Fossil-fuel Power Station

8/10/2019 Fossil-fuel Power Station

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Fossil-fuel power station 1

Fossil-fuel power station

A working coal plant in Rochester, Minnesota

The St. Clair Power Plant, a large coal-fired

generating station in Michigan.

Sources of electricity in the U.S. in 2009.[1]

Fossil fuel power stations have rotating machinery to convert the heat

energy of combustion into mechanical energy, which then operates an

electrical generator. The prime mover may be a steam turbine, a gas

turbine or, in small plants, a reciprocating internal combustion engine.

All plants use the energy extracted from expanding gas - steam or

combustion gases. Very few MHD generators have been built which

directly convert the energy of moving hot gas into electricity.

Byproducts of thermal power plant operation must be considered in

their design and operation. Waste heat energy, which remains due to

the finite efficiency of the Carnot, Rankine, or Diesel power cycle, is

released directly to the atmosphere, directly to river or lake water, or

indirectly to the atmosphere using a cooling tower with river or lake

water used as a cooling medium. The flue gas from combustion of thefossil fuels is discharged to the air. This gas contains carbon dioxide,

water vapour, as well as substances such as nitrogen oxides (NOx),

sulfur oxides (SOx), mercury, traces of other metals, and, for coal-fired

plants, fly ash. Solid waste ash from coal-fired boilers must also be

removed. Some coal ash can be recycled for building materials.[]

Fossil fueled power stations are major emitters of CO2, a greenhouse

gas (GHG) which according to a consensus opinion of scientific

organisations is a contributor to global warming as it has been

observed over the last 100 years. Brown coal emits about 3 times as

much CO2

as natural gas, and black coal emits about twice as much

CO2

per unit of electric energy. Carbon capture and storage of

emissions is not expected to be available on a commercial

economically viable basis until government supported legislation is

enacted.

Basic concepts

In a fossil fuel power plant the chemical energy stored in fossil fuels

such as coal, fuel oil, natural gas or oil shale and oxygen of the air is

converted successively into thermal energy, mechanical energy and, finally, electrical energy. Each fossil fuel power

plant is a complex, custom-designed system. Construction costs, as of 2004[2], run to US$1,300 per kilowatt, or

$650 million for a 500 MWe unit[citation needed]

. Multiple generating units may be built at a single site for more

efficient use of land, natural resources and labour. Most thermal power stations in the world use fossil fuel,

outnumbering nuclear, geothermal, biomass, or solar thermal plants.
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Heat into mechanical energy

The second law of thermodynamics states that any closed-loop cycle can only convert a fraction of the heat produced

during combustion into mechanical work. The rest of the heat, called waste heat, must be released into a cooler

environment during the return portion of the cycle. The fraction of heat released into a cooler medium must be equal

or larger than the ratio of absolute temperatures of the cooling system (environment) and the heat source

(combustion furnace). Raising the furnace temperature improves the efficiency but complicates the design, primarilyby the selection of alloys used for construction, making the furnace more expensive. The waste heat cannot be

converted into mechanical energy without an even cooler cooling system. However, it may be used in cogeneration

plants to heat buildings, produce hot water, or to heat materials on an industrial scale, such as in some oil refineries,

plants, and chemical synthesis plants.

Typical thermal efficiency for utility-scale electrical generators is around 33% for coal and oil-fired plants, and 56

60% (LHV) for combined-cycle gas-fired plants. Plants designed to achieve peak efficiency while operating at

capacity will be less efficient when operating off-design (i.e. temperatures too low.)[]

Practical fossil-fuel stations operating as heat engines cannot exceed the Carnot cycle limit for conversion of heat

energy into useful work. Fuel cells do not have the same thermodynamic limits as they are not heat engines.

Coal

Diagram of a typical steam-cycle coal power plant (proceeding from left to right)

Coal fired power plant Mainz (camouflage conceptual design)

Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel on the

planet. It is a relatively cheap fuel, with

some of the largest deposits in regions that

are relatively stable politically, such as

China, India and the United States. This

contrasts with natural gas and petroleum, the

largest deposits of which are located in the

politically volatile Persian Gulf. Solid coal

cannot directly replace natural gas or

petroleum in most applications, petroleum is

mostly used for transportation and the

natural gas not used for electricity

generation is used for space, water and

industrial heating. Coal can be converted to

gas or liquid fuel, but the efficiencies and

economics of such processes can make them

unfeasible.[citation needed]

Vehicles or heaters

may require modification to use

coal-derived fuels. Coal can produce more

pollution than petroleum or natural gas.

As of 2009[2] the largest coal-fired power

station is Taichung Power Plant in Taiwan.

The world's most energy-efficient coal-fired power plant is the Avedre Power Station in Denmark.[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Denmarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aved%C3%B8re_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taiwanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taichung_Power_Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil-fuel_power_station&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Space_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electricity_generationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electricity_generationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transportationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persian_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3APower_station_mainz.conceptual_design.direction_southeast.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camouflagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mainzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ACoal_fired_power_plant_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fuel_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carnot_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Combined-cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oil_refineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cogenerationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Absolute_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waste_heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanical_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thermodynamic_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_law_of_thermodynamics


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Fuel transport and delivery

Big Bend Coal Power Station in Apollo Beach, Florida in the United

States.

Coal-fired power plants provide about 46% of consumed electricity

in the United States. This is the Castle Gate Plant near Helper, Utah.

Coal is delivered by highway truck, rail, barge, collier

ship or coal slurry pipeline. Some plants are even built

near coal mines and coal is delivered by conveyors. A

large coal train called a "unit train" may be two

kilometers (over a mile) long, containing 130-140 cars

with 100 short tons of coal in each one, for a total load

of over 15,000 tons. A large plant under full load

requires at least one coal delivery this size every day.

Plants may get as many as three to five trains a day,

especially in "peak season" during the hottest summer

or coldest winter months (depending on local climate)

when power consumption is high. A large thermal

power plant such as the one in Nanticoke, Ontario

stores several million metric tons of coal for winter use

when the lakes are frozen.

Modern unloaders use rotary dump devices, which

eliminate problems with coal freezing in bottom dump

cars. The unloader includes a train positioner arm that

pulls the entire train to position each car over a coal

hopper. The dumper clamps an individual car against a

platform that swivels the car upside down to dump the

coal. Swiveling couplers enable the entire operation to

occur while the cars are still coupled together.

Unloading a unit train takes about three hours.

Shorter trains may use railcars with an "air-dump",

which relies on air pressure from the engine plus a "hot

shoe" on each car. This "hot shoe" when it comes into

contact with a "hot rail" at the unloading trestle, shoots an electric charge through the air dump apparatus and causes

the doors on the bottom of the car to open, dumping the coal through the opening in the trestle. Unloading one of

these trains takes anywhere from an hour to an hour and a half. Older unloaders may still use manually operated

bottom-dump rail cars and a "shaker" attached to dump the coal. Generating stations adjacent to a mine may receive

coal by conveyor belt or massive diesel-electric-drive trucks.

A collier (cargo ship carrying coal) may hold 40,000 long tons of coal and takes several days to unload. Some

colliers carry their own conveying equipment to unload their own bunkers; others depend on equipment at the plant.

Colliers are large, seaworthy, self-powered ships. For transporting coal in calmer waters, such as rivers and lakes,

flat-bottomed vessels called barges are often used. Barges are usually unpowered and must be moved by tugboats or

towboats.

For start up or auxiliary purposes, the plant may use fuel oil as well. Fuel oil can be delivered to plants by pipeline,

tanker, tank car or truck. Oil is stored in vertical cylindrical steel tanks with capacities as high as 90,000 barrels

(14,000 m3)' worth. The heavier no. 5 "bunker" and no. 6 fuels are typically steam-heated before pumping in cold

climates.

Plants fueled by natural gas are usually built adjacent to gas transport pipelines or have dedicated gas pipelines

extended to them.
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Fuel processing

Coal is prepared for use by crushing the rough coal to pieces less than 2 inches (5 cm) in size. The coal is then

transported from the storage yard to in-plant storage silos by rubberized conveyor belts at rates up to 4,000 short tons

per hour.

In plants that burn pulverized coal, silos feed coal pulverizers (coal mills) that take the larger 2-inch (51 mm) pieces,

grind them to the consistency of face powder, sort them, and mix them with primary combustion air which transports

the coal to the boiler furnace and preheats the coal in order to drive off excess moisture content. A 500 MWe plant

may have six such pulverizers, five of which can supply coal to the furnace at 250 tons per hour under full load.

In plants that do not burn pulverized coal, the larger 2-inch (51 mm) pieces may be directly fed into the silos which

then feed either mechanical distributors that drop the coal on a traveling grate or the cyclone burners, a specific kind

of combustor that can efficiently burn larger pieces of fuel.

Steam-electric

Most electric power made from fossil fuel is produced by thermal power stations. Reciprocating steam engines fell

out of use rapidly after the first steam turbines were introduced around 1906.

Gas turbine plants

480 megawatt GE H series power generation gas turbine

One type of fossil fuel power plant uses a

gas turbine in conjunction with a heat

recovery steam generator (HRSG). It is

referred to as a combined cycle power plant

because it combines the Brayton cycle of the

gas turbine with the Rankine cycle of the

HRSG. The thermal efficiency of theseplants has reached a record heat rate of 5690

Btu/(kWh), or just under 60%, at a facility

in Baglan Bay, Wales.[4]

The turbines are fueled either with natural

gas, syngas or fuel oil. While more efficient

and faster to construct (a 1,000 MW plant

may be completed in as little as 18 months

from start of construction), the economics of

such plants is heavily influenced by the volatile cost of fuel, normally natural gas. The combined cycle plants are

designed in a variety of configurations composed of the number of gas turbines followed by the steam turbine. For

example, a 3-1 combined cycle facility has three gas turbines tied to one steam turbine. The configurations range

from (1-1), (2-1), (3-1), (4-1), (5-1), to (6-1)[citation needed]
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Currant Creek Power Plant near Mona, Utah is a natural gas fired electrical plant.

Simple-cycle or open cycle gas turbine

plants, without a steam cycle, are sometimes

installed as emergency or peaking capacity;

their thermal efficiency is much lower. The

high running cost per hour is offset by the

low capital cost and the intention to run suchunits only a few hundred hours per year.

Other gas turbine plants are installed in

stages, with an open cycle gas turbine the

first stage and additional turbines or

conversion to a closed cycle part of future

project plans.

Reciprocating engines

Diesel engine generator sets are often usedfor prime power in communities not connected to a widespread power grid. Emergency (standby) power systems

may use reciprocating internal combustion engines operated by fuel oil or natural gas. Standby generators may serve

as emergency power for a factory or data center, or may also be operated in parallel with the local utility system to

reduce peak power demand charge from the utility. Diesel engines can produce strong torque at relatively low

rotational speeds, which is generally desirable when driving an alternator, but diesel fuel in long-term storage can be

subject to problems resulting from water accumulation and chemical decomposition. Rarely used generator sets may

correspondingly be installed as natural gas or LPG to minimize the fuel system maintenance requirements.

Spark-ignition internal combustion engines operating on gasoline (petrol), propane, or LPG are commonly used as

portable temporary power sources for construction work, emergency power, or recreational uses.

Reciprocating external combustion engines such as the Stirling engine can be run on a variety of fossil fuels, as well

as renewable fuels or industrial waste heat. Installations of Stirling engines for power production are relatively

uncommon.
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Environmental impacts

The Mohave Power Station, a 1,580 MW coal power station near Laughlin,

Nevada, out of service since 2005 due to environmental restrictions[5]

The world's power demands are expected to

rise 60% by 2030.[]

In 2007 there were over

50,000 active coal plants worldwide and this

number is expected to grow.[6]

In 2004, the

International Energy Agency (IEA)

estimated that fossil fuels will account for

85% of the energy market by 2030.[]

World organizations and international

agencies, like the IEA, are concerned about

the environmental impact of burning fossil

fuels, and coal in particular. The combustion

of coal contributes the most to acid rain and

air pollution, and has been connected with

global warming. Due to the chemicalcomposition of coal there are difficulties in

removing impurities from the solid fuel

prior to its combustion. Modern day coal power plants pollute less than older designs due to new "scrubber"

technologies that filter the exhaust air in smoke stacks; however emission levels of various pollutants are still on

average several times greater than natural gas power plants. In these modern designs, pollution from coal-fired

power plants comes from the emission of gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide into the

air.

Acid rain is caused by the emission of nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. These gases may be only mildly acidic

themselves, yet when they react with the atmosphere, they create acidic compounds such as sulfurous acid, nitric

acid and sulfuric acid which fall as rain, hence the term acid rain. In Europe and the U.S.A., stricter emission laws

and decline in heavy industries have reduced the environmental hazards associated with this problem, leading to

lower emissions after their peak in 1960s.

In 2008, the European Environment Agency (EEA) documented fuel-dependent emission factors based on actual

emissions from power plants in the European Union.[]

Pollutant Hard coal Brown coal Fuel oil Other oil Gas

CO2

(g/GJ) 94,600 101,000 77,400 74,100 56,100

SO2

(g/GJ) 765 1,361 1,350 228 0.68

NOx (g/GJ) 292 183 195 129 93.3

CO (g/GJ) 89.1 89.1 15.7 15.7 14.5

Non methane organic compounds (g/GJ) 4.92 7.78 3.70 3.24 1.58

Particulate matter (g/GJ) 1,203 3,254 16 1.91 0.1

Flue gas volume total (m3/GJ)

360 444 279 276 272
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Carbon dioxide

Electricity generation using carbon based fuels is responsible for a large fraction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions

worldwide and for 34% of U.S. man-made carbon dioxide emissions in 2010. In the U.S., 70% of electricity

generation is produced from combustion of fossil fuels.[7]

Of the fossil fuels, coal is much more carbon intensive than oil or natural gas, resulting in greater volumes of carbon

dioxide emissions per unit of electricity generated. In 2010, coal contributed about 81% of CO2 emissions from

generation and contributed about 45% of the electricity generated in the United States.[8]

In 2000, the carbon

intensity of U.S. coal thermal combustion was 2249 lbs/MWh (1,029 kg/MWh).[9]

) while the carbon intensity of

U.S. oil thermal generation was 1672 lb/MWh (758 kg/MWh or 211 kg/GJ)[10]

and the carbon intensity of U.S.

natural gas thermal production was 1135 lb/MWh (515 kg/MWh or 143 kg/GJ).[11]

)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (see IPCC) states that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and that

increased quantities within the atmosphere will "very likely" lead to higher average temperatures on a global scale

(global warming); concerns regarding the potential for such warming to change the global climate prompted IPCC

recommendations calling for large cuts to CO2

emissions worldwide.[]

Emissions may be reduced through more efficient and higher combustion temperature and through more efficient

production of electricity within the cycle. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) of emissions from coal-fired power

stations is another alternative but the technology is still being developed and will increase the cost of fossil

fuel-based production of electricity. CCS may not be economically viable, unless the price of emitting CO2

to the

atmosphere rises.

Particulate matter

Another problem related to coal combustion is the emission of particulates that have a serious impact on public

health. Power plantsremove particulate from the flue gas with the use of a bag house or electrostatic precipitator.

Several newer plants that burn coal use a different process, Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle in which

synthesis gas is made out of a reaction between coal and water. The synthesis gas is processed to remove mostpollutants and then used initially to power gas turbines. Then the hot exhaust gases from the gas turbines are used to

generate steam to power a steam turbine. The pollution levels of such plants are drastically lower than those of

"classic" coal power plants.[12]

Particulate matter from coal-fired plants can be harmful and have negative health impacts. Studies have shown that

exposure to particulate matter is related to an increase of respiratory and cardiac mortality.[13]

Particulate matter can

irritate small airways in the lungs, which can lead to increased problems with asthma, chronic bronchitis, airway

obstruction, and gas exchange.[13]

There are different types of particulate matter, depending on the chemical composition and size. The dominant form

of particulate matter from coal-fired plants is coal fly ash, but secondary sulfate and nitrate also comprise a major

portion of the particulate matter from coal-fired plants.[14] Coal fly ash is what remains after the coal has been

combusted, so it consists of the incombustible materials that are found in the coal.[15]

The size and chemical composition of these particles affects the impacts on human health.[13][14]

Currently coarse

(diameter greater than 2.5 m) and fine (diameter between 0.1 m and 2.5 m) particles are regulated, but ultrafine

particles (diameter less than 0.1 m) are currently unregulated, yet they pose many dangers.[13]

Unfortunately much

is still unknown as to which kinds of particulate matter pose the most harm, which makes it difficult to come up with

adequate legislation for regulating particulate matter.[14]

There are several methods of helping to reduce the particulate matter emissions from coal-fired plants. Roughly 80%

of the ash falls into an ash hopper, but the rest of the ash then gets carried into the atmosphere to become coal-fly

ash.[15]

Methods of reducing these emissions of particulate matter include:

1. a baghouse
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baghouse%23Fabric_filtershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baghouse%23Fabric_filtershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baghouse%23Fabric_filtershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fly_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Synthesis_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Combined_cycle%23Integrated_Gasification_Combined_Cycle_%28IGCC%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrostatic_precipitatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dust_collector%23Fabric_filtershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_particulate_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_capture_and_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IPCChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gigajoulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide


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2. an electrostatic precipitator (ESP)

3.3. cyclone collector

The baghouse has a fine filter that collects the ash particles, electrostatic precipitators use an electric field to trap ash

particles on high-voltage plates, and cyclone collectors use centrifugal force to trap particles to the walls.[15]

A recent

study indicates that sulfur emissions from fossil fueled power stations in China may have caused a 10-year lull in

global warming (1998-2008)

[16]

Radioactive trace elements

Coal is a sedimentary rock formed primarily from accumulated plant matter, and it includes many inorganic minerals

and elements which were deposited along with organic materialduring its formation. As the rest of the Earth's crust,

coal also contains lowlevels of uranium, thorium, and other naturally occurring radioactive isotopes whose release

into the environment leads to radioactive contamination. While these substances are present as very small trace

impurities, enough coal is burned that significant amounts of these substances are released. A 1,000 MW

coal-burning power plant could have an uncontrolled release of as much as 5.2 metric tons per year of uranium

(containing 74 pounds (34 kg) of uranium-235) and 12.8 metric tons per year of thorium.[17]

In comparison, a 1,000

MW nuclear plant will generate about 30 short tons of high-level radioactive solid packed waste per year. [18] It is

estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much uncontrolled radioactivity into the

atmosphere as the Three Mile Island incident.[19]

The collective radioactivity resulting from all coal burning

worldwide between 1937 and 2040 is estimated to be 2,700,000 curies or 0.101 EBq.[17]

It should also be noted that

during normal operation, the effective dose equivalent from coal plants is 100 times that from nuclear plants.[17]

But

it is also worth noting that normal operation is a deceiving baseline for comparison: just the Chernobyl nuclear

disaster released, in iodine-131 alone, an estimated 1.76 EBq .[]

of radioactivity, a value one order of magnitude

above this value for total emissions from all coal burned within a century. But at the same time, it shall also be

understood that the iodine-131, the major radioactive substance which comes out in accident situations has a half life

of just 8 days. Hence, it is not going to cause as much as damage as the uranium and thorium which are released

from coal-fired power plants which have much higher half-lives. Also, the risk of exposure to I-131 can largely be

mitigated by the consumption of iodine tablets.

Water and air contamination by coal ash

A study released in August 2010 that examined state pollution data in the United States by the organizations

Environmental Integrity Project, the Sierra Club and Earthjustice found that coal ash produced by coal-fired power

plants dumped at sites across 21 U.S. states has contaminated ground water with toxic elements. The contaminants

including the poisons arsenic and lead.[20]

Arsenic has been shown to cause skin cancer, bladder cancer and lung cancer, and lead damages the nervous

system.

[21]

Coal ash contaminants are also linked to respiratory diseases and other health and developmentalproblems, and have disrupted local aquatic life.

[20]Coal ash also releases a variety of toxic contaminants into nearby

air, posing a health threat to those who breath in fugitive coal dust.[21]

Currently, the EPA does not regulate the disposal of coal ash; regulation is up to the states and the electric power

industry has been lobbying to maintain this status quo. Most states require no monitoring of drinking water near coal

ash dump sites. The study found an additional 39 contaminated U.S. sites and concluded that the problem of coal

ash-caused water contamination is even more extensive in the United States than has been estimated. The study

brought to 137 the number of ground water sites across the United States that are contaminated by power

plant-produced coal ash.[20]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skin_cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bladder_cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lung_cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nervous_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nervous_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nervous_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lung_cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bladder_cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skin_cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earthjusticehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sierra_Clubhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_Integrity_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uranium-235http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_isotopeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thoriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uraniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crust_%28geology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Combined_cycle%23Integrated_Gasification_Combined_Cycle_%28IGCC%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrostatic_precipitator


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Alternatives to fossil fuel power plants

Alternatives to fossil fuel power plants include nuclear power, solar power, geothermal power, wind power, tidal

power, hydroelectric power (hydroelectricity) and other renewable energies (see non-carbon economy). Some of

these are proven technologies on an industrial scale (i.e. nuclear, wind, tidal and hydroelectric power) others are still

in prototype form.

Nuclear power, and geothermal power may be classed as heat pollutants as they add heat energy to the biosphere that

would not otherwise be released.[citation needed]

The net quantity of energy conversion within the biosphere due to the

utilisation of wind power, solar power, tidal power, hydroelectric power (hydroelectricity) is static and is derived

from the effects of sunlight and the movement of the moon and planets. It may be argued that the net release of

geothermal energy into the biosphere through volcanic activity is mitigated slightly over time due to the draw down

of heat energy by geothermal power stations.[citation needed]

This would entail an extremely complex analysis to

resolve for individual installations.

Generally, the cost of electrical energy produced by non fossil fuel burning power plants is greater than that

produced by burning fossil fuels. This statement however only includes the cost to produce the electrical energy and

does not take into account indirect costs associated with the many pollutants created by burning fossil fuels (e.g.

increased hospital admissions due respiratory diseases caused by fine smoke particles).

Relative cost by generation source

See also Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources

When comparing power plant costs, it is customary to start by calculating the cost of power at the generator

terminals by considering several main factors. External costs such as connections costs, the effect of each plant on

the distribution grid are considered separately as an additional cost to the calculated power cost at the terminals.

Initial factors considered are:

Capital costs (including waste disposal and decommissioning costs for nuclear energy)

Operating and maintenance costs

Fuel costs (for fossil fuel and biomass sources, and which may be negative for wastes)

Likely annual hours per year run or load factor (may be 30% for wind energy, but 90% for nuclear energy)

Offset sales of heat (for example in combined heat and power district heating (CHP/DH)).

These costs occur over the 3050 year life of the fossil fuel power plants, using discounted cash flows. In general

large fossil plants are attractive due to their low initial capital coststypically around 7501000 per kilowatt

electrical compared to perhaps 1500 per kilowatt for onshore wind.[citation needed]

References

[1] EIA.doe.go-fuel power station is a type of [[power station(http://www.eia.doe. gov/cneaf/electricity/epm/table1_1.html)] that burns

fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas or petroleum (oil) to produce electricity. Central station fossil-fuel power plants are designed on a large

scale for continuous operation. In many countries, such plants provide most of the electrical energy used.

[2] http://en. wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Fossil-fuel_power_station&action=edit

[3] Avedre Power Station (http://www.dongenergy. com/en/business activities/generation/electricity generation/primary power stations/

pages/avedore power station. aspx) from the web page of DONG Energy

[4] GE Powers H Series Turbine (http://www.ge-energy. com/prod_serv/products/gas_turbines_cc/en/h_system/index. htm)

[5] SEC Mohave Generation Station (http://www.sce.com/PowerandEnvironment/PowerGeneration/MohaveGenerationStation/) Retrieved

24-07-2008

[9] US EPA Clean EnergyCoal(http://www.epa. gov/cleanrgy/energy-and-you/affect/coal.html)

[10] US EPA Clean EnergyOil(http://www.epa. gov/cleanrgy/energy-and-you/affect/oil.html)

[11] US EPA Clean EnergyGas(http://www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/energy-and-you/affect/natural-gas.html)

[13][13] Nel, A. (2005, May 6). Air Pollution-Related Illness: Effects of Particles. Science, 308(5723), 804-806.[14] Grahame, T., & Schlesinger, R. (2007, April 15). Health Effects of Airborne Particulate Matter: Do We Know Enough to Consider

Regulating Specific Particle Types or Sources?. Inhalation Toxicology, 19(67), 457481.
http://www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/energy-and-you/affect/natural-gas.htmlhttp://www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/energy-and-you/affect/oil.htmlhttp://www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/energy-and-you/affect/coal.htmlhttp://www.sce.com/PowerandEnvironment/PowerGeneration/MohaveGenerationStation/http://www.ge-energy.com/prod_serv/products/gas_turbines_cc/en/h_system/index.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DONG_Energyhttp://www.dongenergy.com/en/business%20activities/generation/electricity%20generation/primary%20power%20stations/pages/avedore%20power%20station.aspxhttp://www.dongenergy.com/en/business%20activities/generation/electricity%20generation/primary%20power%20stations/pages/avedore%20power%20station.aspxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil-fuel_power_station&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil_fuelhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epm/table1_1.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Discounted_cash_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relative_cost_of_electricity_generated_by_different_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydroelectricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tidal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wind_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Non-carbon_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydroelectricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tidal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tidal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wind_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power


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[15] Schobert, H. H. (2002).Energy and Society. New York: Taylor & Francis, 241255.

[16] Washington Post 7-5-2011 | http://www.washingtonpost. com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/post/

new-study-blames-10-year-lull-in-global-warming-on-china-coal-use-air-pollution/2011/07/05/gHQAwjV8yH_blog.html

[17] Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger? (http://www.ornl. gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html) by Alex Gabbard,

ORNL Review, Summer/Fall 1993, Vol. 26, Nos. 3 and 4.

[18] International Atomic Energy AgencyManaging Radioactive Waste (http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/manradwa.

html#note_b)

[19] Physics.ohio-state.edu (http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~aubrecht/coalvsnucMarcon. pdf#page=8)

[20] "Study of Coal Ash Sites Finds Extensive Water Contamination" (http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2010/08/26/99728/

study-of-coal-ash-sites-finds. html)McClatchy; also archived at: commondreams.org (http://www.commondreams. org/headline/2010/08/

27-4)

[21] EarthJustice news release, 2010 Sept. 16, "New ReportCoal Ash Linked To Cancer and Other Maladies; Coal's Waste Is Poisoning

Communities in 34 States" (http://unearthed. earthjustice.org/blog/2010-september/new-report-coal-ash-linked-cancer-and-other-maladies)

Earthjustice.org and Physicians for Social Responsibility, "Coal Ash: The Toxic Threat to Our Communities and Our Environment" (http://

earthjustice.org/sites/default/files/files/CoalAsh_Earthjustice.pdf) 2010 September 16, earthjustice.org

[22] nytimes.com "Mercury Found in Every Fish Tested, Scientists Say" (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/20/science/earth/

20brfs-MERCURYFOUND_BRF.html?_r=1&em)New York Times, 2009 Aug. 19

[23] Coal to biomass power plant conversion (http://www.archives-suez.com/document/?f=developpement-durable/en/awirs_en.pdf)

[24] Coal to biomass conversion by Georgia Power (http://www.25x25. org/index. php?option=com_content& task=view&id=579&

Itemid=191)[25] Conversion of coal to waste-fired power plant (http://www.ist-world.org/ProjectDetails.

aspx?ProjectId=a6556d81d97d41d2be8e31759221b824)

[26] http://www.zero-emissionplatform. eu/website/library/

[28] AustralianCoal.com.au (http://www.australiancoal.com.au/cleanoview.htm)Clean Coal Overview

[30] Claverton-energy.co.uk (http://www.claverton-energy. com/carbon-footprints-of-various-sources-of-heat-chpdh-comes-out-lowest. html)

Bibliography

Steam: Its Generation and Use (2005). 41st edition, Babcock & Wilcox Company, ISBN 0-9634570-0-4

Steam Plant Operation (2005). 8th edition, Everett B. Woodruff, Herbert B. Lammers, Thomas F. Lammers

(coauthors), McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 0-07-141846-6

Power Generation Handbook: Selection, Applications, Operation, Maintenance (2003). Philip Kiameh,

McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 0-07-139604-7

Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering (1997). 2nd edition, Thomas C. Elliott, Kao Chen, Robert

Swanekamp (coauthors), McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 0-07-019435-1

External links

Conventional coal-fired power plant (http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Conventional_coal-fired_power_plant)

Power plant diagram (http://www.tva.gov/power/coalart.htm)

Large industrial cooling towers (http://www.marleyct.com/wet/)

Statistics on existing U.S. coal-fired plants (http:/

/

www.

sourcewatch.

org/

index.

php?title=Existing_U.

S._Coal_Plants)

Coal Power more deadly than Nuclear (http://www.whitebunnywabbit.com/news/0945/

toxic-fumes-rise-cooling-tower-notices-dangerous-coal-power.html)

"Must We Suffer Smoke" , May 1949, Popular Science (http://books.google.com/

books?id=ZiQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA137&dq=popular+science+1949+"earth+satellite+vehicle"&hl=en&

ei=xCTiTIKFAcWnnQesoInVDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&

ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=true) article on early methods of scrubbing emissions from coal-fired

power plants

U.S. President Obama threatens bankruptcy to anyone building a coal-fired power plant in the U.S. (http://www.

youtube.com/watch?v=Hdi4onAQBWQ) 2008 interview with San Francisco Gate
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=San_Francisco_Gatehttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hdi4onAQBWQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hdi4onAQBWQhttp://books.google.com/books?id=ZiQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA137&dq=popular+science+1949+%22earth+satellite+vehicle%22&hl=en&ei=xCTiTIKFAcWnnQesoInVDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=truehttp://books.google.com/books?id=ZiQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA137&dq=popular+science+1949+%22earth+satellite+vehicle%22&hl=en&ei=xCTiTIKFAcWnnQesoInVDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=truehttp://books.google.com/books?id=ZiQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA137&dq=popular+science+1949+%22earth+satellite+vehicle%22&hl=en&ei=xCTiTIKFAcWnnQesoInVDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=truehttp://books.google.com/books?id=ZiQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA137&dq=popular+science+1949+%22earth+satellite+vehicle%22&hl=en&ei=xCTiTIKFAcWnnQesoInVDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=truehttp://www.whitebunnywabbit.com/news/0945/toxic-fumes-rise-cooling-tower-notices-dangerous-coal-power.htmlhttp://www.whitebunnywabbit.com/news/0945/toxic-fumes-rise-cooling-tower-notices-dangerous-coal-power.htmlhttp://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Existing_U.S._Coal_Plantshttp://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Existing_U.S._Coal_Plantshttp://www.marleyct.com/wet/http://www.tva.gov/power/coalart.htmhttp://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Conventional_coal-fired_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=McGraw-Hillhttp://www.claverton-energy.com/carbon-footprints-of-various-sources-of-heat-chpdh-comes-out-lowest.htmlhttp://www.australiancoal.com.au/cleanoview.htmhttp://www.zero-emissionplatform.eu/website/library/http://www.ist-world.org/ProjectDetails.aspx?ProjectId=a6556d81d97d41d2be8e31759221b824http://www.ist-world.org/ProjectDetails.aspx?ProjectId=a6556d81d97d41d2be8e31759221b824http://www.25x25.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=579&Itemid=191http://www.25x25.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=579&Itemid=191http://www.archives-suez.com/document/?f=developpement-durable/en/awirs_en.pdfhttp://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/20/science/earth/20brfs-MERCURYFOUND_BRF.html?_r=1&emhttp://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/20/science/earth/20brfs-MERCURYFOUND_BRF.html?_r=1&emhttp://earthjustice.org/sites/default/files/files/CoalAsh_Earthjustice.pdfhttp://earthjustice.org/sites/default/files/files/CoalAsh_Earthjustice.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physicians_for_Social_Responsibilityhttp://unearthed.earthjustice.org/blog/2010-september/new-report-coal-ash-linked-cancer-and-other-maladieshttp://www.commondreams.org/headline/2010/08/27-4http://www.commondreams.org/headline/2010/08/27-4http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2010/08/26/99728/study-of-coal-ash-sites-finds.htmlhttp://www.mcclatchydc.com/2010/08/26/99728/study-of-coal-ash-sites-finds.htmlhttp://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~aubrecht/coalvsnucMarcon.pdf#page=8http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/manradwa.html#note_bhttp://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/manradwa.html#note_bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ORNLhttp://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.htmlhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/post/new-study-blames-10-year-lull-in-global-warming-on-china-coal-use-air-pollution/2011/07/05/gHQAwjV8yH_blog.htmlhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/post/new-study-blames-10-year-lull-in-global-warming-on-china-coal-use-air-pollution/2011/07/05/gHQAwjV8yH_blog.html


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Article Sources and Contributors 12

Article Sources and ContributorsFossil-fuel power station Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=555644127 Contributors: 08-15, 0pen$0urce, 12 Noon, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, AWeishaupt, Adamrce, Adilettante,

Admiral Frosty, [email protected], Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alexwcovington, Alistair1978, Alpha Quadrant, Alphius, Altar, Analogue Kid, Andrew.Ainsworth, Andy

Dingley, Andy M. Wang, AnnaFrance, Anonymous editor, Antandrus, ArnoldReinhold, Arthena, Avatar9n, Avoided, Axeman89, BRUTE, Barticus88, Bbrandtpe, Beagel, Beland, Benefactordyr,

Bigzteve, BillC, Billtubbs, BillySharps, Biscuittin, Blainster, Blathnaid, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bobrayner, Boing! said Zebedee, Borgx, Brian Everlasting, Bushytails, CaiDie, Callanecc, Canjth,

Capricorn42, Cbh, Cde3, Cgord, Chardy, Charliedingdong123, Chipmonker, Chongkian, Chris the speller, Chriswaterguy, Civilengtiger, Clark89, Clicketyclack, Closedmouth, Corvus cornix,

CosmicJake, Crosbiesmith, Cureden, DJ Creamity, DMacks, DRAGON BOOSTER, DVdm, Daipenmon, Daniel.Cardenas, Dekisugi, Deltayears, DerHexer, Dessymona, Diliff, Dmoontown5,

Donebythesecondlaw, Dore chakravarthy, Dthx1138, Dudleywilliams, EaglesFanInTampa, Ed1994, Edward, Elfguy, Engineman, Enormousdude, EoGuy, Epbr123, Epolk, EthicsGradient,Eubulides, Fabricationary, Falcon8765, Farmercarlos, Firsfron, Flyguy649, Flying Saucer, Forbesy3000, Fredrosse, Frozen4322, Fxhomie, GTBacchus, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Gefd100, Gene

Nygaard, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gobonobo, Godot13, Goeagles4321, Gproud, Graeme Bartlett, Gralo, Grand-Duc, Graymornings, Ground Zero, H870rce, Habnabit, Hannahpayne, Hard As Iron Sharp

As Steel, Harieoal, Hell13, High Contrast, Hmains, Hornernealw, HybridBoy, Hysocc, IHaveReturned, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, ISTB351, Icairns, Iluvluckystar, Integrity86, Iohannes Animosus,

Irvwin, J JMesserly, J. Spencer, J.delanoy, JB001, JWB, Ja 62, JaGa, Jaberwocky6669, Jackehammond, Jackfork, James086, JamesBWatson, Jarble, Jbntj, Jennavecia, Jfraser, Jgnbr, Jim1138,

Jnasiff, Johann Wolfgang, Johnfos, Johnuniq, Jojalozzo, Jonathunder, Jono4174, Jusdafax, KMCCLA, KVDP, Kaganer, Kala85, Katherine, Kbdank71, Ke4roh, Kewp, Khalid hassani,

KimDabelsteinPetersen, Kjkolb, Klunk6, Kordain, Kralizec!, Ksenon, LW77, La goutte de pluie, LeadSongDog, Leslie Mateus, Lightmouse, Linas, Linmhall, Lockesdonkey, Lotje, Luna Santin,

MER-C, Mac, Mafj, Marek69, MarkSutton, Markus Schweiss, Martpol, Materialscientist, Mbeychok, Mdebets, Melvynflitman, Mentifisto, Michael Frind, Mike Rosoft, MikeLynch, Mion,

MisfitToys, Mistercow, Modify, Monkeymanman, Morg00, Morgan Riley, Mps, Mrfebruary, Mrskeptic, N5iln, NHSavage, NYCJosh, NeilFraser, NewEnglandYankee, Niceguyedc, Nick C,

Nihiltres, NimbusWeb, Ninetyone, Ntaheri3, Nukeless, Ocdnctx, OhanaUnited, Olborne, Old Moonraker, OwenX, Peterlewis, Phanly, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Piperh,

Plasticup, Pmj, Prashanthns, PrimeCupEevee, Private Pilot, Prodego, Qxz, Radiojon, Raven4x4x, Rcaputo3, Rck8, Rdamurphy, Rehman, Res2216firestar, RexNL, Riffraffselbow, Rjwilmsi, Rror,

Rudjek, Rwcase, SCStrikwerda, Salvio giuliano, Sdinesh123, SeanMack, Seaphoto, SeattleRetro, Shadowjams, Sietse Snel, Sikkema, Sparkygravity, Spinningspark, Staplegunther, Suncat10,

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Fossil-fuel Power Station