For TCSPC, QKD and Quantum Optics SPDs: Single Photon … brochure 12-4-14.pdfPage 1 Photon CPPhhoottonon C CPhoton Countoountuntountinginginging for Bffoor Br Bfor Brainies.raraininieiess..rainies

Boston Electronics (800)347-5445 or [email protected]

For TCSPC, QKD and Quantum Optics

SPDs: Single Photon Counters: Silicon SPADS: 350 - 900 nm InGaAs SPADs: 900 - 1700 nm Superconducting Nanowires: 600 – 1700 nm

Short pulse diode lasers: 1550 nm entangled photon pair generator 1310 and 1550 nm telecom wavelengths

RNGs: random number generators 110100010001110111…

From

via

Boston Electronics Corporation 91 Boylston Street, Brookline, Massachusetts 02445 USA (800)347-5445 or (617)566-3821 fax (617)731-0935 www.boselec.com [email protected]

Page 1

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0. Preamble

This document gives a general overview on InGaAs/InP, APD based photon counting at telecom wavelengths. In common language telecom wavelengths are the O band, centered around 1310nm (1260 to 1360 nm) and the C band, centered around 1550nm (1530 to 1565 nm) where the fibre attenuation is the lowest. Also the principles of photon counting at visible wavelengths are similar; the performance are very different. Values for VIS photon counter are given in chapter 10 of this document.

Page 2

Table of contents 1. Avalanche photodiodes 2. Principle of photon counting 3. Terminology and explanation 4. Analogue versus Geiger mode 5. Free running versus gated mode 6. Effect of deadtime /afterpulsing

7. Nominal versus Effective Gate width 8. Linearity of Detection Probability 9. Photon counting at VIS wavelength 10. Our photon counters products 11. Our other products 12. Remark

Page 3

1. Avalanche photodiodes In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with an asymmetric transfer characteristic, with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p-n junction connected to two electrical terminals. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction).

A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p-n junction, to increase the speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.

An avalanche photodiode (APD) is a highly sensitive semiconductor electronic device that exploits the photoelectric effect (Figure 1) to convert light to electricity. APDs can be thought of as photodetectors that provide a built-in first stage of gain through avalanche multiplication. By applying a high reverse bias voltage, APDs show an internal current gain effect due to impact ionization (avalanche effect). In general, the higher the reverse voltage the higher the gain. For APD the reverse voltage is always below the breakdown voltage and APD are not sensitive enough to detect single photon Figure 1

Single-Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) (also known as a Geiger-mode APD) identifies a class of solid-state photodetectors based on a reverse biased p-n junction in which a photo-generated carrier can trigger an avalanche current due to the impact ionization mechanism. This device is able to detect low intensity signals (down to the single photon). SPADs, like the avalanche photodiode (APD), exploit the photon-triggered avalanche current of a reverse biased p-n junction to detect an incident radiation. The fundamental difference between SPAD and APD is that SPADs are specifically designed to operate with a reverse bias voltage well above the breakdown voltage (on the contrary APDs operate at a bias lesser than the breakdown voltage). This kind of operation is also called Geiger mode in literature, for the analogy with the Geiger counter.

2. Principle of photon counting Figure 2 represents the I-V characteristics of an APD and illustrates how single-photon sensitivity can be achieved. This mode is also known as Geiger mode. The APD is biased, with an excess bias voltage, above the breakdown value VBr and is in a metastable state (point A). It remains in this state until a primary charge carrier is created. In this case, the amplification effectively becomes infinite, and even a single-photon absorption causes an avalanche resulting in a macroscopic current pulse (point A to B), which can readily be detected by appropriate electronic circuitry. This circuitry must also limit the value of the current flowing through the device to prevent its destruction and quench the avalanche to reset the device (point B to C). After a certain time, the excess bias voltage is restored (point C to A) and the APD is again ready to detect a single photon. The actual value of the breakdown voltage depends on the semiconductor material, the device structure and the temperature. For InGaAs/InP APD’s, it is typically around 50V. The detection efficiency but also the noise of an APD in Geiger mode depends o

n the excess bias voltage.

A

B

C

I

V

VBr

Figure 2

Above Below

Page 4

3. Terminology and explanation

a) Detection efficiency The performance of an avalanche photodiode APD in single-photon detection mode is characterized first by its detection efficiency. This quantity corresponds to the probability for a photon impinging on the photodiode to be detected. The detection efficiency results from two different factors:

- The probability that a photon is absorbed in the InGaAs layer

- The probability that the photo-generated carrier triggers an avalanche when crossing the multiplication zone

In fiber based photon counter there can be some coupling losses between the fiber and the active area. In order to compensate this the bias voltage is slightly increase in order to get the same detection efficiency, thus slightly increasing the dark count rate.

The quantum detection efficiency increases when the excess bias voltage is raised. At 1550 nm, a detection efficiency value as high as 25% is typical, for an InGaAs/InP photodiode. For InGaAs/InP photon counter modules the detection efficiency is adjustable.

Example for an InGaAs/InP photodiode

b) Dark counts In an APD, avalanches are not only caused by the absorption of a photon, but can also be randomly triggered by carriers generated in thermal, tunnelling or trapping processes taking place in the junction. They cause self triggering effects called dark counts.

The easiest way to reduce dark counts is to cool the detector. This reduces the occurrence of thermally generated carriers. At low temperature, dark counts are thus dominated by carriers generated by band to band tunnelling and more importantly trapped charges (see below). Raising the excess bias voltage increases the occurrence of dark counts, increases the detection efficiency and decreases the timing jitter. The operation point, in terms of bias voltage, must thus carefully be selected. In gated mode, one typically quantifies this effect as a dark count probability per nanosecond of gate duration. Example: Dark counts in [Hz]: 1’350 counts gate width: 20 [ns] trigger rate: 10 [MHz] Dark counts in ns of gate = 2’000 / 20 / 10’000’000 = 6.75E-06

c) Afterpulses Perhaps the major problem limiting the performance of present InGaAs/InP APD’s is the enhancing of the dark count rate by so-called afterpulses. This spurious effect arises from the trapping of charge carriers during an avalanche by trap levels inside the high field region of the junction, where impact ionization occurs. When subsequently released, these trapped carriers can trigger a so-called afterpulse. The lifetime of the trapped charges is typically a few µs for InGaAs/InP APD’s. The probability of these events is also proportional to the number of filled traps, which is in turn proportional to the charge

Page 5

crossing the junction in an avalanche before the quenching takes place. The total charge can be limited by ensuring prompt quenching of the avalanches. It is also important to note that reducing the operation temperature of the APD increases the lifetime of the trapped charges. The cooling temperature must thus carefully be chosen to minimize the total dark count probability (including afterpulses). Although it depends on the counting rate, this optimal temperature is typically around 220 K for current InGaAs/InP APD’s. So far, the cure to get rid of the dark count enhancement by afterpulses has been to use the gated mode detection scheme (see below). If the voltage across the APD is kept below the breakdown voltage for a sufficiently long time interval, longer than the trap lifetime, between two subsequent gates, trap levels are empty and cannot trigger an avalanche. With typical trapping time in the µs range for InGaAs/InP APD’s. Using a deadtime to inhibit gates for a time long compared to the trapped charges lifetime after each avalanche also proves useful. At a trigger rate of 100MHz the time interval between 2 gates is 10ns; so a deadtime of 1us will inhibit the next 100 gates and the maximum counting rate will be limited at 1 MHz.

d) Timing resolution For many applications, the timing resolution, or jitter, of the detector is also important. Jitter is the undesired deviation from true periodicity of an assumed periodic signal. It is the time variation of the electric output signal of the detector for a constant arriving light signal. Timing performance typically improves with an increase of the excess bias voltage. In order to quantify it, one sends short (shorter than 100 ps) and weak pulses on the detector. The spread of the onset of the avalanche pulses is then monitored with a time-to-amplitude converter. At a 25% detection efficiency, a timing resolution of about 200 ps FWHM is typical. In the future, optimisation of the photodiode structure could lead to improvements.

Timing jitter measurement on the InGaAs/InP id210 device

Page 6

4. Analogue versus Geiger mode a) Avalanche mode (linear modes) Avalanche photodiodes (APD) are working in so-called analogue mode. Means the bias-voltage applied on the diode is always below break down voltage. The output signal is proportional to the incoming light intensity. APD in analogue mode are NOT sensitive enough to detect single photons. b) Single photon avalanche mode (Geiger mode) Our products id100, id210, id220 and id400 are SPAD (=Single Photon Avalanche Diode) based module. SPAD (Single Photon Avalanche Diode) also called photon counter They are working in digital mode, also called Geiger mode. Means the bias-voltage applied on the diode is above breakdown. When a photon is detected it creates an avalanche which has to be quenched, means the bias-voltage is brought below breakdown in order to stop (quench) the avalanche and then brought back above break down to make it sensitive again. The detector is only sensitive when the bias voltage is above break down. The output signal is NOT proportional to the incoming light intensity. SPAD are sensitive enough to detect single photons!!!!!!!!!!

Avalanche mode (linear) vs single photon avalanche mode

Page 7

5. Free running versus gated mode Free running mode:

Only after an avalanche the bias voltage is for a very short time brought below break down, called dead time, in order to quench the avalanche.

When the bias voltage is above break down: the APD state is ON. When an avalanche occurs in the APD after detection of a photon or a dark count, it is sensed by the capture electronics. A pulse of adjustable width is produced on the detection output of the device and the quenching electronics stops the avalanche. In order to limit afterpulsing, the APD bias voltage is maintained below breakdown (APD state is OFF) until the end of the dead time.

The free-running mode is very convenient for application where the photon arrival is unknown.

Free-running mode description

Deadtime can be set by the user for InGaAs/InP devices:

• id210 from 1us to 100us. • id220 from 1us to 25us.

Gated mode:

In order to reduce dark count rate, the APD can be biased above breakdown voltage during a short period of time. This period of time (=duration) is called the gate and is adjustable in width and frequency. This gate is then periodically repeated. This is the trigger frequency (external or internal trigger). The detector is only sensitive during the gates. So, the gated mode is used for applications where the photon arrival is known and this mode significantly reduces dark count. A photon won't be detected if there gate is not open OR a deadtime is applied (after a previous detection). When an avalanche occurs within the gate because of a detection of a photon or a dark count, a pulse of adjustable width is output at the detection connector. The quenching electronics closes the gate and a dead time can be applied, resulting in one or more blanked pulses.

Gated mode description

Page 8

Free running versus gated mode

Free running mode

time time

Gated mode

VbdVbd

time time

output output

6. Effect of deadtime /afterpulsing The deadtime is applied after each detection (real or dark count). If the voltage across the APD is kept below the breakdown voltage for a sufficiently long time interval, longer than the trap lifetime, trap levels are empty and cannot trigger an avalanche. The typical trapping time is in the µs range for InGaAs/InP APD’s.

id220: Typical DCR vs deadtime at 10%, 15% and 20% detection efficiencies

When a photon arrives on the InGaAs/InP photodiode and creates an avalanche, a deadtime has to be applied after the Quenching (stopping the avalanche). Thanks to the deadtime (time while no voltage is applied on the photodiode), the number of carriers and holes decreases significantly and so it avoid an high afterpulsing probability: if too many carriers are trapped in the photodiode, when the next gate will be open or when the deadtime ends, a new avalanche will occur and you will have a count which is an afterpulse (=”noise”).

If you use a short deadtime (or no deadtime), you will have a large amount of afterpulses. Then you can believe that you have a high count rate and a good quantum efficiency, but this is just some noise.

Page 9

Please see below the shape of the curves “Count rate vs trigger rate” with different deadtimes. Please note that this measurements were done with ambient light to have a significant number of counts and huge afterpulsing rate.

id210: Number of counts vs Frequency depending on the deadtime in gated mode

Thus you would see clearly the impact of deadtime on afterpulsing rate. As an example, you can clearly see that a 5us deadtime has a significant effect on the afterpulsing rate when the trigger rate is higher than 1MHz. Let us remind you kindly that those measurements were done with ambient light to have a significant number of counts and huge afterpulsing rate; it means that the deadtime reduces the afterpulsing rate but also the number of detections coming from light.

Page 10

7. Nominal versus Effective Gate width In the timing diagram below, a realistic chronogram is shown taking into account the slew rates of the different electronic stages (the transit time in the electronic stages are assumed negligible). One can note that the gate control signal width differs from the gate output signal width. More important, the gate control signal width (the width applied by the user through the id210 interface) is larger than the effective gate width. The difference decreases when the excess voltage voltage i.e. the efficiency is raised. Note that this effect can also be seen by building an histogram in memory of the dark counts using a time-to-digital or time-to-analog converters.

This simplified explanation done, we inform the users that:

- a difference exists between the gate width set through the id210 interface and the effective gate width,

- a setting of a small gate width through the id210 interface may result in a lower peak efficiency than that of the current set level, even in no efficiency (possible at low excess bias voltage),

- the dark count rate specified for the id210 is fairly evaluated with a measured FWHM effective gate width of 1ns. Indeed, a dark count rate expressed per ns of the gate control signal width would be significantly underestimated in case of a gate control signal width greatly larger than the effective gate width.

Note finally that the shrinkage of the effective gate width finds also explanation in the avalanche current build up duration.

Gate Control Signal

Gate Output Signal

V -APDAC

V -APDDC

VBD

time

Detection CountRate effective gate width

V -APDAC

V -APDDC

VBD

time

Detection CountRate

effective gate width

high detection efficiency low detection efficiency

Ve Ve

Gate Control Signal

Gate Output Signal

Page 11

8. Linearity of Detection Probability

Linearity of Detection Probability a) Gated mode When using a photon counter, you can easily saturate the device: If you use a laser source sending in average 2 photons per pulse you will have a count rate double as if you would send in average one photon per pulse; this what is called linearity of the photon counters. If no optical signal is sent on the APD, then the detection rate would be your dark count rate. Between the saturation region and the dark count rate region, your detector is "linear": the count rate of the detector is proportional to the number of photons arriving on the APD. Attention: this is valid only if a deadtime is applied (cf paragraph 6 "Effect of deadtime /afterpulsing"). b) Free-running mode This will be very similar except that the saturation region is defined by your deadtime: For a 5us deadtime, the maximum count rate is 1/5us = 200kHz => saturation.

9. Photon counting at VIS wavelength Silicon devices (for visible wavelength 350-900nm) does normally not have an adjustable quantum efficiency.

Deadtime is 45ns for the silicon photon counter id100 and is NOT adjustable.

For silicon devices, the trapping time is in the range of few tens of nanoseconds and the afterpulsing probability is low.

Silicon device have a lower jitter, as low as 45ps for the id100, and works usually in free running mode only.

Detection efficiency for silicon based photon counter

Page 12

10. Our photon counters products

id100 (350-900 nm)

Si

35% @ 500 nm

Up to less than 2 Hz

40 ps

Free running mode

id210 (900-1700 nm)

InGaAs/InP

Up to 25%

1.10-5 per gate

200 ps

Gated orfree running mode

id400 (1064 nm)

InGaAsP/InP

Up to 30%

150 Hz at 7.5% SPDE

Typically 300 ps

Gated or free running mode

Product & Wavlengthrange

Diode material

Quantum Efficiency:

Dark Count Rate:

Timing jitter:

Operating mode

id220(900-1700 nm)

InGaAs/InP

Up to 20%

1 kHz at 10% SPDE

250 ps

Free running mode

11. Our other products: id300 short pulse laser source

Wavelength: 1310nm or 1550nm Electrical input: NIM, ECL, TTL Laser: Fabry-Perot or DFB Pulse duration: < 300ps id300

id800-TDC; time to digital converter

Functionalities: Time to Digital Converter Time interval analyser Coincidence counter

id800-TDC

Clavis2: Quatum Key Distribution (QKD) system for R&D

Applications: Quantum cryptography research Implementation of novel protocols Education and training Demonstrations and technology evaluation Clavis 2

Quantis: Physical random number generator exploiting an elementary quantum optics process.

Applications: Cryptography Secure printing PCI Express USB Mobile prepaid system Numerical simulations

PCI OEM 12. Remark Part of the information have been taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/ / ID Quantique, March 2013

Figures of merits: 8 channel TDC 81ps resolution count rates up to 12.5 million Deadtime from 1us to 25us USB interface

Peak power: 1mW Output power at 1MHz: -35dBm Max trigger frequency: 500MHz

Gambling, lotteries PIN number generation Statistical research

ID Quantique SAChemin de la Marbrerie 3

1227 Carouge/GenevaSwitzerland

T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79

[email protected]

IDQ’s id100 series consists of compact and affordable single-photon detector modules with best-in-class

timing resolution and state-of-the-art dark count rate based on a reliable silicon avalanche photodiode

sensitive in the visible spectral range. The id100 series detectors come as:

free-space modules, the id100-20 and id100-50 with a 20mm and respectively a 50mm diameter

photosensitive area,

fiber-coupled modules, the id100-SMF20, id100-MMF50 and the id100-MMF100 coming with a standard

FC/PC optical input.

The modules are available in three dark count grades, with dark count rate as low as 2Hz.

With a timing resolution as low as 40ps and a remarkably short dead time of 45ns, these modules outperform

existing commercial detectors in all applications requiring single-photon detection with high timing accuracy

and stability up to count rates of at least 10MHz.

REDEFINING PRECISION

id100 SERIESSINGLE-PHOTON DETECTORS FOR VISIBLE LIGHT WITH BEST-IN-CLASS TIMING ACCURACY

APPLICATIONSKEY FEATURES

Time correlated single photon counting (TCSPC)

Fluorescence and luminescence detection

Single molecule detection, DNA sequencing

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy

Flow cytometry, spectrophotometry

Quantum cryptography, quantum optics

Laser scanning microscopy

Adaptive optics

Best-in-class timing resolution (40ps)

Low dead time (45ns)

Small IRF shift at high count rates

Standard and Ultra-Low Noise grades

Peak photon detection at l = 500nm

Active area diameter of 20mm or 50mm

Free-space or fiber coupling

Not damaged by strong illumination

No bistability

NEWwith NEW devices and NEW grades



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79

[email protected] com

SPECIFICATIONS

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.00

10k

20k

30k

40k

50k

60k

70k

Co

un

ts[H

z]

Time [ns]

FWHM Timing Resolution 40ps

Parameter Min Typical Max Units

Wavelength range 350 900 nm

Timing resolution [FWHM] 40 60 ps

Single-photon detection probability (SPDE)

at 400nm 15 18 %

at 500nm 30 35 %

at 600nm 20 25 %

at 700nm 15 18 %

at 800nm 5 7 %

at 900nm 3 4 %

Afterpulsing probability 3 %

Output pulse width 9 10 15 ns

Output pulse amplitude 1.5 2 2.5 V

Deadtime 45 50 ns

Maximum count rate (pulsed light) 20 MHz

Supply voltage 5.6 6 6.5 V

Supply current 100 150 mA

Storage temperature -40 70 °C

Cooling time 5 s

3 5

3

55

7

4

2 1

Dark count rate: IDQ´s modules are available in three grades: Regular, Standard and Ultra-Low Noise, depending on dark count rate specifications.

Active Area Diameter TE cooled Regular Ultra-Low Noise

< 200Hzyes

< 2Hz

yes50 mm

yes < 20Hz< 200Hz

20 mm

7

400 500 600 700 800 9000

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Ph

oto

nD

etec

tio

nP

rob

abili

ty[%

]

Wavelength [nm]

Photon Detection Probability versus l3

0.1 1 10 100 10000

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Au

toco

rrel

atio

nF

un

ctio

n

Time [ms]

Typical autocorrelation function of a constant laser signal, recorded at a count rate of 10kHz.

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.00

10k

20k

30k

40k

50k

60k

70k

Co

un

ts[H

z]

Time [ns]

IRF Shift with Output Count Rate

Extremely low shift of instrument response function with output count rate (less than 70ps from 10kHz to 8MHz).

2

1 Timing Resolution

Output Pulse5

Typical pulse of 2V amplitude and 10ns width observed at the output of an id100 terminated with 50W load. Recommended trigger level: 1V. For timing applications, triggering on rising edge is recommended to take full advantage of the detector´s timing resolution.

10ns

Dead Time

Measurement obtained with an oscilloscope in infinite persistance mode: the dead time consists of the output pulse width and the hold-off time during which

6

hold-off time

dead time

10ns

The detector output is designed to avoid distorsion and ringing when driving a 50W load.

The id100 is free of indicating LEDs to maintain complete darkness during measurements.

The id100-MMF50 contains a 50/125mm multi-mode fiber optimized for visible spectral range with 0.22 numerical aperture. The coupling efficiency is larger than 80%.

Universal network adapter provided (110/220V).Optimal timing resolution is obtained when incoming photons are focused on the photosensitive area.

See on page 4 the A-PPI-D pulse shaper for negative input equipment compatibility.

3

4

5

4

1

6

id100-50

id100-MMF50

id100-20

Afterpulsing4

7

1

2

Standard

< 60Hz

< 80Hz

yesid100-SMF20

yes8id100-MMF100

6

The id100-SMF20 contains a single mode fiber optimized to your operating wavelength

6

The id100-MMF100 contains a 100/140mm multi-mode fiber optimized for visible spectral range with 0.22 numerical aperture. The coupling efficiency is larger than 50%.

8

NEW

NEW

NEW

NEW

NEW



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79


7 Maximum Count Rate - Pulsed Lightid100-20 / id100-50 Front View

id100-20 / id100-50 Bottom View

id100-20 / id100-50 Top View

id100-MMF50 Front View

id100-MMF50 Top View

C-M

OU

NT

39.0

+/-

0.5

87.0 +/- 0.5

61.0 +/- 0.5

C-MOUNT: O1inch-32threads/inch

20mm or 50mm active area

C-MOUNT adapter

87.0 +/- 0.5

FC/PC connector

+

+

79.0 +/- 0.5

FC/PC connector

+

+

M4

DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE

61.0 +/- 0.5

+

+80.0

+/-

0.5

57.0

+/-

0.5

8.0 +/- 0.2

4.0

+/-

0.5

79.0 +/- 0.5

C-MOUNT adapter

The short dead time of the id100 allows operation at very high repetition frequencies, up to 20MHz.

20ns

+6V

DC

DC

50W Output Driver

Hold-off Time Circuit

+5V

SMB jack(female)

Input Filter&

Linear Regulator

TO5 header

10ns

2V

QuenchingCircuit

APDDetection

TECTemperature

Controller

R(T)

High Voltage Supply

Chip

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

BLOCK DIAGRAM

MOUNTING OPTIONS

(in mm)

The id100 series comes with different mounting options:

Use mounting brackets supplied with the module using screws with diameters up to 4mm.Use a standard optical post holder (not supplied)using the M4 thread located on the bottom side of the id100-20 & id100-50 detectors.Use the C-MOUNT adapter to add optical elements in front of the detector (id100-20 & id100-50 only).

The id100 consists of an avalanche

photodiode (APD) and an active quenching

circuit integrated on the same silicon chip.

The chip is mounted on a thermo-electric

cooler and packaged in a standard TO5

header with a transparent window cap. A

thermistor is used to measure temperature.

The APD is operated in Geiger mode, i.e.

biased above breakdown voltage. A high

voltage supply used to bias the diode is

provided by a DC/DC converter. The

quenching circuit is supplied with +5V. The

module output pulse indicates the arrival of

a photon with high timing resolution. The

pulse is shaped using a hold-off time circuit

and sent to a 50W output driver. All internal

settings are preset for optimal operation at

room temperature.

In the fiber-coupled version, a fiber pigtail

with FC/PC connector is coupled to the

detector.

39.0

+/-

0.5

151.1

+/-

0.5

127.3

+/-

0.5

8.0 +/- 0.2

4.0

+/-

0.5

id100-SMF20 Front View

id100-MMF100 Front View

id100-SMF20 Top View

id100-MMF100 Top View

IIDD QQuuaannttiiqquuee SSAA 1227 Carouge/Geneva T +41 22 301 83 71 [email protected]


id101 SERIESMMIINNIIAATTUURREE PPHHOOTTOONN CCOOUUNNTTEERR FFOORR OOEEMM AAPPPPLLIICCAATTIIOONNSS

Intended for large-volume OEM applications, the id101 is the smallest, most reliable and most efficient single photon detector on the market. It consists of a CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) silicon chip packaged in a standard TO5-8pin header with a transparent window cap. The chip combines either a 20µm (id101-20) or a 50µm diameter (id101-50) single-photon avalanche diode and a fast active quenching circuit, which guarantees a dead time of less than 50ns. The chip is mounted on top of a single-stage thermoelectric cooler (TEC). A fiber-coupled version, the id101-MMF50, is also available. The maximum photon detection probability is measured in the blue spectral range (35% at 500nm). An outstanding timing resolution of less than 60ps allows high accuracy measurements. The performance of the id101 detectors is comparable to that of the id100-20 and id100-50 modules.The id101 can be mounted on a printed circuit board and integrated in apparatuses such as spectrometers or microscopes. The module is used in biological/chemical instrumentation, quantum optics, aerospace and defense applications.Contrary to legacy photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) and other silicon-based counters manufactured with non-standard custom process, the id101 detector is fabricated using a qualified commercial CMOS process, which guarantees high reliability.

tor

AAPPPPLLIICCAATTIIOONNSSKKEEYY FFEEAATTUURREESSTime correlated single photon counting (TCSPC)Fluorescence and luminescence detectionSingle molecule detection, DNA sequencingFluorescence correlation spectroscopyFlow cytometry, spectrophotometryQuantum cryptography, quantum opticsLaser scanning microscopyAdaptive optics

Best-in-class timing resolution (40ps)Low dead time (45ns)Small IRF shift at high count ratesPeak photon detection at λ = 500nm

Active area diameter of 20µm or 50µmFree-space or multimode fiber couplingNot damaged by strong illuminationIntegrated thermoelectric cooler and thermistor



BBLLOOCCKK DDIIAAGGRRAAMM2The id101 is based on a 0.8x0.8mm CMOS silicon chip

containing a 20µm or 50µm diameter avalanche diode and its active quenching circuit. To operate in the Geiger mode, the diode anode is biased with a negative voltage V . Theop

cathode is linked to VDD through a polysilicon resistor R .q

Before the photon arrival, the switch is open (non-conducting) and the cathode is at VDD. When a photon strikes the diode, the voltage drop induced on the cathode is sensed by the sensing circuit. The output pin OUT switches to VDD. The feedback circuit closes the switch: the diode is biased below its breakdown voltage resulting in the avalanche quenching. The diode is then kept below breakdown and the recharge takes place with the opening of the switch. The full cycle is defined as the sensor dead time. In any single photon avalanche diode, thermally generated carriers induce false counts, called dark counts. A single-stage thermoelectric cooler (TEC) allows to cool the device to reduce the dark count rate. Furthermore, the photon detection probability in a single photon avalanche diode is dependent on the excess bias voltage above breakdown. The breakdown voltage being temperature dependent, it is often crucial to keep the sensor at a constant temperature. The thermistor included in the id101 allows one to implement a temperature control circuit.

RRqq

sensingcircuit output

driver

VVDDDD

feedbackcircuit

GGNNDD

OOUUTT

VVOOPP

RR((TT))

TTEECC

TTEECC((--)) TTEECC((++))

TTHHEERRMM((11))TTHHEERRMM((22))

PPRRIINNCCIIPPLLEE OOFF OOPPEERRAATTIIOONN

DDIIMMEENNSSIIOONNAALL OOUUTTLLIINNEE AANNDD PPIINNOOUUTT

∅ +/-0.18.33

∅ 9.1 +/-0.1

+/-0

.10.

6+/

-0.2

1.9

+/-0

.26.

6

∅ 0.43 +/-0.05

tthheerrmmiissttoorrssiinnggllee--ssttaaggee TTEECC

ssiilliiccoonn cchhiipp iinncclluuddiinngg tthhee ssiinnggllee pphhoottoonn aavvaallaanncchheepphhoottooddiiooddee aanndd tthhee aaccttiivveeqquueenncchhiinngg cciirrccuuiitt

TTOO55 -- 88 ppiinnss hheeaaddeerr

UNIT: millimeters

- Window material: glass- Pin material: gold plated- The 20µm or 50 m active area is aligned with the centre

of the glass window. The positioning accuracy is +/-100microns.

µ

∅ 2

0.0

+/-0

.5

FFCC//PPCCccoonnnneeccttoorr

mmuullttiimmooddee ffiibbeerr ttyypp..lleennggtthh==115500mmmm

TTOO55 ffiibbeerr ppiiggttaaiill50.0

iidd110011--MMMMFF5500 ffiibbeerr--ccoouupplleedd vveerrssiioonn

ppiinn ##1122334455667788

ccoonnnneeccttiioonnVVOOPP

VVDDDDtthheerrmmiissttoorrtthheerrmmiissttoorrGGNNDDOOUUTTTTEECC((--))TTEECC((++))

((iinn mmmm))



PPhhoottoonn DDeetteeccttiioonn PPrroobbaabbiilliittyy vveerrssuuss λ

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.00

10k

20k

30k

40k

50k

60k

70k

CCoouunn

ttss[[HH

zz]]

TTiimmee [[nnss]]

FFWWHHMM TTiimmiinngg RReessoolluuttiioonn 4400ppss

SSPPEECCIIFFIICCAATTIIOONNSS

33

0.1 1 10 100 10000

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

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llaattiioo

nnFFuu

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AAfftteerrppuullssiinngg


22

11 TTiimmiinngg RReessoolluuttiioonn

The id101-MMF50 comes with a 50/125µm multimode fiber pigtail with a 0.22 numerical aperture. The overall coupling efficiencyexceeds 80%.

TTHHEERRMMOOEELLEECCTTRRIICC CCOOOOLLEERR SSPPEECCIIFFIICCAATTIIOONNSS

TEC mounting soldering, 117°CThermosensor mounting epoxy glueWire mounting soldering, 183°C

MMOOUUNNTTIINNGG DDEETTAAIILLSSTTHHEERRMMOOSSEENNSSOORR SSPPEECCIIFFIICCAATTIIOONNSS

The thermistor resistance can be calculated by: R = R exp(β(293-T)/(293 T))T 293K* *

PPaarraammeetteerr UUnniitt VVaalluuee ((ccoonnddiittiioonnss))

Resistance ACR Ω 3.56 +/- 0.16 (at

Maximum Current I A 0.4 +/- 0.02 (at ∆T )max max

Maximum Voltage Drop U V 1.35 +/- 0.07 (at ∆T )max max

Maximum Delta-T ∆t K 67.0 +/- 2.0 (Vacuum, Q=0, T =300K)max r

Maximum Cooling Capacity Q W 0.29 +/- 0.01 (at ∆T=0)max

T =300K)r

PPaarraammeetteerr UUnniitt VVaalluuee ((ccoonnddiittiioonnss))

Resistance R0 kΩ 2.2 +/- 0.16 at 293K-1Beta Constant β K 2918.9 +/- 5%

400 500 600 700 800 9000

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

PPhhoott

oonnDDee

tteecctt

iioonn

PPrroobb

aabbiilliitt

yy[[%%

]]

WWaavveelleennggtthh [[nnmm]]

PPaarraammeetteerr MMiinn TTyyppiiccaall MMaaxx UUnniittssWavelength range 350 900 nmActive area diameter

id101-20 20 µmid101-50 50 µm

Timing resolution [FWHM] 40 60 psSingle-photon detection probability (SPDE)

at 400nm 15 18 %at 500nm 30 35 %at 600nm 20 25 %at 700nm 15 18 %at 800nm 5 7 %at 900nm 3 4 %

Dark count rate (DCR)id101-20 15 50 Hzid101-50 100 300 Hz

Afterpulsing probability 3 %Output pulse width

id101-20 30 35 40 nsid101-50 and id101-MMF50 40 45 50 ns

Output pulse amplitude (in high impedance) VDD VOutput driver capability 4 mADeadtime

id101-20 30 35 40 nsid101-50 and id101-MMF50 40 45 50 ns

Maximum count rate (pulsed light)id101-20 28 MHzid101-50 and id101-MMF50 22 MHz

VDD supply voltage 4.8 5.0 5.2 VCurrent on VDD 0.25 2.2 mAV supply voltage -24 -26 VOP

Current on V 100 µAOP


11

33

22 11

11

66aa66bb

44aa

44aa44bb

44bb

55aa55bb



Many industrial applications would greatly benefit from a single photon detector array. When the required array size is reasonably small (i.e. < 10x10), it is possible to assemble several closely spaced TO5 headers to form an array. Asillustrated in the figure, opposite, for a 3x3 array,several TO headers can be mounted on a printed circuit board. The minimum center-to-center pitch is 9.5 mm. Common electronic circuits for power supply, output stage and temperature control can be implemented on the PCB. If a high accuracy for the distance from pixel to pixel is required or if a large array is needed, IDQ offers a custom design service for the design of an application-specific CMOS chip.

EElleecc

ttrroonnii

cc CCiirrcc

uuiittss

ffoorr::

--ppooww

eerr ssuu

ppppllyy

--oouutt

ppuutt dd

rriivveerr

--tteemm

ppeerraa

ttuurree

ccoonntt

rrooll

An evaluation board has been developed for preliminary optical and electrical testing of the id101. The id101 under test can be plugged into a socket intended for TO5 headers. The evaluation board comes with a power supply with universal range of input plugs and a 1m coaxial cable ended with a BNC connector.

66aa

66bb

44aa

44bb

55aa

55bb

Typical pulses observed at the id101-20 (4a) and id101-50 or id101-MMF50 (4b) outputs in high impedance.

Extended pulses observed at the id101-20 (5a) and id101-50 or id101-MMF50 (5b) outputs at high illumination level. When an avalanche is triggered during the recharge process, the output remains high, giving an extended pulse. This effect leads to a decrease of the output count rate.

The short dead time of the id101 allows operation at very high repetition frequencies, up to 28MHz for the id101-20 (6a) and 22MHz for the id101-50 or id101-MMF50 (6b).

1100nnss11VV

1100nnss11VV

1100nnss11VV

1100nnss11VV 1100nnss

11VV

1100nnss11VV

iidd110011--EEVVAA EEVVAALLUUAATTIIOONN BBOOAARRDD

AAPPPPLLIICCAATTIIOONN EEXXAAMMPPLLEE -- CCOOMMBBIINNAATTIIOONN IINN AARRRRAAYY



TTYYPPIICCAALL AAPPPPLLIICCAATTIIOONN CCIIRRCCUUIITT

RRqq

sensingcircuit output

driver

VVDDDD

feedbackcircuit

GGNNDD

OOUUTT

VVOOPP

RR((TT))

TTEECCTTEECC((--)) TTEECC((++))

TTHHEERRMM((11))TTHHEERRMM((22))

invertingDC/DC

converter

++55VV

D QCPC

11

temperaturecontroller

1

OOUUTT

++55VV

delay

PPoowweerr SSttaaggeeThe id101 requires two power supplies VDD and V . A standard inverting DC/DC converter can convert the +5V level OP

to the high negative voltage level V . The remaining electronic circuits on the PCB board can be supplied with the OP

same +5V power. Two 100nF capacitances must be added as close as possible to the output pins for decoupling purpose.

OOuuttppuutt SSttaaggeeThe id101 output can be shaped for the back-end electronic circuits (e.g. counter, TDC, TAC) using the circuit shown below. A D-type Flip-Flop with asynchroneous clear combined with a delay generator (RC for instance) and an inverter with a Schmitt trigger input allows to set the pulse width and the dead time.

TTeemmppeerraattuurree CCoonnttrroollFor proper operation, it is highly recommended to implement a thermal stabilisation circuit on the final printed circuit board, using the single-stage TEC and the 2.2kΩ thermistor provided. Integrated temperature controllers for Peltier modules are commercially available.

,

IDQ provides as an option a pulse shaper (A-PPI-D) which can be used with equipments requiring negative input pulses. The id100 output pulse leading edge is converted in a sharp negative pulse of typical amplitudes 1.4V in 50Ω load and 2.5V in high impedance load. The pulse shaper is delivered with two SMA/BNC adapters.

Typical output pulse of an id100 equippedwith aA-PPI-D pulse shaper in 50Ω load.

AACCCCEESSSSOORRYY -- OOPPTTIIOONNAALL PPUULLSSEE SSHHAAPPEERR

Typical output pulse of an id100 equipped with aA-PPI-D pulse shaper in high impedance load.




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PRELI

MIN

ARY

NEW


id110 - VIS - GATEDGATED VISIBLE SINGLE PHOTON DETECTOR

Adjustable photon detection probability

Adjustable delays, gate width and deadtime

Up to 100MHz external / internal gating frequency

Universal Inputs/Outputs

Quantum optics

Quantum memory

Optical tomography

KEY FEATURES

Free gating mode

Ethernet remote control (Option)

Two-channel auxiliary event counter

Auxiliary coincidence counter

Data export through USB memory

Real time statistics, charts, sound alarms

Setup storage in internal memory

Fluorescence, fluorescence life time

Photoluminescence

1

The id110 brings a major breakthrough for single avalanche signal (also called post-gating), the

photon detection at visible wavelengths in id110 operates in real GATED MODE and offers

demanding conditions. Conventional single- the best discrimination performance. The figure

photon detectors based on Silicon Avalanche below shows the detection rate after sending an

Photodiodes (APD) are typically operated in free- intense light pulse on the APD (1000 photons) at

running mode. Their performance can be strongly 100kHz repetition rate. The extra-noise originated

impacted by intense optical pulses. The detector by the strong pulses in free-running mode (due to

is blinded by the intense pulse due to the dead- afterpulsing effect) is larger than the one in gated

time effect occurring after each detection. This mode (due to charge persistence) whereas the

deadtime can extend to 100's of ns. In addition, noise level is higher in free-running mode.

the charges trapped in the APD junction, as a Additionnaly, in gated mode, the APD is NOT

result of intense optical pulses, increase the noise blinded.

level, potentially masking the signal of interest.

The id110 Gated Visible Single Photon Detector

brings a solution to these problems by operating

the APD in GATED MODE. The bias voltage is

kept below breakdown to deactivate the detector

and enhance trap discharge, except when

detection is specifically enabled. Contrary to other

products on the market, which simulate GATED

MODE by controlling the activation of the output

APPLICATIONS

100 1000 10000

0.1

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

1000000

APD w orkin g in ga ted mo de (20 ns

p ulse w idth)

APD w orkin g in free -runn ing m od e

(70 ns de ad t im e & 10n s co incid ence

p ulse w idth)

Co

un

t(H

z)

Delay (ns)

la ser pulse



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79


PRELI

MIN

ARY

The System hardware

The system hardware allows the id110 to operate in free-running, free-gating, internal gated or external gated modes.

The APD is biased above breakdown during gates of adjustable width and frequency. Internal gating is a

synchronous mode based on a clock provided by the internal clock generator. The 50% duty cycle clock signal is

available at the clock output and counted by the HF clock counter. A user-adjustable trigger delay can be set between

the clock and the gate signals. A gate of width set by the user is opened on the rising edge of the delayed trigger. An

avalanche event within the gate increments the HF detection counter and causes a pulse of adjustable width at

detection1 and detection2 connectors. The quenching electronics closes the gate and, if selected by the user, a dead

time is applied resulting in one or several blanked pulses after a detection.

Internal-gating mode:

2

Internal gated mode

Clock Output

Gate Output

Trigger Delay

Gate Width

Width Detection 1&2

blanked gate

Quenching

Detection 1&2 Outputs

HF Gate Counter

HF Detection Counter

HF Clock Counter

Dead Time

+1 +1 +1 +1

+1 +1 +1

+1

1/Internal Gating Frequency

External gated mode

HF Gate Counter


HF Clock Counter

Gate Output

Trigger Delay

Gate Width

Width Detection 1&2

+1 +1 +1

Dead Time

+1 +1

+1

Trigger Input

+1

+1

blanked gate

Quenching


External-gating mode:

The operation in external gating mode is very similar to the internal gating mode except that the clock is provided by the

user at the trigger input.



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79


PRELI

MIN

ARY

3

QuenchingQuenching

Gate Output

Detection 1&2 OutputsWidth Detection 1&2

Dead Time

HF Gate Counter +1 +1

HF Detection Counter +1 +1 +1

Quenching

+1

Free-running mode (asynchronous)

Free-running mode (asynchronous mode):

Until photon absorption or dark count generation, the APD is biased above its breakdown voltage in Geiger mode. The

gate output that reflects the APD state (i.e. On:photosensitive or Off:blind) is at high level. When an avalanche takes

place in the APD, it is sensed by the capture electronics. A pulse of adjustable width is produced on detection1 and

detection2 outputs, the detection HF counter is incremented and the quenching electronics stops the avalanche. To

limit afterpulsing, the APD is maintained below breakdown until the end of the dead time. In this mode, the HF gate

counter and HF detection counter rates are equal.

Free-gating mode

Dead Time

Gate Output

+1

+1

Reset/Enable Input

gate partially blanked

+1 +1 +1

+1 +1

HF Gate Counter


Quenching Quenching


blanked gate

Quenching

Free-gating mode:

The user supplies an electrical signal at the reset/enable input. When no avalanche occurs, the gate output that

reflects the APD state (On/Off) is identical to the reset/enable input signal. When an avalanche occurs during a gate, a

pulse of adjustable width is produced at detection1 and detection2 outputs, the HF detection counter is incremented

and the quenching electronics stops the gate. When a dead time is applied for limiting the afterpulsing, the gate signal

remains at low level whatever the reset/enable state. This results in blanked gate(s) or partially blanked gates. The HF

gate counter provides the effective gates rate applied to the APD.



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79


PRELI

MIN

ARY

4



Optical fiber type MMF (diam. 105 um)


at 405nm 13 %

at 530nm 24 %

at 590nm 24 %

at 660nm 17 %

at 850nm 4 %

Deadtime range 0.070 100 us

Deadtime step 10 ns

Timing resolution at max. efficiency (25%) 200 ps

External trigger frequency 100 MHz

Internal trigger frequency 1,2,5,10,20,50,100,200,500 kHz 1,2,5,10,20,50,100 MHz

Effective gate width range 0.5 25 ns

Gate width step 10 ps

Trigger delay range 20 ns

Trigger delay resolution 10 ps

Optical connector FC/APC

SPECIFICATIONS

1

id110-MMF105

Model

0.1Hz 0.25Hz 100Hz 250Hz

Probability of dark count rate at 530nm for a 1ns effective gate width in gated mode:

Freq.=100kHz, 70ns deadtime Freq.=100MHz, deadtime=1ms

10% efficiency 20% efficiency 10% efficiency 20% efficiency

2

DisclaimerThe information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice. Copyright© 2013 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - id110 v2013 04 24 - Specifications as of April 24 2013

SUPPLIED ACCESSORIES

Power Cable

Optical fiber cleaner

User guide on USB key

Compact USB keyboard

1m FC/APC patch cord MMF105

ORDERING INFORMATION

id110-MMF105-100MHz module with multimode fibre input (core diameter 105um)100MHz internal / external trigger rate

OTHER SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTATION PRODUCTS

id100: Photon counter module in the VIS spectrum

id150: Miniature 8-channel photon counter for OEM applications in the VIS spectrum

id400: Single photon detection system for 1064nm (900 to 1150nm)

id210: Single photon detection system - Telecom wavelength

id220: Free-running single photon detection module - Near infrared

id300: Short-pulse laser source at 1310nm or 1550nm

id800: 8 channel Time to Digital Converter TDC

Calibrated at l=530 nm.

Photon Detection Probability

versus l

Ethernet cable (optional)

1

2

ID Quantique Geneva / Switzerland

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VISIBLE SINGLE-PHOTON COUNTER

ID120 HIGH QUANTUM EFFICIENCY AT 650NM AND AT 800NM LARGE ACTIVE AREA 500UM

IDQ’s ID120 series consists of compact and

affordable single-photon detector modules based

on a reliable silicon avalanche photodiode

sensitive in the visible spectral range. Up to now,

the ID100 series was limited to detectors with high

efficiency values in the green region (around

500nm). The two new detectors of the ID100 series

have high efficiency values in the red region of the

visible spectrum and a ultra high active area.

These new detectors come as :

free-space module, passive quenching, maximal

efficiency value around 650nm

free-space module, passive quenching, maximal

efficiency value around 800nm

Those two detection modules are highly versatile

thanks to an USB connection and a Labview

¡

¡

KEY FEATURES

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

60% Quantum Efficiency at 650nm

80% Quantum Efficiency at 800nm

Tunable quantum efficiency

Tunable temperature of the diode

Adjustable deadtime

Universal dual output

Labview interface

C-mount, SM1, cage compatible

Integrated electronic counter (optional)

APPLICATIONS

¡

¡¡¡¡¡



Single molecule detection, DNA sequencing


Spectrophotometry

Laser scanning microscopy

interface allowing the user to change the bias voltage and the temperature of the diode. The modules are

equipped with a dual universal output signal port which can be set through the software interface. The

modules are compatible with C-mount, SM1 and cage technologies from Thorlabs. This allows an easy

coupling of the light beam onto the active area of the detectors.


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Best-in-Class Performance

VISIBLE SINGLE-PHOTON COUNTER

2

Parameter Min Typical Max

Wavelength range 350 1000

Active area 500


at 650nm (at max. excess bias) 60

at 800nm (at max. excess bias) 40

Dark Count Rate

Down to 500

Timing resolution [FWHM] 200 400 1000

Deadtime 1

Output pulse NIM & LVTTL & Variable

Output pulse width 100

Storage temperature -40 70

Min Typical Max Units

350 1000 nm

500 um

55 %

80 %

200 Hz

200 400 1000 ps

1 us

NIM & LVTTL & Variable

100 ns

-40 70 °C

ID120-500-650nm ID120-500-800nm

1

The ID120 is a versatile device allowing you to adjust the excess bias, the deadtime and the temperature. Please note that the values in the specification table are dependent on the user-defined parameters. To have a fair overview of the specifications, it is recommended to carefully review the curves «Efficiency vs excess bias» and «Dark count rate vs temperature».

SPECIFICATIONS

Disclaimer - The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice. Copyright© 2014 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved -ID120 v2014 07 10 - Specifications as of July 2014

2

1 Quantum efficiency vs lambda 2 Efficiency vs excess bias at 655nm and 808nm

ID120-500-650nm Photon counter with 500mm active area. for 650nmID120-500-800nm-STD Photon counter with 500mm active area for 800nm with DCR < 3000HzID120-500-800nm-ULN Photon counter with 500mm active area for 800nm with DCR < 200HzSupplied accessories: USB cable, power supply, USB memory stick including software, adapter to mount Thorlabs components.


3 Software

Delivered with software to:- display count rate- control quantum efficiency- control deadtime- control temperature


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8 CHANNEL VISIBLE SINGLE-PHOTON COUNTER

ID150 MINIATURE 8-CHANNEL PHOTON COUNTERFOR OEM APPLICATIONS

The ID150-1x8 is the only multichannel solid-state

single photon detector on the market. It consists of

a CMOS silicon chip packaged in a standard TO8-

16pin header with a transparent window cap. The

chip combines 8 in-line single photon avalanche

diodes that can be accessed simultaneously for

parallel processing. The square diodes are

40x40mm in area with a center-to-center pitch of

60mm . A fast active quenching circuit is integrated

within each pixel in order to operate each diode in

photon counting regime. The chip is mounted on a

printed circuit board on top of a single-stage

thermoelectric cooler (TEC). A thermistor can be

used to measure the temperature of the chip. Two

power supplies (+5V and -25V) are sufficient for

KEY FEATURES

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

1x8 linear array with independent outputs

Pixel active area of 40x40mm2

Center-to-center pitch of 60mm

Best-in-class timing resolution (40ps)

Low dead time (45ns) and dark count rate

Peak photon detection at λ = 500nm

No crosstalk


APPLICATIONS

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

High-throughput single molecule detection

Parallel DNA sequencing

Multi-Channel TCSPC


Decay and multiple decay time measurements


Flow cytometry, spectrophotometry

Quantum optics

operation in photon counting mode. The fast active quenching circuit leads to a dead time of less than 50ns

per channel. An outstanding timing resolution of less than 60ps allows high accuracy measurements.

The ID150-1x8 can be mounted on a printed circuit board and integrated in apparatus such as spectrometers

or microscopes. The module is used in biological/chemical instrumentation, quantum optics, aerospace and

defense applications. The small detector size is ideal for portable device applications.

Contrary to legacy photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) and other silicon-based counters manufactured with non-

standard custom process, the ID150-1x8 is fabricated using a qualified commercial CMOS process, which

guarantees high reliability.


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Pixel active area 40x40 mm

Center-to-center pitch 60 mm

Timing resolution [FWHM] 40 60 ps


at 400nm 15 18 %

at 500nm 30 35 %

at 600nm 20 25 %

at 700nm 15 18 %

at 800nm 5 7 %

at 900nm 3 4 %

Dark count rate (DCR)

DCR / channel 15 kHz

Mean DCR over the 8 channels 3.5 kHz

Afterpulsing probability 3 %

Output pulse width 40 45 50 ns

Output pulse amplitude (in high impedance) VDD V

Output driver capability 4 mA

Deadtime 50 ns

VDD supply voltage 4.8 5.0 5.2 V

V supply voltage -24 -26 VOP


SPECIFICATIONS

1

3

2

Measured at 273K with V = -25.5VOP1

1

3

1

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.00

10k

20k

30k

40k

50k

60k

70k

Co

un

ts[H

z]

Time [ns]

Extremely low shift of instrument response function with output count rate (less than 70ps from 10kHz to 8MHz).

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.00

10k

20k

30k

40k

50k

60k

70k

Co

un

ts[H

z]

Time [ns]

FWHM Timing Resolution 40ps

1 Timing Resolution IRF Shift with OutputCount Rate

2

0.1 1 10 100 10000

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Au

toco

rrel

atio

nF

un

ctio

n

Time [ms]


Afterpulsing4

400 500 600 700 800 9000

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Ph

oto

nD

etec

tio

nP

rob

abili

ty[%

]

Wavelength [nm]

Photon Detection

Probability versus l

Optimal timing resolution is obtained when incoming photons are focused on the photosensitive area.

3

Disclaimer - The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice. Copyright© 2014 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved -ID150 v2014 07 10 - Specifications as of July 2014

2

3



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BLOCK DIAGRAM

VDD

GND

VOP1

R(T)

TEC

TEC(-) TEC(+)

THERM(1)THERM(2)

OUT1

Rq

AQC

OUT2

Rq

AQC

OUT3

Rq

AQC

OUT4

Rq

AQC

OUT5

Rq

AQC

OUT6

Rq

AQC

OUT7

Rq

AQC

OUT8

Rq

AQC

VOP2

LINEAR ARRAY PICTURE

active quenching circuits

active quenching circuits

1x8 SPAD array 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2The ID150-1x8 is based on a 1.2x1.4mm CMOS silicon chip containing 8 in-line independent single photon detectors. Each pixel combines a square avalanche photodiode of

240x40mm area and its active quenching circuit. The pixel

center-to-center pitch is 60mm (fill factor exceeds 75%).

To operate in the Geiger mode, each diode anode is biased with a negative voltage. In the ID150-1x8, the cathode of pixels 1, 3, 5 and 7 are connected together to V pad, while op1

the cathode of pixels 2, 4, 6 and 8 are connected to V pad. op2

Each cathode is linked to VDD through a polysilicon resistor R . Prior to the detection of a photon on a pixel, the switch is q

open (non-conducting) and the cathode is at VDD. When a photon strikes the diode, the voltage drop induced on the cathode is sensed by the active quenching circuit. The corresponding output pin OUT switches to VDD. The i

feedback circuit closes the switch: the diode is biased below its breakdown voltage resulting in the avalanche quenching. The diode is then kept below breakdown and the recharge takes place with the opening of the switch. The full cycle is defined as the pixel dead time.

In any single photon avalanche diode, thermally generated carriers induce false counts, called dark counts. A single-stage thermoelectric cooler (TEC) allows one to cool the device to reduce the dark count rate. Furthermore, the photon detection probability in a single photon avalanche diode depends on the excess bias voltage.

The breakdown voltage being temperature dependent, it is often crucial to keep the sensor at a constant temperature. The thermistor included in the ID150-1x8 allows one to implement a temperature control circuit. For efficient cooling, an additional heat-sink combined with a air fan must be added by the user. The heat-sink can either surround the TO8 header or be fixed using the UNC 4-40 thread.

3



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DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE AND PINOUT (in mm)

TEC mounting soldering, 117°C

Thermosensor mounting epoxy glue

Wire mounting soldering, 183°C

THERMOELECTRIC COOLER SPECIFICATIONS

MOUNTING DETAILS

THERMOSENSOR SPECIFICATIONS

- Window material: glass- Pin material: gold plated

The thermistor resistance can be calculated by: R = R exp(b(293-T)/(293 T)T 293K* *

pin #12345678910111213141516

connectionTEC(-)

thermistorthermistor

TEC(+)OUT8OUT6OUT4OUT2VOP2

VDDGNDVOP1

OUT1OUT3OUT5OUT7

1

2

3

4

12

11

10

9

5678

16151413

Æ 0.43 +/-0.05

Æ 11.1 +/-0.2

Æ 14.0 +/-0.2

Æ 15.3 +/-0.2

+/-

0.1

50.8

8 +

/-0.1

50.2

5

+/-

0.2

59.5

0

> 3

.0

+/-

0.3

01.5

0

TO8 - 16pins header silicon chip including 8 single photon avalanche diodesand active quenching circuits

printed circuit board glued on top of a 1-stage TEC

9.50

1.9

0

0.70

3.50

Recommended Footprint

UNC4-40

6.5

0TOP VIEW

Parameter Unit Value (conditions)

Maximum Current I A 1.15 +/- 0.02 (at DT )max max

Maximum Voltage Drop U V 2.90 +/- 0.07 (at DT )max max

Maximum Delta-T Dt K 69.0 +/- 2.0 (Vacuum, Q=0, T =300K)max r

Maximum Cooling Capacity Q W 1.85 +/- 0.01 (at DT=0)max

Parameter Unit Value (conditions)

Resistance R0 kW 2.2 +/- 0.16 at 293K-1Beta Constant b K 2918.9 +/- 5%

4



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79

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ACCESSORIES

ID150-1x8-TM option:

To accelerate integration of the ID150-1x8 in an optical set-up, the following accessories are available.

The ID150-1x8-TM consists of a ID150-1x8 welded on a

47.8mmx36.8mm printed circuit board. Required decoupling

capacitances are mounted on the PCB bottom side, close to ID150-1x8

pins. A heat sink is glued around the ID150-1x8 TO8 package. Electrical

connections are provided by 4 straight pin headers. Each 4-poles header

consists of 0.63mmx0.63mm gold-plated pins with 2.54mm pitch. The

recommended footprint and pinout are given below.

ID150-1x8-EVA option: The ID150-1x8-TM is provided with the ID150-1x8-EVA evaluation

board of 66mmx107mm in size. The ID150-1x8-TM is inserted on the

ID150-1x8-EVA board using four 4-poles sockets. Assembly marks

ensure a proper insertion.

The outputs are provided at SMB-type connectors. For V , GND, VDD, op

TEC(+), TEC(-) and thermistor, 4mm banana connectors are used.

The bias voltages V and V can be disconnected by removing the op1 op2

corresponding jumpers .

OUT8 OUT7

TE

C(+

)

the

rmis

tor

the

rmis

tor

TE

C(-)

ID150-1x8-TM

OU

T1

OU

T3

OU

T5

OU

T7

OU

T2

OU

T4

OU

T6

OU

T8

Vop2

VDD

Vop1

TEC(+)thermistorthermistorTEC(-)

1

2

3

4

12

11

10

9

16151413

5678

ID150-1x8-TM pinout

GND

20.1

22.6

25.2

27.7

45.3

47.8

2.4

2.4

14.6

17.2 19.7

22.3

34.3 36.8

1.2 [16x]

3.5

ID150-1x8-TM recommended footprint

ID150-1x8-EVAassembly marks

Vop1 & Vop2 jumpers

OUT2

OUT4

OUT6

OUT1

OUT3

OUT5

VD

D

GN

D

Vo

p1&

2

unit: millimeters

5


¡

¡

¡

ID150-1x8:TO8 head including 8 independent single-photon 2detectors with 40x40mm active area and 60mm center-to-center

pitch.

ID150-1x8-TM: ID150-1x8 mounted on a printed circuit board including heat-sink and decoupling capacitances.

ID150-1x8-EVA: ID150-1x8-TM and evaluation electronic board with connectors.




T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79

[email protected] 1


id210ADVANCED SYSTEM FOR SINGLE PHOTON DETECTION

Adjustable photon detection probability

Adjustable delays, gate width and deadtime

Up to 100MHz external / internal gating frequency

Universal Inputs/Outputs

Quantum optics, quantum cryptography

Fiber optics characterization

Single-photon source characterization

APPLICATIONS

KEY FEATURES

Free gating mode

Failure analysis of electronic circuits

Eye-safe Laser Ranging (LIDAR)

Spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy

The id210 brings a major breakthrough for single photon detection at telecom wavelengths. Its

performance in high-speed gating at internal or external frequencies up to 100MHz by far surpasses the

performance of existing detectors and of its predecessor, the id200-id201, that has been used by

researchers around the globe since first launched in 2002. Photons can be detected with probability up to

25% at 1550nm, while maintaining a low dark count rate. A timing resolution lower than 200ps can be

achieved. The id210 provides adjustable delays, adjustable gate duration from 0.5ns to 25ns and adjustable

deadtime up to 100us. For applications requiring an asynchronous detection scheme, the id210 can operate

in free-running mode with detection probability up to 10%. Beside performance, a particular effort has been

made for providing a practical user interface, universal compatibility with scientific equipment, application-

oriented functionalities including statistics and coincidence counting. Built around an advanced embedded-

PC and FPGA, the id210 allows remote control, connection of external screen and keyboard, data export on

USB key and setups saving.

Ethernet remote control (or USB with adapter)

Stand alone application and Labview Vi

Two-channel auxiliary event counter

Auxiliary coincidence counter

xternal monitor / projector VGA HD15 output for e

Data export through USB memory

5.7" VGA TFT-LED color display

Real time statistics, sound alarms

Setup storage in internal memory

SMF or MMF optical input

Asynchronous detection mode (free-running)

Photoluminescence

Singlet oxygen measurement




T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79

[email protected] com 2

Block Diagram


The id210 Advanced System for Single Photon Detection is built around the following blocks:

Trigger, Reset/Enable, Aux1 and Aux2 inputs blocks with SMA connectors on the id210 front panel.

Through the id210 user interface, each input can be set independently for receiving LVTTL-LVCMOS, NIM, NECL,

PECL3.3V or PECL5V signals. A VAR mode is also provided with a large input voltage range, an adjustable threshold

and slope/logic definition. AC/DC coupling selection is possible for the Trigger input. (see Inputs Specifications on

page 6 for more details).

Clock, Gate, Detection1 and Detection2 outputs blocks with SMA connectors on the id210 front panel.

Through the id210 user interface, each output can be set independently for providing LVTTL-LVCMOS, NIM, NECL,

PECL3.3V or PECL5V signals. The user can also switch to VAR mode in which the pulse width, the logic definition, the

high and low signal levels and the load can be adjusted. (see Outputs Specifications on page 6 for more details).

an avalanche photodiode and associated electronics.The key component at the heart of the id210 is a

cooled InGaAs fiber-coupled avalanche photodiode (APD). The fiber (single mode or multi-mode) is connectorized to a

FC/PC connector on the id210 front panel. The APD terminals are connected to:

- a DC high voltage controlled by the system to reach the efficiency set through the id210 interface,

- a Pulser Electronics that produces constant amplitude pulses for operation in single photon regime.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Detection 1 Output

High LevelDetection1

50W

Low LevelDetection1

Buffer Detection 1

LogicDetection1

WidthDetection1

Trigger Input Relay

Trigger

PolarizationTrigger

Comp.Trigger

50W

ThresholdTrigger

Slope/LogicTrigger

Pulse ShapingTrigger

CouplingTrigger

Reset/Enable Input

RelayReset/Enable

PolarizationReset/Enable

Comp.R/E

50W

ThresholdReset/Enable

Slope/LogicReset/Enable

Pulse IDReset

Detection 2 Output

High LevelDetection2

50W

Low LevelDetection2

Buffer Detection2

LogicDetection2

WidthDetection2

Gate Output

High LevelGate

50W

Low LevelGate

Buffer Gate

LogicGate

Clock Output

High LevelClock

50W

Low LevelClock

Buffer Clock

LogicClock

Internal Clock Generator

TriggerDelay

GateWidth

PulserElectronics

CaptureElectronics

APD bias control

QuenchingElectronicsAPD

DeadTime

HF ClockCounter

Mode

Pulse ID Mode

DC High / Free-runningDC Low / Disabled

Efficiency

Mode

Load

Load

Load

Load

Aux1 Input Relay

Aux1

PolarizationAux1

Comp.Aux1

50W

ThresholdAux1

Slope/LogicAux1

Pulse ShapingAux1&Aux2

HF CounterAux1

Aux2 Input Relay

Aux2

Comp.Aux2

50W

ThresholdAux2

Slope/LogicAux2

Pulse ShapingAux2

HF CounterAux2

HF CounterAux1&Aux2

Pulse ShapingAux1

PolarizationAux2

HF GateCounter

Frequency

Optical Input

HF DetectionCounter

Aux2 input block

Aux1 input block

Reset/Enable input block

Trigger input block

Detection 2 output block

Detection 1 output block

Gate output block

Clock output block

2-channel event counter / coincidence counter cooled APD & associated electronic

InternalReset

InternalReset

InternalReset

InternalReset

InternalReset

InternalReset

HF CounterDetection

Reset

HF CounterDetection

Reset

System hardware

Mode

Cooled



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79


The Capture Electronics detects the avalanche events (resulting from photon absorption or dark generation) and feeds

the Detection 1&2 outputs blocks and the HF (high frequency) detection counter. The Quenching Electronics inhibits

the pulser until avalanche quenching.

the System hardware

The system hardware allows the id210 operation in internal gated, external gated, modes.free-running or free-gating

Internal gated mode

Clock Output

Gate Output

Trigger Delay

Gate Width

Width Detection 1&2

blanked gate

Quenching


HF Gate Counter


HF Clock Counter

Dead Time

+1 +1 +1 +1

+1 +1 +1

+1

1/Internal Gating Frequency

External gated mode

HF Gate Counter


HF Clock Counter

Gate Output

Trigger Delay

Gate Width

Width Detection 1&2

+1 +1 +1

Dead Time

+1 +1

+1

Trigger Input

+1

+1

blanked gate

Quenching


Internal-gating mode:

The APD is biased above breakdown during gates of adjustable Width and Frequency. Internal gating is a synchronous

mode based on a clock provided by the internal clock generator. The 50% duty cycle clock signal is available at the

Clock Output and counted by the HF Clock Counter. A user-adjustable Trigger Delay can be set between the Clock and

the Gate signals. A gate of Width set by user is open on the rising edge of the delayed trigger. As consequence of an

avalanche event within the gate, the HF Detection Counter is incremented and a pulse of adjustable Width is outputted

at Detection1 and Detection2 connectors. The Quenching Electronics closes the gate and, if selected by the user, a

Dead Time is applied resulting in one or several blanked pulses after a detection.

The HF Gate Counter provides an exact count of the effective gates seen by the APD.

External-gating mode:

The operation in external gating mode is very similar to the internal gating mode except that the clock is provided by the

user at the Trigger input.



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QuenchingQuenching

Gate Output


Dead Time

HF Gate Counter +1 +1

HF Detection Counter +1 +1 +1

Quenching

+1


Free-gating mode

Dead Time

Gate Output

+1

+1

Reset/Enable Input

gate partially blanked

+1 +1 +1

+1 +1

HF Gate Counter


Quenching Quenching


blanked gate

Quenching

Free-gating mode:

The user feeds an electrical signal at the Reset/Enable input. The signal, after transit in the input block, passes through

multiplexers and the Dead Time stage. When no avalanche occurs, the Gate Output that reflects the APD state (On/Off)

is identical to the Reset/Enable input signal. When an avalanche occurs during a gate, a pulse of adjustable Width is

produced at Detection1 and Detection2 outputs, the Detection HF Counter is incremented and the Quenching

Electronics stops the gate. When a Dead Time is applied for limiting the afterpulsing, the Gate signal remains at low

level whatever the Reset/Enable state. This results in blanked gate(s) or partially blanked gates. The HF Gate Counter

provides the effective gates rate applied to the APD.

NEW

NEW

Free-running mode (asynchronous mode):

A DC control signal travels through multiplexers and the Dead Time stage and sets the Pulser Electronics to High. Until

photon absorption or dark count generation, the APD is biased above its breakdown voltage in Geiger mode. The Gate

Output that reflects the APD state (i.e. On:photosensitive or Off:blind) is at high level. When an avalanche takes place in

the APD, it is sensed by the Capture Electronics. A pulse of adjustable Width is produced on Detection1 and Detection2

outputs, the Detection HF Counter is incremented and the Quenching Electronics stops the avalanche. For limiting

afterpulsing, the APD is maintained below breakdown until the end of the Dead Time. In this mode, the HF Gate Counter

and HF Detection Counter rates are equal.

A two-channel event counter and a coincidence counter as an auxiliary independent block.

The signals outputted by Aux1 and Aux2

inputs blocks feed HF Counter Aux1 and HF

Counter Aux2 after pulse shaping. The block

also performs a logic AND of the two inputs

that feeds a coincidence counter: HF Counter

Aux1&Aux2.

Aux1 Input

Aux2 Input

HF Counter Aux1

Aux1&Aux2

HF Counter Aux1&Aux2

HF Counter Aux2

+1 +1 +1

+1

+1 +1 +1

+1

+1

+1 +1

+1

+1

+1+1



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Optical fiber type SMF or MMF

Efficiency range (except free-running mode) 5 25 %

Efficiency range in free-running mode 2.5 10 %

Efficiency resolution (all modes) 2.5

Deadtime range 0.1 100 us

Deadtime step 100 ns

Timing resolution at max. efficiency (25%) 200 ps

External trigger frequency 100 MHz

Internal trigger frequency 1,2,5,10,20,50,100,200,500 kHz 1,2,5,10,20,50,100 MHz

Effective gate width range 0.5 25 ns

Gate width resolution 10 ps

Trigger delay range 20 ns

Trigger delay resolution 10 ps

Operating temperature +10 +30 °C

Dimensions LxWXH 387x256x167 mm

Weight 8.2 kg

Optical connector FC/PC

Power supply 110 230 VAC

Cooling time 7 min

InGaAs/InP APD Telcordia GR-468-CORE

SPECIFICATIONS

1 Calibrated at l=1550nm

10%

25%

900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Eff

icie

nc

y[%

]

Wavelength [nm]

1 Efficiency versus wavelength at 10% and 25% levels (l=1550nm)

Note that the effective gate width is evaluated by measuring the full width at h a l f - m a x i m u m o f t h e histogram of time interval

between the gate signal (start) and the detection signal (stop) in the dark. This provides a true evaluation of the dark count rate in contrast with dark count rate assessment based on the gate electrical signal. To take into account the electrical signal width always leads to a huge underestimation of the DCR.Please contact IDQ for more details about the assessment of the dark count rate in gated mode.

id210-SMF-A

id210-SMF-B

id210-SMF-C

id210-MMF

Model

1kHz

1kHz

6.5kHz

7.5kHz

2.5% efficiency

1.5kHz

1.5kHz

9kHz

10kHz

5% efficiency

2.2kHz

2.2kHz

11.5kHz

12.5kHz

7.5% efficiency

3kHz

3kHz

13.5kHz

14.5kHz

10% efficiency

Dark count rate (maximum values) in free-running mode with 50ms deadtime:

id210-SMF-A

id210-SMF-B

id210-SMF-C

id210-MMF

Model

0.4Hz

1Hz

6Hz

8Hz

2Hz

5Hz

30Hz

40Hz

0.4kHz

1kHz

6kHz

8kHz

2kHz

5kHz

30kHz

40kHz

Dark count rate for a 1ns effective gate width in gated mode:

Freq.=100kHz, no deadtime Freq.=100MHz, deadtime=10ms

10% efficiency 25% efficiency 10% efficiency 25% efficiency

IDQ´s SMF modules are available in three grades: Standard (C) and Ultra-Low Noise (B) and Ultra-Ultra Low Noise (A),

depending on dark count rate specifications.

1 1

2

2 A 20MHz trigger rate limited version is also available. The id210 can be later on remotely upgraded to 100MHz.

A version of the id210 without free-running mode is also available.

2

3

3

44

44

4

30% Quantum Efficiency at 1550 nm version available on request

(Dark Count Rate to be discussed)

Typ. Typ. Typ. Typ.Max. Max. Max. Max.

6.5kHz

6.5kHz

6.5kHz

7.5kHz

9kHz

9kHz

9kHz

10kHz

11.5kHz

11.5kHz

11.5kHz

12.5kHz

13.5kHz

13.5kHz

13.5kHz

14.5kHz



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79


Block Diagram


Frequency (Aux1, Aux2) 300 MHz

Frequency (Reset/Enable, Trigger) 100 MHz

Pulse duration 500 ps

Voltage range in VAR mode -2.5 +2.5 V

Impedance 50 W

Pulse amplitude +0.1 +5 V

Coupling (Trigger) DC or AC

Coupling (Aux1, Aux2, Reset/Enable) DC

Threshold voltage range in VAR mode -2.5 +2.5 V

Threshold voltage resolution in VAR mode +10 mV

Predefined standards LVTTL/LVCMOS -

Connectors SMA

Protection ESD

NIM - NECL - PECL3.3V - PECL5V

INPUTS SPECIFICATIONS

1

1


High level voltage range (high Z to ground) -2.0 +7.0 V

High level voltage range (50W to ground) -1.0 +3.5 V

Low level voltage range (high Z to ground) -3.0 +5.0 V

Low level voltage range (50W to ground) -1.5 +2.5 V

Voltage swing (high Z to ground) +0.1 +7.0 V

Voltage swing (50W to ground) +0.05 +3.5 V

Logic + or -

Short pulse width (Detection1, Detection2) 4.5 5 5.5 ns

Large pulse width (Detection1, Detection2) 90 100 110 ns

Rise/fall times at 5V swing (10%-90%) 2.5 ns

Predefined standards LVTTL/LVCMOS -

Connectors SMA

Protection ESD

NIM - NECL - PECL3.3V - PECL5V

OUTPUTS SPECIFICATIONS

For NECL, PECL3.3V and PECL5V, the id210 input

provides standard termination scheme (NECL: 50W to -2V,

PECL3.3V: 50W to +1.3V, PECL5V: 50W to +3V).

The Inputs parameters or Predefined Standards are

included in setup files that can be saved on internal memory.

2

1 Starting with a Predefined Standard, all the parameters

can be modified by the user.

The Outputs parameters or Predefined Standards are

included in setup files that can be saved on internal memory.

2

-1 0 + 1 + 2

0

+ 1

+ 2

+ 3

+ 4

+ 5

Max.

Low level [V]

Voltage swing [V]

50 W to ground

Min.

-2 -1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3

-1

0

+ 1

+ 2

+ 3

+ 4

Low level [V]

High level [V]

50 W to ground

-3 -2 -1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5

Low level [V]

High level [V]High Z to ground

-2

-1

0

+ 1

+ 2

+ 3

+ 4

+ 5

+ 6

+ 7

-3 -2 -1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5

Max.

Low level [V]

Voltage swing [V]

High Z to ground

Min.

0

+ 1

+ 2

+ 3

+ 4

+ 5

+ 6

+ 7

+ 8

+ 9

+ 10

1 2 3 4

1

13

324

Minimum and maximum voltage swings

when the output is loaded at high impedance

to ground.

Low level and high level voltage ranges

when the output is loaded at high impedance

to ground.

Low level and high level voltage ranges

when the output is loaded at 50W to ground.

Minimum and maximum voltage swings

when the output is loaded at 50W to ground.

2

1 2



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79


All the user parameters are intuitively adjustable with direct access buttons (Detector, Inputs/Outputs, Display, System,

Setups and Acquisition), submenus control buttons and the control wheel on the id210 front panel.

The bicolor indicating LEDs associated to SMA connectors inputs or outputs provide relevant informations such as valid

triggers, pulses traffic at the outputs or unused inputs/outputs in the selected mode. Two USB connectors on the front

panel can be used for connecting a keyboard or for data export on a storage key. The backlight intensity is adjusted

automatically. The id210 is equipped with a buzzer that can be optionally used for indicating, for instance, the end of the

cooling phase. On the rear panel, Ethernet and USB connectors can be used for remote control. A VGA HD-15

connector for external monitor/projector is accessible as well on the rear panel.

The id210 contains 6 HF counters providing the Detection, Clock, Gate, Aux1, Aux2 and Aux1&Aux2 coincidence rates.

The id210 displays indicators associated to counters. Up to 5 different views can be set, saved and restored. A view

defines the number of indicators displayed simultaneously (selected between 1 and 4) and the counter associated to

each indicator.

USER INTERFACE - DATA & SETUP RECOVERY

Inputs

System Start/Stop

USB

Help

Setups

Display

Acquisition

Detector

Inputs/Outputs

Aux 1Power Aux 2 Trigger Reset/Enable Gate Detection 1 Detection 2

Outputs

Clock

id210 - Advanced System for Single Photon Detection

direct access buttons control wheel

help

access

start/stop

button

FC/PC

optical fiber

input

submenu control buttons

USB connectors

(keyboard, storage key)

Inputs/Outputs SMA connectors

and indicating LEDs

ON/OFF power button

with status LED

5.7" VGA TFT-LED color display optical window for automatic backlight intensity adjustement

REMOTE CONTROL (OPTIONAL)

A stand-alone application allowing you to control your

id210, to plot graphics and to export measurements of

counters remotely is delivered. No additional program is

necessary to drive the id210.

The remote control "id210 Front panel" application, built

using Labview, is delivered with its Labview Vi file - thus,

you can modify the remote control application if you own a

Labview license from National Instruments.

Additionally, a command reference guide is provided,

enabling you to write your own remote control application

in any programming language such as C or C++.



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79

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NEW! MMF input also available

id220-FRCOST-EFFECTIVE MODULE FOR SINGLE PHOTON DETECTION AT TELECOM WAVELENGTHS

ASYNCHRONOUS

1 s-25ms adjustable deadtimem

Quantum optics, quantum cryptography




10%-15%-20% photon detection probability levels




The id220-FR brings a major breakthrough for single photon detection in free-running mode at telecom

wavelengths. It provides a cost-effective solution for applications in which asynchronous photon detection

is essential. The cooled InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiode and associated electronics have been specially

designed for achieving low dark count and afterpulsing rates in free-running mode. The module can operate

at three detection probability levels of 10%, 15% and 20% with a deadtime that can be set between 1ms and

25ms. Arrival time of photons is reflected by a 100ns LVTTL pulse available at the SMA connector with a

timing resolution as low as 250ps at 20% efficiency. A simple USB interface allows the user to set the

efficiency level and the deadtime. A standard FC/PC connector followed by a single mode fiber is provided as

optical input. The id220-FR comes with a +12V 60W adapter .

SMF or MMF optical input

Asynchronous detection mode (free-running)

Photoluminescence



Timing resolution as low as 250ps

Low dark and afterpulsing rates

100ns LVTTL output pulse at SMA connector

1



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79




Optical fiber type SMF or MMF

Efficiency range 10, 15 or 20 %

Dark count rate (10us deadtime)

SMF 10% 15% 20% efficiency 1 / 2.5 / 5 kHz

MMF 10% 15% 20% efficiency 1.2 / 3 / 6 kHz

Timing resolution (FWHM)

10% 15% 20% efficiency 400 / 300 / 250 ps

Deadtime range 1 25 ms

Deadtime step 1 ms

Detection output pulse LVTTL / 100ns width

Output connector SMA



Weight 2.5 kg


60W AC/DC +12V green power adapter

Input voltage 90~264 VAC - 135~370VDC

Frequency range 47~63 Hz

AC current 1.4A/115VAC 1A/230VAC

Cooling time 3 min

SPECIFICATIONS1 Calibrated at l=1.55 µm.

2

1

2

In contrast with usual gated operation of detectors based on InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiodes (APDs), the

id220-FR operates in free-running (asynchronous) mode. The APD is biased above its breakdown voltage in

the so-called Geiger mode. Upon photon absorption, the photon arrival time is reflected by the rising edge of

a 100ns width LVTTL pulse at the output.The id220-FR has been designed for providing a fast avalanche

quenching, thus limiting the afterpulsing rate. This allows the operation at reasonably short deadtimes of

values that can be optimized depending on the applications and the efficiency level.

Typical DCR versus Deadtime at 10%, 15% and

20% efficiencies.

Quenching

APD State

Detection Output100ns Detection

Output Pulse

Dead Time [1 to 25ms]

Quenching


ON

OFF

Avalanche

Detection Detection

100ns DetectionOutput Pulse


Photonarrival

No detection !Detector is OFF

Time [0 to s]¥

2

Single Mode Fibre SMF28, Numerical Aperture = 0.14 orMulti Mode Fibre with a 62.5um core diameter, Numerical Aperture = 0.275

SMA Female connector: Male body (outside threads) with female inner hole.

3

3

4

4



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79


SOFTWARE

The id220-FR comes with a software that allows the user to set the efficiency level and the deadtime through a simple USB interface. The module can also operate disconnected from the PC. The settings are reloaded upon each power up.

3

IDQ provides as an option a pulse shaper (A-PPI-D) which can be used with devices requiring negative input pulses. The leading edge of the id220 output pulse is converted into a sharp negative pulse with typical amplitudes of 1.4V for a 50W load and 2.5V for a high impedance load. The pulse shaper comes with two SMA/BNC adapters.

Ordering information: idacc-A-PPI-D Pulse shaper

Typical output pulse of an id220 equipped with a A-PPI-D pulse shaper in 50W load.

Typical output pulse of an id220 equipped with a A-PPI-D pulse shaper in high impedance load.

ACCESSORY - OPTIONAL PULSE SHAPER

ACCESSORY - OPTIONAL SMA ELECTRICAL CABLE

To connect your id220 to other devices, such as the pulse shaper (A-PPI-D) or certain acquisition card (SPC-130 from Becker & Hickl), IDQ recommends this SMA Male / SMA Male Cable. SMA Male means Female body (inside threads) with male inner pin (see picture)

Ordering information: idacc-SMA-SMA-1m SMA Male to SMA Male electrical Cable

ACCESSORY - METALLIC OPTICAL FIBRE

The standard optical patchcord can be transparent. Unwanted photons from the ambient environment can pass by the cladding of the fiber and so perturbate your measurement. The metallic jacket fiber is delivered with FC/PC connectors

Ordering information: idacc-SMF-Steel-2m SMF28 fiber and length 2m.idacc-MMF-Steel-2m core diameter 62.5um and length 2m.


T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79

[email protected]

PRELI

MIN

ARY

INFRARED SINGLE-PHOTON COUNTER

ID230 FREE-RUNNING InGaAs/InP PHOTON COUNTER WITH 50Hz DARK COUNT RATE AT 10% QUANTUM EFFICIENCY

The ID230 is a major breakthrough for single

photon detection in free-running mode at telecom

wavelengths. Based on the existing ID220, this

new series offers a significantly decreased dark

count rate thanks to an improved cooling system

and adapted electronics. The avalanche

photodiode working in Geiger mode is cooled down

to -100°C. This series has been especially

designed for applications in which asynchronous

photon detection is essential. The module can

operate at detection probability levels of up to 25%,

with a deadtime that can be set between 1ms and

100ms. The photon arrival time is reflected by a

100ns LVTTL pulse, with a timing resolution of

KEY FEATURES

¡¡¡

¡¡¡¡¡

900-1700nm

Asynchronous detection (free-running)

Best-in-class dark count rate < 50Hz at 10% quantum efficiency < 200Hz at 20% quantum efficiency

Adjustable quantum efficiency up to 25%

Adjustable deadtime from 1us to 100us

Adjustable temperature from -50°C to -100°C

Single mode fiber optical input

User-friendly and intuitive Labview interface

APPLICATIONS

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

Quantum cryptography







Photoluminescence

Fluorescence lifetime measurement

200ps at 25% efficiency. A simple USB interface allows the user to set the efficiency , the temperaure of the

avalanche photodiode and the deadtime. A standard FC/PC connector is provided as optical input.


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PRELI

MIN

ARY


INFRARED SINGLE-PHOTON COUNTER

SPECIFICATIONS



Optical fiber type SMF

Efficiency range at 1550nm 0 25 %

Calibrated quantum efficiencies 8 values to be defined by the customer

Dark count rate @ -90°C

10% 50 Hz

20% 200 Hz

Afterpulsing probability with 20us deadtime (-90°C) 5 %

Deadtime range 1 100 us

Deadtime step 1 us

Detection output pulse LVTTL / 100ns width




Weight 25 kg


Power supply 550W AC/DC

Cooling time 15 min

2

1

Dark count rate vs efficiency2

In contrast to most detectors based on InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiodes (APDs), which operate in gated

mode, the ID230 operates in free-running (asynchronous) mode. The APD is biased above its breakdown

voltage, i.e. in Geiger mode. Upon photon absorption, the photon arrival time is reflected by the rising edge of

a 100ns width LVTTL pulse at the output of the detector. The ID230 has been designed to provide fast

avalanche quenching, thus limiting afterpulsing. This allows the operation at reasonably short deadtimes of

values that can be optimized depending on the applications and efficiency setting.

Quenching

APD State

Detection Output100ns Detection

Output Pulse


Quenching


ON

OFF

Avalanche

Detection Detection

100ns DetectionOutput Pulse


Photonarrival

No detection !Detector is OFF

Time [0 to s]¥

1 Quantum efficiency vs wavelength

10%

25%

900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Eff

icie

nc

y[%

]

Wavelength [nm]

SPAD2

Disclaimer - The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice. Copyright© 2014 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - id230 v2014 09 10 - Specifications as of July 2014

2


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PRELIMINARY

SUPERCONDUCTING NANOWIRE SINGLE-PHOTON DETECTOR

ID280 SUPERCONDUCTING NANOWIRE WITH 50% QUANTUM EFFICIENCY AND FASTEST ELECTRONICS

IDQ's ID280 series detection system consists of a

superconducting nanowire detector combined with

high performance electronics. With quantum

efficiencies higher than 50%, count rates of up to

20 MHz, dark counts <50 Hz (at 2.3K), jitter below

70ps and no afterpulsing, this system outperforms

all commercial single photon detectors in all

parameters.

Besides the nanowire and electronics, the ID280

comes with everything that is necessary to install it

in your own cryostat; including feed-throughs and

cryogenic cables and connectors.

ID280 detectors are designed and produced by

Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information

KEY FEATURES

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

600-1700nm

Free-running mode

Best-in-class quantum efficiency: 50%

Low dark count rate (<100Hz)

20MHz maximum count rate

Stand alone software and Labview Vi


No afterpulsing

APPLICATIONS

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

Quantum Key Distribution




Photoluminescence

Fluorescence lifetime measurement

Fiber optics characterizazion

Failure analysis of electronics circuits

Technology (SIMIT, CAS), which take advantage of SIMIT's advanced superconductor electronics facilities.

ID280 detectors made of NbN or NbTiN ultrathin films achieve high performance at 2.3 K, a temperature

achievable in simple closed cycle refrigerators (not included).

The ID280 detector includes all necessary electronics: stable adjustable bias current source, amplification

stage, discriminator and counter. The device can be controlled through the included (.exe) software or

through the provided LabView VI.

POWERED BY


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SUPERCONDUCTING NANOWIRE SINGLE-PHOTON DETECTOR

Disclaimer - The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice. Copyright© 2014 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved -ID250 v2014 09 22 - Specifications as of September 2014

SPECIFICATIONS



Optical fiber type SMF

Efficiency range at 1550nm 50 %

Dark count rate at 2.3K 100 Hz

Recovery time 70 ns

Count rate 20 Mhz

Timing resolution 70 ps

Pulse width 30 ns


Operating temperature 2.5 K

Dimensions of the package without fiber 13 x 20 x 25 mm


21

Dark count rate vs efficiency21 Quantum efficiency vs wavelength

3

Recovery time3 Detector delivered with all electronics and software4

C u s to m i ze d SN SPD w i t h b e t t e r performances:

quantum efficiency > 70% at specific wavelength (600-1700nm)

dark count rate below 1Hz

¡

¡

IMPORTANT



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SUB-NANOSECOND PULSED LASER SOURCE

id300 SERIES

Sub-nanosecond laser pulses

Repetition rate from 0 to 500MHz

Wavelength: 1310nm or 1550nm

(DWDM ls available upon request)

Compact and reliable stand-alone unit

Quantum optics


Optical measurements

APPLICATIONS

IDQ has been designed to meet the specific requirements

of researchers who need to generate short laser pulses at a wavelength of 1310nm or

1550nm.

The laser source, based on Fabry-Perot (FP) or on distributed-feedback (DFB) laser diodes,

is triggered externally via a trigger input to produce sub-nanosecond laser pulses with a

repetition rate ranging from 0 to 500MHz.

The id300 laser source is ideally suited to work in combination with IDQ’s Single Photon

Detection and Counting Modules (id210 series).

The laser source can be directly triggered by the id210's internal clock. Used in combination

with a variable optical attenuator, this short-pulse laser source makes an ideal cost-effective

single-photon source.

’s id300 Short-Pulse Laser Source

KEY FEATURES

External trigger

FC/PC connector



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DisclaimerThe information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice. Copyright© 2006-2011 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - id300 v4.0 - Specifications as of March 2012

+10°C to +30°C

185 mm x 172 mm x 55 mm

915 g

FC-PC

BNC

SMF

100 - 240 VAC (autoselect)

Operating Temperature

Dimensions LxWxH

Weight

Optical Connector

Electronic Connector

Fiber Type

Power Supply


id300 SERIES

SPECIFICATIONS (T=25ºC)

OPERATING PRINCIPLE

ORDERING INFORMATION AND SALES CONTACT

GENERAL INFORMATION


Wavelength 1290 1310 1330 nm

Wavelength 1520 1550 1580 nm

Spectral width (FWHM) - FP laser type 7 15 nm

Spectral width (FWHM) - DFB laser type 0.6 1.5 nm

Frequency range 0 500 MHz

Pulse duration 0.3* 0.5 ns

Peak power 0.7 1 mW

Output power at 1MHz -36 -35 -34 dBm

Trigger input** NIM, ECL, PECL, LVPECL, TTL, TTL 50W

* can be increased up to 2ns upon request

** choose one trigger input from this list. See ordering information below.

1ms

Average power = -35 dBm

Peak power = 0 dBm

0.3ns

Electrical input: e.g. NIM signal (example: frequency = 1MHz)

Optical output:

Part number: id300-XXXX-YYY-ZZZ

XXXX: Select wavelength. Choose between 1310 and 1550.

YYY: Select laser type. Choose between FP (Fabry-Perot) and DFB (distributed

feedback).

ZZZ: Select trigger input signal specifications. Choose between NIM, ECL, PECL,

LVPECL, TTL, TTL 50W.

WARNING

CLASS 1 LASER PRODUCT

CLASSIFIED PER IEC 60825-1, Ed 1.2, 2001-08



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[email protected] 1

IDQ's ID350 series consists of a packaged

Periodically Poled Lithium Niobate (PPLN) crystal

designed to generate photon pairs at telecom

wavelengths using spontaneous parametric down-

conversion (SPDC), where a single photon at

775nm generates a pair of photons at 1550nm.

The ID350 can also be used for Second Harmonic

Generation (SHG) or Sum Frequency Generation

(SFG). The crystal comes fiber-coupled to provide

minimal insertion losses. It contains an internal

temperature controller able to adjust wavelength

(phase matching) through a USB connection and

GUI software (Labview VI also delivered).


Photon Pair SourceID350-PPLN Periodically Poled Lithium Niobate

KEY FEATURES

¢

¢

Type 0 SPDC from 775nm to 1550nm or from

780nm to 1560nm (contact ID Quantique for

other wavelength options)

Temperature tuning range 5nm (e.g. SHG can

be obtained with 1550-1555nm pump)

¢

¢

¢

¢

¢

¢

¢

Total insertion Loss @ 1550nm: ~4 dB

SHG Conversion Efficiency: ~25%/W (1550 "

775nm)

SHG Sidelobe Suppression: <15% of peak

(1550 775nm)

Heralding efficiency: ~60% (775 " 1550nm)-7 SPDC Efficiency: ~10 (775 " 1550nm)

PPLN length: 35mm typ.

Bandwidth: ~0.04nm typ.

"

FUNCTIONALITIES

APPLICATIONS

¢

¢

¢

¢

¢

¢

¢

¢

¢

USB connection

GUI software included

Labview VI included

FC/PC connectors with1550nm SM fiber on

both ends standard (other on request)

Spontaneous down-conversion

Entangled photon source

Heralded photon source

Second Harmonic Generation

Sum Frequency Generation

NEW

FPERRY12

Typewritten Text

AGENTS: Boston Electronics, (800)347-5445, [email protected]



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2

SECOND HARMONIC GENERATION (SHG)OUTPUT AS A FUNCTION OF WAVELENGTH

Constructed from high quality PPLN gratings with sufficient length and built-in temperature stabilization, the device generates an output with a sharp main spectral peak and minimal side lobes.

PHOTON PAIR COUNT EXPERIMENT

λ /λ VS λ AT FIXED TEMPERATURE, I S PUMPTYPICAL SHAPE

λ /λ λI S PUMPVS TEMPERATURE AT FIXED , TYPICAL SHAPE


ID350-PPLN- 775-1550: Type 0 SPDC from 775nm to 1550nm with FC/PC connectors and 1550nm SM fiber on both ends ID350-PPLN-780-1560:Type 0 SPDC from 780nm to 1560nm with FC/PC connectors and 1550nm SM fiber on both ends

Supplied accessories: Power supply, USB cable, GUI software and Labview VI

FPERRY12

Typewritten Text

Agents: Boston Electronics, (800)347-5445 [email protected], www.boselec.com

Boston Electronics Corporation 91 Boylston Street, Brookline, Massachusetts 02445 USA (800)347-5445 or (617)566-3821 fax (617)731-0935

www.boselec.com [email protected]

Accessory 785 nm laser known to be suitable for use with the id350 Entangled Photon Source:

Thorlabs

Model#: LPS‐PM785‐FC ‐ 785 nm, 6.25 mW, PM Fiber Pigtailed Laser Diode FC/PC (cost ~ $822.80)

Model#: ITC4001 ‐ Benchtop Laser Diode/TEC Controller 1A/96W (cost ~ $2950)

Model#: LM9LP ‐ LD/TEC Mount for Thorlabs Fiber‐Pigtailed Laser Diodes (cost ~ $569.00)

Costs shown from Thorlabs website July 2014



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id400 SERIESSINGLE-PHOTON DETECTOR FOR 1064NM

Adjustable detection probability up to 30%

Gated or free running modes

Internal or external gated modes

Adjustable gate width from 500ps to 2µs

Adjustable internal clock up to 4MHz

Adjustable delays up to 1µs by steps of 50ps

Free-space optical communications

Satellite laser ranging

Atmospheric research and meteorology


Adjustable deadtime up to 100µs

Laser range finder

Free-space quantum cryptography

Quantum optics

The id400 single photon detection module consists of a detection head and a control unit.

The detection head is built around a cooled InGaAsP/InP avalanche photodiode (APD)

optimized for 1064nm single-photon detection and a fast sensing and quenching electronic

circuit. Single-photon detection efficiency can be adjusted at three preset levels and the

detector can be operated both in free running or gated modes.

The control unit performs APD temperature control and regulation, power supply, gate

generation and dead time setting. It also includes BNC connectors for input-output signals

and a USB interface. The detector is controlled using a LabVIEW virtual instrument, which

offers intuitive menus and a graphical interface.

The id400 includes invaluable functions, such as an adjustable deadtime or electronic delay

lines, which allow the optimization of its performance and make it a simple tool to use.

Internal counters

Spectroscopy



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The id400 is a complete single photon counting system based on a cooled InGaAsP/InP avalanche photodiode

(APD) optimized for 1064nm. The APD temperature is set to -40°C upon assembly to optimize the id400 overall

performance. The id400 offers advanced functionalities, including:

Free-running, internal gating or external gating modes:

In free-running or asynchronous mode, the APD is biased above the breakdown voltage in the so-called

Geiger mode. Upon a photon arrival (or a dark count generation), an avalanche takes place in the APD. The

avalanche is sensed by the id400 and reflected at Detection OUT by the rising edge of a TTL pulse. The id400 pulser

provides a fast avalanche quenching required to limit the afterpulsing rate. The operating voltage is then restored at

the end of the dead time and the id400 is ready to detect a subsequent photon.

In gating or synchronous mode, a voltage pulse is applied to raise the bias above APD breakdown voltage

upon triggering. The gating can be either internal or external. The APD is only active during gates. The gating mode

is used in applications where the arrival time of the photon is known. It allows a reduction of the dark count rate.

Adjustable single photon detection probability level. In any avalanche photodiode, the single photon detection

probability increases with the excess bias voltage (difference between operating and breakdown voltages). The

timing resolution is also improved at high excess bias voltages. On the other hand, the dark count and afterpulsing

rates increase with the excess bias voltage. The id400 provides three levels of single photon detection probability

(7.5 %, 15% and 30%, measured at 1064nm).

Adjustable dead time. At high gating frequencies or when operated in free-running mode, afterpulsing may

significantly deteriorate performances. To suppress detrimental afterpulsing effects, the id400 includes a deadtime

(1µs to100µs by step of 1µs). In deadtime mode, the id400 monitors the effective gate rate.

Gate generator (for internal gating mode) with adjustable gate duration (500ps to 2µs by step of 10ps) and

frequency (1Hz to 4MHz).

Electronic delays (for internal gating mode) between Reference OUT(clock signal) and Gate OUT and between

Reference OUT(clock signal) and the actual detector gate for simple detector synchronization.

Internal counters, whose results are displayed on the Labview Virtual Instrument monitor detection and effective

gate rates. For each detection, the module also produces a TTL pulse available on the id400 control unit front panel

BNC connector.

All the user-adjustable parameters can be easily set using the Labview Virtual Instrument. They can also be stored

by the control unit for operation without PC.


Reference OUT

Gate OUT

Detection OUT

External Trigger IN

id400 control unitid400 detection head

APDTEC

Detection

Power/Control DB9 cable

Gate Command

Microcontroller

TemperatureControl

Det.Proba.7.5/15/30 %

USB

+12V

Modefree-runningint. gatingext. gating

Dead Time1/100usstep 1us

Gate Width500ps/2usstep 10ps

InternalGateFrequency

DelaysRef-Gate OUTRef-Actual Gate

FPGA

Pulser

Counter

BLOCK DIAGRAM



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Parameter Conditions Min Typical Max Units Internal External Free

Gating Gating Running


Effective optical diameter 80 µm

Single-photon detection probability (SPDE) 7.5, 15, 30 % üüü

Timing resolution at 7.5% SPDE ps üüü

Timing resolution at 15% SPDE ps üüü

Timing resolution at 30% SPDE ps üüü

Dark count rate at 7.5% SPDE with 20µs deadtime 150 Hz ü

Dark count rate at 15% SPDE with 20µs deadtime 400 Hz ü

Dark count rate at 30% SPDE with 20µs deadtime 2000 Hz ü

Adjustable deadtime range 1 100 µs üüü

Adjustable deadtime step 1 µs üüü6Internal gating frequency (f ) 1 4x10 Hz üint gating

Gate width (t ) 5 2000 ns ügate out

Gate adjustment step 10 ps ü

∆ adjustable delay range 0 ps ütref out/gate out

∆ adjustable delay range 0 ps ütref out/actual gate

Adjustable delay step 50 ps ü

Reference OUT pulse width 8 10 ns ü

Reference OUT pulse amplitude (50Ω) 2.3 3.3 V ü

Detection OUT pulse width 100 130 ns üü

Detection OUT pulse width 90 ns ü

Detection OUT pulse amplitude (50Ω) 2.3 3.3 V üüü

Gate OUT pulse amplitude (50Ω) 2.3 3.3 V ü ü

Trigger IN pulse width ns ü6Trigger IN frequency 1 4x10 Hz ü

∆ adjustable delay range 0 10 ns üext trigger/actual gate

Adjustable delay step 50 ps ü

External Trigger IN amplitude 1.6 3.8 V ü

External Trigger IN load 50 Ω ü

Cooling time at 25°C room temperature 5 min üüü

Electronic connectors BNC üüü

Detection head dimensions LxWxH 97x90x36 mm üüü

Control unit dimensions LxWxH 225x170x50 mm üüü

Detection head weight 290 g üüü

Control unit weight 1180 g üüü

Operating temperature 0 25 °C üüü

Storage temperature 0 40 °C üüü

üüü

üüü

SPECIFICATIONS

33 Maximum delay values versusinternal gating frequency

4 Maximum gate width versus internalgating frequency

1

2

5

6

7

Calibrated at 1064nm.

Contact IDQ for more information.

Uncertainty on internal frequency 2 8given by (f ) / 1.2x10 .int gating

For a frequency of 1MHz, uncertainty amounts to 8.333kHz.

In internal gating mode, output pulse width depends on photon arrival time, but is less than the gating period 1 / f .int gating

Duty cycle (t / t + t ) of external on on off

gating signal must be less than 70%.

1

2

2

2

3

6

4

3 4 5

7

7

3



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LabVIEW APPLICATION

id100 Single photon counting module for the visible spectral range

id201 Single photon counting module for the 1100-1700nm spectral range

id300 Short pulse laser source

Quantis Quantum Random Number Generator2Clavis Quantum Key Distribution System for R&D

Cerberis Layer 2 encryptor with Quantum Key Distribution

Centauris Layer 2 encryptor

id400-80-1064 Detector module including:1 x APD detection head with mounting plate

(effective active diameter: 80µm)1 x Control Unit


OTHER PRODUCTS

SUPPLIED ACCESSORIES

Composite cable (2m): 2x BNC-SMB, 1x DB9-DB9

USB cable (4.5m)

Power supply (12V/2.5A)

CD-Rom with User Guide, LabVIEW Run-time

Engine Version 7.0, LabVIEW application installer

Acquisition mode: plot of the mean detector count rate over the specified integration time.

Standard mode: adjustment of parameters, display of count rate and effective gate rate.

Supported Operating Systems: Windows XP, Windows Vista 32 bits

The id400 detector comes with a id400.exe LabVIEW application operating in two different modes:

90.0

79.0

30.0

37.5

37.5

20.020.4 30.4

38.1

38.1

M4

AP

D

mounting plate

Ordering information and sales contact

97.0

63.5

AP

Dmounting plate

mounting plate

36.0

30.0

AP

Dmounting plate

APD

mounting plate

DB9 SMBSMB

DETECTION HEAD DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE (in mm)

The id400 detection head includes a

mounting plate with:

One M4 hole for mounting on

standard post assemblies,

4 holes (∅ 6.5mm) with “ ”

spacing (75mm and 50mm) for

mounting on standard plates or

translation stages,

4 holes with “ ” spacing (3 and 2

inches) for mounting on standard

plates or translation stages.

metric

US

DisclaimerThe information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice. Copyright© 2008-2010 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - id400 v3.2 - Specifications as of May 2010



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NEW


8 CHANNEL TIME TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

id800-TDC

8 Channels

Easy to use control Software

High timing resolution with bin size

APPLICATIONS

IDQ

This system is used to transfer the time-tags of registered events with picosecond precision and at high rates

to a PC. Additionally, it can count single and multiple channel coincident events at even higher rates

internally and report the totals to a PC.

The id800-TDC registers incoming signal events on 8 independent channels, records their exact time (bin

size 81 ps) and channel number and broadcasts these to a PC. A graphical user interface is supplied for

Windows®, software examples are available for C and Labview™.

’s id800-TDC is an 8-channel time-to-digital converter, coincidence counter, and time interval analyzer.

KEY FEATURES

High event count rates up to 12.5 million

USB 2.0 Interface

Integrated coincidence counter

as low as 81 ps

events per second

Data transfer up to 2.5 million events per second


Fluorescence lifetime imaging

High energy physics


Single photon counting

Quantum cryptography

Precision time measurement

LIDAR

Correlation measurement

Quantum Optics

Optical measurements

Minimal time between two consecutive counts in the same channel is 5.5ns

1



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2

Block Diagram

BLOCK DIAGRAM

The id800 contains an ASIC which time-tags events on 8 input channels and multiplexes them together. An FPGA takes these tags, sorts and compresses them for output. The FPGA also counts coincidences between channels, allowing accurate real-time reporting of coincidences at high signal rates.


APPLICATION #1: Time Interval Analyzer

The id800 is supplied with software for building histograms of time differences between time-tags. This is useful for analysing timing jitter or after-pulsing probabilities of detectors. For example, a function generator can be used to generate pulses from an id300 short-pulse laser source, which are then attenuated and detected by an id220 free-running single photon detection module. The time differences can be measured by the id800, and investigated with the id800's provided software. In this example, the start of the measurement is triggered with a pulse from the user. The id800 can also p e r f o r m c o n t i n u o u s t i m i n g measurements without requiring an external trigger.

SortingSignalComp-ression

Test Signal Generator

FPGAASIC

USB Output

Output is limited only by the speed of the USB 2.0 connection: up to 2.5 million events per second.

id300: laser

function generator

id220:SPDM id800:TDC

200 MHz 40 MHz 2.5 MEvents/s

Start

Stop

PC



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3

APPLICATION #2: Coincidence Counter

The id800 can be used as a real-time coincidence counter. This mode of operation is especially useful in applications such as the optimization of coupling paired photons from a spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) source, where it is necessary to simultaneously optimize coupling of individual photons as well as the number of pairs.

Direct Measurement Indirect Measurement (Post-Processing)

Using a supplied LabView program, real-time plots of singles and coincidence rates can be generated, useful for real-time experiment optimization. Histograms and raw time-tags can also be displayed.

The supplied software can write time-tags to file, and from this file coincidences can be counted after detection.

INTERFACES WITH THE id800There are four provided ways of interfacing with the id800:

Graphical User Interface SoftwareCommand Line InterfaceLabView sub-VIs and sample programC user libraries

Laser BBO crystal

Detectors id800:TDCPC



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4


id800-TDCSPECIFICATIONS


Part number: id800-TDC

DisclaimerThe information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice. Copyright© 2006-2012 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - id800 v20121105 - Specifications as of November 2012

id100 Single-photon detector for the visible spectral range

id101 Miniature single-photon detector for the visible spectral range (see above)

id110 Single-photon detection system for visible wavelength operating in gated mode

id150 Monolithic linear array of single-photon detectors for the visible range

id210 Single-photon detection system for telecom wavelengths

id220 Free-running single photon detection module - Near infrared range

id300 Short pulse laser source

id400 Single photon counting module for the 900-1150nm spectral range

Quantis Quantum Random Number Generator2Clavis Quantum Key Distribution System for R&D

Cerberis Layer 2 encryptor with Quantum Key Distribution

Centauris Layer 2 encryptor

Arcis Adjustable bandwidth encryptors which offer multi-layer (L3, L4) encryption

OTHER PRODUCTS

Parameter

Bin size, timing resolution 81 ps

Channels 8

Input Connectors BNC

Input levels LVTTL (5V tolerant)

PC Interface USB 2.0

Dimensions 25cm x 10cm x 30cm (width, height, depth)

Power supply 110 - 230 VAC

Maximum Count Rate, Total 12.5 Mhz

Data Transfer Rate 2.5 MHz

Minimum Pulse Interval 5.5 ns

Minimum Pulse Width 4 ns

Maximum Count Rate per Channel 10 MHz

IDQ Partner



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[email protected]

REDEFINING RANDOMNESS

WHEN RANDOM NUMBERS CANNOT BE LEFT TO CHANCE

QUANTIS

Cryptography

Gambling, lotteries

Secure printing

PIN number generation

Mobile prepaid system

Statistical research

Numerical simulations

True quantum randomness

Certified by Swiss National Laboratory

High bit rate up to 16 Mbits/s

Low cost

Compact and reliable

Continuous status check

Easy integration in applications

APPLICATIONS MAIN FEATURES

PCI Express (PCIe)USB PCI

TRUE RANDOM NUMBER GENERATORBASED ON QUANTUM PHYSICS

Tested and certified by METASSwiss Federal Office of Metrology

METAS

Passes NIST and Diehard randomness tests

Although random numbers are required in many applications, their generation is often overlooked.

Being deterministic, computers are not capable of producing random numbers. A physical source of

randomness is necessary.

Quantum physics being intrinsically random, it is natural to exploit a quantum process for such a

source. Quantum random number generators have the advantage over conventional randomness

sources of being invulnerable to environmental perturbations and of allowing live status verification.

Quantis is a physical random number generator exploiting an elementary quantum optics process.

Photons - light particles - are sent one by one onto a semi-transparent mirror and detected. The

exclusive events (reflection - transmission) are associated to "0" - "1" bit values. The operation of

Quantis is continuously monitored. If a failure is detected the random bit stream is immediately

disabled.

Quantis is available as a PCI and PCI Express card, as well as a USB device and integrates easily

in existing applications. It is compatible with the most commonly used operating systems. A library

which allows easy access and a demonstration application are provided.



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GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Random bit rate 4 Mbit/s ± 10% (Quantis-PCIe-4M)


QUANTIS PCI CARD


Random bit rate

Thermal noise contribution

Storage temperature

Dimensions

PCI local bus specification

Requirements

4 Mbit/s ± 10% (Quantis-PCI-1)

16 Mbit/s ± 10% (Quantis-PCI-4)

< 1% (Fraction of random bits arising from thermal noise)

-25 to +85°C

167.6 mm x 106.7 mm

2.2

IBM-compatible PC with available PCI slot

167.6mm

106.7mm

167.6mm

106.7mm

Quantis-PCI-1 (4Mbits/s) Quantis-PCI-4 (16Mbits/s)

QUANTIS PCI EXPRESS (PCIe) CARD


Storage temperature

Dimensions

PCI Express specification

Requirements


-25 to +85°C

120 mm x 64.4 mm

PCI Express Base 1.0a compliant

IBM-compatible PC with available PCI Express slot

120.0mm

64.4mm

(supplied with low profile and standard height brackets)

Quantis-PCIe-4M (4Mbits/s) Quantis-PCIe-4M (4Mbits/s)



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79

[email protected]


QUANTIS USB DEVICE


Random bit rate


Storage temperature

Dimensions

USB specification Requirements Power

4 Mbit/s ± 10% (Quantis-USB-4M)


-25 to +85°C

61mm x 31mm x 114mm

2.0IBM-compatible PC with available USB connectorvia USB port

61.0mm

114.0mm

61.0mm

31.0mm

Quantum RandomNumber Generator

QuantisTM

www.idquantique.comSerial n°: 090615A410

Model n°: Quantis USB

Made in Switzerland

Quantis software (drivers, Quantis library and application) available for the following operating systems:

Notes:1 : Quantis-PCI-1, Quantis-PCI-42 : Quantis-PCIe-4M3 : Quantis-USB-4M4 : FreeBSD support for PCI/PCIe from FreeBSD 7.05 : FreeBSD support for USB from FreeBSD 8.1 6 : Available subsequently. Contact IDQ for more

information

SUPPORTED OPERATING SYSTEMS RANDOMNESS CERTIFICATION

1 2 3PCI / PCIe USB

Windows XP (32-bit)

Windows XP (64-bit)

Windows Server 2003 (32-bit)

Windows Vista (32-, 64-bit)

Windows Server 2008 (32-, 64-bit)

Windows 7 (32-, 64-bit)

Linux 2.6 (32-, 64-bit)

Solaris / OpenSolaris

FreeBSD

NetBSD

OpenBSD

Max OS X

ü

üüüüüüüüüü

4 5üü

ü

üûû

6 6ûû

6 6ûû6 6ûû6û

Tested and certified by METASSwiss Federal Office of Metrology

METAS



T +41 22 301 83 71F +41 22 301 83 79

[email protected]

DisclaimerThe information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice. Copyright© 2006-2011 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - Quantis v4.1 - Specifications as of May 2011

Quantis-PCIe-4M PCI Express card with 1 module generating a random bit stream of 4 Mbits/s

Wrappers, allowing to access the Quantis library, as well as sample source code are provided for the following programming languages:


SOFTWARE


Quantis-USB-4M

Quantis-PCI-1

Quantis-PCI-4

USB device with 1 module generating a random bit stream of 4 Mbits/s

PCI card with 1 module generating a random bit stream of 4 Mbits/s

PCI card with 4 modules generating a random bit stream of 16 Mbits/s

Quantis comes with a truly invaluable cross operating system application called EasyQuantis allowing to read random numbers, which can be stored in a file or displayed.Random number can be generated in the following formats:

The application including a scaling functionality and can be used to access multiple Quantis generators.

EasyQuantis Application

Quantis Library

Library Wrappers

C++

C#

Java

VB.NET

Binary

Integers

Floating point

The Quantis library can be used to access the Quantis Quantum Random NumberGenerator. The library API is identical for the PCI, PCIe and USB library and isavailable on all supported operating systems.The library offers the possiblity to produce random binary data, integers and floating point numbers. It

can be used to access multiple Quantis generators and includes advanced functionalities such as

random data scaling.

Quantis-OEM-4M OEM component generating a random stream of 4 Mbits/s

RELATED PRODUCTS

Page 2

Table of contents1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................. 3

2. Cryptography ............................................................................................................................................................. 3

Box 1: Quantum Random Number Generator (RNG) .............................................................................................. 4

3. Key Distribution ......................................................................................................................................................... 5

Box 2: One-way Functions ....................................................................................................................................... 5

4. Quantum Cryptography ............................................................................................................................................ 6

4.1. Principle.................................................................................................................................................................. 6

4.2 Quantum Communications ..................................................................................................................................... 6

4.3. Quantum Key Distribution Protocols ..................................................................................................................... 7

Box 3: The Polarization of Photons .......................................................................................................................... 7

4.4. Key Distillation ....................................................................................................................................................... 8

Box 4: Quantum Key Distribution Protocol ............................................................................................................. 8

Box 5: Rudimentary Privacy Amplification Protocol ................................................................................................ 9

4.5. Real World Quantum Key Distribution ................................................................................................................. 10

4.6. State-of-the-Art QKD ............................................................................................................................................ 11

4.7. Perspectives for Future Developments ................................................................................................................ 11

5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................... 12

ID Quantique SA Tel: +41 (0)22 301 83 71

Ch. de la Marbrerie, 3 Fax: +41 (0)22 301 83 79

1227 Carouge www.idquantique.com

Switzerland [email protected]

Information in this document is subject to change without notice.

Copyright © 2012 ID Quantique SA. Printed in Switzerland.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, recording or otherwise – without the permission of ID Quantique.

Trademarks and trade names may be used in this document to refer to either the entities claiming the marks and names or their products. ID

Quantique SA disclaims any proprietary interest in the trademarks and trade names other than its own.

Page 3

1. Introduction

Classical physics is adequate for the description of

macroscopic objects. It applies to systems larger than

one micron (1 micron = 1 millionth of a meter). It was

developed gradually and was basically complete by the

end of the 19th

century.

At that time, the fact that classical physics did not

always provide an adequate description of physical

phenomena became clear. A radically new set of

theories - quantum physics - was then developed by

physicists such as Max Planck and Albert Einstein

during the first thirty years of the 20th

century.

Quantum physics describes the microscopic world

(molecules, atoms, elementary particles), while

classical physics remains accurate for macroscopic

objects. The predictions of quantum physics drastically

differ from those of classical physics. For example,

quantum physics features intrinsic randomness, while

classical physics is deterministic. It also imposes a

limitation on the accuracy of the measurements that

can be performed on a system (Heisenberg's

uncertainty principle).

Although quantum physics had a strong influence on

the technological development of the 20th

century – it

allowed for example the invention of the transistor or

the laser – its impact on the processing of information

has only been understood more recently. “Quantum

information processing” is a new and dynamic

research field at the crossroads of quantum physics

and computer science. It looks at the consequence of

encoding digital bits – the elementary units of

information – on quantum objects. Does it make a

difference if a bit is written on a piece of paper, stored

in an electronic chip, or encoded on a single electron?

Applying quantum physics to information processing

yields revolutionary properties and possibilities

without any equivalent in conventional information

theory. In order to emphasize this difference, in this

context a digital bit is called a quantum bit or a "qubit"

With the miniaturization of microprocessors, which

will reach the quantum limit in the next ten or so

years, this new field will gain in importance. Its

ultimate goal is the development of a fully quantum

computer, possessing massively parallel processing

capabilities.

Despite great progress in recent years this goal is still a

challenge. However the first applications of quantum

information processing have already been

commercialized by ID Quantique (IDQ). The first one,

the generation of random numbers, will only be briefly

mentioned in this paper. It exploits the fundamentally

random nature of quantum physics to produce high

quality random numbers. IDQ’s Quantis random

number generator was the first commercial product

based on this principle. It has been used in security,

online gaming and other applications since 2001.

The second application – the main focus of this paper

– is called quantum cryptography. It exploits

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle to allow two

remote parties to exchange a cryptographic key in a

provably secure manner.

2. Cryptography

Cryptography is the art of rendering information

exchanged between two parties unintelligible to any

unauthorized person. Although it is an old science, its

scope of applications remained mainly restricted to

military and diplomatic purposes until the

development of electronic and optical

telecommunications. In the past twenty-five years,

cryptography evolved out of its status of "classified"

science, and it is now increasingly mandated by

regulations governing data protection for commercial

and public institutions. Although confidentiality is the

traditional application of cryptography, it is also used

nowadays to achieve broader objectives, such as data

authentication, digital signatures and non-

repudiation1.

The way cryptography works is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Before transmitting sensitive information, the sender

1 For a comprehensive discussion of cryptography, refer to “Applied

Cryptography”, Bruce Schneier, Wiley. “The Codebook”, Simon

Singh, Fourth Estate, presents an excellent non-technical

introduction and historical perspective on cryptography.

Page 4

combines the plain text with a secret key, using some

encryption algorithm, to obtain the cipher text. This

scrambled message is then sent to the recipient who

reverses the process, recovering the plain text by

combining the cipher text with the secret key using

the decryption algorithm. An eavesdropper cannot

deduce the plain message from the scrambled one

without knowing the key. To illustrate this principle,

imagine that the sender puts his message in a safe and

locks it with a key. The recipient uses in turn a copy of

the key, which he must have in his possession, to

unlock the safe. The scheme relies on the fact that

both sender and receiver have symmetric keys, and

that these keys are known only to the authorized

persons (also referred to as secret or symmetric key

cryptography)

Figure 1: Principle of Cryptography

Numerous encryption algorithms exist. Their relative

strengths essentially depend on the length of the key

they use. The more bits the key contains, the better

the security. The DES algorithm – Data Encryption

Standard – played an important role in the security of

electronic communications. It was adopted as a

standard by the US federal administration in 1976. The

length of its keys is however only 56 bits. Nowadays

traditional DES can be cracked in a few hours. It has

been replaced by the Advanced Encryption Standard –

AES – which has a minimum key length of 128 bits2.

In addition to its length, the amount of information

encrypted with a given key also influences the

strength of the scheme. In general, the more often a

2 For recommendations on minimum key lengths and the longevity of

protection provided by each key scheme refer to

http://www.keylength.com/

key is changed, the better the security. In the very

special case where the key is as long as the plain text

and used only once – a “one-time pad” – it can be

proven that decryption is impossible and that the

scheme is absolutely secure.

In commercial applications the encryption algorithm is

normally public – with the effectiveness of the

encryption deriving from the fact that the key is

secret.

This means firstly, that the key generation process

must be appropriate, in the sense that it must not be

possible for a third party to guess or deduce it. Truly

random numbers must thus be used for the key. Box 1

describes a quantum random number generator.

Box 1: Quantum Random Number

Generator (RNG)

Classical physics is deterministic. If the state of a

system is known, physical laws can be used to

predict its evolution. On the contrary, the outcome

of certain phenomena is, according to quantum

physics, fundamentally random. One example is the

reflection or transmission of an elementary light

“particle” – a photon – on a semi-transparent

mirror. In such a case, the photon is transmitted or

reflected by the mirror with a probability of 50%. It

is thus impossible for an observer to predict the

outcome. Because of this intrinsic randomness, it is

natural to use this to generate strings of high-

quality random numbers. IDQ’s Quantis is a

quantum RNG exploiting this principle.

Page 5

Secondly, it must not be possible for a third party to

intercept the secret key during its exchange between the

sender and the recipient. This so-called “key distribution

problem” is absolutely central in cryptography.

3. Key Distribution

For years, it was believed that the only possibility to solve

the key distribution problem was to send some physical

medium – a disk for example – containing the key. In the

digital era, this requirement is clearly unpractical. In

addition it is impossible to check whether this medium

has been intercepted and its content copied.

In the late sixties and early seventies, researchers of the

British "Government Communication Headquarters"

(GCHQ) invented an algorithm to solve this key

distribution problem. To take an image, it is as if they

replaced the safe mentioned above by a padlock. Before

the communication, the intended recipient sends an open

padlock to the party who will be sending valuable

information. The recipient keeps the key to the padlock.

Before transmitting the information the sender closes the

padlock, thus protecting the data he sends. The recipient

is then the only person who can unlock the data with the

key he kept. “Public key cryptography” was born. This

invention however remained classified and was

independently rediscovered in the mid-seventies by

American researchers. Formally, these padlocks are

mathematical expressions of so-called “one-way

functions”, because they are easy to compute but difficult

to reverse (see Box 2). As public key cryptography

algorithms require complex calculations, they are slow.

For this reason they are not used to encrypt large amount

of data but instead to exchange short session keys for

secret-key algorithms such as AES.

In spite of the fact that it is extremely practical, the

exchange of keys using public key cryptography suffers

from two major flaws. First, it is vulnerable to

technological progress. Reversing a one-way function can

be done, provided one has sufficient computing power or

time available. The resources necessary to crack an

algorithm depend on the length of the key, which must

therefore be carefully selected.

In principle, an eavesdropper could indeed record

communications and wait until he can afford a computer

powerful enough to crack them. This assessment is

straightforward when the lifetime of the information is

one or two years, as in the case of credit card numbers,

but quite difficult when it spans a decade. In 1977, the

three inventors of RSA – the most common public key

cryptography algorithm – issued a challenge in an article

entitled “A new kind of cipher that would take million of

years to break”. The challenge was to crack a cipher

encrypted with a 428-bits key. They predicted at the time

that this would take 40 quadrillion years. However the

$100 prize was claimed in 1994 after 6 months of work by

a group of scientists using parallel computing over the

Internet, and the resulting solution “The magic words are

squeamish ossifrage” has gone down in the history of

cryptanalysis.

Other public-key cryptography schemes based on the

intractability of certain mathematical problems are now in

use, such as elliptic curve cryptography. For elliptic-curve-

based protocols, it is assumed that finding the discrete

logarithm of a random elliptic curve element with respect

to a publicly-known base point is infeasible. The

minimum recommended length for asymmetric keys

continues to grow in response to threats from

Box 2: One-way Functions

The most common example of a one-way function is

factorization. The RSA public key system is actually

based on this mathematical problem. It is relatively

easy to compute the product of two prime integers –

say for example 37 * 53 = 1961, because a practical

method exists. On the other hand, reversing this

calculation – finding the prime factors of 1961 – is

tedious and time-consuming, especially with key

lengths of 2048 or more bits. No efficient algorithm

for factorization has ever been disclosed. It is

important to stress however that there is no formal

proof that such an algorithm does not exist. It may

not have been discovered yet or… it may have been

kept secret.

Page 6

improvements in technology and increased computing

power.

In addition in 1994 there was an attack on another front -

Peter Shor, professor of Applied Mathematics at MIT,

proposed an algorithm for integer factorization which

would run on a quantum computer and allow to reverse

one-way functions - in other words to crack some versions

of public key cryptography. The development of the first

quantum computer will immediately make the exchange

of a key with current public key algorithms insecure.

The second major flaw with public key cryptography is

that it is vulnerable to progress in mathematics. In spite of

tremendous efforts, mathematicians have not yet been

able to prove that public key cryptography is secure. It has

not been possible to rule out the existence of algorithms

that allow the reversal of one-way functions. The

discovery of such an algorithm would make public key

cryptography insecure overnight. It is even more difficult

to assess the rate of theoretical progress than that of

technological advances. There are examples in the history

of mathematics where one person was able to solve a

problem, which kept other researchers busy for years or

decades. It is even possible that an algorithm for reversing

some one-way functions has already been discovered, but

kept secret. These threats simply mean that public key

cryptography cannot guarantee future-proof key

distribution.

4. Quantum Cryptography

4.1. Principle

Quantum cryptography solves the problem of key

distribution by allowing the exchange of a cryptographic

key between two remote parties with absolute security,

guaranteed by the fundamental laws of physics. This key

can then be used securely with conventional

cryptographic algorithms. The more correct name for

quantum cryptography is therefore Quantum key

Distribution.

The basic principle of quantum key distribution (QKD) is

quite straightforward. It exploits the fact that, according

to quantum physics, the mere fact of observing a

quantum object perturbs it in an irreparable way. For

example, when you read this white paper, the sheet of

paper must be illuminated. The impact of the light

particles will slightly heat it up and hence change it. This

effect is very small on a piece of paper, which is a

macroscopic object. However, the situation is radically

different with a microscopic object. If one encodes the

value of a digital bit on a single quantum object, its

interception will necessarily translate into a perturbation

because the eavesdropper is forced to observe it. This

perturbation causes errors in the sequence of bits

exchanged by the sender and recipient. By checking for

the presence of such errors, the two parties can verify

whether an eavesdropper was able to gain information

on their key. It is important to stress that since this

verification takes place after the exchange of bits, one

finds out a posteriori whether the communication was

intercepted or not. This is why the technology is used to

exchange a key and not valuable information. Once the

key exchange is validated, and the key is provably secure,

it can be used to encrypt data. Quantum physics allows

to formally prove that interception of the key without

perturbation is impossible.

4.2 Quantum Communications

What does it mean in practice to encode the value of a

digital bit on a quantum object? In telecommunication

networks, light is routinely used to exchange information.

For each bit of information, a pulse is emitted and sent

down an optical fiber – a thin fiber of glass used to carry

light signals – to the receiver, where it is registered and

transformed back into an electronic signal. These pulses

typically contain millions of particles of light, called

photons. In quantum key distribution the same approach

is followed with the difference that the pulses contain

only a single photon. A single photon represents a very

tiny amount of light (when reading this white paper your

eyes register billions of photons every second) and it

follows the laws of quantum physics. In particular, it

cannot be split into halves. This means that an

eavesdropper cannot take half of a photon to measure

the value of the bit it carries, while letting the other half

continue its course. If he wants to obtain the value of the

bit, he must observe the photon and will thus interrupt

the communication and reveal his presence. A better

Page 7

strategy is for the eavesdropper to detect the photon,

register the value of the bit and prepare a new photon

according to the obtained result to send it to the receiver.

In QKD the two legitimate parties cooperate to prevent

the eavesdropper from doing so, by forcing him to

introduce errors. Protocols have been devised to achieve

this goal.

4.3. Quantum Key Distribution

Protocols

Although several QKD protocols exist, only one

protocol will be discussed here to illustrate the

principle of quantum key distribution. The BB84

protocol was the first to be invented in 1984 by

Charles Bennett of IBM Research and Gilles Brassard

of the University of Montreal. It is still widely used and

has become a de facto standard.

An emitter and a receiver can implement it by

exchanging single-photons, whose polarization states

are used to encode bit values over an optical fiber

(refer to Box 3 for an explanation of polarization). This

fiber, and the transmission equipment, is called the

quantum channel. They use four different polarization

states and agree, for example, that a 0-bit value can

be encoded either as a horizontal state or a –45°

diagonal one (see Box 4). For a 1-bit value, they will

use either a vertical state or a +45° diagonal one.

Filters exist to distinguish horizontal states from

vertical ones. When passing through such a filter,

the course of a vertically polarized photon is

deflected to the right, while that of a horizontally

polarized photon is deflected to the left. In order

to distinguish between diagonally polarized

photons, one must rotate the filter by 45°.

If a photon is sent through a filter with the

incorrect orientation – diagonally polarized

photon through the non-rotated filter for

example – it will be randomly deflected in one of

the two directions. In this process, the photon

also undergoes a transformation of its

polarization state, so that it is impossible to know

its orientation before the filter.

Linear polarization states

Filters

50%

50%

Box 3: The Polarization of Photons The polarization of light is the direction of oscillation

of the electromagnetic field associated with its

wave. It is perpendicular to the direction of its

propagation. Linear polarization states can be

defined by the direction of oscillation of the field.

Horizontal and vertical orientations are examples of

linear polarization states.

Diagonal states (+ and – 45°) are also linear

polarization states. Linear states can point in any

direction. The polarization of a photon can be

prepared in any of these states.

Page 8

• For each bit, the emitter sends a photon whose

polarization is randomly selected among the four

states. He records the orientation in a list.

• The photon is sent along the quantum channel.

• For each incoming photon, the receiver randomly

chooses the orientation – horizontal or diagonal –

of a filter allowing to distinguish between two

polarization states. He records these orientations,

as well as the outcome of the detections – photon

deflected to the right or the left.

After the exchange of a large number of photons, the

receiver reveals the sequence of filter orientations he

has used, without disclosing the actual results of his

measurements. This information is exchanged over a

so-called classical channel, such as the internet or the

phone. The emitter uses this information to compare

the orientation of the photons he has sent with the

corresponding filter orientation. He announces to the

receiver in which cases the orientations where

compatible and in which they were not. The emitter

and the receiver now discard from their lists all the

bits corresponding to a photon for which the

orientations were not compatible. This phase is called

the sifting of the key. By doing so, they obtain a

sequence of bits which, in the absence of an

eavesdropper, is identical and is half the length of the

raw sequence. They can use it as a key.

It is thus sufficient for the emitter and the receiver to

check for the presence of errors in the sequence, by

comparing over the classical channel a sample of the

bits, to verify the integrity of the key. Note that the

bits revealed during this comparison are discarded as

they could have been intercepted by the

eavesdropper.

It is important to realize that the interception of the

communications over the classical channel by the

eavesdropper does not constitute a vulnerability, as

they take place after the transmission of the photons.

4.4. Key Distillation The description of the BB84 QKD protocol assumed

that the only source of errors in the sequence

exchanged by the emitter and the receiver was the

action of the eavesdropper. All practical QKD will

Box 4: Quantum Key Distribution Protocol

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1Emitter bit value

Emitter photon source

Receiver filter orientation

1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 Receiver bit value

Receiver photon detector

Sifted key - - 1 - 0 - 1 0

Page 9

however feature an intrinsic error rate caused by

component imperfections or environmental

perturbations of the quantum channel.

In order to avoid jeopardizing the security of the key,

these errors are all attributed to the eavesdropper. A

post processing phase, also known as key distillation,

is then performed. It takes place after the sifting of the

key and consists of two steps. The first step corrects all

the errors in the key, by using a classical error

correction protocol. This step also allows to precisely

estimate the actual error rate. With this error rate, it is

possible to accurately calculate the amount of

information the eavesdropper may have on the key.

The second step is called privacy amplification and

consists in compressing the key by an appropriate

factor to reduce the information of the eavesdropper.

A rudimentary privacy amplification protocol is

described in Box 5. The compression factor depends

on the error rate. The higher it is, the more

information an eavesdropper might have on the key

and the more it must be compressed to be secure. Fig.

2 schematically shows the impact of the sifting and

distillation steps on the key size. This procedure works

up to a maximum error rate. Above this threshold, the

eavesdropper can have too much information on the

sequence to allow the legitimate parties to produce a

key. Because of this, it is essential for a quantum

cryptography system to have an intrinsic error rate

that is well below this threshold – this can be achieved

through the system design and the choice of

components.

Figure 2: Impact of the sifting and distillation steps on the key size

Key distillation is then complemented by an

authentication step in order to prevent a “man in the

middle attack”. In this case the eavesdropper would

cut the communication channels and pretend to the

emitter that he is the receiver and vice versa.

Such an attack is prevented thanks to the use of a pre-

established secret key in the emitter and the receiver,

which is used to authenticate the communications on

the classical channel. This initial secret key serves only

to authenticate the first quantum cryptography

session. After each session, part of the key produced is

used to replace the previous authentication key.

Box 5: Rudimentary Privacy

Amplification Protocol

Let us consider a two-bit key shared by the emitter

and the receiver and let us assume that it is 01. Let us

further assume that the eavesdropper knows the first

bit of the key but not the second one: 0?.

The simplest privacy amplification protocol consists in

calculating the sum, without carry, of the two bits and

to use the resulting bit as the final key. The legitimate

users obtain 0 + 1 = 1. The eavesdropper does not

know the second bit. For him, this operation could be

either 0 + 0 = 0 or 0 + 1 = 1. He has no way to decide

which one is the correct one. Consequently, he does

not have any knowledge on the final key. There is a

cost. This privacy amplification protocol shortens the

key by 50%. In practice, more efficient protocols have

obviously been developed.

Page 10

4.5. Real World Quantum Key

Distribution The first experimental demonstration of quantum

cryptography took place in 1989 and was performed

by Bennett and Brassard. A key was exchanged over

30 cm of air. Although its practical interest was

certainly limited, this experiment proved that QKD was

possible and motivated other research groups to enter

the field. The first demonstration over optical fiber

took place in 1993 at the University of Geneva.

The performance of a QKD system is described by the

rate at which a key is exchanged over a certain

distance – or equivalently for a given loss budget.

When a photon propagates in an optical fiber, it has,

in spite of the high transparency of the glass used, a

certain probability of getting absorbed. If the distance

between the two QKD stations increases, the

probability that a given photon will reach the receiver

decreases. Imperfect single-photon source and

detectors further contribute to the reduction of the

number of photons detected by the receiver. The fact

that only a fraction of the photons reaches the

detectors does not however constitute a vulnerability,

as these do not contribute to the final key. It only

amounts to a reduction of the key exchange rate.

When the distance between the two stations

increases, two effects reinforce each other to reduce

the effective key exchange rate. First, the probability

that a given photon reaches the receiver decreases.

This effect causes a reduction of the raw exchange

rate. Second, the signal-to-noise ratio decreases – the

signal decreases with the detection probability, while

the noise probability remains constant – which means

that the error rate increases. A higher error rate

implies a more costly key distillation, in terms of the

number of bits consumed, and in turn a lower

effective key creation rate. Fig. 3 summarizes this

phenomenon.

Figure 3: Key creation rate as a function of distance.

Typical key exchange rates for existing QKD systems

range from hundreds of kilobits per second for short

distances to hundreds of bits per second for greater

distances. Since the bits exchanged by the QKD

systems are used for the creation of relatively short

encryption keys (128 or 256-bits), the bit exchange

rate is sufficient to create a regular refresh rate of

provably secret and absolutely random keys. Data is

then encrypted with these keys at transmission rates

up to 10Gbps.

The span of current QKD systems is limited by the

transparency of optical fibers and typically reaches

100 kilometers (60 miles). In conventional

telecommunications, one deals with this problem by

using optical repeaters. They are located

approximately every 80 kilometers (50 miles) to

amplify and regenerate the optical signal. In QKD it is

not possible to do this as repeaters would have the

same effect as an eavesdropper and corrupt the key

by introducing perturbations.

Note that if it were possible to use repeaters, an

eavesdropper could exploit them. The laws of

quantum physics forbid this. However it is possible to

set up a network of trusted QKD repeaters to increase

the distance3.

3 For reference to secure key agreements over trusted repeater QKD

networks see http://arxiv.org/pdf/0904.4072.pdf developed within

framework of SECOQC project www.secoqc.net/

Page 11

4.6. State-of-the-Art QKD In 2002, IDQ launched the first industrialised QKD

system called Clavis, designed for research and

development applications, and in 2008 the next-

generation Clavis24 was launched. Clavis2 uses a

proprietary auto-compensating optical platform,

which features outstanding stability and interference

contrast, guaranteeing low quantum bit error rate.

Secure key exchange becomes possible up to 100 km.

This optical platform is well documented in scientific

publications and has been extensively tested and

characterized. The Clavis2 system is the most flexible

product of its kind on the market. It consists of two

stations controlled by one or two external computers.

A comprehensive software suite implements

automated hardware operation and complete key

distillation. Two quantum cryptography protocols

(BB84 and SARG) are implemented. The exchanged

keys can be used in an encrypted file transfer

application, which allows secure communications

between two stations.

In 2007, IDQ launched Cerberis5, a QKD server

designed for commercial applications. This has been

deployed and extensively field tested since its

installation that same year for use in elections by the

government of Geneva, Switzerland6. In addition, the

robustness and reliability of IDQ’s QKD technology in a

real-time telecommunications network was

unequivocally proven in the Swissquantum project7.

This documents the longest ever uninterrupted

deployment of a QKD network, running from end

March 2009 until the project was dismantled in

January 2011.

The Cerberis QKD system provides fully automated,

provably secure key exchange for Layer 2 link

4 http://www.idquantique.com/scientific-instrumentation/clavis2-qkd-

platform.html 5 http://www.idquantique.com/network-encryption/cerberis-layer2-

encryption-and-qkd.html 6 http://www.idquantique.com/images/stories/PDF/cerberis-

encryptor/user-case-gva-gov.pdf 7 www.swissquantum.ch

encryptors over standard optical fibers in an existing

network. Future-proof confidentiality of the data is

guaranteed by the use of QKD.

Real-life implementations now reach up to distances

of 100 kilometers (60 miles) over a dedicated fiber.

QKD is primarily used to secure the critical backbone

or data recovery center links for financial institutions8,

large companies and defence & government

organizations. However it has also been deployed in

sporting events such as the 2010 South African World

Cup9.

IDQ’s Cerberis QKD server is also compatible with

wavelength division multiplexing (WDM). Quantum

keys can be multiplexed with data over a single fiber

for distances up to 30 km in Metropolitan Area

Networks (MAN). In addition, in 2011 IDQ and Colt

launched the world’s first QKD-as-a-Service10

for

enterprises and financial institutions.

4.7. Perspectives for Future

Developments Future developments in QKD will certainly focus on

increasing the range of the systems. The first option is

to get rid of the optical fiber. It is possible to exchange

a key using quantum cryptography between a

terrestrial station and a low orbit satellite (absorption

in the atmosphere takes place mainly over the first

few kilometers. It can be low, if an adequate

wavelength is selected and…if the weather is clear.)

Such a satellite moves with respect to the earth’s

surface. When passing over a second station, located

thousands of kilometers away from the first one, it can

retransmit the key. The satellite is implicitly

considered as a secure intermediary station. This

technology is less mature than that based on optical

fibers. Research groups have already performed

8 http://www.idquantique.com/images/stories/PDF/cerberis-

encryptor/user-case-drc.pdf 9 http://www.idquantique.com/news/press-release-worldcup.html

10 http://www.idquantique.com/images/stories/PDF/cerberis-

encryptor/user-case-colt-qaas.pdf

Page 12

preliminary tests of such a system, but an actual key

exchange with a satellite remains to be demonstrated.

There are also several theoretical proposals for

building quantum repeaters11

. They would relay

quantum bits without measuring and thus perturbing

them. They could, in principle, be used to extend the

key exchange range over arbitrarily long distances. In

practice, such quantum repeaters do not exist yet

although they are the subject of intensive research.

It is interesting to note that a quantum repeater is a

rudimentary quantum computer. At the same time as

making current public key cryptography obsolete, the

development of quantum computers will also allow

the implementation of quantum cryptography over

transcontinental distances.

5. Conclusion For the first time in history, the security of

cryptography is dependent neither on the computing

resources of the adversary nor on mathematical

progress. Quantum cryptography, and specifically

QKD, allows the exchange of encryption keys whose

secrecy is future-proof and guaranteed by the laws of

quantum physics. Its combination with conventional

secret-key cryptographic algorithms raises the

confidentiality of data transmissions to an

unprecedented level. Despite being written in 2003,

the MIT Technology Review and Newsweek magazine

were prescient when they identified quantum

cryptography as one of the “ten technologies that will

change the world”.

11 For more information on quantum repeaters see

http://quantumrepeaters.eu/index.php/qcomm/quantum-repeaters

Documents

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