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Nama : Muhammad Hafiz Helmi Bin Ibrahim

Sekolah : MRSM Taiping

No. maktab : 12115

Kelas : 506

Perkara : Folio Biology


2/13

1. Vaccination hasn't eradicated TB, cholera or HPV. Cholera vaccination isn't all thateffective.

Smallpox was eradicated because the virus only affects humans, and there is no animal reservoir,

which makes vaccination particularly effective. Besides that, it's generally harder to make a

vaccine against bacteria. TB has proven to be difficult. There is a vaccine, but it only works at

higher latitudes (long explanation). So it's not going to be easy to eradicate. HPV vaccine is

almost 100% effective.

Cholera is impossible to eradicate. It can survive indefinitely in the environment

1. Smallpox and measles are the only ones [listed here] they have developed vaccines for

2. Smallpox is almost completely eradicated, due to vaccine

3. There are still some outbreaks of measles, due to well-meaning parents who choose not to

vaccinate their children

4. TB, malaria, and cholera can be prevented or treated; but not all treatments work on all forms

of some diseases


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2. Prevention and cure:Eat a healthy, balanced diet, Be more physically active, Keep to a healthy weight, Give up smoking,

Reduce your alcohol consumption, Keep your blood pressure under control, Keep your diabetes under

control, Take any medication that is prescribed for you.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE (CHD)

Also called coronary artery disease. Disease develops when a combination of fatty material, calcium, and

scar tissue (plaque) builds up in the arteries that supply the heart with blood. Through these arteries,

called the coronary arteries, the heart muscle (myocardium) gets the oxygen and other nutrients it

needs to pump blood.

The plaque often narrows the artery so that the heart does not get enough blood.

This slowing of blood flow causes chest pain, or angina.

If plaque completely blocks blood flow, it may cause a heart attack (myocardial infarction) or a fatal

rhythm disturbance (sudden cardiac arrest).

CORONARY BY-PASS SURGERY

Coronary bypass surgery is a procedure that restores blood flow to your heart muscle by diverting the

flow of blood around a section of a blocked artery in your heart. Coronary bypass surgery uses a healthy

blood vessel taken from your leg, arm, chest or abdomen and connects it to the other arteries in your

heart so that blood is bypassed around the diseased or blocked area. After a coronary bypass surgery,

blood flow to your heart is improved. Coronary bypass surgery is just one option to treat heart disease.

Coronary bypass surgery improves symptoms, such as chest pain and shortness of breath due to poor

blood flow to the heart. In some situations, coronary bypass surgery may improve your heart function

and reduce your risk of dying of heart disease.

HEART TRANSPLANT SURGERY

A heart transplant is surgery to remove a person's diseased heart and replace it with a healthy heart

from a deceased donor. Most heart transplants are done on patients who have end-stage heart failure.

Heart failure is a condition in which the heart is damaged or weak. As a result, it can't pump enough

blood to meet the body's needs. "End-stage" means the condition is so severe that all treatments, other

than a heart transplant, have failed.


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3. Nitrates provide the nitrogen plants need to construct such vital molecules as amino acids andnucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Also some of the vitamins. Lack of nitrates means stunted growth,

low yields, yellow leaves.

Magnesium role is to synthesise chlorophyll and protoplasm. Lack of magnesium ion in plant

means chlorosis and poor growth of plant.


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4. The structure of DNA is illustrated by a right handed double helix, with about 10 nucleotide pairsper helical turn. Each spiral strand, composed of a sugar phosphate backbone and attached

bases, is connected to a complementary strand by hydrogen bonding (non- covalent) between

paired bases, adenine (A) with thymine (T) and guanine (G) with cytosine (C).

Adenine and thymine are connected by two hydrogen bonds (non-covalent) while guanine and

cytosine are connected by three.

This structure was first described by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. Illustration of the double

helical structure of the DNA molecule.

The importance to the DNA structure is that prevents loss of genes and miss-formation of encoded

products (protein and mRNA). In deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) hydrogen bonding between purine and

pyrimidine bases is responsible for the double helix structure. Although the amount of energy needed to

break a single hydrogen bond is rather small, in normal physiological conditions the double helix is

stabilized by a very high number of hydrogen bonds.

For RNA, nucleosides are formed similarly to DNA. RNA exists as a single strand. Hairpin is a commonsecondary/tertiary structure. It requires complementarity between parts of the strand. The figure on the

left is a schematic representation of the hairpin structure.

The chime image represents yeast RNA and has been extracted from the RNA structure tour pages from

Carnegy Mellon University). Colors are set from red at the 3' end to blue at the 5' end. Double standard

RNA can also exists and is generally similar to A-DNA (present is few viruses).

Base pair for RNA is Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U), and Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).

DNA contains deoxyribose, RNA contains ribose in deoxyribose there is no hydroxyl group attached to

the pentose ring in the 2' position). These hydroxyl groups make RNA less stable than DNA because it is

more prone to hydrolysis.


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5. Transcription begins when an enzyme called RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA templatestrand and begins assembling a new chain of nucleotides to produce a complementary RNA

strand. There are multiple types of types of RNA. In eukaryotes, there are multiple types of RNA

polymerase which make the various types of RNA. In prokaryotes, a single RNA polymerase

makes all types of RNA. Generally speaking, polymerases are large enzymes that work together

with a number of other specialized cell proteins. These cell proteins, called transcription factors,

help determine which DNA sequences should be transcribed and precisely when the

transcription process should occur.

The first step in transcription is initiation. During this step, RNA polymerase and its associated

transcription factors bind to the DNA strand at a specific area that facilitates transcription. This

area, known as a promoter region, often includes a specialized nucleotide sequence, TATAAA,

which is also called the TATA box.

Once RNA polymerase and its related transcription factors are in place, the single-stranded DNA

is exposed and ready for transcription. At this point, RNA polymerase begins moving down the

DNA template strand in the 3' to 5' direction, and as it does so, it strings together

complementary nucleotides. By virtue of complementary base- pairing, this action creates a new

strand of mRNA that is organized in the 5' to 3' direction. As the RNA polymerase continues

down the strand of DNA, more nucleotides are added to the mRNA, thereby forming a

progressively longer chain of nucleotides. This process is called elongation.

Thus, the elongation period of transcription creates a new mRNA molecule from a single

template strand of DNA. During elongation, the new RNA strand becomes longer and longer as

the DNA template is transcribed. In this view, the 5' end of the RNA strand is in the foreground.

Note the inclusion of uracil (yellow) in RNA.

As previously mentioned, mRNA cannot perform its assigned function within a cell until

elongation ends and the new mRNA separates from the DNA template. This process is referred

to as termination. In eukaryotes, the process of termination can occur in several different ways,

depending on the exact type of polymerase used during transcription. In some cases,

termination occurs as soon as the polymerase reaches a specific series of nucleotides along the

DNA template, known as the termination sequence. In other cases, the presence of a special

protein known as a termination factor is also required for termination to occur.

Once termination is complete, the mRNA molecule falls off the DNA template. At this point, at

least in eukaryotes, the newly synthesized mRNA undergoes a process in which noncoding

nucleotide sequences, called introns, are clipped out of the mRNA strand. This process "tidies

up" the molecule and removes nucleotides that are not involved in protein production (Figure

6). Then, a sequence of adenine nucleotides called a poly-A tailis added to the 3' end of the

mRNA molecule (Figure 7). This sequence signals to the cell that the mRNA molecule is ready to

leave the nucleus and enter the cytoplasm.


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6. Resolution and magnification with reference to light microscopy and electron microscopy.By using more lenses microscopes can magnify by a larger amount, but this doesn't always mean

that more detail can be seen. The amount of detail depends on the resolving power of a

microscope, which is the smallest separation at which two separate objects can be distinguished

(or resolved).

The resolving power of a microscope is ultimately limited by the wavelength of light (400-600nm

for visible light). To improve the resolving power a shorter wavelength of light is needed, and

sometimes microscopes have blue filters for this purpose (because blue has the shortest

wavelength of visible light).

Magnification is how much bigger a sample appears to be under the microscope than it is in real

life.

Overall magnification = Objective lens x Eyepiece lens

Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two points on an image i.e. the amount of detail

The resolution of an image is limited by the wavelength of radiation used to view the sample.

This is because when objects in the specimen are much smaller than the wavelength of the

radiation being used, they do not interrupt the waves, and so are not detected.

The wavelength of light is much larger than the wavelength of electrons, so the resolution of the

light microscope is a lot lower.

Using a microscope with a more powerful magnification will not increase this resolution any

further. It will increase the size of the image, but objects closer than 200nm will still only be

seen as one point.


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7. Effect of hypotonic solution, hypertonic solution and isotonic solution on plant cell and animalcell.

PLANT

Environment of cell explanation

Hypotonic solution 1. When a plant cell is immersed in hypotonic solutionsuch as distilled water, water molecules diffuse into t

cell by osmosis

2. Vacuole gains water, expand and exerts pressure

outwards on the cell wall. This pressure call turgor

pressure

3. The turgidity of cell gives the plant mechanical

support.

Hypertonic solution 1. Water is lost from the vacuole and cytoplasm.

2. The vacuole shrinks and becomes smaller . The

cytoplasm, together with plasma membrane, shrinks

and its pulled away from cell wall.3. Plasmolysis occurs when plant cell loses water and

shrivels.

Isotonic solution 1. There is no net movement of water across the

plasma membrane.

2. Water flows across the membrane at the same rate

in both directions.

3. The cells volume and shape remains constant.

ANIMAL

Environment of cell explanation

Hypotonic solution 1. When animal cells in this solution, water molecules

diffuse into the red blood cells by osmosis.

2. The red blood cells gain water and swell and finally

burst because they have no cell walls.

3. The red blood cells are said to undergo hemolysis.

Hypertonic solution 1. Water molecule diffuse out of the cell by osmosis a

water is rapidly lost.

2. The red blood cells will shrivel and probably die.

3. This process is called crenation.

Isotonic solution 1. Water molecules flow across the membrane at the

same rate in both directions.

2. There is no net movement of water molecules acro

the membrane.

3. The red blood cells maintain their shape.

4. Concentration in the cells is the same as the

concentration in the environment.


9/13

8. Chemical composition of the cell

Haemoglobin also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb is the iron-containing

oxygen-transport metalloproteinase in the red blood cells of all vertebrates with the exception of the

fish family Channichthyidae as well as the tissues of some invertebrates. Hemoglobin in the blood

carries oxygen from the respiratory organs (lungs or gills) to the rest of the body where it releases theoxygen to burn nutrients to provide energy to power the functions of the organism, and collects the

resultant carbon dioxide to bring it back to the respiratory organs to be dispensed from the organism.

Haemoglobin is made up of four subunits called globins. each subunit contains a haeme group. each

haeme group is made up of a porphyrin ring with Fe (iron) in the centre. the structure of the globin

subunit is such that it has a deep groove in which the porphyrin is tightly bound.

The Fe in the haemoglobin gives the blood its red colour. Oxygen binds to the Fe to oxidise it from Fe2+

to Fe3+. carbon dioxide (CO2) binds to another site in the porphyrin. If there is excess amount of Co2 in

the blood then Co2 binds to hemoglobin and it releases the oxygen by decreasing the affinity to binding

oxygen. Thus tissues in the body with high amount of CO2 and requiring O2 get the released O2.

If there are low levels of CO2 then this automatically increases the affinity of hemoglobin to bind to O2

(this happens in the lungs). Thus hemoglobin is well equiped to transport oxygen and CO2 due to its

unique structure


10/13

9. Multicellular organisms begin life as a single cell, which grows and divides, forming very many cells,

and these eventually form the adult organism. So cells arise by division of existing cells. The time

between one cell division and the next is known as the cell cycle (See below)

We have noted that most of the cells of a multicellular organism like ourselves have become highly

specialized for a particular function. Many specialized cells are then unable to divide again, or can only

do so if a special need arises such as when they are damaged (e.g. mammalian liver cells). However, a

few cells are able to continue to divide and do so frequently throughout the life of the organism. These

are the body's stem cells. Adult stem cells can divide an unlimited number of times, producing a new

stem cell and a new body tissue cell each time. For example, blood stem cells, present in our bone

marrow; produce the full range of different types of blood cell. In other positions in the body, stem cells

are capable of producing other body tissue cells. In fact, stem cells may be able to grow into any of the

300 different kinds of cell in the human body.

Human stem cell research seeks to use human embryonic stem (ES) cells, obtained from embryos a few

days old. ES cells are more flexible in that they may be coaxed to grow into any type of mature cell. ES

cells may be extracted from human embryos that have been discarded during fertility treatments.

Alternatively, therapeutic cloning is the creation of human embryos for the sole purpose of producing of

ES cells (rather than cloning with the aim of producing a new human).

The hope is the ES cells, grown up in the laboratory, may eventually be successfully implanted in

patients to treat diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's or Type I diabetes. Perhaps genetically

engineered stem cells could eventually be available to treat the genetic fault underlying sickle cell

disease. Similarly, people with cystic fibrosis might be treated with their own stem cells, removed and

genetically engineered with the cystic fibrosis gene. Such cells would then be planted back in the patient

in a way that might lead to the formation of healthy cells lining the airways of their lungs. This would

eliminate the problem of tissue rejection that occurs in traditional transplant surgery.


11/13

10. The therapeutic use of stem cell.

Brain and spinal cord - ALS (Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis disease) is a degenerati

disease that affects the motor neurons that connect the

brain to the spinal cord and the spinal cord to the muscle in

the body.

Lungs, Cystic Fibrosis - The lung is like many organs in one because the different

parts have specific functions. There are varieties of disease

that can affect the lung including cystic fibrosis.

- Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that impacts the lungs

causing a build up of mucus in the airways.

The heart - A possible stem cell therapy in the future could take the

patients own stem cells and inject them into the heart. The

stem cells would regenerate new blood vessels to supply

blood to the heart muscle and even repair the damaged

heart tissue.

Liver, Natural Regenerative Power - Liver already regenerates if diseased or damaged. Up to

75% liver can be removed, if the remaining liver is healthy.

- No other human organ has stem cells like hepatocytes fro

the liver that can start dividing in response to injury.

Pancreas - Contains cells that produce insulin, which the body needs

use sugar. Diabetes is a disease of the pancreas that destro

those cells.

- Stem cells may provide a cure for diabetics, so that they d

not have to take insulin and can eat a normal diet.

Bone Marrow Transplants - Blood stem cells have been used for the treatment of man

diseases for decades.

- As stem cells, they are defined by their ability to form

multiple cell types and their ability to self-renew.

- used in bone marrow transplant when a small number of

blood stem cells can replenish a new bone marrow andimmune system. The patient is given radiation or

chemotherapy

Skin Grafting, Tissue Engineering - New treatments include healthy skin cells that can be

cultured so a patient can grow their own skin grafts.

- Stem cells may one day help tissue engineering for other

organs.


12/13

11. The Bohr effect is a physiological phenomenon first described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian

Bohr (father of physicist Niels Bohr), stating that hemoglobin's oxygen binding affinity is inversely related both to

acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide. That is to say, a decrease in blood pH or an increase in blood

CO2 concentration will result in hemoglobin proteins releasing their loads of oxygen and a decrease in carbon

dioxide or increase in pH will result in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen. Since carbon dioxide reacts with water

to form carbonic acid, an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH .

In deoxyhaemoglobin, the N-terminal amino groups of the -subunits and the C-terminal histidine of the -

subunits participate in ion pairs. The formation of ion pairs causes them to decrease in acidity. Thus,

deoxyhaemoglobin binds one proton (H+) for every two O2 released. In oxyhaemoglobin, these ion pairings are

absent and these groups increase in acidity. Consequentially, a proton is released for every two O 2 bound.

Specifically, this reciprocal coupling of protons and oxygen is the Bohr effect.

Additionally, carbon dioxide reacts with the N-terminal amino groups of -subunits to form carbamates

RNH2 + CO2 RNHCOO-+ H

+

Deoxyhaemoglobin binds to CO2 more readily to form a carbamate than oxyhaemoglobin. When CO2 concentrationis high (as in the capillaries), the protons released by carbamate formation further promotes oxygen release.

Although the difference in CO2 binding between the oxy and deoxy states of hemoglobin accounts for only 5% of

the total blood CO2, it is responsible for half of the CO2transported by blood. This is because 10% of the total blood

CO2 is lost through the lungs in each circulatory cycle.

This effect facilitates oxygen transport as hemoglobin binds to oxygen in the lungs, but then releases it in the

tissues, particularly those tissues in most need of oxygen. When a tissue's metabolic rate increases, its carbon

dioxide production increases. Carbon dioxide forms bicarbonate through the following reaction:

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+

+ HCO3

Although the reaction usually proceeds very slowly, the enzyme family of carbonic anhydrase, which is present

in red blood cells, accelerates the formation of bicarbonate and protons.This causes the pH of tissues to decrease,

and so, promotes the dissociation of oxygen from hemoglobin to the tissue, allowing the tissue to obtain enough

oxygen to meet its demands. Conversely, in the lungs, where oxygen concentration is high, binding of oxygen

causes hemoglobin to release protons, which combine with bicarbonate to drive off carbon dioxide in exhalation.

Since these two reactions are closely matched, there is little change in blood pH.

The dissociation curve shifts to the right when carbon dioxide or hydrogen ion concentration is increased. This

facilitates increased oxygen dumping. This mechanism allows for the body to adapt the problem of supplying more

oxygen to tissues that need it the most. When muscles are undergoing strenuous activity, they generate

CO2 and lactic acid as products of cellular respiration and lactic acid fermentation. In fact, muscles generate lactic

acid so quickly that pH of the blood passing through the muscles will drop to around 7.2. As lactic acid releases itsprotons, pH decreases, which causes hemoglobin to release ~10% more oxygen


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12.Lung cancer symptoms and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseThe stages of COPD

The stages of COPD are often defined according to your symptoms plus a measure of how well your lungs work,

called your "lung function." In the following symptoms lists, lung function FEV1 is a test result that shows how fast

you can breathe air out of your lungs. FEV1 stands for forced expiratory volume in 1 second.

FEV1 can be measured by machines called spirometers . The test result is reported as a percentage of normal. In

other words, an FEV1 of 100% means the lungs are working normally; 80% is less than normal; 30% is very much

less than normal.

Here is how the stages of COPD are described by the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease, also

known as GOLD

Mild COPD (stage 1)o Usually, but not always, a chronic cough that often brings up mucus from the lungso Lung function FEV1 of 80% of normal or higher

Moderate COPD (stage 2)o Chronic cough with a lot of mucuso Shortness of breath, especially with exerciseo An occasional COPD flare-upo Lung function FEV1 of 50% to 79%

Severe COPD (stage 3)o Chronic cough with a lot of mucuso Shortness of breatho Fatigue and a reduced ability to exerciseo Repeated and sometimes severe COPD flare-upso Lung function FEV1 of 30% to 49%

Very severe COPD (stage 4)o

Chronic cough with a lot of mucuso Severe shortness of breatho Weight losso Blue skin color, especially in the lips, fingers, and toes (called cyanosis)o Fluid buildup in the legs and feet (called edema)o Life-threatening COPD flare-upso Lung function FEV1 of less than 30%, or of less than 50% along with chronic respiratory failure (a

condition caused by carbon dioxide that stays in the lungs)

When lung cancer first develops, there may be no symptoms at all. But as the cancer grows, it can cause changes

that people should watch for. Common signs and symptoms of lung cancer include:

a cough that doesn't go away and gets worse over time constant chest pain coughing up blood shortness of breath, wheezing, or hoarseness repeated problems with pneumonia or bronchitis swelling of the neck and face loss of appetite or weight loss Fatigue
http://www.webmd.com/lung/copd/copd-exacerbationhttp://www.webmd.com/lung/copd/muscle-weakness-weight-loss-and-nutrition-in-chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-copdhttp://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/picture-of-the-skinhttp://www.webmd.com/pain-management/picture-of-the-feethttp://www.webmd.com/hw-popup/edemahttp://www.webmd.com/hw-popup/edemahttp://www.webmd.com/pain-management/picture-of-the-feethttp://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/picture-of-the-skinhttp://www.webmd.com/lung/copd/muscle-weakness-weight-loss-and-nutrition-in-chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-copdhttp://www.webmd.com/lung/copd/copd-exacerbation

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