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Issue 93 / May - June 2013

http://sound.fountainmagazine.com/93/1500.mp3

Questioning Techniques and Wait Time

Alpaslan Sahin

Socrates is the first known philosopher to have used questioning in a systematic way

with an ethical purpose in mind. Famous Socratic dialogue takes place between

Socrates and Meno in which they discuss human virtuewhether or not it can be

taught, whether it is shared by all human beings, and whether it is one quality or

many. Socrates is recognized for his uncompromising search for and devotion to

truth. His devotion eventually cost him his life (Socrates 2011). In his method,

Socrates used a sequence of questions to help an individual or a group to determine

their underlying beliefs and the level of their knowledge. The Socratic Method was

developed to urge one to examine his own beliefs and the validity of such beliefs

("Socrates" 2011). He asked questions such as: what is virtue? What is justice? What is

it that makes an action good? What is the end of human existence? It is possible to

see his level of dedication to use the questioning method in one of his sayings as

well: "I know you won't believe me, but the highest form of Human Excellence is to

question oneself and others" ("Socrates" 2011, "Socratic method," para. 2). We do not

know if Socrates was officially the first person using questioning techniques but

there are many fields one can see the form of questioning specific to him such as

sermons, TV shows, education, law and so on. This article will discuss the use of

questioning techniques and wait time particularly in education due to its significance

and common use.

A question can be defined as any sentence that has an interrogative form or function

(Cotton 1988). Asking and answering questions are among the most common human

behaviors we experience in many different areas of our lives (Samson, Syrowsky,

Weinstein, & Walberg 1987). For instance, as mentioned in Sahin and Kulm (2008)s

study, questions have been used for many purposes such as provoking students and

making them listen carefully, analyzing their thoughts and thinking critically.

Moreover, the questioning method serves to initiate discussion and review material.

Unsurprisingly, research has found that classroom talks are dominated by teachers

questions (Redfield & Rousseau 1981). Indeed, teachers use anywhere from 35 to 50

percent of their instructional time posing questions (Cotton 1998). Thus questioning

is a common and pivotal teaching skill which needs special attention for maximum
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benefit. Additionally, the type of questions teachers ask and how often these

questions are posed to students also needs examining.

Question types

The questioning method has been a well-studied topic in education for centuries

because it has been thought to be a good measure of a teacher's quality (Stevens

1912). Therefore, a number of studies have taken place to examine the types of

questions asked by teachers. Even though different categorizations have been set out

in various researches, it is possible to see that there are several types of questions

studied most and these include: higher-order, open-ended, divergent, evaluative,

lower-order, factual, convergent, closed, and procedural questions. But when looked

at these questions closely, it is possible to group them under two categories, probing

and factual, based on the answers you expect from your students. The first group of

categorization might include higher-order, open-ended, divergent, and evaluative

question types under probing since all those question types require students to think

deeply, provide wider responses, and justify answers. Indeed, Sahin and Kulm (2008)

found that probing question was like the first group of question types requiring the

following:

Asking students to explain or elaborate on their thoughts

Asking students to use prior knowledge and apply it to the current problem or

idea

Asking students to justify or prove their ideas (p. 3).

Examples of probing questions include:

1. How do you know that these fractions, 3/7 and 9/21, are equivalent?

2. Why do you agree with your friend?

3. How do you know that your answer is right?

4. What if you were in his shoes, what would you do to stop him from stealing?

5. If you were the President of the United States, would you liberate Libya? Why or

why not?

The second group consists of lower-order, convergent, closed, and procedural

questions that require students to recall specific facts and provide short answers.

Sahin and Kulms (2008) study described indicators of factual questions which was

very similar to the second group of questions:

Asking students for a specific fact or definition (Vacc 1993)


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Asking students for an answer to an exercise

Asking students to provide the next step in a procedure.

Examples of factual questions include:

1. What is the definition of a ratio?

2. When is the Independence Day of America?

3. What do you get when you divide 16 by 4?

4. Do you agree with him?

5. How many blue chocolate candies do you have in your M&M bag?

In practice, 60 to 80 percent of teachers questions are factual and around 20 percent

of them are probing questions according to Cotton (1998). So it is important for

teachers to be knowledgeable about those questions types.

How to develop questioning skills

Cotton (1998) found that teachers questioning method was the second most used

teaching skill after lecturing in K-12 education. This is an interesting finding because

even though it is used widely in teaching, research shows that teachers receive little

training on how to ask, what to ask, and when to ask questions and how much time

they need to wait after they pose a question. For instance, Sahin (2011) found that

training or workshops on questioning was not a common practice in Texas. Four

teachers said that they never took a course or a workshop specifically focusing onquestioning and wait time. Interestingly, they said that they still used different

questions to teach what they teach. When they were asked how they developed their

questioning skills, they attributed it to watching and observing a good teacher as the

number one technique to learn how to ask questions.

Another common method to learn how to pose questions is going out in the field and

working in a classroom with real teachers and students as described by a middle

grades mathematics teacher:

When I was an undergraduate, the time in the classroom, the classroom experience,

going out in the field, being in the classroom with actual teachers and helping them

out, seeing how they are doing it. You pick up things and you get exposed to

different strategies in the classroom. So, I think, having the exposure in the

classrooms is very beneficial because you are taught a lot with a lecture at A&M or at

any college but real life exposure out in the classrooms with real kids, what kind of

questions kids are asking and how they are responding to the questions, I think, is


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very helpful (Sahin 2011, 39).

Also the importance of workshops on questioning techniques and wait time cannot

be ignored since teachers tend to and are encouraged to attend workshops regularly

to grow and become better teachers. But Sahins findings illustrate that teachers

cannot locate a specific workshop on questioning. There was only one teacher who

said that she attended a workshop on teachers questioning method in her fifteen

years of teaching. So, trainings or workshops on different teaching skills should be

organized and teachers should be highly encouraged to attend a certain number of

professional development workshops each school year.

Wait time

Questions and wait time are two sides of the same coin. As a coin cannot be valid

without one of the sides, questioning techniques will not be successful without

sufficient wait time. More precisely, you may ask quality and timely questions to

your students but it will not extract learning unless you provide them with enough

time to absorb and process the question and produce an answer. Cotton (1998), in her

review on questioning and wait time, defined wait time as the amount of time the

teacher allows to elapse after he/she has posed a question and before a student

begins to speak (p. 5). Interestingly, research shows that the average wait time

teachers allow students to generate response is one second or less (Rowe 1974).

Naturally, no one can expect students to understand a question, process it, and

formulate a response in such a short period of time.Increasing a wait time of three or more seconds is an immense improvement for

better responses and eventually for more effective student learning. Studies such as

Cazden (2001) have revealed that three or more seconds of wait time help students

give longer responses, provide better responses with more evidence of learning,

further elaboration, encourage more questioning, and added engagement with

increased student-to-student and student-to-teacher interactions. This is why it is

crucial for teachers to go through trainings to develop proper wait time habits

encouraging further student learning.

The use of questioning skills in daily life

Scholars, religious leaders, and/or prophets can be categorized as teachers as well

since they are in a position to communicate to people certain things by lecturing,

preaching, or posing questions. In that sense, Socrates was not alone in his use of

questioning techniques to teach something or convince someone about a

misunderstood value. The following story presents an excellent example of a well-


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constructed questioning method with enough wait time. In the story, Turkish scholar

Said Nursi talks about how wrong or exaggerated fear can make ones life

unbearable:

An important man (may Gods mercy be upon him) was afraid to travel by boat. One

evening, we went to Galata bridge to take the ferry to Eyup. He did not want to get

on, saying that he feared he would drown. When I asked him how many boats were

in the Golden Horn, he replied that there might be as many as one thousand. When I

asked him how many boats sank each year, he replied usually one or two, and

sometimes none. I made this analogy: Since a year has 365 days, your chance of

drowning is 1:365,000. Why does such a small chance scare you? I asked: How

much longer do you expect to live? He answered: Maybe 10 years; I am old

already. I continued: As there are 3,650 days in 10 years, your chance of dying

today is 1:3,650. But since we do not know when we will die, you could die at any

time. So repent and weep! Write your last will and testament! Seeing the truth in my

words, he got on the boat even though trembling. (Nursi 2007, 401-2)

In the example, Nursi uses a series of questions to help a person overcome his fear of

boarding a boat. In this example, Nursi achieved a couple of things through

questioning: first, he asked a series of (factual) questions to help the person

determine his underlying beliefs about death. Nursi formulated this information in

such a way to show the man how small the possibility of a boat sinking was through

a set of factual questions. He posed each question cleverly and effectively to help theperson realize how his feelings of death were exaggerated. Also, Nursi gave his

addressee enough time to think about the questions, use prior knowledge and apply

it to a current problem or situation. He did not rush him to give answers. Moreover,

the information Nursi obtained was not something that his addressee did not know,

rather it was a tool to help the person overcome his fear of death when boarding a

boat. In a short period of time, Nursi persuaded the person that his fear was needless

through the use of a questioning technique combined with adequate wait time. As

Myhill and Dunkin (2002) stated, Just like a good barrister, a good teacher knowshow to use questions for maximum impact (p. 8).

In conclusion, teachers questioning skills are one of the primary and most influential

set of pedagogical skills in use in classrooms. Therefore, teachers should be trained in

order for them to become knowledgeable about what to ask and how to ask.

Additionally, teachers should know that they should wait at least three seconds after

posing a question for more effective student responses and understanding. Teachers


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questioning skills and wait time should complement each other for better outcome.

Colleges, districts, and schools should seek ways to improve both prospective and in-

service teachers questioning skills.

Issue 90 / November - December 2012


Advanced Placement Phenomenon

Alpaslan Sahin

Two national news magazines, U.S. News and Newsweek, annually publish lists of

America's Best High Schools. While Newsweek takes the total Advanced Placement

(AP), International Baccalaureate (IB), or Cambridge (AICE) tests given at a school

each year and divides it by the number of graduating students (Newsweek, 2010); U.S.

News & World Report calculates its rankings based on the number of AP courses

offered and exams taken compared to the number of students graduating (Mores,

2009).

If you are involved in an educational system either as an educator or the parent of a

high school student, then you might be familiar with the important role of AP courses

in the life of high school students across the United States. AP courses also play

important roles for high school students in other countries because AP courses are

offered at all International schools opened by the United States. For instance, according

to the 7th AP Report to the Nation, "universities in more than 60 countries recognize

AP Exam scores in the admission process and/or award credit and placement for

qualifying scores" (College Board, 2011, p. b). In other words, students enrolled in AP

courses in any of those countries can earn college credit the same way they would do

in the United States. So this is not a local phenomenon at all. Naturally, any parent or

educator might wonder what the history of AP courses is, and what their benefits and

roles are for high school students.

I have worked as an AP Coordinator and Guidance Counselor for a public school for

more than three years. Unsurprisingly, many middle and high school parents have

asked me numerous questions regarding the AP program. The following interview,

which took place between one of the parents who had a daughter at the school and


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myself, should help the reader develop a good understanding of AP programs and

their benefits for both parents and students.

Q: What is the Advanced Placement program?

A: The AP Program was created by the US College Board in 1955 with the motto

"Connecting Students to College Success." The AP program aims to prepare students

for an academically demanding college experience. "Advanced Placement is a

curricular option for academically superior tenth, eleventh, and twelfth-grade

students. Naturally, courses offered in the program are more demanding in terms of

time and intellectual skills than corresponding courses in the regular high school

curriculum" (Postsecondary Educational Planning Commission, 1988, p. 4). Initially,

AP courses began as a program for elite private school students to take college-level

course while still in high school. This way, outstanding students could begin college

with already earned credits needed for freshman year, which potentially would help

them graduate college earlier.

Q: What is the role of the College Board regarding AP courses?

A: AP courses are developed and maintained by a non-profit organization, the US

College Board, founded in 1900. This organization provides training for AP teachers,

provides curriculum resources for both teachers and students of AP courses, and

supports universities as they define their policies regarding AP grades, and develops

and coordinates the administration of annual AP examinations. According to the US

College Board, the AP program offers more than 30 different courses as of 2010. In2009, nearly 1.7 million students worldwide took 2.9 million AP exams.

Q: Are AP takers increasing or decreasing?

A: According to the recent data released in the 7th AP Report to the Nation, the

number of seniors taking at least one AP course and scoring 3 or more on AP exams

has increased significantly (College Board, 2011, see Table I). The increases are due to

growing awareness of the program, obvious benefits of taking AP courses, and the

significant role of AP courses in the college admission process (Reichard & Keirn,1999). Moreover, the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) offers states substantial federal

funding, $24 million annually, to expand AP programs in underserved populations

(Manzo, 2005).

Table 1

More students are succeeding on AP Exams today than exams in 2001 (College Board,

2011)


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Q: Are AP classes smaller than regular classes?

A: Since only academically outstanding students are accepted into AP classes, they are

to be smaller, usually less than 15, as opposed to regular classrooms with 25 to 35

students. For instance, smaller schools like charter schools, might provide better

opportunities for AP students in terms of class size because their student population is

usually smaller than local public schools. Therefore, as is the case in my school, it is not

a surprise to see AP classes with as low as 2 or 3 students per course. On the other

hand, smaller schools may not offer as many AP courses as other public schools due to

its student size.

Q: What about teacher quality? Do better teachers teach AP classes?

A: Yes, it is likely that AP teachers have either better training than other regular course

teachers or more years of teaching experience, with higher degrees in subject areas.

Moreover, AP teachers receive annual trainings in the subject they teach which is

organized by the College Board. For example, I attended one of those trainings when I

was assigned to teach AP Calculus in 2009. In trainings, you learn how to teach the

course and they provide you with lots of resources to teach your course in depth.

Conclusively, I believe that AP teachers may be better prepared in their content area as

opposed to non-AP teachers.

Q: Can my daughter graduate early from college if she takes AP courses?A: Yes, taking AP courses in high school will enable your daughter to realize her goal

of graduating early from college because students can pursue college level studies

while still in high school. That means AP students can transfer their high school credits

to college and can replace them with their required college classes thus eliminating

some freshman courses and graduating early. As a result, AP courses have become

very popular among parents. They want their children to take as many AP courses as

they can take. But taking an AP course is not enough to earn a corresponding college

credit.

Q: What else should my daughter do in order for her to earn college credit?

A: For that purpose, students are required to take the AP exams administered annually

in May prepared by the Educational Testing Service located in Princeton, New Jersey.

This is where AP teachers, parents, and students' decide if students should take the AP

exams of the courses they are taking. They usually look at students first semester

performances in those classes. If students do not perform well in those classes, they are


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either recommended to continue taking the AP courses but not to take the exams or

drop the course before first semester ends and start taking regular classes of the same

course. AP exams consist of a multiple-choice section and a free response section.

College professors and AP teachers score the open-ended questions once a year in

June. The results of the multiple-choice and free response sections are combined to

determine a composite score and then converted to a 5-point scale: 5 being extremely

well qualified; 4, well qualified; 3, qualified; 2, possibly qualified; and 1, no

recommendation.

Q: Do all colleges give credits for AP courses?

A: As common practice, more than thirty five hundred colleges give college credit to

test scores 3 and above. Although this is still a common practice in almost all colleges,

some universities and colleges have recently started to limit credits by requiring either

a 4 or 5 exam score. For example, the University of Pennsylvania is very strict in

awarding the AP Calculus credit and MIT is requiring its students to re-take a college

introductory chemistry course at their institution regardless of their AP Chemistry

scores while they are all still accepting other AP courses (Manzo, 2005).

Q: Do having AP courses on my daughter's transcript increase her chance in college

admission?

A: The use of AP courses in the admission process began after the 1980s. At first, only

highly selective colleges and universities considered AP courses to make fine

distinctions among the increasing number of applicants (Reichard & Keirn, 1999).Today, AP and honors courses receive special consideration by almost all selective

colleges and universities in the admissions decision. The way AP scores are used may

vary from one institution to another. For example, the University of California

recalculates an applicant's high-school grade-point average (HSGPA) by giving

additional "bonus points" for approved AP courses while others do not recalculate but

accept the school's weighted HSGPA. Regardless of how colleges evaluate students'

AP courses, yes, having AP courses on a transcript puts a student in a more

advantageous position as compared to non-AP students in admission decisions. Once,I remember a parent who was evaluating all the high schools in her district in terms of

their AP offerings to enroll her son. When she was asked why she was doing so, she

said it was because colleges look at the number of APs on an applicant's transcript to

make an admission decision. As a high school counselor, I know that this is a common

practice among upper middle-class parents to ensure their children get a college

admission. Thus, this puts great pressure on schools to expand their AP offerings.


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Q: Then, can I say that I will pay less tuition and save time?

A: Yes, indeed, taking AP courses in high school will save the student and parent, both

time and money. As of today, skipping an introductory course in college could

translate to an average of $3,000 per course. For example, one of my students took 9 AP

courses while she was in high school. It is equivalent to almost a year of time and

$27,000 money. Why would a reasonable parent and/or student miss this great

opportunity?

Q: But I am afraid that my daughter may not graduate from a college because many

high school students are not ready for college challenges both in terms of academics

and in life?

A: Yes, you are right to have such concerns because Lewis (2010) reports that just 56

percent of those who enroll in a four-year college earn a bachelor's degree. The number

one reason why the rate is low is because students are mostly unprepared for the

college experience. On the other hand, research has revealed that students who pass

AP exams are more likely to graduate college on time (College Board, 2011). For

example, in a study sponsored by the College Board, it was found that taking AP

courses in high school and passing the exams appear to help students perform better in

college classes and graduate on time. They analyzed four incoming classes at the

University of Texas from 1998 to 2001 by looking at their ten individual AP subjects.

These researchers reported that, "AP Credit students consistently outperformed non-

AP students of similar academic ability in all college outcome measures" (Keng &

Dodd, 2008, p. 1). Thus, taking AP courses and passing its exams usually put studentsone step ahead of their non-AP counterparts.

Moreover, according to Dillon's (1986) study, completion of AP courses convey to

colleges that students who have taken AP classes have developed scientific inquiry,

reasoning, problem solving, and analysis methods. In other words, they are more

ready for college challenges. As a result, it is not surprising to see that academically

prepared high school students are not only more successful in academic work in

college, but they are often more self-confident, have increased aspirations and "fit-in"more easily into college. This is true because AP students are exposed to the academic

rigor, expectations, and autonomy, which are usually linked with the content and

rationale of college curriculum. For instance, Syracuse University found that students

with AP credits showed as high as a 96% first-year retention rate while the national

average was 79% (Miller, 1994). Therefore, taking and completing AP courses help

students have a smoother transition from high school to college in terms of both

curriculum and lifestyle.


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Q: My last concern is about my daughter's senior year. I know from my oldest son who

didn't study much and skipped his classes a lot. Therefore, he barely passed his classes

and graduated. Thus, he did not get an admission to a 4-year college. Can my daughter

really take AP exams during her senior year?

A: All high school counselors know that "senioritis" is a disease and that it is

contagious and there's no vaccination or cure for it. Delicath (1998) found trends in AP

courses as they deal with high school seniors. Delicath stated that AP classes help solve

the problem of "senioritis," defined as senior-year boredom among capable high school

students who complete most of their graduation requirements by the end of their

junior year. The good news is that the seniors who enroll in AP courses often remain

more focused and attached to learning than their non-AP counterparts. Thus, seniors

overcome their stresses and last year boredom.

In conclusion, in light of all its benefits, I would strongly suggest all high school

administrators and counselors to be more knowledgeable about AP and try to create a

very strong AP program at their schools so they can send more students to four-year

colleges. Also, having a strong AP program at schools prevents students from

dropping out due to financial reasons, first generation fear, and so on. Therefore, it

should be the goal and duty of all high school teachers and counselors to inform and

prepare their capable students to benefits from this great opportunity.

Alpaslan Sahin, PhD from Texas A&M University, College Station TX, is a schooladministrator. His research area is Mathematics Education.

Issue 94 / July - August 2013http://sound.fountainmagazine.com/94/1511.mp3

On Language and ManSeyfi Agirel

Whata curious thing speech is! The tongue is so serviceable a member (taking all sorts of

shapes just as it is wanted) the teeth, the lips, the roof of the mouth, all ready to help; and so

heap up the sound of the voice into the solid bits which we call consonants, and make room for

the curiously shaped breathings which we call vowels!

Oliver Wendell Holmes


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The human language is different from the other species. While other animal

communication systems is designed to meet their basic needswhich are necessary to

develop survival strategies so that they can play their role in the ecosystemthe

human language has many additional facets which are absent in animals. We tell

stories, share ideas, exchange information, explain how to repair a flat tire, give advice,

ask the meaning of life, teach physics, tell a lie and so on. There are good reasons for

believing that a special relationship exists between human language and what makes

the human brain different from other mammals. (1)

How do people acquire language? What was the first language spoken on earth? These

and many other questions have occupied the minds of people for centuries. Hence,

language-related experiments date back to ancient times. The earliest experiments

were a type of language deprivation experiments in which infants were isolated from

their society to prevent any possible language contact. The experiment usually lasted

two years when the babbling stage was over. The first known experiment, which is

also cited as the first instance of using the experimental method in the study of social

phenomena, took place in Egypt. Pharaoh Psammetichus believed that Egyptians were

the most ancient race. In order to prove his hypothesis, he ordered two infants to be

brought up by a mute shepherd. He was curious to know which word the children

would articulate first. After two years, the children spoke the word becos which meant

bread in Phrygian. He admitted that Phrygians preceded them in antiquity. (2) A

more recent experiment took place in India in the sixteenth century. Sultan Akbar

believed that people learnt to speak by listening to one another. He ordered twoinfants and a mute nurse to be placed in one house. At the end of the experiment, the

babies failed to develop any language. This proved the validity of his hypothesis. He

was not the first to establish a link between language and society. Ibn Sina (Avicenna)

proposed that language was innate, that infants were born with the ability to speak,

and that language learning can take place in a society. (3) Rumi mentions a story about

an infant in his Mathnawi. A female tiger takes care of the infant. When the child

reaches age two, a fairy comes and teaches language and manners. The tale in

Mathnawi indicates that the socio-cognitive aspect of language was well-known by thepeople who lived centuries ago, and not a new phenomenon established by

contemporary linguists.

The above historical examples are related to the cognitive and social aspect of the

language.When we say that language is unique to humans, the first thing that comes to

mind is the cognitive aspect of language. However, the uniqueness of language is not

merely confined to cognition. There are other features of language which can be


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considered unique to humans. Anatomical, neurological and physiological aspects

make human language unique. This paper will focus on the anatomy of speech organs

and more importantly on the vocal tract.

Lungs, larynx, tongue, teeth, and lips make up the major speech organs of the body.

Location of the spinal cord also has a contribution to speech. The enlarged region of

the spinal cord is responsible for the voluntary control of breathing required by speech

production. (4) There is a delicate design in the order of the speech organs in the

human anatomy. They operate in such a harmonious way that any mismatch or

anatomical deformation of these organs will have a serious effect on speech

production. Therefore, the anatomical order of speech organs has a great role in their

functionality. If the larynx were located above its present location in the throat, it

would restrict vocalization and would not be useful for speech. Although humans

share speech organs with primates, just like it shares many other organs, no primate

can come up with language. Primates do not possess enough cognitive abilities to

speak like a human being. In fact, cognition is one aspect of the issue as mentioned

above. However, there is another thing that needs to be taken into consideration and

that is the anatomy of the vocal tract which is different in both humans and primates.

In order to produce human-like speech, a human-like vocal tract is needed.

The human vocal tract is unique to humans. The vocal tract can be viewed as an

acoustic tube extending from the larynx to the lips. It is the main source of the

resonances responsible for shaping the spectral envelope of the speech signal. Theshape of the vocal tract (or more accurately its area of function) at any point in time is

the most important determinant of the speech frequencies of the (oral) cavity. (5) The

vocal tract can be divided into two parts: Supralaryngeal Vocal Tract in the vertical

dimension and Supralaryngeal Vocal Tract in the horizontal dimension. SVTh includes

the oral cavity while SVTv includes the throat, pharynx, behind the tongue and above

the larynx. Interestingly, these two vertical and horizontal vocal tracts form a right

angle. They are approximately equal in length giving them a 1:1 proportion. The length

and the shape of the vocal tract is highly important in the formation of speech. (6)Vowels like [i], [u] and [a] can only be produced with the current anatomy of the

human vocal tract. These letters exist in almost all languages.

Cognitive scientist Philip Lieberman stated that the primate vocal tract is different

from the adult humans. Humans have a 1:1 ratio of vocal tract in the horizontal and

vertical dimension. However, primates have longer proportion in the horizontal

dimension. They have a relatively smaller tongue and oral cavity. The anatomical


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restrictions do not allow them to produce [i], [u] and [a] vowels. However, in the first

half of the twentieth century, linguists spent great efforts to train apes to speak like a

human being. After hours of laboratory training, some apes managed to learn a few

words. They uttered these words with a raspy pronunciation. Basically, the human

language experience of apes did not last long. The vocal tract of chimps may not

provide the articulators with enough degrees of freedom to articulate human speech

sounds. (8)

The position of the larynx is highly critical. The change in the position of the larynx

allows us to independently vary the area of the oral and pharyngeal tubes and to

create a broad variety of vocal tract shapes and formant patterns, thus expanding our

phonetic repertoire. (5) Human larynx is simpler in structure than that of other

primates. This is another advantage on the human side since air can move freely

through the nose and the mouth without being stopped by other appendages. The

other major anatomical difference between man and primate is the fact that human

beings have descended larynxes whereas the primates have their larynx situated above

the throat. Human infants also share a similar vocal tract distribution with primates.

This position of the larynx serves a vital function for the infant. The larynx works like a

seal blocking the nasal cavity. The infant can breathe while he or she is enjoying the

mothers milk. The milk goes directly to the esophagus through the mouth. The air

goes to the trachea through the nasal cavity and the larynx. This anatomical structure

allows the infant to suckle and breathe at the same time.

Speech organs inside the oral cavity such as tongue and teeth have great contribution

in the formation of the speech. In her book, The Articulate Mammal, Jean Aitchison

explains how human teeth are unusual compared to those of animals:

They are even in height, and form an unbroken barrier. They are upright, not slanting

outwards, and the top and bottom set meet. Such regularity is surprising it is

certainly not needed for eating. Yet evenly spaced, equal-sized teeth which touch one

another are valuable for the articulation of a number of sounds, S, F, and V, forexample, as well as SH (as in shut), TH (as in thin) and several others. Human lips

have muscles which are considerably more developed and show more intricate

interlacing than those in the lips of other primates. The mouth is relatively small, and

can be opened and shut rapidly. This makes it simple to pronounce sounds such as P

and B, which require a total stoppage of the airstream with the lips, followed by a

sudden release of pressure as the mouth is opened. The human tongue is thick,

muscular and mobile, as opposed to the long, thin tongues of monkeys. The advantage


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of a thick tongue is that the size of the mouth cavity can be varied allowing a range of

vowels to be pronounced. It seems, then, that humans are naturally geared to produce

a number of different sounds rapidly and in a controlled manner. (10)

In the light of comparative anatomy, it has become clear that every possible

configuration is made at an anatomical level to make humans speak. The design of the

vocal tract and the position of the speech organs tell us that the Creator wished for

humans to speak:(Having brought him into existence, God) taught Adam the names,

all of them. Then (in order to clarify the supremacy of humankind and the wisdom in

their being created and made vicegerent on the earth), He presented them (the things

and beings, whose names had been taught to Adam, with their names) to the angels,

and said, Now tell Me the names of these (Al-Baqarah, 2:31).

In a nutshell, human beings without language would serve no purpose in the universe.

In order to read and understand what the Creator wants from them, language serves

as a means of communication between human beings and their Creator.

Seyfi Agirel is a PhD candidate in Linguistics at Hacettepe University, Ankara. He is

also a lecturer at Turgut Ozal University.

Issue 76 / July - August 2010


Mother Tongue: The Language of Heart and Mind

Hurisa Guvercin

Today we are all witnessing an aspect of globalization which is the increasing

movement of people from one country to another for different purposes, such as

education, desire for a better life, the need for employment, escape from conflicts

between groups including oppression of one group by another, or natural disasters.

Whatever the reason, while such phenomenon may have a lot of benefits, living in

another country affects ones mother tongue. In my article I want to discuss why

parents and educators should support children learning and retaining their native

language. As a parent living far from my native country I have often experienced the


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fear that my children would not learn their mother language well. As an English as a

Second Language (ESL) teacher I have strongly encouraged my ESL students to

develop literacy in their mother tongue and to take pride in their culture and the

country they originated in.

Every language spoken in the world represents a special culture, melody, color, and

asset and to everyone the mother language is certainly one of the most precious

treasures in our lives. Its a duty and responsibility to preserve it and pass it down

from generation to generation. Whether we are urged by necessity or because of other

reasons, learning another language brings a lot of advantages in our life. A new

language opens a new window in our world view and makes us more aware, open-

minded, and respectful to other cultures, lifestyles, customs and beliefs. Moreover,

knowing another language has been proven to contribute to helping us understand our

mother tongue better. However, much research indicates that most children eventually

learn a second, or even more, languages to a native-like fluency level, what immigrant

families are not often aware of is that many of their children are at risk of losing their

mother tongue.

Mother language for emotional and mental growth

Mother language has a very powerful impact in the formation of the individual. Our

first language, the beautiful sounds of which one hears and gets familiar with before

being born while in the womb, has such an important role in shaping our thoughts and

emotions. A childs psychological and personality development will depend upon

what has been conveyed through the mother tongue. With this in mind, aspsychologists say, it matters tremendously that language expressions and vocabulary

are chosen with care when we talk to children. A childs first comprehension of the

world around him, the learning of concepts and skills, and his perception of existence,

starts with the language that is first taught to him, his mother tongue. In the same

manner, a child expresses his first feelings, his happiness, fears, and his first words

through his mother tongue. Mother language has such an important role in framing

our thinking, emotions and spiritual world, because the most important stage of our

life, childhood, is spent in its imprints. A strong bond between a child and his parents(especially mother) is established by virtue of love, compassion, body language, and

also through the most important one, which is the verbal language. When a person

speaks their mother tongue, a direct connection establishes between heart, brain and

tongue. Our personality, character, modesty, shyness, defects, our skills, and all other

hidden characteristics become truly revealed through the mother tongue because the

sound of the mother tongue in the ear and its meaning in the heart give us trust and

confidence. If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If


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you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart, says Nelson Mandela. I came

across an interesting article in support of the above. A study was carried out on fifteen

Italian interpreters who were working for the European Union and translating in

English and Italian. The interpreters were all extremely fluent in English. The study

revealed surprising differences in brain activity when the subjects were shown words

in their native language versus in other languages they spoke. About 170 milliseconds

after a word was shown, the researchers recorded a peak in electrical activity in the left

side of the brain, in an area that recognizes letters as part of words before their

meaning is interpreted. These brain waves had much higher amplitude when the word

was in Italian, the language the interpreters had learned before age five. The findings

show how differently the brain absorbs and recalls languages learned in early

childhood and later in life, said Alice Mado Proverbio, a professor of cognitive

electrophysiology at the Milano-Bicocca University in Milan. Proverbio attributed the

differences to the fact that the brain absorbs the mother tongue at a time when it is also

storing early visual, acoustic, emotional and other nonlinguistic knowledge. This

means that the native language triggers a series of associations within the brain that

show up as increased electrical activity. Our mother tongue is the language we use to

think, dream and feel emotion, Proverbio said.

Mother tongue is an indicator of cultural identity

A child connects to his parents, family, relatives, culture, history, identity and religion

through his mother tongue. Native language links the child with the culture of the

society the child comes from and shapes his identity. A lot of children from immigrantfamilies, who dont know their native language well, are at a crossroads of identity

crisis. When a child doesnt know his language well we cannot say that he will be

nurtured with his culture properly for the fact that the relationship between language

and culture is deeply rooted. Mother tongue is one of the most powerful tools used to

preserve and convey culture and cultural ties. Children who are unaware of their

culture, their language, and their history will lose confidence in themselves, the family,

society and the nation to which they belong and will have no other option then seeking

an alternate identity. A child will identify himself with the language and culture heknows best. For this reason, the attitudes and beliefs of immigrant parents are so

important in this aspect. If they want to prevent this from happening they should find

ways to help their children maintain and improve their mother language without

neglecting to give affirmative messages and keeping positive attitudes about other

cultures. We must not also forget that we live in a multicultural society and we should

teach our children to learn about other cultures and respect them as well.


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Mother tongue provides the basis for learning another language

Jim Cummins also underscores the importance of preserving mother tongue:

Children who come to school with a strong foundation in their mother tongue

develop stronger literacy abilities in the language used at school. When parents or

caregivers are able to spend time with their children and tell stories or discuss issues

with them in a way that develops their mother tongue vocabulary and concepts,

children come to school well prepared to learn the language of their immigrant

country and succeed educationally.

The ability to converse in a language is developed through the mother tongue. The

child will get familiarized with the nuances of a language, how to learn it and use it,

and this will enable him or her to learn other languages as well. A strong foundation in

their first language will contribute to learning another language and help them

develop stronger literacy skills in the school language, because childrens literacy

knowledge and abilities transfer across languages from mother tongue to the language

the child is learning at school. When children continue to develop their abilities in two

or more languages throughout their primary school years they gain a deeper

understanding of language and gradually acquire knowledge about how it can be

manipulated and applied in different ways. They explore the similarities and

differences between languages. Unfortunately, for many bilingual children who have

little mother tongue support at home, once they start school their mother tongue is

gradually replaced by the majority or dominantly used language, especially in the

early school years. Some parents and educators believe that in order for children tolearn a second language quickly and succeed at school children should use the

majority language not only at school, but even at home. In fact the opposite is true.

Children can learn two or more languages at the same time. We know children who

learn to speak fluently two or three languages in some countries where more than one

language are spoken. Researches show that children from immigrant families learn the

social majority language in the early years at school very quickly, although it takes

longer to learn academic language, and can lose their ability to use their mother

tongues easily. They can lose it even in the home context if the mother language is notused constantly at home or among peers of the same community. They may retain

comprehension, but will use the majority language with siblings, friends, and parents.

Unfortunately, I often see kids from the same minority community speak the majority

language instead of their mother tongue among themselves, even when they are

outside school. Preferring second language to first language most often occurs because

children do not know how to express themselves fluently in their mother tongue in

certain contexts and situations. They lack vocabulary and literal expressions in the


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mother tongue and find it easier to express themselves in the majority language. As

children grow up, parents see the linguistic gap between them and their children has

widened and leading to an emotional disconnection.

How to promote mother tongue

Keeping mother tongue in a foreign country does not happen spontaneously. Instead,

it is an achievement that requires commitment and determination, especially from the

family. Parents must establish a strong home language policy and make consistent

efforts to help their children develop good literacy skills in their first language.

Here are some ideas about how parents can promote learning mother tongue:

-The first step parents should take is make children love mother tongue by finding

ways that motivate and encourage its learning.

-Leave second language to the outside world and speak to children only in your

mother tongue at home.

-Devote time each day to reading and writing in mother tongue with children until

they become able to read and write it independently.

-Tell stories and discuss interesting topics such as your childhood-children love to hear

about parents childhoods-your home country celebrations, because this will develop

both their oral and vocabulary skills.

-Have books and multimedia for children in the home language.

- Provide a reward system and make learning mother language competitive amongchildren.

-Watch TV series or favorite cartoons with them in the target language.

-Listen to songs in mother tongue.

-Send children to centers that offer courses and other types of learning in your

language.

-Provide contexts where children can use home language such as visits to country of

origin, organize picnics, cultural events, or celebrations with families from the same

community.-Have them keep journals in home language.

-Communicate your expectations about your home language to your childs teachers.

As professionals, they can encourage and support your child in keeping and

developing their home language in many ways.

Hurisa Guvercin is an ESL and Special Education Teacher, currently living in New Jersey.


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Issue 91 / January - February 2013


Little Professor Syndrome

Safiye Arslan

Autismand its milder cousin Aspergersaffects 1 in 150 children across

the US. Speculation goes that people like Albert Einstein, Benjamin Franklin,

Leonardo da Vinci,

William Shakespeare and Ibn al-Haytham had this so-called littleprofessors

syndrome.

Our hearts are broken today said the President Obama after the school shooting in

Connecticut on December 14, 2012. These words reflected most concisely the emotions

all of us felt that tragic day, as our minds and hearts failed to grasp how possibly this

could have happened, how come a seemingly human being could go this much lower

than the wildest beasts. One of the ideas that was proposed to explain this murky

situation was that the gunman had an Aspergers syndrome, which was immediately

refused by experts. "First and foremost, our thoughts go out to the families," says Lisa

Goring, vice president of family services for Autism Speaks. "We are all searching foranswers, but it can be so irresponsible to label autism as the cause of this because we

endanger totally innocent kids" (1). This article aims to explain what the Aspergers

Syndrome is about in an effort to save especially kids with this syndrome from another

stigma that they have to deal with on top of so many other things.

Thirty years ago, only 4 or 5 Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) cases were reported per

10,000 people. Today, however, approximately 1 in 150 children across the U.S. is

diagnosed with it; so chances are, you know someone affected either directly or

indirectly by these disorders (2). This being the case, the debates, advocacy, andawareness activities are on the rise. Individuals with ASD show abnormal social

interactions, language difficulties, repetitive or restrictive behaviors, and special

interests. ASD includes Autism, Pervasive Developmental Disorder and Aspergers

Syndrome (3).

Aspergers syndrome was first recognized by HansAsperger in 1944 and the term was

popularized by English psychiatrist, Lorna Wing, in 1981. The incidence of this

syndrome is not well established, but experts in population studies estimate that two


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out of every 10,000 children have the disorder. It is more common in boys. They are

three to four times more likely than girls to have Aspergers syndrome (ninds.nih.gov).

However, the prevalence in females might be lower because of the fundamental lack of

awareness of what Aspergers Syndrome looks like in females. A female with

Aspergers Syndrome might be considered as shy, quiet, perfect at school, tomboyish,

moody, overly competitive, aloof, Gothic, depressed, anxious, or a perfectionist

(disabled-world.com).

It is always challenging for people with Aspergers to lead a normal life in spite of it

because this disorder makes it hard to develop social and conversational skills.

Affected people display socially and emotionally inappropriate behavior, limited facial

expressions, body gestures and inability to recognize nonverbal signals. They lack

interest in other people; however, they are obsessively interested in unusual and

specific subjects. In addition, they prefer to follow repetitive routines or rituals because

they cannot cope with unexpected changes.

Children with Aspergers Syndrome

A child with Aspergers syndrome may have the listed signs and symptoms

(kidshealth.org):

inappropriate or minimal social interactions

conversations almost always revolving around self rather than others

scripted, robotic, or repetitive speech

lack of common sense

problems with reading, math, or writing skills

obsession with complex topics such as patterns or music average to below-average nonverbal cognitive abilities, though verbal cognitive

abilities are usually average to above-average

awkward movements

odd behaviors or mannerisms

lack of eye contact

Parents usually sense there is something abnormal about a child with Aspergers by

the time of his or her third birthday, and some children may exhibit symptoms as early

as infancy. Their early language skills retain but motor development delays (forexample, crawling or walking late, clumsiness) are sometimes the first indicator of the

disorder (ninds.nih.gov).

Hans Asperger called the children with these behaviors little professors because they

could talk continuously and in great detail about their favorite subjects. These little

professors may have an amazing ability to recall dates, names, and events. One parent

laughs about how her ten-year-old knew the scientific name of everyday thingsfrom

the sugar in the kitchen to the trees in the backyard. He would keep discussing things


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using the scientific classification (yourlittleprofessor.com).

Most children with Aspergers syndrome have difficulty interacting with their peers

due to the problems in understanding figurative language and tendency to use

language literally. Children with this syndrome do not recognize non-literal language

that includes humor, irony, and teasing. They struggle just to understand common

social cues so they are mostly loners and may display odd behaviors. A child with

Aspergers, for example, may spend hours each day preoccupied with counting cars

passing on the street or watching only the weather channel on television. Children

with Aspergers syndrome are also at risk for other psychiatric problems including

depression, attention deficit disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive

disorder (aacap.org).

While the more obvious symptoms of autism are usually at their most florid in early

childhood, the symptoms of Aspergers syndrome may only become noticeable with

the social and functional demands of adolescence (autism.net.au). Luke Jackson, a

thirteen-year-old boy with Aspergers Syndrome from England, wrote a book named

Freaks, Geeks and Aspergers Syndrome: A User Guide to Adolescence. He wrote this

informative, sincere and entertaining book about complicated topics such as bullying,

friendships, when and how to tell others about Aspergers syndrome, school problems,

dating, relationships and morality (4).

The idea that every child with Aspergers syndrome is a potential genius can put

excessive pressure on a child with Aspergers syndrome (yourlittleprofessor.com).

Luke Jackson, for example, complains that he is always watching television about high

functioning autistic people who can do things like play the piano brilliantly withouttaking lessons, draw detailed renditions of buildings they had only seen once or add

numbers in their heads like Rain Man. I find these television programs depressing,

he says. I got all the nerdiness and freakishness but none of the genius.

Seeing a child struggle socially and emotionally can be particularly heartbreaking for

parents. Children who had seemed to be developing in normal and delightful ways

suddenly retreat into their own world, excluding their loving moms and dads in the

process after being diagnosed with ASDs. Learning more about ASDs can help parents

take charge of their child again and find treatments and therapies that work(specialchildren.about.com). In some states, expanded services are available through

public school programs. The most valuable service might be parent in-home training

with a behavior specialist sponsored by the school. Moreover, parent education and

skill building groups organized by some hospitals or health centers can be helpful for

parents of youth with ASDs.

Speculations about famous people with Aspergers Syndrome

There are many famous people for whom there is a lot of speculation that they had


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Aspergers Syndrome (5 and 6), such as Albert Einstein, Benjamin Franklin, Leonardo

da Vinci, William Shakespeare and Ibn al-Haytham. We may never know for sure if all

these people have been affected by Aspergers syndrome. However, most of the listed

geniuses focused on something which interested them and their works were not

disrupted by the everyday interactions that take up so much time for the rest of us.

This might be the key factor behind all their great inventions. Then we can think of

their Aspergers syndrome as a blessing for humanity, because it does give certain

strengths and brilliance to these scientists or pioneers that others do not have. In brief,

Aspergers syndrome is not a handicap, but rather a collection of strengths and

challenges. If Aspergers individuals are supported as they explore their capabilities,

they can build on their strengths; they can even be the most successful people in

history.

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