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Quantifying principles of the narrative textformation

ARTICLE · DECEMBER 2014

Source: arXiv

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Quantifying principles of the narrative text formation

Stanislaw Drozdza,b, Pawel Oswiecimkaa, Andrzej Kuliga,Jaroslaw Kwapiena, Katarzyna Bazarnikc, Iwona Grabska-Gradzinskaa,d,

Jan Rybickic, Marek Stanuszekb

a Complex Systems Theory Department, Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Radzikowskiego 152, 31-342 Krak´ ow, Poland

bFaculty of Physics, Mathematics and Computer Science, Cracow University of Technology, ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Krak´ ow, Poland

cInstitute of English Studies, Faculty of Philology, Jagiellonian University, ul. prof.S. Lojasiewicza 4, 30-348 Krak´ ow, Poland

d Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University,

ul. Reymonta 4, 30-059 Krak´ ow, Poland

Abstract

In natural language using short sentences is considered efficient for commu-nication. However, a text composed exclusively of such sentences looks tech-nical and reads boring. The text composed of long ones, on the other hand,demands significantly more effort for comprehension. Studying characteris-tics of the sentence length variability (SLV) in a large corpus of world-famous

literary texts shows that an appealing and aesthetic optimum appears some-where in between and involves selfsimilar, cascade-like alternation of variouslengths sentences. A related quantitative observation is that the power spec-tra S (f ) of thus characterised SLV universally develop a convincing ‘1/f β’scaling with the average exponent β ≈ 1/2 , close to what has been identi-fied before in musical compositions or in the brain waves. An overwhelmingmajority of the studied texts simply obeys such fractal attributes but espe-cially spectacular in this respect are hypertext-like, ”stream of consciousness”novels. In addition, they appear to develop structures characteristic of irre-ducibly interwoven sets of fractals called multifractals. These observationsand results, beside their obvious interdisciplinary implications, open room

for novel informetrics measures of potentially great applicability.Keywords: Text formation, World literature, Long-range correlations,

Email address: [email protected] (Stanislaw Drozdz)



Multifractals, Informetrics measures.

1. Introduction

Mirroring cultural progress (Agmon and Bloch, 2013) during their evo-lution natural languages - the most advanced and imaginative carriers of in-formation - developed remarkable quantifiable patterns of behaviour such ashierarchical structure in their syntactic organization (Nowak, Komarova andNiyogi, 2002) a corresponding lack of characteristic scale (Newman, 2005) asevidenced by the celebrated Zipf law (Zipf, 1949) and long-range correlationsin the use of words (Montemurro and Pury, 2002; Ausloos, 2012). A majorityof such patterns are common to a large class of natural systems known ascomplex systems (Kwapien and Drozdz, 2012) and they all open a formalframework for extending the informetrics measures (Egghe, 2005; Bar-Ilan,2008). Since the capacity of language is to generate an infinite range of ex-pressions from the finite set of elements (Hauser, Chomsky and Fitch, 2002)the complexity concept suggests to inspect the linguistic constructs longerthan mere words. The most natural of them are sentences - strings of wordsstructured according to syntax and grammar principles (Akmajian, Demers,Farmer and Harnish, 2001). Typically it is within a sentence that wordsacquire a specific meaning. Furthermore, in a text the sentence structureis expected to be correlated with the surrounding sentences as dictated by

the intended information to be encoded, fluency, harmony, intonation andpossibly due to many other factors and feedbacks including the authors’preferences. This may thus introduce even more involved and more essen-tial correlations than those identified so far. The composition of sentencesof varied length dictates the reading rhythm which thus involves sound andperception. This, therefore, opens up a possibility that the celebrated Weber-Fechner law (Coren, Ward and Enns, 2004) - stating that in perception it isthe relative proportions that matter primarily, and not differences in absolutemagnitudes - leaves its imprints also in the sentence arrangement. At thesame time a sentence cannot usually be expanded continuously but by addingclauses, so that syntax and grammar rules are obeyed. The first of these two

potential factors makes some variant of the multiplicative cascade a likelycomponent of the mechanism that amplifies the associative leaps especiallyanticipated in the ”stream of consciousness” (SoC) narrative, while the otherfactor may set some constraints. The multifractal formalism (Halsey et al.,

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1985; Stanley and Meakin, 1988) offers a particularly appropriate framework

to quantify such effects.

2. Material and Methods

In order to study the long-range correlations among sentences, particu-larly those that refer to fractals and cascading effects, we select a rich corpusof 113 world-famous English, French, German, Italian, Polish, Russian, andSpanish literary texts of considerable size and for each individually form aseries l( j) from the lengths of the consecutive sentences j expressed in termsof the number of words. Thus, a sentence is defined in purely orthographicterms, as a sequence of words starting with a capital letter and ending in a

full stop. Since the present study has a statistical character, an additionalcriterion we impose specifies that each text contains no fewer than 5000 sen-tences. A complete list of the titles included in this corpus is given in theAppendix.

The simplest, second-order linear characteristics are measured in terms of the power spectra S (f ) of such series. Such spectra are calculated as FourierTransform modulus squared

S (f ) = | jmax j=1

l( j)e−2πifj|2 (1)

of the series l( j) representing lengths of the consecutive sentences j.A complementary approach towards higher order correlations consists in

the wavelet decomposition of l( j). The corresponding ‘mathematical micro-scope’ wavelet coefficient maps T ψ(s, k) are obtained as

T ψ(s, k) = (1/√

s)

jmax j=1

l( j)ψ(( j − k)/s) (2)

where k represents the wavelet position in a text while s the wavelet resolutionscale. The wavelet ψ used in the present study is a Gaussian third derivative.

The wavelet decomposition, is optimal for visualisation and, in princi-ple, it is well suited to extract the multifractal characteristics (Muzy, Bacryand Arneodo, 1994). However, the newer method, termed Multifractal De-trended Fluctuation Analysis (MFDFA) (Kantelhardt et al. 2002) is numer-ically more stable (Oswiecimka, Kwapien and Drozdz, 2006), though even

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here the convergence to a correct result is a subtle issue (Drozdz, Kwapien,

Oswiecimka and Rak, 2009). Accordingly, for a series l( j) of sentence lengthsone evaluates its signal profile L( j) ≡ jk=1 [l(k)− < l >], where < · > de-

notes the series average and j = 1,...,jmax with jmax standing for the numberof sentences in a series. This profile is then divided into 2M s disjoint seg-ments ν of length s starting from both end points of the series. Next, thedetrended variance

F 2(ν, s) = 1

s

sk=1

{L((ν − 1)s + k) − P (m)ν (k)} (3)

is determined, where a polynomial P (m)ν of order m serves detrending. Finally,

a q -th order fluctuation function

F q(s) = 1

2M s

2M sν =1

[F 2(ν, s)]q/21/q

, (4)

is calculated and its scale s dependence inspected. Scale invariance in a formF q(s) ∼ sh(q) indicates the most general multifractal structure if the gener-alised Hurst exponent h(q ) is explicitly q -dependent, while it is reduced tomonofractal when h(q ) becomes q -independent. h(q ) determines the Holderexponents α = h(q ) + qh′(q ) and the singularity spectrum

f(α) = q [α − h(q )] + 1 (5)

the latter being the fractal dimension of the set of points with this particularα . For a model multifractal series (like a binomial cascade), f(α) typicallyassumes a shape resembling an inverted parabola whose widths ∆α = αmax−αmin is considered a measure of the degree of multifractality and thus oftenalso of complexity.

3. Results and discussion

A highly significant result is obtained already by evaluating the power

spectra S (f ) of the series representing the sentence length variability (SLV)of all the text considered. As documented in Fig.1, the overall trend of allsample texts, and especially its average, shows a clear 1/f β scaling withβ ≈ 1/2 over the entire range of more than two orders of magnitude in fre-quencies f spanned. For the individual texts β is seen to range between

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0,0001 0,001 0,01 0,1

f (frequency)

0,1

1

10

100

1000

S ( f )

1/f 1/2

1/f 3/4

1/f 1/4

Artamène ou le Grand Cyrus

The Ambassadors

Figure 1: Power spectra S (f ) of the sentence length variability for 113 worldfamous literary works. They are calculated as Fourier Transform modulus squared(Eq. (1)) of the series l( j) representing lengths of the consecutive sentences j expressedin terms of the number of words. S (f ) is seen to display 1/f β scaling. Middle solidline (green) denotes average over the individual power spectra, properly normalised, of all the corpus elements and it fits well by β =1/2. Boundaries of the dispersion in β areindicated by taking average over 10 corpus elements, with the largest β -values, whichresults in β =3/4 and over 10 its elements with the smallest β -values, which results inβ =1/4. The two extremes in the corpus, explicitly indicated, are Henry James’s The Ambassadors (upper) and Artamene ou le Grand Cyrus , the 17th century novel sequence(lower), considered the longest novel ever published which resembles S (f ) for white noise.

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1/4 and 3/4. This kind of scaling points to the existence of the power-law

long-range temporal correlations in SLV - thus to its fractal organization- and indicates that it balances randomness and orderliness into a uniqueattractive whole, just as it does for music, speech (Voss and Clark, 1975),heart rate (Kobayashi and Musha, 1982), cognition (Gilden, Thornton andMallon, 1995), spontaneous brain activity (Kwapien, Drozdz, Liu and Ioan-nides, 1998), and for other ‘sounds of Nature’ (Bak, 1996; Theunissen andElie, 2014). From this perspective human writing appears to correlate withthem. Even the range of the corresponding β -values from about 1/4 to 3/4overlaps significantly (more on the Mozart than Beethoven’s side) with those(1/2 to 1) found (Levitin, Chordia and Menon, 2012) for musical composi-tions, which may provide a quantitative argument for our tendency to refer

to writing as ‘being composed’ when we care about all its aspects includingaesthetics and rhythm to be experienced in reading.

The two extremes in the corpus, explicitly indicated in Fig. 1, are HenryJames’s The Ambassadors (upper) and Artamene ou le Grand Cyrus , the17th century French novel sequence (lower), considered the longest novel everpublished. The latter appears largely consistent with the white noise whoseS (f ) is flat. It is also appropriate to notice that at the largest frequencies,which corresponds to the smallest scales, the power spectra of all the textshave some tendency to flatten. This may suggest that the long-range coher-ence in their 1/f organization is locally somewhat coarsened by grammatical

constraints.Our central result relates, however, to the nonlinear characteristics thatmay manifest themselves in heterogeneous, self-similarly convoluted struc-tures, undetectable by S (f ). Such structures may demand using the wholespectrum of the scaling exponents and are then termed multifractals (Stanleyand Meakin, 1988). That such structures in SLV may be present within thecorpus analysed here can be inferred from Fig. 2, which shows four, some-what distinct, categories of behaviour. A majority of the texts in our studyresembles the case displayed in (I). SLV is here seen to be rather homoge-nously ‘erratic’ and, consequently, the distribution of cascades seen throughthe wavelet decomposition is largely uniform. The three other cases, (II),

(III) and (IV), commonly considered representatives of the SoC literarystyle, are visibly inhomogeneous in this respect, as SLV displays clusters of intermittent bursts of much longer sentences. Such structures are character-istic of multifractals and thus an appropriate subject of the analysis withinthe above formalism.

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Figure 2: Subtleties of multifractal sentence arrangement in literary texts.

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Figure 2: (Previous page) Four examples illustrating different fractal/multifractal char-

acteristics identified within the corpus of the canonical literary texts: I, War and Peace by Lev Tolstoy; II, Rayuela (Hopscotch) by Julio Cortazar; III, The Waves by VirginiaWoolf and IV, Finnegans Wake (FW) by James Joyce. The panels inside each containcorrespondingly: (a) The series l( j) of the consecutive sentence lengths throughout thewhole text. Insets illustrate the corresponding probability distributions P (l) of l( j); (b)Wavelet coefficient maps (T ψ(s, k)) obtained for l( j). The wavelet ψ used is a Gaussianthird derivative. Horizontal axis represents the sentence position in a text while verticalaxis - the wavelet resolution scale s. Colour codes denote magnitude of the coefficient fromthe smallest (dark blue) to the largest (red); (c) q -th order fluctuation functions calculated

according to Eq. (2) using the detrending polynomial P (m)ν of second order (m=2) and for

q ∈ [−4, 4]; (d) The resulting singularity spectra f(α) for (i) the series l( j) representingoriginal texts (black), (ii) for their Fourier-phase randomised counterparts (blue); here f(α)is seen shrunk essentially to a point as is characteristic of a pure monofractal, and (iii) fortheir randomly shuffled counterparts (gray). V. Chronological progress of James Joyce’s“engineering work” on writing FW, which he described as “boring a mountain from twosides” (Ellmann, 1982) . This chart may be also taken as a visualisation of Joyce’s dreamabout a Turk picking threads from heaps on his left and right sides, and weaving a fabricin the colours of the rainbow, which the writer interpreted as a symbolic picture of BooksI and III of FW .

The fluctuation functions F q(s) obtained according to Eq.(3) display (Fig.2) a convincing scaling with different degree of q -dependence, however. Thisis corroborated by the corresponding singularity spectra f(α), which rangefrom very narrow in War and Peace (I), indicating essentially monofrac-

tal structure, through significantly broader - thus already multifractal - butasymmetric like the strongly left sided Rayuela (II) or right sided The Waves (III) up to an exceptionally broad and simultaneously almost symmetric case(IV) of Finnegans Wake (FW).

The left side of f(α) is determined by the positive q -values, which filter outlarger events (here longer sentences), and its right side reflects behaviour forsmaller events as filtered out by the negative q -values. Hence, asymmetry inf(α) signals non-uniformity of the underlying hypothesized cascade. Rayuela is thus seen to be more multifractal in the composition of long sentences andalmost monofractal on the level of small ones. To some extent the oppositeapplies to The Waves . In fact, these effects can be inferred already from thenon-uniformities of the corresponding SLV wavelet decompositions (Fig. 2).In this respect FW appears impressively consistent; being one of the mostintriguing literary ‘compositions’ ever, mastered imaginatively in the SoCtechnique, freely exploring the mental labyrinth of dreams and thus often

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breaking conventional rules of syntax and of linguistic rigour. However, from

the perspective of our formal quantitative approach, its architecture looks - orperhaps just is - a result of these factors - to be governed consistently by thesame ‘generators’ on all scales of sentence length. An extra intellectual factorshaping FW is very likely to be also related to its top-bottom development- much like model mathematical cascades - as evidenced by its chronologyof writing graphically sketched in the lowest panel V of Fig. 2. Bearing inmind that Joyce himself considered FW an “engineering work” and expressedthe wish (Ellmann, 1982) that this work should be studied by exact sciencemethods, the present results provide further arguments for considering himan ingenious and visionary linguistic “engineer” (Bazarnik, 2011), possiblyopening some new horizons for language, enabling it to explore better the

brain capacity, and echoing the sounds of nature more profoundly. Sufficeus to say in this context that it was FW that inspired Murray Gell-Mann topropose spelling for quarks - the most fundamental constituents of matter.

The significance of the above results for the singularity spectra f(α) of theseries l( j) representing the original texts has also been tested against the twocorresponding surrogates. One standard surrogate in this kind of analysis isobtained by generating the Fourier-phase randomised counterparts of l( j).This destroys nonlinear correlations and makes probability distribution of fluctuations Gaussian-like, but preserves the linear correlations and, as it isclearly seen in Fig. 2, shrinks f(α) essentially to a point as is characteristic of

a pure monofractal. Another surrogate is obtained by randomly shuffling theoriginal series l( j). Consequently, any temporal correlations get destroyedbut the probability distributions of fluctuations remain unchanged. The cor-responding singularity spectra calculated according to the same MFDFA al-gorithm are also shown in Fig. 2 (gray). Consistently with the lack of anytemporal correlations they all get shifted down to α ≈ 0.5 but some nonzerowidth of f(α) still remains to be observed. However, at least a large partof this remaining multifractality in this last case may be apparent due toa relatively small size of the samples. As shown by Drozdz et al. (2010),for the uncorrelated series the result of calculating the multifractal spectraends up in either mono-fractal for the series whose fluctuation probability

distributions are Levy-unstable, or in bi-fractal for those whose distributionsare Levy-stable. Contrary to the correlated series, the convergence to theultimate correct results in this case is very slow. We also wish to note at thispoint that in spite of the Menzerath-Altmann law, all the relevant resultsshown here remain essentially unchanged if the sentence length is measured

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Figure 3: Special case of Ulysses. The same convention as in Figure 2 is used here. Thetwo additional insets in the panels a and c display results for Ulysses after bisecting it into

halves. Ulysses-I corresponds to the text from the beginning to the end of Chapter 10 andUlysses-II to the remaining text (without its last two disproportionately long sentences).

in terms of the number of characters instead of the number of words.Another, even better known SoC novel by Joyce - Ulysses , which played

a central role in formulating the scale - free word rank-frequency distribu-tion law by Zipf - also deserves here an extended attention, however, for adifferent reason. As illustrated in Fig. 3, no unique multifractal scaling canbe attributed, and thus no f(α) assigned, for this novel. The SLV inspectedboth in terms of the sentence length distribution and through its wavelettransform indicate clearly that Ulysses splits into two parts such that eachof them may independently have well defined scaling properties. Indeed,by bisecting it approximately into halves (between Chapters 10 and 11) al-lows us again to comprise Ulysses within the present formalism. The firstpart appears essentially monofractal, while the other is clearly multifractal,

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though asymmetrically left-sided, just as Rayuela . In fact, this result pro-

vides a quantitative argument in favour of some earlier literary criticism onthe ”doubleness” of Ulysses (McHale, 1992).The results, represented in terms of the width ∆α of f(α) and of α ≡

α(q = 0) , which stands for the most frequent H older exponent (maximumof f(α)) and thus can be considered a measure of the degree of persistence inSLV , for the whole studied corpus are collected in Fig. 4.

This ‘scatter plot’ opens up room for many further interesting informetricsrelated observations and hypotheses or even definite conclusions of generalinterest. Some of them that can be straightforwardly listed as follows:

(i) All the studied texts that are seen in the multifractality region are com-

monly classified as SoC literature. The only exception found here, the Old Testament , has not been considered before in this context.

(ii) ∆α for all the texts that do not belong to SoC is located below theborder of definite multifractality. Their complexity is thus poorer.

(iii) Also, several texts, by some considered as SoC, appear to be located sig-nificantly below this border. An important example of this is A la recherche du temps perdu by Marcel Proust (no. 76 in the list given in Appendix)),which is clearly monofractal. The present methodology may thus also serve

as a quantitative criterion in resolving the related disputes.

(iv) Artamene ou le Grand Cyrus is seen to have characteristics just op-posite to FW . Here ∆α equals nearly zero and α gets shifted down to almost1/2, which complements its flat power spectrum seen in Fig. 1, to mean thatthe corresponding SLV is of the white noise type.

4. Summary

The present analysis, based on a large corpus of world famous literarytexts, uncovers the long-range correlations in their sentence arrangement.

The linear component of these correlations universally reveals the scale-free‘1/f β’ form as characteristic to many other ‘sounds of Nature’ and thus thisobservation may serve as an indicator of those factors that shape humanlanguage. The corresponding β -value ranges from about 1/4 to 3/4 andmay thus serve also as a very useful and inspiring bibliographic measure.

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1

0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

α

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∆ α

0,3 0,6 0,9 1,2 1,5α

0

0,3

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f ( α )

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U.S.A. trilogyThe Waves

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A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius

2666

M u l t i f r a

c t a l i t y

M o n o f r a c t a l i t y

Bible (New Testament)

The GoldfinchBible (Old Testament)

The AmbassadorsTristram Shandy

The Portrait of a Lady

Mort à crédit

αmin α

max

∆α=αmax

-αmin

α

Ulysses-II

Ulysses-I

Finnegans Wake

W. Shakespeare ( d e g r e e o f c o m p l e x i t y )

(the most frequent Hölder exponent)

~

~

À la recherche du temps perdu

Figure 4: Complexity characteristics of the world literature. ‘Scatter plot’, whichfor a collection of 113 most representative literary works indicated by their numbers onour list (Appendix) displays the width ∆α (schematically defined in the inset) and themost frequent Holder exponent α. Shaded area marks the transition (uncertainty) regionbetween fully developed multifractality and definite monofractality. We find it reasonableto assume that the shuffled series are mono-fractal (or at most bi-fractal) and that anytrace of multifractality in this case is an artefact of the finiteness of a series. Therefore,the lower bound of the shaded area is determined as an average of ∆α’s for all the series(texts) shuffled. Due to the thickest tails in the probability distributions P (l) of l( j) inFW (seen in the inset to panel IV of Figure 2), which after shuffling the correspondingseries may yield the strongest apparent multifractality signal, the upper bound of theuncertainty region is taken as ∆α of the shuffled FW .

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As far as correlations in the sentence length variability are concerned, some

texts - within the present corpus exclusively belonging to the stream of con-sciousness narrative - develop even more complex scale-free patterns of thenonlinear character. In quantitative terms this results in a whole spectrumof the scaling exponents as compactly grasped by the multifractal spectrumf(α) , whose width reflects the degree of nonlinearity involved. A greatercomplexity of such hypertext-like narrative finds an intriguing parallel inthe biological dynamical system as documented (Ivanov et al., 1999) for thehealthy human heartbeat, which develops broader multifractal spectra ascompared to the heart failure. That the SoC kind of narrative simultane-ously activates greater variety of brain areas seems quite natural. Whetherthis indicates route towards more efficient and thus ‘healthier’ communica-

tion also emerges as an exciting perspective to study. A further argument infavour of such a likely correspondence is that hypertext parallels the under-lying architecture of World Wide Web which proves easy-to-use and flexiblein sharing information over the Internet, indeed.

Acknowledgement: We thank Krzysztof Bartnicki (who translated FW into Polish) for constructive exchanges at the early stage of this Project.

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Appendix

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No. Title Author Year 'D

1 Bible Old Testament (Jerusalem Bible, Canon order) (-3rd Cent. B.C.) 0,69 0,3383

2 Bible New Testament (Jerusalem Bible, Canon order) (50-150) 0,6097 0,2311

3

King John, King Henry VI Part 1-3, King Richard III, King

Richard II, King Henry IV Part 1-2, King Henry V, King Henry

VIII or All Is True, The Comedy of Errors, Loves' Labour's Lost,

The Taming of The Shrew, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, A

Midsummer Night's Dream, The Merchant of Venice, Much

Ado about Nothing, As You Like It, Twelfth Night or What You

Will, The Merry Wives of Windsor, All's Well That Ends Well,

Measure for Measure, Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale, The

Tempest, Shakespeare's sonnets, A Lover's Complaint, Titus

Andronicus, Romeo and Juliet, The Tragedy of Julius Caesar,

Troilus and Cressida, Hamlet Prince of Denmark, Othello, King

Lear, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus, Timon of

Athens

William Shakespeare (1591-1611) 0,7129 0,3015

4 Leviathan Thomas Hobbes (1651) 0,7288 0,1415

5 Robinson Crusoe Daniel Defoe (1719) 0,8085 0,1422

6 Clarissa, or, the History of a Young Lady Samuel Richardson (1748) 0,7959 0,1244

7 Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure John Cleland (1748-49) 0,6082 0,1158

8 The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman Laurence Sterne (1759-1767) 0,7484 0,362

9 Sense and Sensibility Jane Austen (1811) 0,7207 0,2202

10 Pride and Prejudice Jane Austen (1813) 0,75 0,1039

11 Emma Jane Austen (1815) 0,726 0,08853

12 Oliver Twist Charles Dickens (1838) 0,7239 0,1466

13 David Copperfield Charles Dickens (1850) 0,6487 0,1597

14 Bleak House Charles Dickens (1853) 0,79687 0,0777

15 A Tale of Two Cities Charles Dickens (1859) 0,8149 0,067

16 Great Expectations Charles Dickens (1861) 0,7866 0,1239

17 Moby-Dick; or, The Whale Herman Melville (1851) 0,7479 0,1373

18 Middlemarch: A Study of Provincial Life George Eliot (1871-72) 0,8574 0,1603

19 The Adventures of Tom Sawyer Mark Twain (1876) 0,6872 0,2288

20 Life on the Mississippi Mark Twain (1883) 0,8445 0,2019

21 A Connect ic ut Yankee in King Art hur's Court Mark Twain (1889) 0,7363 0,0474

22 The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1892) 0,7376 0,1651

23 The Picture of Dorian Gray Oscar Wilde (1890) 0,8252 0,149

24 Dracula Bram Stoker (1897) 0,6885 0,0713

25 The Ambassadors Henry James (1903) 0,9928 0,3851

26 The Portrait of a Lady Henry James (1881) 0,8353 0,3194

27 The Bostonians Henry James (1886) 0,8418 0,1465

28 What Maisie Knew Henry James (1897) 0,8786 0,2848

29 The Jungle Upton Sinclair (1906) 0,886 0,1567

30 Dubliners James Joyce (1914) 0,7894 0,0939

I 0,6469 0,08

II 0,7947 0,465532 Finnegans Wake James Joyce (1939) 0,8507 0,7445

33 The Voyage Out Virginia Woolf (1915) 0,7575 0,177

34 Night and Day Virginia Woolf (1919) 0,8082 0,0849

35 The Waves Virginia Woolf (1931) 0,6501 0,4534

36 The Years Virginia Woolf (1937) 0,6586 0,0544

37 Pilgrimage vol.1-5 Dorothy Richardson (1915-1920) 0,7586 0,2022

38 The Secret Adversary Agatha Christie (1922) 0,7308 0,0879

39 Manhattan Transfer John Dos Passos (1925) 0,6469 0,2736

40 U.S.A. trilogy John Dos Passos (1930-36) 0,8926 0,4741

41 Gone with the Wind Margaret Mitchell (1936) 0,8086 0,0776

42 The Lord of the Rings John R. R. Tolkien (1954-55) 0,7153 0,1257

43 Atlas Shrugged Ayn Rand (1957) 0,7953 0,0068

44 Catch-22 Joseph Heller (1961) 0,8476 0,2585

45 One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest Ken Kesey (1962) 0,7305 0,287

46 Gravity's Rainbow Thomas Pynchon (1973) 0,7015 0,2744

47 The Illuminatus! Trilogy Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson (1974) 0,7233 0,0432

48 The Vampire Chronicles Anne Rice (1976-2003) 0,7729 0,129

49 Suttree Cormac McCarthy (1979) 0,821 0,1237

50 Beloved Toni Morrison (1987) 0,8735 0,2078

51 The Stand: The Complete & Uncut Edition Stephen King (1978) 0,7924 0,0865

52 The Butcher Boy Patrick McCabe (1992) 0,7185 0,1375

53 Trainspotting Irvine Welsh (1993) 0,7162 0,1145

54 Infinite Jest David Foster Wallace (1996) 0,8492 0,2858

55 A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius Dave Eggers (2000) 0,7502 0,6357

56 The Goldfinch Donna Tartt (2013) 0,8553 0,3645

57 The Luminaries Eleanor Catton (2013) 0,8871 0,2767

31 Ulysses James Joyce (1922)

~

ENGLISH

16



No. Original Title Author English Title, Year 'D

58 Artamène ou le Grand Cyrus Madeleine & Georges de Scudéry(Artamène, or

Cyrus the Great,1649-53)

0,5387 0,0281

59 Les Liaisons dangereuses Pierre Choderlos de Laclos(The DangerousLiaisons, 1782)

0,6876 0,0873

60 Le Rouge et le Noir Stendhal (Henri Beyle)(The Red and the

Black, 1830)0,6086 0,0327

61 La Comédie humaine Honoré de Balzac(The Human

Comedy, 1830-39)0,7675 0,1075

62 Les Mystères de Paris Eugène Sue(The Mysteries of

Paris, 1842-43)0,8229 0,1825

63 Les Trois Mousquetaires Alexandre Dumas(The Three

Musketeers, 1844)0,818 0,2245

64 La Reine Margot Alexandre Dumas(Queen Margot,

1844-45)0,7659 0,07631

65 Le Comte de Monte-Cristo Alexandre Dumas(The Count ofMonte Cristo,

1844-45)0,7519 0,2156

66 Vingt ans après Alexandre Dumas(Twenty Years

After, 1845)0,6656 0,1678

67 Le Vi comt e de B ragelonne ou Di x ans pl us tard Alexandre Dumas

(The Vicomte ofBragelonne: Ten

Years Later, 1847-50)

0,8056 0,2262

68 Le Collier de la reine Alexandre Dumas(The Queen's

Necklace, 1849-50)0,7909 0,1723

69 Madame Bovary Gustave Flaubert (1857) 0,7154 0,07570 Les Misérables Victor Hugo (1862) 0,82 0,1896

71 Le Petit Chose Alphonse Daudet(Little Good-For-

Nothing1868)0,6716 0,0966

72 Les Rougon-Macquart Émile Zola (1871-93) 0,7093 0,1893

73 Bel Ami Guy de Maupassant (1885) 0,7436 0,191374 A vent ures ext raordi naires d'un s avant rus se Georges Le Faure & Henri de Graffigny (1888) 0,7545 0,0896

75 Le Roman de Tristan et Iseut Joseph Bédier(Romance of

Tristan and Iseult,1900)

0,7678 0,1036

76 À la recherche du temps perdu Marcel Proust(In Search of Lost

Time, 1913-27)0,7545 0,1033

77 Voyage au bout de la nuit Louis-Ferdinand Céline(Journey to the

End of the Night,1932)

0,7776 0,0644

78 Mort à crédit Louis-Ferdinand Céline(Death on Credit,

1936)0,7317 0,4069

79 La Condition Humaine André Malraux (M an's Fat e, 1933) 0, 7133 0, 2569

80 Molloy, Malone Meurt, L'innommable Samuel Beckett

(Molloy (1951),Malone Dies(1953), The

Unnamable, (1953))

0,8088 0,1767

~

FRENCH

17



No. Original Title Author English Title, Year

'D

81 Der Zauberberg Thomas Mann(The Magic

Mountain, 1924)0,8553 0,141

82 Berlin Alexanderplatz Alfred Döblin (1929) 0,7674 0,2137


'D

83 Il nome della rosa Umberto Eco(The Name of the

Rose, 1980)0,863 0,0492


'D

84 Trylogia Henryk Sienkiewicz(The Trilogy, 1884-

88)0,7417 0,2157

85 4XR YDGLV 3RZLHü ] F]DVyZ 1HURQD Henryk Sienkiewicz (1895) 0,8045 0,1073

86 Nad Niemnem Eliza Orzeszkowa(On the Niemen,

1888)0,7414 0,1804

87 Lalka %ROHVáDZ 3UXV (The Doll, 1890) 0,7454 0,0862

88 Ziemia Obiecana :áDG\VáDZ 5H\PRQW(The Promised

Land, 1899)0,7198 0,0834

89 &KáRSL :áDG\VáDZ 5H\PRQW(The Peasants,

1904-09) 0,7861 0,2316

90 7U\ORJLD NVL*\FRZD -HU]\ )XáDZVNL(The Lunar Trilogy,

1903)0,8438 0,2283

91 3RSLRá\ 6WHIDQ )HURPVNL (As hes , 1902-03) 0,8135 0, 1088

92 Noce i dnie 0DULD ' EURZVND(Nights and Days,

1931-34)0,8196 0,0226

93 Ferdydurke Witold Gombrowicz (1937) 0,8723 0,2717

94 Trylogia kosmiczna .U]\V]WRI %RUX L $QGU]HM 7UHSND(Cosmic Trilogy,

1954-59)0,812 0,0727

95 :LGQRNU J :LHVáDZ 0\OLZVNL (1996) 0,8232 0,034696 Ostatnie rozdanie :LHVáDZ 0\OLZVNL (2013) 0,767 0,1616

97 7\VLF VSRNRMQ\FK PLDVW 3RG 0RFQ\ P $QLRáHP 0LDVWR XWUDSLHQLD Jerzy Pilch

(A ThousandPeaceful Cities,

1997), (The MightyAngel, 2000), (City

of Woe, 2004)

0,8629 0,1222

98 Piaskowa Góra Joanna Bator (2009) 0,836 0,210599 Ciemno, prawie noc Joanna Bator (2012) 0,8069 0,1699

~

~

~

GERMAN

ITALIAN

POLISH

18




100 Ij_klmiepgb_ b gZdZaigb_ Fyodor Dostoyevsky(Crime and

Punishment, 1866)

0,8091 0,1042

101 B^bhl Fyodor Dostoyevsky (The Idiot, 1869) 0,8875 0,1915102 ;_ku Fyodor Dostoyevsky (Demons, 1872) 0,9074 0,2701

103 ;jZlvy DZjZfZah\u Fyodor Dostoevsky(The Brothers

Karamazov, 1880)0,8247 0,0892

104 >g_\gbd ibkZl_ey Fyodor Dostoyevsky(A Writer's Diary,

1873-1881)0,7511 0,1385

105 <hcgZ b fbj Lev Tolstoy(War and Peace,

1869)0,7841 0,1445

106 :ggZ DZj_gbgZ Lev Tolstoy(Anna Karenina,

1877)0,7746 0,1457

107 <hkdj_k_gb_ Lev Tolstoy(Resurrection,

1899)0,9286 0,2157

108 I_l_j[mj]t Andrei Bely (P et ers burg, 1913) 0, 7731 0, 2102

109 Lbobc >hg Mikhail Sholokhov(And Quiet Flowsthe Don, 1928-40)

0,7475 0,2707

110 :jobi_eZ] =ME:= Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn(The Gulag

Archipelago, 1973)0,7328 0,1245


111 Rayuela Julio Cortázar (Hopscotch, 1963) 0,7702 0,5792

112 Cien años de soledad Gabriel García Márquez(One Hundred

Years of Solitude,1967)

0,6489 0,0409

113 2666 Roberto Bolaño (2004) 0,776 0,4334

~

~

RUSSIAN

SPANISH

19

Documents

Fractales en Cortazar