. This primordial form of jealousy may be elicited by the relatively simple perception that an attachment figure or loved one's attention has been captured by a potential usurper, which suffices to elicit a motive to regain the loved one's attention and block the liaison. Primordial jealousy may serve as the building block for jealousy elicited by more complex cognitive processes. For example, in adult human relationships, the experience of jealousy is greatly impacted by additional appraisals about the meaning of the interaction (e.g., does this mean my mate will leave me? Am I unloveable?). In both primordial and complex cases of jealousy, there is a motivation to restore the relationship and remove the usurper. However, in the latter case, interpretations of the situation play a large role in the elicitation and experience of the emotion.

The theory that jealousy can take a primordial form finds support from the small but emerging body of research on human infant jealousy. Several studies found that infants as young as 6-months of age show behaviors indicative of jealousy, for example, when their mothers interacted with what appeared to be another infant (but was actually a realistic looking doll). The infants did not display the same behaviors when their mothers attend to a nonsocial item (a book).

The current experiment adapted a paradigm from human infant studies to examine jealousy in domestic dogs. The idea that dogs are capable of jealousy is congenial to the burgeoning body of research on animal social

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cognition that reveals that dogs have sophisticated social-cognitive abilities. For example, dogs can use a variety of human communicative signals (e.g., pointing, eye gaze) to determine the location of hidden food, are better at using social cues than chimpanzees, show some sensitivity to reward inequity when a partner is rewarded and they are not and appear aware of, and actively attempt to manipulate, the visual attention of their play partners.

To evaluate dogs' jealous behaviors, thirty-six dogs were individually tested and videotaped while their owners ignored them and interacted with a series of three different objects. In the jealousy condition, the owner treated a stuffed dog, which briefly barked and wagged its tail, as if it were a real dog (e.g., petting, talking sweetly). In another condition, owners engaged in these same behaviors but did so towards a novel object (jack-o-lantern pail). This enabled us to test whether the elicitation of jealousy required that the owner show affection to an appropriate stimulus (what appeared to be a conspecific) or whether affectionate behaviors directed to a nonsocial stimulus would be enough to arouse jealous behaviors. In the third condition, the owner read aloud a children's book, which had pop-up pages and played melodies. This condition allowed us to test whether dogs' behaviors in the other conditions were indicative of jealousy per se (arising over the loss of affection and attention towards an interloper) or more general negative affect due to the loss of the owner's attention.

As discussed earlier, the proposed function of jealousy is to break-up a potentially threatening liaison and protect the primary relationship. This motivates several types of behaviors including approach actions such as attempts to get physically or psychologically between the attachment and the interloper, attending to the threatening interaction, seeking attention from the attachment figure, as well as indicators of negative emotion such as aggression, particularly toward the interloper. Across social species, we would expect to see similar types of behaviors that serve the function of this motivational state.

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19. The author’s use of the “third condition” in the experiment involves the owner reading a book out loud. Which of the following potential results of that condition would be most problematic for the author’s theory.Please choose from one of the following options.

1 The dog displays no negative behaviors.2 The dog wags its tail because he thinks the owner is talking to him/

her.3 The dog barks to gain the owner’s attention.4 Both B and C are equally problematic for the theory.

20. Based on the passage, the purpose of the third condition, in which the owner reads aloud a children’s book in front of the dog, is:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 to determine whether the dog experiences jealousy when the owner’s attention is diverted.

2 to test if the dog can experience complex jealousy.3 to detect if the dog is capable of experiencing jealousy of non-social

objects.4 to distinguish between jealousy and generally negative behavior.

21. In both cases of complex and primordial jealousy:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 there is a motivation to restore the relationship and remove the usurper.

2 the cognitive process is different but the resulting jealousy is the same.

3 infants as young as 6-months of age show behaviors indicative of both.

4 jealousy is triggered with complex cognition about the self.

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22. Which of the following BEST represents an example of primordial jealousy?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Steven worries that his date is flirting with another man because she thinks Steven is boring.

2 Trish wants to see her colleague, Pam, transferred to another branch because she thinks the supervisor finds Pam more charming.

3 Marshall cries because his mother is busy talking to the mailman.4 Ted throws his phone against the wall because he was fired from his

job.

23. An assumption the author makes about the dogs in the experiment is that:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 dogs will sense when owners are more excited about the jack-o-lantern than about reading the book aloud.

2 dogs will not feel jealous when their owners are reading a book.3 dogs will feel jealous when they see their owners giving affection to

the jack 0 lanterns.4 both B and C

24. As discussed in the passage, the proposed function of jealousy is to break-up a potentially threatening liaison and protect the primary relationship. Suppose a scientist were to demonstrate that dogs exhibit aggressive behavior to establish social dominance. This information is likely to complicate the author’s experiment because:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 aggressive dog behavior may have nothing to do with the owner.2 the dog’s propensity for aggression could sometimes be incorrectly

interpreted as jealousy.3 the dog’s behavior may merely be an attempt to establish dominance

over the third interloper.4 All of the above.

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Passage 5

The greatest problem of biology is understanding the divide that exists between life and matter. There seems to be an unbridgeable gulf between them, but how could life have emerged from matter if it is fundamentally different from it? The received view, today, is that life is but an extremely complex form of chemistry, which is equivalent to saying that there is no fundamental divide between them. Primordial genes and primordial proteins appeared spontaneously on the primitive Earth and gradually evolved into increasingly more complex structures, all the way up to the first cells, the basic units of life. The problem of which molecules came first has been the object of countless debates, but in a way it is a secondary issue. What really matters is that spontaneous genes and spontaneous proteins had the potential to evolve into the first cells. This however, is precisely what molecular biology does not support.

The genes and proteins of the first cells had to have biological specificity, and specific molecules cannot be formed spontaneously. They can only be manufactured by molecular machines, and their production requires entities like sequences and codes that simply do not exist in spontaneous processes. That is what really divides matter from life. All components of matter arise by spontaneous processes that do not require sequences and codes, whereas all components of life arise by manufacturing processes that do require these entities. It is the signalling of these sequences and codes, or semiosis, that makes the difference between life and matter. It is semiosis that does not exist in the inanimate world, and that is why biology is not a complex form of chemistry.

The problem of the origin of life becomes in this way the problem of understanding how the first molecular machines came into existence and started producing new types of molecules. We have seen that chemical evolution could spontaneously produce ‘bondmakers’, molecules that had the ability to stick subunits together, and we have also seen that some bondmakers could become ‘copymakers’ by sticking subunits together in the order provided by a template. The next step was the appearance of ‘codemakers’, and that is much more difficult to account for, but in principle it has the same logic and we can regard it as a natural event (ribosomes, for example, can still arise by self-assembly from their components). What

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really matters is that molecular machines could arise spontaneously, and once in existence they started producing molecules that cannot be formed spontaneously. More precisely, they started producing specific genes and specific proteins and that is what crossed the gulf that divides inanimate matter from life.

The genetic code was the first organic code in the history of life, but was not the only one. We have seen that other organic codes came into existence, and that they account not only for the production of new biological objects but also for the organization of these objects into higher structures and for their interactions with the external world. Semiosis, in short, was not limited to the production of specific molecules. There are at least three different types of semiosis in Nature and we find codes at all levels of life, from the world of genes and proteins all the way up to mind and language. Physics and chemistry provide of course the building blocks of life, but what ‘animates’ matter is codes, and that is why there is a deep truth in the oversimplified statement that “life is semiosis”.

25. Suppose scientists discover a spongy substance on the bottom of the ocean that appears to eat small fish, expel waste, reproduce, and eventually die. The spongy substance does not contain any components that require coding or sequencing. Based on the passage, the author is most likely to classify the discovery as:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Primordial life2 Life3 The result of non-spontaneous processes4 Matter

26. Which of the following is LEAST analogous to the semiosis described in paragraph 4 and throughout the passage?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 A device programmed to carry out a set of logical operations.2 Traditional embroidery in chain stitch on a Persian rug. 3 Assorted gases expelled from a volcanic vent.4 A figure-eight dance used by honey bees to communicate.

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27. It can be inferred from the passage that in the scientific community the author’s definition of life is:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 widely accepted2 an alternative perspective3 part of the controversy over which molecules came first4 fairly unimportant

28. The author’s central message for the whole passage is BEST summarized as:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Spontaneous genes and spontaneous proteins evolved into the first cells on earth.

2 What divides matter and life requires sequences and codes. 3 Life is not made up of complex chemical processes requiring

sequences and codes.4 Life requires a process directed by an intelligence.

29. Which of the following assumptions must the author make to preserve the logic of his main argument:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Codes can be found in all molecules.2 Chemical evolution happens over extended time periods.3 Molecular machines are not specific molecules.4 Genetic codes were among the first organic codes.

30. In paragraph 3, the author most likely mentions ‘bondmakers,’ ‘copymakers,’ and ‘codemakers,’ in order to:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Offer examples of molecular machines that are essential to life.2 Rebut the common scientific view that molecular sequencing is a

complex process.3 Illustrate there are at least three different types of semiosis that exist

in Nature.4 Emphasize that components of matter arise by spontaneous

processes.

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Passage 6

An interesting finding in our study of antenatal depression and anxiety among women in Pakistan was the correlation between the occupation of pregnant women and antenatal depression and anxiety. In contrast to studies in western populations, which mention employment as a strong protective factor against major depression in pregnancy, our study found that pregnant women employed outside the home were actually more depressed and anxious than pregnant housewives. A study in Karachi, Pakistan apparently contradicts our findings by concluding that housewives, in general, are more depressed than working women. Several factors might explain this contradiction. Most studies with such findings mention education as an important protective factor against antenatal anxiety and depression. Therefore, the lower educational level of housewives compared to working women was associated with higher levels of anxiety and depression. However, our study included respondents from low and lower-middle socioeconomic classes, and 54% of the women in our sample were educated to less than the 10th grade level. So even most of the working women may not have been educated highly enough for their employment status to have a positive effect on their mental health. Secondly, in recent years inflation has increased and socioeconomic conditions have deteriorated in Pakistan, and these changes have led to increased stress and the pressures on working women to meet the economic needs of their household. This increased stress, combined with the demands of pregnancy, might be responsible for greater depression and anxiety in working women compared to housewives, who are relatively protected from work stress. Finally, another factor might also be operative in the social environment of Pakistan. In many orthodox Pakistani families, most of which belong to lower and lower-middle social classes, working women are highly stigmatized. In this socioeconomic setting, the home is considered the appropriate place for women, and being an obedient wife and a loving mother are considered their appropriate roles. Negative attitudes among relatives towards their work might contribute to depression and anxiety among working pregnant women from the lower and lower-middle social classes who participated in our study; housewives, in contrast, may have been protected from such discrimination.

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A novel and important finding in our study is the relationship between the gender of previous children and the level of antenatal depression and anxiety. Having daughters was significantly associated with antenatal depression and anxiety, whereas having sons was a protective factor. In Pakistan the family system is predominantly patriarchal. Women are treated as second-class citizens and denied certain social rights. Among the consequences of this social structure are honor killings, the bride price and dowry, the disputed status of female testimony, forced marriages and denial of a woman’s right to have a career. Parents view their sons as bread-earners and agents of continuation of the family name, and view their daughters as an economic burden. This is partly due to the tradition of providing a large dowry when a daughter marries, especially in India and Pakistan. The dowry may be in the form of land, money, jewelry or household items. Even after birth, sons are given preference over daughters with respect to access to healthcare and educational opportunities. Considering these societal pressures, pregnant women who have already given birth to one or more daughters are not only concerned about their future offspring’s gender, but are also subject to harassment, taunting and stigmatization by their family and relatives.

31. Based on the passage, which of the following social changes is MOST LIKELY to cause a decrease in antenatal depression and anxiety?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 an increase in the number of women in the workforce.2 a decrease in the number of women in the workforce.3 a decrease in the stigmatization of women in the workforce.4 an increase in the percentage of newborns who are female.

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32. Suppose a brand new study showed that women who were NOT pregnant experienced more stress if they were housewives than if they were working. What would the implications of this study be for the author’s study and the other study done in Karachi?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 It would show that the author’s study is wrong and the Karachi study is more valid.

2 It would show that the Karachi study is wrong and the author’s study is more valid.

3 It would show that both the author’s study and the Karachi study are wrong.

4 It would neither support nor contradict either the author’s or the Karachi study.

33. The passage author’s study found that pregnant women in Pakistan employed outside the home are more depressed and anxious than housewives. Other studies in Pakistan have found that women employed outside the home are less depressed. The apparently contradictory findings are MOST LIKELY viewed by the author as being:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 the result of differences in the gender of prior offspring. 2 due to differences in the economy and education of the working

women.3 the different specific locations of the studies.4 the author’s own study having more accurate data.

34. According to the passage, which of the following cultural factors has been shown to affect antenatal depression and anxiety in Western populations?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Employment is a strong protective factor against major depression in pregnancy.

2 Housewives, in general, are more depressed than working women.3 Education increases antenatal anxiety and depression.4 Working women in orthodox families are highly stigmatized.

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35. The main function of the statement in paragraph 2, “pregnant women who have already given birth to one or more daughters are not only concerned about their future offspring’s gender, but are also subject to harassment, taunting and stigmatization by their family and relatives” is to:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 emphasize that women in Pakistan face severe gender discrimination.

2 clarify the patrilineal context in which pregnant women in Pakistan live.

3 justify the strong preference women show for having boys instead of girls.

4 show the multiple ways that the Patriarchal system creates stress on pregnant mothers who have previously had girls.

36. In the passage, which of the following facts does the author NOT use to support their explanation for the increased incidence of antenatal depression and anxiety in women who have previously had girls?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Females are perceived to have less credibility. 2 Daughters do not carry the family name.3 Girls are often denied the right to work.4 Economic inflation increases stress on working women.

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Utilitarianism is a philosophic conception of politics and ethics. For the Utilitarian, politics and ethics are interwoven into the science of moral duty; in other words, political philosophy and ethics are inseparable. A political action is valuable only insofar as it keeps in mind the ethical good of the people with which it is concerned; consequently, the welfare of the people in general was the supreme consideration of the Utilitarian philosopher.

To bring about this welfare, two courses of action must be pursued simultaneously: first, all hindrances to the betterment of the people must be removed; second, ideas and laws which will induce the betterment of the people must be promulgated. To accomplish these two outcomes there is needed, obviously, an adequate knowledge of human nature. This knowledge, the Utilitarian says, includes a knowledge of the motives of human action and of the ideal that animates human beings; and in order that one may acquire this knowledge correctly, it is necessary that he seek the facts dispassionately and scientifically through the mechanism of the senses. Superficial analysis should be discouraged, wild flights of the imagination discountenanced, and unverified assumptions discarded, for such mistaken methods produce only haphazard views of social life. Observation, experimentation, and sound generalization are absolutely necessary to the Utilitarian; wishful thinking, random guesswork, and loose generalization must be studiously avoided. “Utilitarian ethics,” said ethicist William L. Davidson, “is analytic, descriptive, and inductive, resting on ascertained facts; and its aim has reference to the right use of the facts, so as to advance social progress and for the concrete purpose of improving the existing conditions of life.” Ethical facts are of infinitely more importance to the Utilitarian thinker than ethical theories, no matter how ideal they may be or what their source.

At this point the intuitional thinker takes issue with the Utilitarian; for in denying the power of innate ideas, the Utilitarian by implication has ignored the Absolute, whether it be in the form of God, a Principle, or an Ideal. But the Utilitarian is not seriously alarmed by the seeming lack of an Absolute in his philosophy, for he believes that if all the ascertainable data of life can be found, analyzed, and applied, the superstructure of Truth will stand forth complete and unassailable. “Know the truth and the truth will set you free” might well be his motto. In the meantime, while the intuitional thinker

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elaborates rare webs from his inner being, the Utilitarian seeks to know the nature of man- his character, his wants, his limitations, and his possibilities.

The Utilitarian is intellectual. Utilitarians believe: first, that pleasure and pain are the mainsprings of human action; second, that the five senses give them a reasonably correct and complete account of the world around them; third, that all relationships between things in the external world are comprehensible to the human mind; fourth, that cause and effect are natural and not supernatural; and fifth, that ideas are not innate but acquired through experience and education. Utilitarianism as a mode of thinking is rational in its procedure; pragmatic in its attitude toward truth; scientific in its method; and skeptical in its consideration of conclusions. Occasionally he mounts to sublime heights in his perceptions; at times he descends to aridity and spiritual death. But at all times he keeps before himself one purpose- the scientific search for truth.

37. Which of the following statements about utilitarian beliefs is NOT assumed by the author?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Laws that impede social progress should be revoked.2 Laws that impede social welfare should be revoked.3 Human nature is naturally inclined to promote the social welfare.4 Human motives should be studied and incentivized for social welfare.

38. The significance of the statement “Utilitarians believe...that the five senses give them a reasonably correct and complete account of the world around them” is that Utilitarians:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 believe in the power of observation.2 do not believe in a greater deity.3 value their health above all else.4 believe in unlimited human capacity.

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39. Which of the following statements about killing people is MOST in line with Utilitarian ethics according to the author?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 It is always intrinsically wrong. 2 It diminishes society’s overall welfare, so it should be forbidden.3 It destroys the personal happiness of the victim, so it should be

forbidden.4 It should be allowed as a punishment for harming others.

40. Based on the passage, a Utilitarian will always value:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 ethics over politics2 imagination to reason3 theory to actuality4 statistics to anecdotes

41. A common thread in the discussion of Utilitarian ethics is that the morality of one’s actions:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 depends on the consequences of those actions.2 is directly determined by a rigid set of laws.3 must lead to the fulfillment of one’s personal happiness.4 can change depending on the intent behind the action.

42. According to the logic of the author’s argument, if Utilitarians did not deny the power of innate ideas, then they would:(I) no longer ignore God.(II) have less reason to adopt the scientific method.(III)no longer believe that ethical acts are those that promote the general welfare of the people.(IV) be less likely to reject the existence of Human Nature.Please choose from one of the following options.

1 I only2 I and II3 II and III4 all of the above

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Passage 7

On 13 August 2009 I deactivated my Facebook social networking account. The world remained on its axis but Facebook’s slightly sinister prediction that my friends would miss me turned out to be correct. A torrent of emails and text messages arrived in the days following, asking where I had gone. Many asked me to justify why I left, some out of curiosity and some out of shock.

What most concerns me is not primarily a privacy issue, in the sense of concerns about the availability of one’s private information in the public domain — though this is a part of it. Instead, I will describe a psychological problem that results from an ontological consideration of identity online and a phenomenological account of encountering the other. As Ken Hillis argues, the online avatar — and I use this term loosely to include the Facebook profile — is not identical with the user. Although the user identifies with this avatar, there is a distance maintained between the two; the avatar is a middle-ground between image and agent. This is a simple point. However, things start to get more complicated when we consider what this means for encounters between users. If the user is not identical with their avatar, then they are in a relation with only that avatar and the other user’s avatar when communicating or interacting online.In terms of voyeurism, the result is, I believe, that the main issue is not that of the user being watched, but of the user doing the watching. First, it is obviously the case that users can control what content they post on their profiles. Second, given that the avatar is not identical with the user, what is being seen by the voyeur is not only controlled content but exists at a remove from the other user. As such, the other user remains out of sight; the user cannot enter into a direct relation with the other user, only with the other user’s avatar. Given these conditions, the problem of voyeurism lies in the direction of voyeurism from the user to the other user’s avatar; again: it is the watching not the being watched that is the main cause of concern.

Facebook allows us to gather substantial amounts of information about other people — people we know to varying degrees. More than this, it makes possible the monitoring of communications between different people, communications that may or may not have anything to do with the person who has access to them. Also, and perhaps the most uncomfortable

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element, it is possible to see the photograph albums of users who are not ‘friends’ — in either the traditional or Facebook sense of the word — if they are commented upon by those who are. We are in danger of sleepwalking into a state of voyeurism, whereby we cease to see the difference between what ought to be seen and what can be seen. Without wanting to exaggerate the point, this somnambulist voyeurism represents a perturbing psychological phenomenon; this desire/need to watch others is a disturbing anxiety, an unhealthy and inauthentic relationship with others.

43. Which of the following issues does the author fail to consider in his reasoning?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 That Facebook friends can actually care about each other.2 That many Facebook interactions are between people with close

relationships in real life.3 That users can protect their privacy against unwanted voyeurs.4 All of the above.

44. Based on the passage, the author most likely believes the most meaningful social interactions are:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 direct and mutual2 in-depth and emotional3 based on an authentic avatar4 with an open mind

45. The passage suggests that the author would LEAST likely opt to become an online user on which of the following?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 A chatroom where political topics are debated.2 An open source encyclopedia written collaboratively by users.3 A professional networking site where people post their resumes.4 A forum where users ask and receive gardening advice.

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46. Which of the following BEST represents the author’s central concern about using Facebook?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 The avatar is not an accurate representation of the actual user.2 Facebook is an unhealthy culture of voyeurism with no direct

interaction.3 Users do not actually communicate with one another directly.4 There are no boundaries between what is personal and private.

47. According to the views of the passage author, which one of the following Facebook users would be MOST concerning?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 A user monitors the activity of her 18-year old daughter, who just left for college.

2 A user pines after his love interest, who doesn’t know he exists.3 A user limits her Facebook interactions to only real life family and

friends.4 A user markets his comic book company on his profile to attract

readers.

48. Which of the following passage assertions does the author present as evidence that Facebook users do not have authentic social interactions?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 It is possible to see the photo albums of users who are not ‘Friends’.2 Facebook users often have little control over their privacy.3 Users gather substantial information about other users.4 The author was bombarded with emails questioning why he left.

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Passage 8

The first publication of Leaves of Grass by now famous poet, Walt Whitman, was a failure. People like to believe that they can recognize excellence when they see it; but the fact remains that they cannot and will not, unless it assumes a familiar form. It is quite simple for university professors and literary critics to praise Whitman and his book today; it was impossible for them to do so in 1860.

The first quality in the book to repel readers was the verse form; in the poetry of Whitman there was no apparent pattern. His poems seemed to be prose passages cut up and arranged to look like verse. After the academic critics accepted Whitman, many learned justifications were put forward concerning his verse. One professor argued that in rejecting the rhythm of the line (the usual rhythm in conventional verse) for the rhythm of the phrase (the rhythm of natural speech), Whitman was simply following a good American custom of ignoring verse patterns as the eye sees them and following the sound as the ear hears it. Another maintained that Whitman consciously combined rhythmic features of prose and conventional verse in order to evolve a new form. A number have expended considerable energy trying to show that assonance, alliteration, and parallelism (features found in much conventional poetry) are not missing from Whitman’s verse. But all hasten to argue that the verse form in Leaves of Grass is not as unorthodox as it appears.

The second quality in the book to repel readers was the obvious confusion shown by Whitman between nature and art. All great poetry from the golden age of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides to the middle of the nineteenth century is marked by careful discrimination between raw nature and art. Aristotle laid down the principle that “the most beautiful colors, laid on confusedly will not give so much pleasure as the chalk outline of a portrait; Longinus said that “Nature fills the place of good fortune, Art that of good judgement,” and that too many images “make for confusion rather than intensity”; and Demetrius wrote that “not all possible points should be punctiliously and tediously elaborated, but some should be left for the comprehension and inference of the hearer.” The great ancient critics, apparently, believed that the primary function of the artist was to select from nature certain details which would be representative, vivid, and

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coherent, and which could be architectonically organized. The artist had to differentiate sharply between nature (whether it was human or physical) and art which was the representation of nature, organized and processed into a coherent art form.

But Whitman made no such fine differentiation. Whitman believed the poet is merely “the channel of thoughts and things without increase or diminution.” The “absurd error” of considering nature and art as distinct was never made by Whitman. As a result, Leaves of Grass was definitely something new in the literary world, for it was an attempt to reproduce life precisely as the poet saw it, with no effort made to select material or organize it.

The third quality in Leaves of Grass to repel readers was the intense individualism of the poet. Of all arts, poetry is one of the most egoistic. The world accepts the fact, for no one questions Shakespeare’s bland assertion that as long as his verse lives his mistress will live. “I celebrate myself, and sing myself,” Whitman wrote in Song of Myself; and from that theme he rarely departed. No poet has used the personal pronoun I as frequently as has Whitman.

49. The author’s central argument suggests that the primary reason people initially do not recognize art, that eventually becomes famous, as being good is that:Please choose from one of the following options.

1 academia is invariably several decades behind the development of culture.

2 art is meant for the collective good, and is less appealing when overly individualistic.

3 Leaves of Grass was poorly written, when compared to most classical poetry.

4 people are less likely to appreciate art that is less familiar.

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50. Suppose a new artist emerged whose work was loved by some critics and hated by others. Which potential explanation for the different attitudes about this artist is the author most likely to agree with?“The critics who praise this new artist ...”Please choose from one of the following options.

1 “are more open minded about new things.”2 “are more aware of artists like Whitman who were initially rejected.”3 “have been exposed to work similar to the new artist’s work.”4 “are less analytical and intellectual.”

51. In the discussion of the first unsuccessful publication of Leaves of Grass, which of the following is NOT mentioned as a reason for the book’s initial failure?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 lack of structure2 imagery3 offensive content4 egoism

52. Which of the following assertions is NOT consistent with ideas in the passage?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 Leaves of Grass eventually became a highly regarded book of poems.

2 Prose poems were uncommon when Leaves of Grass was published.3 Whitman’s poetry was less coherent than people were used to.4 It was a common belief that poetry should always mirror nature

exactly as it appears.

53. The author quotes the views of other critics in order to support which claim about Whitman’s poetry?Please choose from one of the following options.

1 that the imagery was too inclusive2 that it lacked patterned verse3 that it distorted nature4 that it was publicly repudiated

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