PREFACErganisms are open systems that interact continuously with their environment. The study of the

interaction between organisms and the environment; the connectedness between living systems and non-living systems on the Earth is called ecology. The term “ecology” which was coined by Ernst Haeckel comes from the Greek root words oikos logos literally meaning “the study of household”. Haeckel was referring to the interactions within the house of nature and we have used the word ecology (translated from the German Oekologie or Ökologie) to describe complex systems of life both extant and extinct. These interactions determine both the distribution of organism and their abundance, leading to three questions ecologists often ask about organisms : Where do they live? Why do they live where they do? And how many are there?

O

Because of it’s great scope, ecology is an enormously complex and exciting area of biology, as well as one of critical importance. Ecology reveals the richness of the biosphere—the entire portion of Earth inhabited by life—and can provide the basic understanding that will help us conserve and sustain that richness, now threatened more than ever by human activity. The richness is particularly apparent in tropical forests, such as the Panamanian forests, home to the Hercules scarab beetle (Dynastes Hercules).

Picture shows the Dynastes hercules

Humans have always had an interest in the distribution and abundance of other organisms. As hunters and gatherers, prehistoric people had to learn where game and edible plants could be found in abundance. With the development of agriculture and the domestication of animals, people learned more about how the environment affects the growth , survival and reproduction of plants and animals. Later, naturalists from Aristotle to Darwin and beyond observed and described organisms in their natural habitats and systematically recorded their observations. Because extraordinary insight can still be gained through this descriptive approach, natural history remains a fundamental part of the science of ecology. Ecology is, in a sense, a historical field, founded upon the Earth's far reaching and ever evolving natural history.

PREFACEThe sheer range of fields that the term "ecology" encompasses is staggering. Why? Think about how many levels of biological interaction can be described by focusing on one animal, a red panda (Ailurus fulgens). At the individual level, the red panda itself, an ecologist could look at a particular panda's ability to thermoregulate, or absorb and expel heat within its environment. Within a population of red pandas, the next step up, an ecologist could analyze the gene flow within the population and how this particular group of red pandas is distinct in adaptations from a neighboring one.

Communities of organisms are composed of two or more populations. At this level, an ecologist could take a closer look at the cohabitation of red pandas and giant pandas in a certain area, studying how the animals share food and space.

The distinction between a community and an ecosystem is slight, but essential to understand. While a community describes interaction between organisms in an area, an ecosystem describes the entirety of the area, including chemical and physical factors. Research at this level would concentrate on things like nutrient cycling (i.e. the phosphorus or carbon cycle) or the distribution of energy within the slope forests of the Himalayas.

As we expand, things become more generalized. We are not longer talking specifically about the red panda, but about the living/nonliving system of which the red

panda is a part. Landscape ecology looks at a certain heterogeneous conglomerate of ecosystems, their composition ("patches" of forests, plains, etc.) and the interaction between these ecosystems.

A geographic ecologist (who studies regions of interaction) might take a look at the geologic history of an island or lake and try to explain the distribution of organisms in that area due to the large scale geologic activity or other environmental variables. R.H. MacArthur (an associate of E.O. Wilson) thought that geographic ecology could be described as the "search for patterns of plant and animal life that can be put on a map."

Finally, ecologists can look at biological interaction through the widest scope by analyzing the biosphere, or the entirety of life's systems on the globe. Ecology at this level usually involves major atmospheric phenomena like the long term effects of climate change or El Niño on the Earth's living systems.

At each of these levels of organization, there are near infinite examples of questions to ask about interaction. Those are just a few examples. Additionally, we have not even considered narrowing the focus to the levels of physiological, cellular and molecular interaction.

PREFACEEcology is a broad biological science and can thus be divided into many sub-disciplines using various criteria. one such categorization, based on overall complexity (from the least complex to the most), is:

Behavioral ecology , which studies the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior, focusing largely at the level of the individual;

Population ecology (or autecology), which deals with the dynamics of populations within species, and the interactions of these populations with environmental factors

Community ecology (or synecology) which studies the interactions between species within an ecological community;

Ecosystem ecology and Landscape ecology, which studies how flows of energy and matter interact with biotic elements of ecosystems;

To Ms. Lee Ewe Im,Jason Siew King Meng,Marcus Lim,Fellow classmates,Our parentsand everyone who were involved in any way,Thank You

CONTENTS IN BRIEF

Preface 1 – 3Objective 5Study Area

A description of the study area and a map

6 - 7

Elements of Ecosystem 8 – 19Soil analysis 20 – 29Soil sampling technique 29 – 32Introduction to “Soil structure”

Determination of soil texture33 – 47

“Air content of soil” 48 – 53 “Water content of soil” 54 – 61 “Organic matter of soil” 62 – 70 “Soil pH” 73 – 77 “Tullgren funnel” 78 – 84 “Baermann funnel 85 – 90Ecological Sampling Methods 91 – 102Quadrat sampling 103 – 119Calculation formulae 120 – 121Line transect technique 122 – 138Overall discussion 139 – 140Overall Summary 141 Project planning 142 – 143Bibliography 144

OBJECTIVEThe goals intended to be obtained from this task are ;

1. Learning the basic principles of ecology through student’s own efforta. Elements of ecosystem : biosis and abiosisb. Dynamic relationship of elements and flow of energy through ecosystem

2. Using simple apparatus and instruments in ecological studies3. Learning the methods of collecting and analyzing ecological data4. Writing an ecological study report5. Inculcating nature loving attitude6. Inculcating good moral values-cooperation, independence and self-confidence

STUDY AREAFor the purpose of this ecological project, we have chosen a recreational park in Island

Glades to conduct our fieldwork. Reasons for the selection of this area are :

1. The size of this area was the main reason for the selection of this park. A wide field would enable us to conduct all our fieldwork.

2. The area has a wide diversity of plant species.

3. The natural state of this area is undisturbed.

STUDY AREA

Map of area under study

ELEMENTS OF ECOSYSTEMAn ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms (biotic

factors) in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment.

The term ecosystem was coined in 1930 by Roy Clapham to denote the combined physical and biological components of an environment. British ecologist Arthur Tansley later refined the term, describing it as "The whole system,… including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment". Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as "mental isolates"

Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, stated: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms (ie: the "community") in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (ie: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system is an ecosystem."

In short, the ecosystem comprises of the biotic and abiotic factors interacting with each other.

ABIOTIC FACTORSThe global distribution of organisms broadly reflects the influence of abiotic factors, such as

regional differences in temperature, water and sunlight. The environment is characterized by both spatial heterogeneity and temporal heterogeneity. In other words, it varies in both space and time. Although two regions of the Earth may experience different conditions at any given time, daily and annual fluctuations of abiotic factors may either blur or accentuate regional distinctions.

TemperatureEnvironmental temperature is an important factor in the distribution of organisms

because of its effect on biological processes. Cells may rupture if the water they contain freezes (at temperature below 0°C) and the proteins of most organisms denature at temperatures above 45°C. In addition few organisms can maintain an appropriately active metabolism at very low or very high temperature. Extraordinary adaptations enable some organisms, such as thermophilic prokaryotes to live outside their the temperature range habitable by other life.

An organism’s internal temperature is affected by heat exchange with its environment and most organisms cannot maintain tissue temperature more than a few degrees above or below the ambient temperature. As endotherms, mammals and birds are the major exceptions but even endothermic species function best within various, quite narrow environmental temperature ranges.

WaterThe dramatic variation in water availability among habitats is another important factor

in species distribution. Freshwater and marine organism live submerged in aquatic environments but most are restricted to either freshwater or salt water habitats by their limited ability for osmoregulation. Terrestrial organisms face a nearly constant threat of desiccation and their global distribution reflects their ability to obtain and conserve water. Desert organisms exhibit a variety of adaptations for water acquisition and conservation in a desiccating environment.

ABIOTIC FACTORS

SunlightSunlight provides the energy that drives nearly all ecosystems, although only plants and

other photosynthetic organisms use this energy source directly. Light intensity is not the most important factor limiting plant growth in many terrestrial environments although shading by a forest canopy makes competition for the light in the understory intense. In aquatic environments, however, the intensity and quality of light limit the distribution of photosynthetic organisms. Every meter of water depth selectively absorbs about 45% of the red light and about 2% of the blue light passing through it. As a result, most photosynthesis in aquatic environments occurs relatively near the surface. The photosynthetic organisms themselves absorb some of the light that penetrates, further reducing light levels in the waters below.

Light is also important to the development and behavior of the many organisms that are sensitive to photoperiod, the relative lengths of daytime and nighttime. Photoperiod is a more reliable indicator than temperature for cuing seasonal events, such as flowering by plants or migration by animals.

WindWind amplifies the effects of environmental temperature on organisms by increasing

heat loss due to evaporation and convection. It also contributes to water loss in organisms by increasing the rate of evaporative cooling in animals and transpiration in plants. In addition, wind can have a substantial effect on the morphology of plants by inhibiting the growth of limbs on the windward side of the trees, resulting in a “flagged” appearance.

ABIOTIC FACTORS

ClimateFour abiotic factors—temperature, water, sunlight and wind are the four major

components of climate, the prevailing weather conditions in a particular area. Climatic factors, particularly temperature and water, have a major influence on the distribution of organisms. We can describe climate patterns on two scales: macroclimate, patterns on the global, regional and local level; and microclimate, very fine patterns, such as those encountered by the community of organisms underneath a fallen log.

Rocks and SoilThe physical structure, pH and mineral composition of rocks and soil limit the

distribution of plants and thus the animals that feed upon them, contributing to the patchiness of terrestrial ecosystems. In streams and rivers, the composition of the substrate (bottom surface) can affect water chemistry, which in turn influences the resident organisms. In freshwater and marine environments, the structure of the substrate determines the organisms that can attach to or burrow in it.

Soil Profile

Grassland soils developed on the glacial till (C) deposited by the ice as it melted 12,000 to 10,000 years ago. These soils have a deep organic-rich layer (A) that results from the breakdown of the roots and plant material each year. The organic layer increases in depth with increases in elevation and moisture.

ABIOTIC FACTORS

Natural Disturbances

Natural Disturbances change grasslands in many ways, adding to the diversity of these ecosystems. Some types of disturbance, such as annual flooding of riparian areas along rivers and streams, can be predicted while others, such as a fire after a lightning storm, happen unexpectedly.

Lightning storms are a common sight on a dry summer evening in the grassland areas of the interior of BC. Trees struck by lightning can explode into flames, spreading fire to the trees around them and onto the surrounding grasslands. Small trees are usually killed, but shrubs, grasses and other plants are able to survive.

Most grassland grasses are in a dormant state before the heat of the summer when most lightning fires start. Grasses such as bluebunch wheatgrass, fescues, and needlegrasses start to regrow from the base and from underground parts as soil moisture increases in the fall. Many forbs, such as sagebrush mariposa lily, have underground bulbs that will sprout again the following spring. Shrubs may grow new shoots from unburned stems or underground parts. Mobile animals, such as California Bighorn Sheep, and animals in the soil usually survive, but those unable to flee or find cover may be killed.

The seeds of some plants actually need fire to grow. The thick bark of big ponderosa pine trees protects it from fire in two ways: by insulating the living part of the tree from the heat of the fire and by popping off pieces of bark as they catch on fire.

Fires are important for returning nutrients to the soil. Since grassland plants burn readily, fire spreads very quickly, and is thought to have been an important factor in maintaining the grasslands ecosystem.

(Note : the next page accommodates an article titled “What is Soil” by Dr. Alfred R. Conklin, Jr.)

ABIOTIC FACTORS

What is Soil? (Source : The Association for Environmental Health and Sciences magazine)

by Alfred R. Conklin, Jr. Ph.D. A professor of agriculture and chemistry at Wilmington College in Ohio.

oil is one of the most complex components of the ecosystem. This makes it the hardest to describe, analyze, control and change. Why is it so complex? For that matter what is soil?S

An engineer friend of mine defines soil as anything he can move with a bulldozer. The soil scientist defines soil as a natural body which results from the action of soil forming factors on the loose material covering the earth’s surface. Soil forming factors are time, parent material, topography, climate and vegetation. For the engineer the soil includes some rather large rocks. But for the soil scientist it is restricted to sand silt and clay size particles. The soil scientist does considers rocks and gravel as part of soil , but these materials are not good for growing plants. From a environmental standpoint they have low physical and chemical activity thus are not as important as sand silt and clay.

When defining soil, especially with reference to environmental concerns there are the concepts of the rigolith, solum and vadose zone to consider. The rigolith is defined as the loose material over the bedrock. The solum is the volume of soil which contains the genetic soil horizons (A,B,C etc. see Figure 1). The vadose zone is the unsaturated portion of the rigolith – the loose material above the bedrock and above the ground water table.

The soil forming factors lead to the development of the genetic horizons in soil. These are significantly different from layers deposited by wind, water or ice. As indicated above there are three basic horizons in most soils. The A horizon, which is on the surface, is dark in color and high in organic matter. This is the one we try not to spill contaminants on, and try to save for farming. The B horizon is higher in clay and redder in color. This horizon often restricts water movement through soil. The C horizon comes below the B and is material which has not been acted upon by the soil forming factors.

Other horizons can exist in certain soils. An E horizon occurs just below the A in soils developed under trees. This is a horizon from which material has been leached out and it is consequently lighter in color and courser in texture than the A or B horizons. Soils receiving large amounts of organic matter may have an O surface horizon above the A. It is made up of decomposed and undecomposed plant litter.

ABIOTIC FACTORSThe A and B horizons are very different from the material from which the soil is forming. The organic matter, clay minerals and physical characteristics have been changed so that they no longer have the characteristics of the parent material or of ground rock. Figure two illustrates the arrangement of soil particles. Sand, silt and clay particles are cemented together to form units called peds. The physical characteristics, particularly air and water movement, of soil are greatly affected by the stability of these units. A soil with strong, well-formed peds has higher air and water movement through it than would otherwise be the case. In most cases good ped structure will make cleanup of contaminated soils easier.

Chemistry and biology in soil are significantly different and more complex than in the laboratory. Soil is made up of solids, liquids and gases. The solids are living organisms and organic and inorganic materials – and are changing all the time. Even the inorganic component call the matrix, changes. New clays form, rock dissolves and reprecipitates as new minerals all at the same time. Organisms die and become organic matter in soil. The liquid, called the soil solution, consists of dissolved gases, organic and inorganic compounds and ions. Its composition also changes as materials dissolve and precipitate.

The gaseous phase, called soil air, consist of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor and argon. Soil air would appear to be similar to atmospheric air. It is, except that its oxygen content is lower and its carbon dioxide content higher. Under most conditions the water vapor content of soil air is also higher than in atmospheric air. In addition it is common to find small amounts of methane and nitrogen oxides in soil air. So, even the gaseous phase of soil is not simple.

Organic matter from plants, animals and microorganisms play a large role in determining the characteristics of a soil. Humus is the material remaining after organic matter added to soil is fully decomposed. It has high affinity for water and organic compounds. It also has cation exchange capacity and helps bind soil particles together to form peds. Even small amounts of humus have a large effect on a soil’s physical and chemical properties. In addition to humus there are an immense number and verity of organic molecules in soil. It is reasonable to expect that some of these will be hydrocarbons and some will act like hydrocarbons. Finding hydrocarbons in the organic component in soil is not unusual.

Soil has another characteristic, which is very important when considering pollution. It is highly buffered. Chemist have a precise definition for this term. Here, we need only to know that buffering in soil means that it resist change. Soil in the natural state resist physical, chemical and biological change. The addition of 100 metric tons of sand to 2 hectares of soil has little effect on it texture. One metric ton of lime added to soil has a small effect on its pH. Add microorganisms to soil and they disappear very rapidly. It is also important to remember that the reverse is true. Once a soil is contaminated and thus changed, restoring it to the way it was

Figure 1

ABIOTIC FACTORSpreviously is very hard to do. The longer a soil has been contaminated the harder it is to decontaminate.

Although it contains oxygen, both oxidized and reduced compounds and environments are found in even small samples of unsaturated soil. Because of this, all soil contains both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. The variety of soil microorganisms seems to be limitless. Aerobic, anaerobic, phototropic, and lithotropic microorganisms abound. Bacilli, cocci, fungi, and microscopic animals as well as lager plants and animals are always present in this complex medium.

All of the characteristics of soil are important when considering how to handle a spill or contamination. Will the contamination move through soil or be adsorbed. Can the contaminant be easily washed out or will it be strongly held. Will it be broken down or remain unchanged? Is it biologically available or inert? All these and more will depend on the unique and complex nature of soil.

Figure 2. Arrangement of soil particles.

BIOTIC FACTOR

The Biotic enviroment involves all the living organisms that come regularly into contact with each other, how they interact and their mutual influences. Simply, biotic components are the living things that shape an ecosystem. An ecosystem consists basically of the following:

Producers | Consumers | Decomposers| Biological Rhytms |

Producers

Producers are organisms which are able to manufacture organic compounds from inorganic substances from their enviroment. Green plants are able to do this by means of photosynthesis, where the sun provides the necessary energy. Therefore these green plants are the autotrophic organisms or primary producers in most ecosystems.

Consumers

This component is made up of organisms which cannot make organic compounds from inorganic substances. They are dependant upon autotrophic oraganisms and are the consumers or heterotrophic organisms in an ecosystem. The consumers are further subdivided according to their diet, into:

o herbivores or plant eaters which are the primary consumers eg. cows, giraffes, elephants, etc;

o carnivores or meat eaters which are the secondary consumers; some carnivores are called predators (eg. lions, leopard, fish eagle, etc) which catch their prey, kill it and then eat it; others are called scavengers ( eg. vultures) which usually eat what is left by the predators;

o omnivores eat plant and animal material and can be primary, secondary and tertiary consumers simutaneously; a human beings is a good example of an omnivore.

BIOTIC FACTOR

The main consumers of an Ecosystem.

Decomposers

These are usually saprophytic organisms such as bacteria and fungi and that obtain their energy by decomposing the corpses and other dead parts of organisms. They break down all the organic material of the bodies of producers and consumers into inorganic materials that are restored to the soil or water to be reused by producers.

Biological Rhythms (Biorhythms)

BIOTIC FACTORRegular rhythmic changes occur in the activities of plants and animals. These are caused by factors such as light and heat from the sun, the tides, seasons, phases of the moon and the rotation of the earth. These regular, rhythmic changes are called biorhythms and they can be divided into:

Daily rhythms Lunar and Tidal rhythms Seasonal rhythms

Biological Rhythms

Daily rhythms

The daily rhythm of light and darkness which repeats every 24 hours as a result of the rotation of the earth, has influences on many organisms.

Examples:

o some animals are more active during the day because of the light and temperature eg. springbok, some birds, etc, while others are active during the night eg. lions, owls and bats;

o green plants photosynthesize only in daylight; o the leaves and flowers of some plants react to light and darkness, eg. the

drooping of thorn tree leaves as it gets dark and the flowers of vygies which open as the intensity of the light and temperature inceases;

o zooplanton in the sea and lakes show daily rhythmic movements; during day they move vertically deeper into the water, away from the light; during the night they come to the surface where they feed on the drifting phytoplankton.

Lunar and Tidal rhythms

BIOTIC FACTORThe phases of the moon have an influence on the tides in the sea which, in their turn, influence the behaviour of the marine animals which live in the intertidal zone.

Examples:

o many littoral crabs rhythmically change colour from dark at high tide to pale at low tide;

o intertidal crustaceans and the eel-like grunion have activities which match the activities of the sea. During the spring tides from March to August, these fish swim in pairs (male and female) onto the beaches a couple of days after each high spring tide. While the female lays her eggs, the male curls around her and immediately releases his sperm cells which then fertilize the eggs. The fish then return to the sea on the next wave. Because the eggs are laid while the tides are gradually lessening, the waves will not reach them until the next high spring tide two weeks later. During this time the eggs develop and hatch and the baby fish are then carried back to the sea on the high spring tide.

 

Seasonal rhythms

The behaviour of plants and animals is usually suited to withstand the seasons.

Examples:

o deciduous trees lose their leaves during winter and become dormant; o annual plants form seeds which survive the winter or the dry season and

germinates after the first spring rains; o certain animals hibernate i.e. their heart beat slowly and respiration decreases

so that the winter can passed in a type of unconsciousness, eg. bats; o adult insects die when the frosts arrive; many spent the winter in the form of

eggs and pupae; o many animals migrate during the winter to where the weather is warmer eg.

swallows; various marine mammals also migrate, mainly between feeding and breeding grounds, eg. wilde beest migrate in response to seasonal rainfall and food availability.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Mechanical analysis to determine the Texture of Soil Sample

Soil texture is a soil property used to describe the relative proportion of different grain sizes of mineral particles in a soil. Particles are grouped according to their size into what are called soil separates. These separates are typically named clay, silt, and sand. Soil texture classification is based on the fractions of soil separates present in a soil. The soil texture triangle is a diagram often used to figure out soil texture. It is also important to note that soil texture changes slowly with time.

Soil analysis is a process whereby the different soil particles are mechanically separated into 4 different basic types of particles of different sizes.

This analysis can determine the ratio or percentage of each type of particle in the soil sample. Soil texture can influence various aspects and properties of the soil analyzed such as :

1. Drainage2. Capillarity3. Aeration4. Adsorption of water5. Condition of soil of water

Classification typically uses the primary constituent particle size or a combination of the most abundant particles sizes, e.g. "sandy clay" or "silty clay." A fourth term, loam, is used to describe a roughly equal concentration of sand, silt, and clay, and lends to the naming of even more classifications, e.g. "clay loam" or "silt loam."

SOIL ANALYSIS

An example of a soil texture triangle

SOIL ANALYSIS

Figure shows a comparison between three scales used to discriminate soil separates.

USDA : United States Department of Agriculture

AASHO : American Association of State Highway Officials

SOIL ANALYSIS

Size classification of soil separates according to international standards

Type of soil separate Diameter limits (mm)Gravel >2Coarse sand 2 – 0.2Fine Sand 0.2 – 0.02Silt 0.02 – 0.002Clay < 0.002

Soil classification Clay Soil Loam soil Sandy soil

Percent clay 40-100% 7-27% 1-10%

Percent silt 0-40% 28-50% 1-15%

Percent sand 0-45% 23-52% 85-100%

SOIL ANALYSIS

Soil sampling technique

In order to analyze soil, we must first obtain a sample of the soil. There are many methods to obtain a sample of soil, buy any technique used must retain the original quality and structure of the soil in order to determine the actual characteristic or composition of the soil.

The methods used to obtain soil samples include :

1. Using a “corer”This is the most commonly used method in soil sampling. This methods does not disturb

the original structure and quality of the soil. The “corer” consists of a sharp ended metal cylinder and a piston.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Depictions of various types of corers.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Picture depicts usage of a corer

In short,

1. The sharp end of the corer is pushed into the soil.

2. The metal cylinder is then pulled out with soil inside it.

3. The soil inside is removed by pushing a piston through the metal cylinder from the top.

SOIL ANALYSISAnother variation of this technique uses a metal can instead of a metal cylinder and a

piston. This variation is cost effective and equipments are easily available although it does not provide a true picture of the soil sample under study because the soil obtained in limited in depth by the height of the can. Hence, lower and deeper layers of the soil cannot be studied.

The technical aspect of using this variation is similar to using the “corer”. One pushes a metal can (which is perforated at its closed end) into the ground until the perforated base of the metal can levels with the surface of the ground. If the ground is hard, one can use hammer to aid pushing the metal can. One simply knocks the metal can into the ground gently in order not to distort the can which will change the known volume of the can.

SOIL ANALYSIS

2. Soil bore

Using a soil bore maintains the natural condition of the soil under study. Soil samples can be obtained from various depths. Hence, a soil bore is suitable for the study of the characteristics of the different layers of a specific soil profile. A known disadvantage of this method is the migration of contaminants from one layer of the soil to another.

Picture shows an example of a soil bore

SOIL ANALYSIS

3. ScoopThis method uses scoops and spades to obtain soil samples. This method allows

obtention of soil from different depths. However, this method is not easy to use and this method may destroy the soil of area under study.

1. Use a garden trowel or shovel to carefully remove the top 10 cm of soil from a small area and set it on the ground. (Depth varies according to depth of soil wishing to be sampled)

2. Treat this sample as a horizon and proceed to characterize its properties.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Soil sampling technique

Apparatus : Empty metal can (of volume around 400cm3), a ruler, a hammer, nails and plastic bags.

Procedure :

1. The bottom of the metal can was perforated using a nail and a hammer.

2. Then, the perforated can was gently hammered down into the ground until the bottom of the can was on the same level as the surface of the ground.

3. Using a spade, a hole was dug beside the can.

4. The can and its content were carefully removed (in order to retain the original structure of the soil) from the soil using a spade.

5. Additional soil at the top of the can was leveled off using a ruler.

6. The soil sampled in its can was then placed in a clean plastic bag.

7. The process was repeated thrice to collect more soil samples using similar cans.

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

Introduction to ‘Soil structure”

Soil structure is defined by the way individual particles of sand, silt, and clay are assembled. Single particles when assembled appear as larger particles. These are called aggregates . Soil structure describes the arrangement of the solid parts of the soil and of the pore space located between them (Marshall & Holmes, 1979). It is dependent on: what the soil developed from; the environmental conditions under which the soil formed; the clay present, the organic materials present; and the recent history of management. Soil structure has a major influence on water and air movement, biological activity, root growth and seedling emergence. Each individual unit of soil structure is called a ped.

Natural aggregates that can be clearly seen in the field are called peds. Clods, on the other hand, are aggregates that are broken into shape by artificial actions such as tillage. The surfaces of peds persist through cycles of wetting and drying in place. Commonly, the surface of the ped and its interior differ as to composition or organization, or both, because of soil development. Earthy clods and fragments stand in contrast to peds, for which soil forming processes exert weak or no control on the boundaries.

Structure is very important since (along with soil texture) it affects the porosity of the soil. A dense structure will greatly reduce the amount of air and water than can move freely through the soil. Also, it will affect the plant's ability to propagate roots through the soil. The implications for Soil health are clear.

There are five major classes of structure seen in soils: platy, prismatic, columnar, granular, and blocky. There are also structureless conditions. Some soils have simple structure, each unit being an entity without component smaller units. Others have compound structure, in which large units are composed of smaller units separated by persistent planes of weakness.

(Note : The next few pages will accommodate further information about each of the major classes of soils and may be a little bit dry.)

SOIL ANALYSIS

Granular: Resembles cookie crumbs and is usually less than 0.5 cm in diameter. Commonly found in surface horizons where roots have been growing.

Granular and crumb structures are individual particles of sand, silt and clay grouped together in small, nearly spherical grains. Water circulates very easily through such soils.

Granular structure is common in the surface soils of rich grasslands and highly amended garden soils with high organic matter content. Soil mineral particles are both separated and bridged by organic matter breakdown products, and soil biota exudates, making the soil easy to work. Cultivation, earthworms, frost action and rodents mix the soil and decreases the size of the peds. This structure allows for good porosity and easy movement of air and water. This combination of ease in tillage, good moisture and air handling capabilities, and good structure for planting and germination, are definitive of the phrase good tilth (The state of aggregation of soil and its condition for supporting plant growth).

SOIL ANALYSIS

Blocky: Irregular blocks that are usually 1.5 - 5.0 cm in diameter.

In blocky structure, the structural units are blocklike or polyhedral. They are bounded by flat or slightly rounded surfaces that are casts of the faces of surrounding peds. Typically, blocky structural units are nearly equidimensional but grade to prisms and to plates. The structure is described as angular blocky if the faces intersect at relatively sharp angles; as subangular blocky if the faces are a mixture of rounded and plane faces and the corners are mostly rounded. Blocky structures are common in subsoil but also occur in surface soils that have a high clay content. The strongest blocky structure is formed as a result of swelling and shrinking of the clay minerals which produce cracks. Sometimes the surface of dried-up sloughs and ponds shows characteristic cracking and peeling due to clays.

SOIL ANALYSISRelatively large blocks indicate that the soil resists penetration and movement of water.

Prismatic: Vertical columns of soil that might be a number of cm long. Usually found in lower horizons.

In the prismatic structure, the individual units are bounded by flat to rounded vertical faces. Units are distinctly longer vertically, and the faces are typically casts or molds of adjoining units. Vertices are angular or subrounded; the tops of the prisms are somewhat indistinct and normally flat. Prismatic structures are characteristic of the B horizons or subsoils. The vertical cracks result from freezing and thawing and wetting and drying as well as the downward movement of water and roots.

SOIL ANALYSISWater circulates with greater difficulty and drainage is poor.

Columnar: Vertical columns of soil that have a salt "cap" at the top. Found in soils of arid climates.

In the columnar structure, the units are similar to prisms and are bounded by flat or slightly rounded vertical faces. The tops of columns, in contrast to those of prisms, are very distinct and normally rounded. Columnar structure is common in the subsoil of sodium affected soils. Columnar structure is very dense and it is very difficult for plant roots to penetrate these layers. Techniques such as deep plowing have help to restore some degree of fertility to these soils.

SOIL ANALYSISWater circulates with greater difficulty and drainage is poor.

Platy: Thin, flat plates of soil that lie horizontally. Usually found in compacted soil.

In platy structure, the units are flat and platelike. They are generally oriented horizontally. A special form, lenticular platy structure, is recognized for plates that are thickest in the middle and thin toward the edges. Platy structure is usually found in subsurface soils that have been subject to leaching or compaction by animals or machinery. The plates can be separated with a little effort by prying the horizontal layers with a pen knife. Platy structure tends to impede the downward movement of water and plant roots through the soil.

Plates often overlap, greatly impairing water circulation. It is commonly found in forest soils.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Structureless conditions encompass “massive” and “single grained” soil forms.

Massive: Soil has no visible structure, is hard to break apart and appears in very large clods.

Single Grained: Soil is broken into individual particles that do not stick together. Always accompanies a loose consistence. Commonly found in sandy soils.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Introduction to “Soil texture”

Soil texture is a soil property used to describe the relative proportion of different grain sizes of mineral particles in a soil. Particles are grouped according to their size into what are called soil separates. These separates are typically named clay, silt, and sand. Soil texture classification is based on the fractions of soil separates present in a soil. The soil texture triangle is a diagram often used to figure out soil texture. It is also important to note that soil texture changes slowly with time.

Soil properties related to texture1. Porosity – an index of the relative pore volume in the soil

2. Infiltration – The downward entry of water into the immediate surface of soil

3. Erodibility – Generally, large particles are less erodible, exceptions being clay

4. Available water holding capacity – Silt and loam textures have the highest of this

5. Soil formation – fine sand to coarse sand ratio for example

6. Permeability – The quality of the soil that enables water to move downward through the profile

SOIL ANALYSIS

Determination of soil texture by sedimentation method.

Objectives :1. To learn the methods of obtaining and analyzing the texture of soil.

2. To determine various types of soil particles.

3. To learn to write a report.

Apparatus : 1000 cm3 measuring cylinder, 500 cm3 of water and spatula.

Materials : Soil sample obtained from study area.

Procedure.

1. Gravel and stones on the soil sample was removed manually.

2. The soil sample was then added into the measuring cylinder.

3. 500 cm3 of water was added to the measuring cylinder containing the soil sample.

4. The mouth of the measuring cylinder was covered with a plastic sheet which was then tightly secured using a rubber band.

5. The soil sample and water in the measuring cylinder were then stirred thoroughly.

6. The mixture was then allowed to settle or 48 hours (2 days).

7. The height of each of the various layers of the soil (coarse sand, fine sand, silt and clay) represented by their volume was measured and recorded.

8. The percentage of each type of particle was calculated and tabulated.

9. Based on the percentage of sand (coarse and fine sand), silt and clay, the texture of the soil sample was determined by referring to the texture triangle.

SOIL ANALYSIS

10. Percentage of each soil particles were calculated using the following formulae :

Percentage sand component = Height of sand

Totalheight of soil sample ×100 %

Percentage silt component = Height of silt

Totalheight of soil sample ×100%

Percentage clay component = Height of clay

Totalheight of soil sample ×100 %

SOIL ANALYSIS

ResultsSoil particle Layer height (mm) Percentage content (%)Clay a = 5.0 3.65Silt b = 47.0 34.31Sand (coarse and fine) c = 85.0 62.04

Total height = 137.0 100.00

DiscussionFrom the results obtained, the soil sample contains sand (both coarse and fine), silt and

clay which were mechanically separated. The sand is located on the bottom of the measuring cylinder, silt located immediately above the sand and clay forms the uppermost layer in the measuring cylinder. Sand particles settle first as they are relatively heavier than silt and clay particles. Silt particles settle second to the sand particles as they are relatively lighter than the sand particles but heavier than the clay particles. The clay particles settles last as they are of the least in weight.

Ways to improve accuracy of results1. The mixture of water and soil sample must be allowed to settle for a longer period of

time, for example, a week. This allows the soil particles to settle completely and accentuate distinctions among types of particles.

ConclusionFrom the experiment conducted, it can be concluded that the texture of the soil sample

under study is sandy loam.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Soil texture triangle

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SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

Introduction to “air content of soil”

“Soil Air” the part of ground air that is in the soil and is similar to the air of the atmosphere but depleted in oxygen content and enriched in carbon dioxide. Alternatively, the gaseous phase of soil is called soil air. In a completely dry soil most of the pores are filled with air. As the soil water content increases the amount of air in the soil decreases.

The composition of air in an well-aerated soil is close to the composition of atmospheric air, as the oxygen consumed in the soil by plants and micro-organisms is readily replaced from the atmosphere. However, in a poorly aerated soil, the composition of air differs from the atmospheric air.

Two important gases in soil air are carbon dioxide and oxygen. Carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product of plant root respiration and biological activity. Oxygen is consumed in the soil by the same processes, and plant roots require oxygen to function normally. For most plant species, transaction of oxygen from the leaves to the roots is not adequate to supply oxygen at the required rate. Hence, plant roots must supplement oxygen supply from soil air. As a result oxygen is depleted from soil air. Oxygen content in soil air is replenished by oxygen from the atmosphere above the soil surface. This transport occurs primarily by gaseous diffusion.

In a surface layer of a well-aerated soil, the oxygen content is between 18 and 21 percent, while at a greater soil depth and specially in soils that are wet for a long period it may be very much lower. The carbon dioxide content of soil air is usually between 0.1 and 5 per cent and can reach nearly 20 per cent. Under reducing conditions soil air may contain methane, hydrogen sulphide, and ammonia.

The low noncapillary porosity (air capacity) of poorly drained soils is probably caused by seasonal flooding or waterlogging which reduces biotic activity and by the clogging of pores and cracks by the downward flow of dispersed topsoil material and possibly by relatively large flakes of mica. The relatively high porosity of Old Himalayan Piedmont Plain soils (about 18%) is probably caused by their low content of fine silt in relation to fine and medium sand which leaves relatively large spaces between the sand grains. Air capacity of topsoils is greatly reduced by ploughing or puddling.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Determination of air content of soil

Objective : To determine the air content of soil

Apparatus : Empty tin can, 1000 cm3 measuring cylinder, spatula, glass cover, marker pen,

rubber band, 100 cm3 measuring cylinder, 10 cm3

measuring cylinder, dropper.

Materials : Soil sample, water

Procedure : To determine the volume of the soil sample

1. 100 cm3 of water from a 100 cm3 measuring cylinder was poured into an empty tin can with sharp edge.

2. The addition of water was continued until the tin can was almost full of water.

3. The volume of water added was recorded as x cm3.

4. Then, with the help of a dropper, more water was added slowly from a 10 ml measuring cylinder until the tin can was filled with water at its brim.

5. The additional amount of water added was noted as y cm3.

6. The volume of the empty tin can which was also the volume of the soil sample was recorded as “a” cm3 ( x cm3 + y cm3 ).

7. Next, the base of the empty tin can was perforated by nailing it with a hammer.

8. The tin can was then used to collect a soil sample by pushing its sharp open edge into the soil until its perforated base was at the same level as the soil surface.

9. Using a spade, the tin can full of soil was then dug out from the soil.

10. The excess soil above the mouth of the tin can was then removed by leveling it with a ruler.

11. 500 cm3 of water was poured into a 1000 cm3 measuring cylinder.

SOIL ANALYSIS12. Next, the soil sample from the tin can was dug out with the aid of a spatula and was put into the measuring cylinder.

13. The mixture of soil and water in the measuring cylinder was thoroughly stirred with the aid of a long stick to ensure that the air in the soil sample was removed.

14. After that, the measuring cylinder was left to stand for a few hours.

15. The volume of the soil and water in the measuring cylinder was then read and recorded as “b” cm3.

Results and calculations

Volume of empty tin can, “a” cm3 = Volume of soil sample = 430 cm3

Volume of water in the measuring cylinder = 500 cm3

Total volume of soil sample and water added ( a + 500 ) cm3 = 930cm3

Volume of soil sample and water stirring to remove the air in the soil sample, “b” cm3 = 840cm3

∴ Volume of air in the soil = [ (a+500 )−b ] cm3

Percentage of air in the soil = Volumeof air∈the soilVolumeof soil sample

×100 %

= 90930 ×100%

= 9.67%

SOIL ANALYSIS

DiscussionThe empty sardine can was pushed into the soil to obtain a tin full of undisturbed soil.

This is to ensure the accuracy of the results obtained. The soil mixture must be shaken vigorously to break the soil structure so that its contents are in equilibrium.

Methods to improve accuracy of results obtained1. Soil samples must be collected from undisturbed soil

2. The soil must be gently removed from the tin into the measuring cylinder.

Conclusion From the results obtained, the soil sample contains 10% air. This shows that the soil

provides a suitable condition for the growth of plants in the area under study.

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

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Introduction to “water content of soil”

The state of water in soil is described in terms of the amount of water and the energy associated with the forces which hold the water in the soil. The amount of water is defined by water content and the energy state of the water is the water potential. Plant growth, soil temperature, chemical transport, and ground water recharge are all dependent on the state of water in the soil. While there is a unique relationship between water content and water potential for a particular soil, these physical properties describe the state of the water in soil in distinctly different manners. It is important to understand the distinction when choosing a soil water measuring instrument.

Definition by Jim Bilskie, Ph.D. (A soil physicist at Campbell Scientific – a company that designs and manufactures measurement instrumentation for research purposes and industry)

Soil water is held in the pore spaces between particles of soil. Soil water is the water that is immediately available to plants. Soil water can be further sub-divided into three categories,

1. hygroscopic water,

2. capillary water, and

3. gravitational water.

Hygroscopic water is found as a microscopic film of water surrounding soil particles. This water is tightly bound to a soil particle by molecular attraction so powerful that it cannot be removed by natural forces. Hygroscopic water is bound to soil particles by adhesive forces that exceed 31 bars and may be as great as 10,000 bars (Recall that sea level pressure is equal to 1013.2 millibars which is just about 1 bar!).

Capillary water is held by cohesive forces between the films of hygroscopic water. The binding pressure for capillary water is much less than hygroscopic water. This water can be removed by air drying or by plant absorption, but cannot be removed by gravity. Plants extract this water through their roots until the soil capillary force (force holding water to the particle) is equal to the extractive force of the plant root. At this point the plant cannot pull water from the plant-rooting zone and it wilts (called the wilting point).

SOIL ANALYSISGravity water is water moved through the soil by the force of gravity. The amount of water held in the soil after excess water has drained is called the field capacity of the soil. The

amount of water in the soil is controlled by the soil texture. Soils dominated by clay-sized particles have more total pore space in a unit volume than soils dominated by sand. As a result, fine grained soils have higher field capacities than coarse-grained soils.

Soil water storage

Within the soil system, the storage of water is influenced by several different forces. The strongest force is the molecular force of elements and compounds found on the surface of soil minerals. The water retained by this force is called hygroscopic water and it consists of the water held within 0.0002 millimeters of the surface of soil particles. The maximum limit of this water around a soil particle is known as the hygroscopic coefficient. Hygroscopic water is essentially non-mobile and can only be removed from the soil through heating. Matric force holds soil water from 0.0002 to 0.06 millimeters from the surface of soil particles. This force is due to two processes: soil particle surface molecular attraction (adhesion and absorption) to water and the cohesion that water molecules have to each other. This force declines in strength with distance from the soil particle. The force becomes nonexistent past 0.06 millimeters. Capillary action moves this water from areas where the matric force is low to areas where it is high. Because this water is primarily moved by capillary action, scientists commonly refer to it as capillary water. Plants can use most of this water by way of capillary action until the soil wilting point is reached. Water in excess of capillary and hygroscopic water is called gravitational water. Gravitational water is found beyond 0.06 millimeters from the surface of soil particles and it moves freely under the effect of gravity. When gravitational water has drained away the amount of water that remains is called the soil's field capacity.

SOIL ANALYSIS

The graph describes the relationship between the thickness of water film around soil particles and the strength of the force that holds this water. Force is measured in units called bars. One bar is equal to a 1000 millibars. The graph also displays the location of hygroscopic water, the hygroscopic coefficient, the wilting point, capillary water, field capacity, and gravitational water along this line.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Determination of water content of soil

Objective : To determine the water content of soil

Apparatus : Aluminium foil, petri dish, weighing balance, oven, desicator, rags, thermometer, and wooden test tube holder.

Materials : Suitable amount of soil sample.

Procedure.1. A clean, preheated and empty petri dish without cover was weighed while still empty. The weight was recorded as “a” grams (g).

2. A fresh soil sample which was broken up was added to the petri dish and weighed. The weight recorded was recorded as “b” grams (g).

3. The petri dish containing the fresh soil sample was then placed in a preheated oven at 105°C – 110°C for 24 hours (to eliminate all soil water including hygroscopic water).

4. The petri dish and its contents were then removed from the oven and cooled in a dessicator.

5. The cooled petri dish and its contents were then weighed and the weight was recorded as “c” grams (g).

6. Steps 3, 4 and 5 were repeated until a constant weight was obtained.

7. The percentage water content of soil was then calculated.

Note : The dry soil sample was retained in the dessicator for use in the determination of organic matter of soil

SOIL ANALYSIS

Results and calculations

Weight of dry petri dish, a = 43.00 g

Weight of dry petri dish + fresh soil sample (before heating), b = 59.20 g

Weight of dry petri dish + dry soil sample (after heating), c = 53.10 g

Percentage water content of soil, % = Weight of soilwaterweight of soil

×100%

= (b−c)(b−a)

×100 %

= (59.20−53.10 )(59.20−43.00 )

×100 %

= 37.65%

SOIL ANALYSIS

DiscussionThe water in the soil sample were removed using this methodology ; heating the soil

sample in an oven to eliminate the water content of the soil. This methodology applies the concept that water vaporizes at 100 °C (water has a boiling point of 100 °C). The soil sample were placed in a petri dish and then was heated in an oven. After a predetermined period of time, the soil sample was taken out of the oven, cooled and weighed. To ensure that all the water content in the soil sample were removed (that is to ensure that the soil sample is dry), the soil sample is reheated, re-cooled, and re-weighed until a constant weight was obtained. The temperature of the oven was set to 105 °C for this experiment. The temperature must be controlled within the range of 105 to 110 °C to ensure that the organic matter in the soil does not oxidize.

Methods to improve accuracy of results obtained1. Soil sample used must be fresh as to ensure that unnecessary vaporization of the

water content does not take place before the experiment is carried out.

2. The petri dish containing the soil sample must be placed in a dessicator for cooling to prevent condensation and hence affect the results of the experiment.

3. The weighing balance must be clean and the fans must be switched off to ensure a more accurate reading.

4. Heating, cooling and weighing of the soil sample must be carried out until a constant weight is obtained.

ConclusionFrom the experiment conducted, the soil sample is found to contain 37.65% of water.

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

Introduction to “Organic matter of soil”

In soil, organic matter consists of plant and animal material that is in the process of decomposing. When it has fully decomposed it is called humus. This humus is important for soil structure because it holds individual mineral particles together in clusters. Ideal soil has a granular, crumbly structure that allows water to drain through it, and allows oxygen and carbon dioxide to move freely between spaces within the soil and the air above.

Soil organic matter (SOM) is the organic matter component of soil. It can be divided into three general pools: living biomass of microorganisms, fresh and partially decomposed residues, and humus: the well-decomposed organic matter and highly stable organic material. Surface litter is generally not included as part of soil organic matter.

The term SOM is generally used to represent the organic constituents in the soil,

including undecayed plant and animal tissues, their partial decomposition products, and the soil biomass. Thus, this term includes:

1. identifiable, high-molecular-weight organic materials such as polysaccharides and proteins

2. simpler substances such as sugars, amino acids, and other small molecules3. humic substances.

It is likely that SOM contains most if not all of the organic compounds synthesized by living organisms.

SOM is frequently said to consist of humic substances and nonhumic substances.

Nonhumic substances are all those materials that can be placed in one of the categories of discrete compounds such as sugars, amino acids, fats and so on. Humic substances are the other, unidentifiable components. Even this apparently simple distinction, however, is not as clear cut as it might appear.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Distribution SOM is shown on the picture:

Organic compounds of soil - live organisms and their undecomposed, partly decomposed and completely decomposed remains as well as products of their transformation.

Living organisms alive - edaphon.

Soil organic matter - non-living components which are a heterogeneous mixture composed largely of products resulting from microbal and chemical transformations of organic debris. Soil organic matter can exist in different morphological patterns, which are the bases of the classification of so called forms and types of humus.

Unaltered materials - fresh and non-transformed components of older debris.

Transformed products - (humus) - bearing no morphological resemblance to the structures from which they were derived. These transformed components are referred to as the humification process products.

SOIL ANALYSISHumic substances- a series of relatively high-molecular-weight, brown to black colored substances formed by secondary synthesis reactions. The term is used as a generic name to describe to colored material or its fractions obtained on the basis of solubility characteristics:

humic acids (HA) fulvic acids (FA) humins

Non-humic substances- compounds belonging to known classes of biochemistry, such as :

carbohydrates lipids amino acids

SOIL ANALYSIS

A brief on “Humus”

Humus (Origin: 1790–1800; < Latin: earth, ground ) is degraded organic material in soil,which cause some soils to be dark brown or black.

In soil science, humus refers to any organic matter which has reached a point of stability, where it will break down no further and might, if conditions do not change, remain essentially as it is for centuries, if not millennia.

In agriculture, humus is sometimes also used to describe mature compost, or natural compost extracted from a forest or other spontaneous source for use to amend soil. It is also used to describe a topsoil horizon that contains organic matter (humus type, humus form, humus profile).

Humus has a characteristic black or dark brown color, which is due to an abundance of organic carbon.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Benefits of humus * The mineralization process that converts raw organic matter to the relatively stable substance that is humus feeds the soil population of micro-organisms and other creatures, thus maintaining high and healthy levels of soil life.

* The rate at which raw organic matter is converted into humus promotes (when fast) or limits (when slow) the coexistence of plants, animals and microbes in terrestrial ecosystems [4]

* Effective and stable humus (see below) are further sources of nutrients to microbes, the former providing a readily available supply while the latter acts as a more long-term storage reservoir.

* Humification of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to break down into simpler forms which are then made available to growing plants for uptake through their root systems.

* Humus is a colloidal substance, and increases the soil's cation exchange capacity, hence its ability to store nutrients by chelation as can clay particles; thus while these nutrient cations are accessible to plants, they are held in the soil safe from leaching away by rain or irrigation.

* Humus can hold the equivalent of 80-90% of its weight in moisture, and therefore increases the soil's capacity to withstand drought conditions.

* The biochemical structure of humus enables it to moderate — or buffer — excessive acid or alkaline soil conditions.

* During the humification process, microbes secrete sticky gums; these contribute to the crumb structure of the soil by holding particles together, allowing greater aeration of the soil. Toxic substances such as heavy metals, as well as excess nutrients, can be chelated (that is, bound to the complex organic molecules of humus) and prevented from entering the wider ecosystem.

* The dark color of humus (usually black or dark brown) helps to warm up cold soils in the spring.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Humification

The process of "humification" can occur naturally in soil, or in the production of compost. Chemically stable humus is thought by some to be important to the fertility of soils in both a physical and chemical sense, though some agricultural experts advocate a greater focus on other aspects of nutrient delivery. Physically, it helps the soil retain moisture, and encourages the formation of good soil structure. Chemically, it has many active sites which bind to ions of plant nutrients, making them more available. Humus is often described as the 'life-force' of the soil. Yet it is difficult to define humus in precise terms; it is a highly complex substance, the full nature of which is still not fully understood. Physically, humus can be differentiated from organic matter in that the latter is rough looking material, with coarse plant remains still visible, while once fully humified it becomes more uniform in appearance (a dark, spongy, jelly-like substance) and amorphous in structure. That is, it has no determinate shape, structure or character.

Plant remains (including those that have passed through an animal and are excreted as manure) contain organic compounds: sugars, starches, proteins, carbohydrates, lignins, waxes, resins and organic acids. The process of organic matter decay in the soil begins with the decomposition of sugars and starches from carbohydrates which break down easily as saprotrophs initially invade the dead plant, while the remaining cellulose breaks down more slowly. Proteins decompose into amino acids at a rate depending on carbon to nitrogen ratios. Organic acids break down rapidly, while fats, waxes, resins and lignins remain relatively unchanged for longer periods of time. The humus, that is the end product of this process, is thus a mixture of compounds and complex life chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin, which has many functions and benefits in the soil. Earthworm humus (vermicompost) is considered by some to be the best organic manure there is.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Determination of organic matter content of soil

Objective : To determine the organic matter content of soil.

Apparatus : Crucible and lid, weighing balance, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze, fireclay triangle, dessicator, tongs, matches

Material : Dry soil sample.

Procedure.1. A clean crucible and its lid were heated strongly with a Bunsen burner to remove all traces of moisture. They were then placed in a dessicator for cooling. After cooling, they are weighed using the weighing balance. The weight was recorded as “a” g

2. Following that, approximately 1/3 of the dry crucible was filled with the dry soil sample (kept from the previous experiment) and was weighed together with its lid. The mass was then recorded as “b” g.

3. The covered crucible and contents were then heated (strongly) until it is red hot (600°C) for approximately 1 hour (this is to burn off all organic matter). While heating, the crucible lid were frequently lifted and the soil sample was stirred gently in order to ensure better combustion of the organic matter. After an hour’s heating, the crucible and it’s lid along with its contents were allowed to cool for 10 minutes and then placed in a dessicator for further cooling.

4. After cooling in the dessicator, the crucible, its lid and the soil sample contained were then weighed and its weight was recorded as “c” g.

5. Steps 3 to 4 were repeated until constant weight was obtained.

6. The percentage of organic matter in the soil sample was then calculated.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Results and calculations

Weight of crucible + lid, a = 56.10 g

Weight of crucible + lid + dry soil (before strong heating), b = 64.00 g

Weight of crucible + lid + dry soil (after strong heating), c = 63.50 g

Weight of dry soil sample = 7.90 g

Weight of organic matter = 0.50 g

Percentage organic matter in dry soil sample = Weight o f organic matterWeight of dry soil sample

x 100%= (b−c)(b−a)

x 100%= 0.50 g

7.90 g x 100%= 6.29%

SOIL ANALYSIS

DiscussionsThe organic matter in the soil was removed by heating it strongly. The soil sample is

heated to about 600°C. This is because organic matter is burned off at very high temperature. The soil sample is heated, cooled and weighed until a constant mass is obtained to ensure that all organic matter were burned off.

Methods to improve accuracy of results obtained1. Ensure that all organic matter is burnt off. The soil sample must be burnt, cooled,

weighed until a constant mass is obtained. This ensures the total decomposition of organic matter.

2. The lid of the crucible was opened once in a while to ventilate the air inside the crucible. This allows entry of oxygen which help in decomposition of organic matter by heat.

ConslusionThe soil sample was found to contain 6.29% of organic matter.

SOIL ANALYSIS

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SOIL ANALYSIS

Introduction to “Soil pH”pH is a measure of how acidic or basic things are and is measured using a pH scale

between 0 to 14, with acidic things having a pH between 0-7 and basic things having a pH from 7 to 14. For instance, lemon juice and battery acid are acidic and fall in the 0-7 range, whereas seawater and bleach are basic (also called "alkaline") and fall in the 7-14 pH range. Pure water is neutral, or 7 on the pH scale.

The pH of soil or more precisely the pH of the soil solution is very important because soil solution carries in it nutrients such as Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), and Phosphorus (P) that plants need in specific amounts to grow, thrive and fight off diseases.

If the pH of the soil solution is increased above 5.5, Nitrogen (in the form of nitrate) is made available to plants. Phosphorus, on the other hand, is available to plants when soil pH is between 6.0 and 7.0.

Certain bacteria help plants obtain N by converting atmospheric Nitrogen into a form of N that plants can use. These bacteria live in root nodules of legumes (like alfalfa and soybeans) and function best when the pH of the plant they live in is growing in soil within an acceptable pH range.

For instance, alfalfa grows best in soils having a pH of 6.2 - 7.8, while soybean grows best in soils with a pH between 6.0 and 7.0. Peanuts grow best in soils that have a pH of 5.3 to 6.6. Many other crops, vegetables, flowers and shrubs, trees, weeds and fruit are pH dependent and rely on the soil solution to obtain nutrients.

If the soil solution is too acidic plants cannot utilize N, P, K and other nutrients they need. In acidic soils, plants are more likely to take up toxic metals and some plants eventually die of toxicity (poisoning).

Herbicides, pesticides, fungicides and other chemicals are used on and around plants to fight off plant diseases and get rid of bugs that feed on plants and kill plants. Knowing whether the soil pH is acidic or basic is important because if the soil is too acidic the applied pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides will not be absorbed (held in the soil ) and they will end up in garden water and rain water runoff, where they eventually become pollutants in our streams, rivers, lakes, and ground water.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Factors affecting soil pHThe pH value of a soil is influenced by the kinds of parent materials from which the soil

was formed. Soils developed from basic rocks generally have higher pH values than those formed from acid rocks.

Rainfall also affects soil pH. Water passing through the soil leaches basic nutrients such as calcium and magnesium from the soil. They are replaced by acidic elements such as aluminum and iron. For this reason, soils formed under high rainfall conditions are more acidic than those formed under arid (dry) conditions.

Human distractions like pollution alter the pH of soil. Researches have also revealed that soil pH is affected by the vehicular and ongoing traffic. This largely hampers the soil pH and in turn the primary productivity by compacting the soil and decreasing its friability.

Application of fertilizers containing ammonium or urea speeds up the rate at which acidity develops. The decomposition of organic matter also adds to soil acidity.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Determination of soil pH

Objective: To determine the pH of the soil.

Apparatus: boiling tube, test tube rack, spatula, 10 cm (cube) measuring cylinder, cork for boiling tube.

Materials: universal indicator, distilled water

Procedure.1. About 1 cm3 of soil sample was added to the boiling tube.

2. Then about 1 cm3 barium sulphate solution was added to the soil sample in the boiling tube to flocculate the colloidal clay particles.

3. About 10 cm3of distilled water followed by 5 cm3 BDH universal indicator were added to the soil sample solution in the boiling tube.

4. The boiling tube was then stoppered by using a cork and is shaken vigorously.

5. It was then left in the test tube rack for 5 minutes.

6. The colour of the liquid in the boiling tube was compared with the colours on the BDH indicator reference colour chart and the pH of the soil was determined.

7. The experiment was repeated for the different soil samples.

Results: the pH of the soil was 6.0

DiscussionThe pH of the soil is a suitable medium for the growth of plants.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Conclusion From the results obtained, it can be concluded that the soil from the area is acidic.

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

Introduction to the ‘Tullgren Funnel”The Tullgren or Berlese funnel and its modifications are cleaner and more efficient than

sifting to separate insects and mites from leaf mold and similar materials. The sample (usually presifted to remove large debris) is placed on a screen near the top of a funnel. A light bulb can be placed above the sample to produce heat and light, which drive the insects downward into the funnel, or heated coils or a jacket around the funnel can be used to dry the sample and make it inhospitable.

The insects and mites are directed by the funnel into a container, sometimes containing alcohol at the bottom of the funnel. Care should be taken not to dry the sample so rapidly that slow-moving specimens are immobilized before they can leave the sample. To prevent large amounts of debris from falling into the container, place the sample on the screen before the container is put in place.

The funnel creates a temperature gradient in a litter or soil sample, stimulating downward movement of soil arthropods into a collecting vessel. Simple design enables easy access.

In use around the world for more than 50 years Tullgren Funnels provide the best solution for both dry and wet extraction of soil organisms from soil samples.

A soil or leaf litter sample is placed in the removable upper part of the funnel. Heat and light from the lamp creates a temperature gradient of approximately 14°C in the soil sample. This stimulates the downward movement of soil arthropods, and similar organisms, through the gauze to a receiver attached to the base of the funnel. The position of the lamp is adjustable to enable the temperature of the soil to be raised gradually thus preventing the slower moving species from becoming trapped in hard dry cakes of soil.

For wet extraction, the funnel is filled with water and the gauze is placed in position. Nematodes and other swimming forms collect in the base of the funnel and can be drawn off at intervals (this method is suitable for collecting potato eel worm). This method can be used either with or without the use of the lamp.

SOIL ANALYSIS

Determination of types of terrestrial organisms

Objective : To determine the types of terrestrial organisms using a Tullgren funnel

Apparatus: Tullgren funnel, retort stand, beaker(100ml), magnifying glass, microscope, glass slide, cover slips, forceps.

Materials: 20cm3 of 4% formalin solution, soil sample

Procedure.1. An appreciable amount of soil from the collected soil sample was placed on the sieve of

the Tullgren funnel which was clamped to a retort stand.2. Then, a lamp was fixed above the soil sample. The apparatus was left under the light for

24 hours.3. After that, the 4% formalin solution was poured into the beaker and was placed under

the Tullgren funnel to collect whatever terrestrial organism that has escaped from the soil sample.

4. The organisms were then observed with a magnifying glass or a microscope. 5. The organisms were identified and drawn.

SOIL ANALYSIS

DiscussionThe method was non specific in its collection of species and numbers. A very large

number of organisms can be obtained from even medium quantities of soil sample. This experiment uses the application of the response of organisms towards bright light, high temperatures and low moisture. The heat of the light bulb will force the organisms to migrate to the bottom of the Tullgren funnel. When they reach the bottom of the funnel, the organisms will fall into the 4% formalin solution which acts as a preservative to preserve the organisms.

Methods to improve accuracy of results obtained1. Ensure an air space between sample and collecting funnel, to avoid condensation

in the funnel.2. The position of the lamp is adjustable to enable the temperature of the soil to be risen

gradually thus preventing the slower moving species from being trapped in the soil.3. The experiment is carried out for a few days to ensure that all of the organisms have

been removed from the soil sample.

ConclusionFrom the observation made during the experiment, many organisms such as centipedes,

millipedes, ants, earthworms, earwigs and ground beetles are found to live in the soil sample.

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

Introduction to a “Baermann funnel”A device used to extract nematodes (Nematoda) from a soil sample or plant material. A

muslin bag containing the sample is submerged in water in a funnel sealed at the lower end by a rubber tube and clip. Being heavier than water, the nematodes pass through the muslin and sink to the bottom. After about 12 hours they can be collected by drawing off the bottom centimetre of water. The efficiency of the device is increased by gentle warming which immobilizes the nematodes.

Below is an article on a use of Baermann funnel, for further reading.

(‘Strongyloidiasis” is a human parasitic disease caused by the nematode (roundworm) Strongyloides stercoralis.)

BAERMANN FUNNEL TECHNIQUE FOR NEMATODE LARVAE

PRINCIPLEThe Baermann funnel technique for detection of nematode larvae relies on the phenomenon of the migration of the larvae downward from soil or feces to water of warmer temperature. After permitting sufficient time to permit migration, the warm water is drained off, centrifuged, and examined microscopically for the presence of the larvae. The use of a Baemann apparatus is especially efficient for attempting to detect Strongyloides larvae in stool specimens.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCEThe presence of nematode larvae in human feces indicates infection with the parasites. Strongyloides infections may be latent and go undetected for many years; auto-infection is a risk. The detection of strongyloidiasis has become increasingly important in patients who have immune deficiencies.

(Sourced : United States Department Of State website)

SOIL ANALYSIS

Determination of types of aquatic organisms

Objective: To determine the types of aquatic or semi-aquatic organisms by using Baerman funnel.

Apparatus: Baermann funnel, retort stand, 100cm3 beaker, magnifying glass, microscope, glass slide, cover slip, forceps, glass rod.

Materials: 4% formalin solution, soil sample

Procedure. 1. An appreciable amount of soil sample was placed inside a muslin bag and was tied up using a piece of thread.

2. The bag was then suspended with the help of a glass rod in the middle of the Baerman funnel which was clamped on a retort stand and left aside for 24 hours. The bulb was lit up.

3. A small beaker (100 cm3) containing 4% formalin solution was placed under the Baerman funnel.

4. Periodically, the clip was loosened to allow the aquatic organisms collected at the base of the Baerman funnel to drain into the beaker sample.

5. The organisms in the formalin solution were examined under a microscope. They were then identified and were then drawn.

SOIL ANALYSIS

DiscussionThis technique was based on the fact that aquatic soil organisms such as

Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp. and euglena sp. are denser than water. The higher temperature and light intensity in the upper layer causes these organisms to gather at the stem of the funnel. When the organisms fall into the formalin solution, it will act as a preservative to preserve the organisms.

Methods to improve accuracy of results obtained1. Ensure that the lamp is not placed too close to the funnel as extreme

temperatures may kill the organisms.2. The experiment is carried out for a few days to ensure that all the

organisms are removed from the soil sample.

ConclusionFrom this experiment, soil organisms such as Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp.

and Euglena sp. are found in the soil sample. This proves that the soil sample is a suitable habitat for aquatic soil organisms.

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSIS

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING METHODS

WHY DO WE NEED TO SAMPLE?

If we want to know what kind of plants and animals are in a particular habitat, and how many there are of each species, it is usually impossible to go and count each and every one present. It would be like trying to count different sizes and colours of grains of sand on the beach.

This problem is usually solved by taking a number of samples from around the habitat, making the necessary assumption that these samples are representative of the habitat in general. In order to be reasonably sure that the results from the samples do represent the habitat as closely as possible, careful planning beforehand is essential.

Samples are usually taken using a standard sampling unit of some kind. This ensures that all of the samples represent the same area or volume (water) of the habitat each time.

The usual sampling unit is a quadrat. Quadrats normally consist of a square frame, the most frequently used size being 1m2 (see picture below). The purpose of using a quadrat is to enable comparable samples to be obtained from areas of consistent size and shape. Rectangular quadrats and even circular quadrats have been used in some surveys. It does not really matter what shape of quadrat is used, provided it is a standard sampling unit and its shape and measurements are stated in any write-up. It may however be better to stick to the traditional square frame unless there are very good reasons not to, because this yields data that is more readily comparable to other published research. (For instance, you cannot compare data obtained using a circular quadrat, with data obtained using a square quadrat. The difference in shape of the sampling units will introduce variations in the results obtained.)

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

right: A quadrat is used to sample the species present in a habitat.

To record percentage cover of species in a quadrat, look down on the quadrat from above and estimate the percentage cover occupied by each species (e.g. species A - D left). Species often overlap and there may be several different vertical layers. Percentage cover may therefore add up to well over 100% for an individual quadrat.

Choice of quadrat size depends to a large extent on the type of survey being conducted. For instance, it would be difficult to gain any meaningful results using a 0.5m2 quadrat in a study of a woodland canopy! Small quadrats are much quicker to survey, but are likely to yield somewhat less reliable data than large ones. However, larger quadrats require more time and effort to examine properly. A balance is therefore necessary between what is ideal and what is practical. As a general guideline, 0.5 - 1.0m2 quadrats would be suggested for short grassland or dwarf heath, taller grasslands and shrubby habitats might require 2m quadrats, while quadrats of 20m2 or larger, would be needed for woodland habitats. At the other end of the scale, if you are sampling moss on a bank covered with a very diverse range of moss species, you might choose to use a 0.25m2 quadrat.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Quadrats are most often used for sampling, but are not the only type of sampling units. It depends what you are sampling. If you are sampling aquatic microorganisms or studying water chemistry, then you will most likely collect water samples in standard sized bottles or containers. If you are looking at parasites on fish, then an individual fish will most likely be your sampling unit. Similarly, studies of leaf miners would probably involve collecting individual leaves as sampling units. In these last two cases, the sampling units will not be of standard size. This problem can be overcome by using a weighted mean, which takes into account different sizes of sampling unit, to arrive at the mean number of organisms per sampling unit.

There are three main ways of taking samples.

1. Random Sampling .

2. Systematic Sampling (includes line transect and belt transect methods).

3. Stratified Sampling .

1. RANDOM SAMPLING

Random sampling is usually carried out when the area under study is fairly uniform, very large, and or there is limited time available. When using random sampling techniques, large numbers of samples/records are taken from different positions within the habitat. A quadrat frame is

The estimation can be improved by dividing the quadrat into a grid of 100 squares each representing 1% cover. This can either be done mentally by imagining 10 longitudinal and 10 horizontal lines of equal size superimposed on the quadrat, or physically by actually dividing the quadrat by means of string or wire attached to the frame at standard intervals. This is only practical if the vegetation in the area to be sampled is very short, otherwise the string/wire will impede the laying down of the quadrat over the vegetation.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

most often used for this type of sampling. The frame is placed on the ground (or on whatever is being investigated) and the animals, and/ or plants inside it counted, measured, or collected, depending on what the survey is for. This is done many times at different points within the habitat to give a large number of different samples.

In the simplest form of random sampling, the quadrat is thrown to fall at ‘random’ within the site. However, this is usually unsatisfactory because a personal element inevitably enters into the throwing and it is not truly random. True randomness is an important element in ecology, because statistics are widely used to process the results of sampling. Many of the common statistical techniques used are only valid on data that is truly randomly collected. This technique is also only possible if quadrats of small size are being used. It would be impossible to throw anything larger than a 1m2 quadrat and even this might pose problems. Within habitats such as woodlands or scrub areas, it is also often not possible to physically lay quadrat frames down, because tree trunks and shrubs get in the way. In this case, an area the same size as the quadrat has to be measured out instead and the corners marked to indicate the quadrat area to be sampled.

A better method of random sampling is to map the area and then to lay a numbered grid over the map. A (computer generated) random number table is then used to select which squares to sample in. (See next page for an example of a Random number Table). For example, if we have mapped our habitat , and have then laid a numbered grid over it as shown (Figure - below) , we could then choose which squares we should sample in by using the random number table.

A numbered grid map of an area to be sampled

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

If we look at the top of the first column in the random number table, our first number is 20. Moving downwards, the next two numbers in the random number table would be 74 and 94, but our highest numbered square on our grid is only 29 (Figure above). We would therefore ignore 74 and 94 and move on to the next number which is 22. We would then sample in Square 22. Continuing down the figures in this column, we would soon come across the number 20 again. As we have already selected this grid for sampling we would similarly ignore this number and continue on to the next. We would continue in this fashion until we had obtained enough samples to be representative of the habitat. There are other methods for selecting numbers from a random number table, but this is the simplest.

In some habitats it may be difficult to set up numbered grids (e.g. in woodland) and in these a ‘random walk’ may be used. In this method, each sample point is located by taking a random number between 0 and 360, to give a compass bearing, followed by another random number which indicates the number of paces which should be taken in that direction.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Sampling Technique Using Quadrat

DefinitionQuadrats refer to sample units or plots varying in size , shape and number of arrangements depending on the nature of the vegetation, site and purpose of study. They are usually made from strips of wood, metal or rigid plastic which are tied, glued, welded or bolted together.

PurposeQuadrats are generally used for the quantitative assessment of biodiversity occurring within an area. The objective generally relates to the quality of a particular feature, where species richness may be an important or valued attribute of that feature. Quantitative counts using quadrats provide a structured way to estimate the abundance of species to estimate their population size or to assess species richness and diversity of a biotope. There are three factors need to be considered in relation to the use of quadrats.

Distribution of plants

Shape and size of the quadrat

Number of observations needed to obtain an adequate estimate of density

Advantages It is generally non-destructive

It can be applied to a wide range of habitats, is easily repeated and thus provides consistency to sampling

It can provide very accurate and precise estimates of abundance

Provides a dataset for statistical analysis

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Disadvantages One quadrat size will generally not encompass all of the species being monitored

It is time-consuming compared to semi-quantitative or qualitative methods

It only samples very discrete areas within a large feature

Quadrat SizeDifferent vegetation types require different quadrat sizes. Vegetation with smaller plants, greater plant density or greater species diversity needs smaller quadrats. Increasing the size of quadrat generally results in a lower variance in your observations, but more work in getting them. Numerous studies have evaluated quadrat size and no consistent recommendation has been made about the size to use.

Herbaceous vegetation, closed spaced – one square meter with sides on a scale 1:2(i.e. 0.71m x 1.41m or 1.00m x 1.00m)

Bushes, shrubs and saplings up to 4m tall – ten square meter plots (i.e. 2.24m x 4.47m)

Mature forest trees over 4m – one hundred square meter plots (i.e. 10m x 10m or 7.07m x 14.14m)

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Quadrat shapeQuadrats are of a known area and may be round or rectangular, but are generally square, as these are the easiest to construct. However, circular and rectangular plots are often used. The choices of shape depends largely on the nature of the vegetation being investigated.

Circular quadratCircular plots generally give more valid results than similar numbers of square plots of the same area. Also, circular plots are easier to lay out. If small plots are required, a series of hoops can be tossed in random directions from a central point. Larger circular plots can be laid out. Circular plots can be used effectively only on areas of low vegetation.

Square and rectangular quadratSquare and rectangular quadrat plots can be used in vegetation of any height. Rectangular plots usually give more accurate results than equal number of plots of the same area. This is because rectangular plots sample a greater length of the vegetation and are, as a result, more likely to detect variations on it. Because of this, they are particularly useful in areas such as sand dunes where a gradient in environmental conditions and vegetation types occur. In such cases, the long axis of the plot should be oriented parallel to the direction of the gradient, Small square and rectangular quadrats can be formed with meter sticks. Larger ones can be marked out with four stakes and some rope.

However, there are two problems relating to quadrat shape.

Edge effect – the more edge to the quadrat, the more opportunity to miscount individuals

Ratio of length of edge to inside area is Circle<Square<Rectangle

Effects are species and habitat specifics

Habitat homogeneity tends to lead to use of long, thin and rectangular quadrats.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Distribution of quadrats1 Random distribution of quadrats

Random sampling is usually carried out when the area under study is fairly uniform, very large and when there is limited time available. When using random sampling techniques, large numbers of samples are taken from different positions within the habitat. A quadrat frame is most often used for this type of sampling. The frame is placed on the ground (or on whatever is being investigated) and the animals or plants inside is counted, measured or collected, depending on what the survey is for. This is done many times at different points within the habitat to give a large number of different samples.

In the simplest form of sampling, the quadrat is thrown to fall at ‘random’ within the site. However, this is usually unsatisfactory because of a personal element inevitably enters into the throwing and it is not truly random. True randomness is an element in ecology, because statistical techniques used are only valid on data that is truly randomly collected. This technique is also only possible if quadrats of small size are being used. It would be impossible to throw anything larger than a 1 square meter quadrat and even this might bring problems. Within habitats such as woodlands or scrub areas, it is also often not possible to physically lay quadrat frames down, because tree trunks and shrubs get in the way. In this case, an area the same size as the quadrat has to be measured out instead and the corners marked to indicate the quadrat area to be sampled.

2. Systematic distribution of quadrats

Systematic sampling is when samples are taken at fixed intervals, usually along a line. This normally involves doing transects, where a sampling line is set up across areas where there are clear environmental gradients. For example, you might use a transect to show the changes of a plant species as you moved from grassland into woodland, or to investigate the effect on species composition of a pollutant radiating out from a particular source. It is better from the aspect of the plant characteristic being close to the actual natural conditions.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

2. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

a) Line Transect Method

b) Belt Transect Method

Systematic sampling is when samples are taken at fixed intervals, usually along a line. This normally involves doing transects, where a sampling line is set up across areas where there are clear environmental gradients. For example you might use a transect to show the changes of plant species as you moved from grassland into woodland, or to investigate the effect on species composition of a pollutant radiating out from a particular source .

Line Transect Method

A transect line can be made using a nylon rope marked and numbered at 0.5m, or 1m intervals, all the way along its length. This is laid across the area you wish to study. The position of the transect line is very important and it depends on the direction of the environmental gradient you wish to study. It should be thought about carefully before it is placed. You may otherwise end up without clear results because the line has been wrongly placed. For example, if the source of the pollutant was wrongly identified in the example given above, it is likely that the transect line would be laid in the wrong area and the results would be very confusing. Time is usually money, so it is worth while thinking about it before starting.

A line transect is carried out by unrolling the transect line along the gradient identified. The species touching the line may be recorded along the whole length of the line (continuous sampling). Alternatively, the presence, or absence of species at each marked point is recorded (systematic sampling). If the slope along the transect line is measured as well, the results can then be inserted onto this profile.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLINGBelt Transect Method

This is similar to the line transect method but gives information on abundance as well as presence, or absence of a particular urban feature. It may be considered as a widening of the line transect to form a continuous belt, or series of quadrats.

In this method, the transect line is laid out across the area to be surveyed and a quadrat is located on the first marked point on the line. The features inside the quadrat are then identified and their abundance estimated.

Quadrats are sampled all the way down the transect line, at each marked point on the line, or at some other predetermined interval (or even randomly) if time is short.

In this method, the transect line is laid out across the area to be surveyed and a quadrat is placed on the first marked point on the line. The plants and/or animals inside the quadrat are then identified and their abundance estimated. Animals can be counted within the quadrat, or collected, while it is usual to estimate the percentage cover of plant species. Cover is the area of the quadrat occupied by the above-ground parts of a species when viewed from above. The canopies of the plants inside the quadrat will often overlap each other, so the total percentage cover of plants in a single quadrat will frequently add up to more than 100%.

Quadrats are sampled all the way down the transect line, at each marked point on the line, or at some other predetermined interval (or even randomly) if time is short. It is important that the same person should do the estimations of cover in each quadrat, because the estimation is likely to vary from person to person. If different people estimate percentage cover in different quadrats, then an element of personal variation is introduced which will lead to less accurate results. Sampling should always be as least destructive as possible and you should try not to trample an area too much when carrying out your survey.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

3. STRATIFIED SAMPLING

Stratified sampling is used to take into account different areas (or strata) which are identified within the main body of a habitat. These strata are sampled separately from the main part of the habitat. The name 'stratified sampling' comes from the term 'strata' (plural) or stratum (singular). For ease of understanding, the term 'unit' will be used in the following explanation, rather than stratum.

Individual habitats are rarely uniform throughout their extent. There are often smaller identifiable areas within a habitat which are substantially different from the main part of the habitat. For example, scrub patches within a heathland area, or areas of bracken in a grassland.

One of the problems with random sampling is that random samples may not cover all areas of a habitat equally. To continue with the example of bracken patches in a grassland, if the area was random sampled, it is possible that none of the samples might fall within the bracken patches. The results would then not show any bracken in the habitat. Clearly this would not be an accurate reflection of the habitat. In this sort of situation, stratified random sampling would be used to avoid missing out on important areas of the habitat. This simply means identifying the bracken as a different unit within the habitat and then sampling it separately from the main part of the habitat.

While the bracken area clearly needs to be taken into account, it is nevertheless important to avoid overemphasising its significance within the habitat as a whole. Its importance is kept in context by locating a proportional number of samples directly within the bracken unit. The proportion of samples taken within the unit is determined by the area of the unit in relation to the overall area of the habitat.

For example, say the grassland area is 200 m2 overall, with the bracken patch occupying 50 m2 of this total area. The bracken therefore accounts for 25% of the total grassland area. Say it has been decided that a total of 12 samples need to be taken in order to accurately reflect the composition of the whole habitat. Then 3 of those samples (one quarter, or 25%) would be located within the bracken unit and 9 (three quarters, or 75%) in the general grassland area.

There is a standard formula for calculating the number of samples to be placed in each unit. This is:

For example, in the illustration given above this would be:

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Determination of the density of plant species in a habitat

Objective : To estimate the population size of various species of plants using the quadrat method

Materials : 10 plant species under study

Apparatus : Plastic quadrat (1m x 1m), measuring tape, raffia string, scissors, cellophane tape, stake, marker pen, permanent marker pen

Procedure:1. A field area to be studied was picked which is Island Glades field.2. The area under study was then determined.3. The plant species in the garden was collected and examined.4. 10 plant species was then selected and determined. The plant species were named and

recorded in the table.5. The quadrat was picked at 10 random places.6. The occurrence of the selected plants in the quadrat was marked (/) and the results

were recorded in the table.7. The length area of coverage of each species in the quadrat was estimated and recorded

in the table.8. Step 6 and 7 were repeated for quadrat 2 until quadrat 10.9. The percentage of relative species coverage, relative density and relative frequency of

each plant species were determined.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Methods to improve accuracy of results obtained1. The stakes that was drilled into the ground has to be firmly fixed so that the frame of

the quadrat will not collapse. This will lead to an inaccuracy in the results taken.2. It is essential to take account on the arbitrary conditions. For instance, the plants which

are at the border of the quadrat have to be determined whether to be counted or not.3. The assessment of abundance in a quadrat may be varying between group members.

Hence recorders must concentrate on giving an accurate assessment of abundance of each species.

Conclusion:From the quadrat sampling technique, there are 10 species of plants that were studied

in the area chosen. They are Cyperus kyllingia, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Mimosa pudica, Cyperus rotundus, Desmodium triflorum, Lindernia crustacean, Eleusine indica, Axonopus compressus, Paspalum conjugatum and Brachiaria mutica.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLINGTable of date for the measurement of each species coverage and relative coverage using quadrat sampling technique

Student's name : Kang Chin Hooi

Habitat :Open field which is hot and wet throughout the year

Location of place : Island Glades

Type of Plants :As listed below

Quadrat size : 1 m^2

Date :

No Name of Plant Species

Aerial Coverage of species x in quadrat

Total Coverage of Species (X) in 10 quadrats (m2)

Coverage Percentage (%)

Percentage Relative Coverage1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus Kyllingia 0.07 0.14 0.16 0 0.11 0.13 00.16

0.21 0 0.98 9.8 11.81%

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus 0 0.08 0.21 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.34 3.4 4.10%

3 Mimosa Pudica 0 0 0 0.03 0 0 0 00.18

0.12 0.33 3.3 3.98%

4 Cyperus Rotundus 0.17 0 0 0 0 0.09 0.12 0 00.13 0.51 5.1 6.14%

5 Desmodium triflorum 0.09 0.08 0.14 0.13 0 0.23 0.09 0 0 0 0.76 7.6 9.16%

6 Lindernia crustacea 0 0 0 0 0.03 0 0.140.12

0.17

0.03 0.49 4.9 5.90%

7 Eleusine indica 0 0 0 0 0.06 0 00.04 0

0.07 0.17 1.7 2.05%

8 Axonopus compressus 0.31 0.44 0.23 0.58 0.56 0.32 0.440.51

0.23

0.38 4 40 48.19%

9 Paspalum Conjugatum 0.06 0.11 0.08 0 0.15 0 0 0 00.11 0.51 5.1 6.14%

10 Brachiaria Mutica 0 0.09 0 0 0.09 0.03 0 0 0 0 0.21 2.1 2.53%Total 83 100%

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Calculation of species coverage and relative coverage

NoName of Plant Species

Coverage Percentage (%)

Percentage Relative Coverage (%)

1 Cyperus Kyllinga 0.98/10 x 100% = 5.5 5.5/86 x 100% = 6.40

2

Chrysopogon aciculatus 0.27/10 x 100% = 2.7 2.7/86 x 100% = 3.14

3 Mimosa Pudica 0.12/10 x 100% = 1.2 1.2/86 x 100% = 1.40

4 Cyperus Rotundus 0.41/10 x 100% = 4.1 4.1/86 x 100% = 4.77

5 Desmodium triflorum 0.56/10 x 100% = 5.6 5.6/86 x 100% = 6.51

6 Lindernia crustacea 0.43/10 x 100% = 4.3 4.3/86 x 100% = 5.00

7 Eleusine indica 0.17/10 x 100% = 1.7 1.7/86 x 100% = 1.98

8 Axonopus compressus3.56/10 x 100% = 35.6 35.6/86 x 100% = 41.39

9Paspalum Conjugatum

2.40/10 x 100% = 24.0 24.0/86 x 100% = 27.90

10 Brachiaria Mutica 0.13/10 x 100% = 1.3 1.3/86 x 100% = 1.51

Total 100

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLINGTable of date for the measurement of density and relative density of each species in quadrat sampling technique

Student's name : Hong Chia Haw

Habitat :Open field which is wet and hot throughout the year

Location of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowQuadrat size : 1 m^2

Date :

No Name of Plant Species

Number of individual of species X in each quadrat

Total Number of individual of species X in 10 Quadrats Density

Relative Density (%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10

1 Cyperus Kyllingia 16 21 28 0 23 27 0 21 36 0 172 172 11.03

2 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0 13 34 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 56 56 3.59

3 Mimosa Pudica 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 2115 43 43 2.76

4 Cyperus Rotundus 21 0 0 0 0 14 18 0 018 71 71 4.55

5 Desmodium Triflorum 12 9 23 24 0 32 14 0 0 0 114 114 7.3

6 Lindernia Crustacea 0 0 0 0 8 0 18 14 20 6 66 66 4.23

7 Eleusine Indica 0 0 0 0 14 0 0 8 015 37 37 2.37

8 Axonopus Compressus 84 72 53 121 136 76 84 93 6388 870 870 55.77

9 Paspalum Conjugatum 15 19 14 0 20 0 0 0 021 89 89 5.71

10 Brachiaria Mutica 0 15 0 0 18 9 0 0 0 0 42 42 2.69Total 1560 100

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLINGCalculation of percentage density and percentage relative density

No Name of Plant Species Density

Percentage relative density (%)

1 Cyperus Kyllingia 1720/10 x 1 = 172 172/1560 x 100 = 11.03

2 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 560/10 x 1 = 56 56/1560 x 100 = 3.59

3 Mimosa Pudica 430/10 x 1 = 43 43/1560 x 100 = 2.76

4 Cyperus Rotundus 710/10 x 1 = 71 71/1560 x 100 = 4.55

5 Desmodium Triflorum 1140/10 x 1 = 114 114/1560 x 100 = 7.30

6 Lindernia Crustacea 660/10 x 1 = 66 66/1560 x 100 = 4.23

7 Eleusine Indica 370/10 x 1 = 37 37/1560 x 100 = 2.37

8 Axonopus Compressus 8700/10 x 1 = 870 870/1560 x 100 = 55.77

9 Paspalum Conjugatum 890/10 x 1 = 89 89/1560 x 100 = 5.71

10 Brachiaria Mutica 420/10 x 1 = 42 42/1560 x 100 = 2.69

  Total 15600/10 x 1 = 1560 100

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLINGString quadrat pictures

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLINGTable of date for the measurement of frequency and relative frequency of each species using quadrat sampling technique

Student's name : Kang Chin Hooi

Habitat :Open field which is wet and hot throughout the year

Location of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowQuadrat size : 1 m^2

Date :

No Name of Plant Species

Presence of species x in quadrat

Number of Quadrats containing species X Frequency

Relative Frequency (%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus Kyllinga / / / - / / - / / - 7 70 14.29

2 Chrysopogon Aciculatus - / / / - - - - - - 3 30 6.12

3 Mimosa Pudica - - - / - - - - / / 3 30 6.12

4 Cyperus Rotundus / - - - - / / - - / 4 40 8.17

5 Desmodium Triflorum / / / / - / / - - - 6 60 12.25

6 Lindernia Crustacea - - - - / - / / / / 5 50 10.2

7 Eleusine Indica - - - - / - - / - / 3 30 6.12

8 Axonopus Compressus / / / / / / / / / / 10 100 20.41

9 Paspalum Conjugatum / / / - / - - - - / 5 50 10.2

10 Brachiaria Mutica - / - - / / - - - - 3 30 6.12Total 490 100

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLINGCalculation of the frequency and relative frequency of each species using quadrat sampling technique

No Name of Plant Species Frequency Percentage Relative Frequency (%)

1 Cyperus Kyllinga 7/10 x 100% = 70 70/500 x 100% = 14.29

2 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 3/10 x 100% = 30 30/500 x 100% = 6.12

3 Mimosa Pudica 3/10 x 100% = 30 30/500 x 100% = 6.12

4 Cyperus Rotundus 4/10 x 100% = 40 40/500 x 100% = 8.17

5 Desmodium Triflorum 6/10 x 100% = 60 60/500 x 100% = 12.25

6 Lindernia Crustacea 5/10 x 100% = 50 50/500 x 100% = 10.20

7 Eleusine Indica 3/10 x 100% = 30 30/500 x 100% = 6.12

8 Axonopus Compressus 10/10 x 100% = 100 100/500 x 100% = 20.41

9 Paspalum Conjugatum 5/10 x 100% = 50 50/500 x 100% = 10.20

10 Brachiaria Mutica 3/10 x 100% = 30 30/500 x 100% = 6.12  Total 500 100

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Plan of area under study showing placement of quadrats

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Drawing of quadrats

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ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Calculation formula

DENSITY = number of individuals of a species per unit area (or volume) of a specific area, i.e

Density=Totalnumber of individualsof a species∈all quadratsTotalnumber of quadrats x Areaof each quadrat

RELATIVE DENSITY = density of a species compared to the total density of all species living in the same area, hence

Relative density= Density of a speciesTotaldensity of all species

x100 %

COVERAGE = ratio of land area occupied by the vertical projection into space for each individual of a species, i.e

Coverage= Aerial coverage of all quadratsTotalnumber of quadrats xQuadrat area

x 100 %

RELATIVE COVERAGE = coverage of a species compared to the total coverage of the of the entire quadrat by all species (expressed in percentage units)

Relative coverage= Coverage of a speciesTotalcoverage by all species

x 100 %

FREQUENCY = degree of dispersion of each species in a specific area

Frequency=Number of quadrats containingthe speciesTotal number of quadrats

x 100 %

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

RELATIVE FREQUENCY = frequency value of a species comapred to the total frequency value of all species (expressed in percentage units)

Relative frequency=Frequency value of a speciesTotal frequency of all species

x100 %

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Sampling Technique using Line Transect

Objective : To determine the percentage surface coverage, relative species coverage and frequency of 10 species of plants in a terrestrial habitat

Apparatus : Rope or raffia ( length about 15m)

Materials : 10 Species of plants

Procedure :1. A base line along the border of the area under study was determined.2. A series of points was chosen along this base line either randomly or systematically.

( These points were used as starting points for the line transects to run across the area being studied.)

3. Next, all plants that touched the line as seen vertically above the transect line were recorded.

4. the length of the line transect that was intersected by the maximum width of the plants perpendicular to the line transect were recorded.

5. step 3 and 4 were repeated for 9 other transect lines to ptovide enough sample to study the particular community.

6. the length of the segment for the line transect that was above a barren part of the ground ( did not cut across any plants) was measured and recorded in the table.

7. For plants communities that have two or more different levels which were obvious such as herbaceous plants, shrubs ad tree levels in a forest, therefore each of those levels had to be sample separately.

8. Total aerial coverage, relative coverage and frequency for each species of plants that were studied were calculated.

DiscussionTransect refers to a line that cuts across a community in a habitat. A lot of information about the composition and arrangement of the plants can be found by the total, width, extrapolation, frequency and surface cover data of the different species that were cut across by a transect series in an area under study.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Ways to improve1. The state that holds the line transect made of raffia should be hammered inside the field

deeply so that it will not come out and influence the actual value2. The line transect should be straight so that the actual value can be achieved.

ConclusionFrom the line transect technique, we have discovered 10 species of plants, they are, Cyperus kyllinga, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Mimosa pudica, Cyperus rotundus, Desmodium triflorum, Lindernia crustacean, Eleusine indica, Axonopus compressus, Paspalum conjugatum, and Brachiaria mutica.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLINGTable of date for the measurement of surface of aerial coverage and relative species coverage using line transect technique

Student's name : Hong Chia HawHabitat : Open field which is hot and wet throughout the yearLocation of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowDistance of each interval : 1.5mTotal number of intervals : 10Total length of line transect : 1.5mDate :

Line Transect 1

No Name of Plant Species

Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X Total Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X along each line transect (m)

Number of Intervals of where each Species X is found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus kyllinga             0.31       0.31 1

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus 0.17 0.38 0.19 0.24 0.14 0.11 0.12 0.05   0.18 1.58 9

3 Mimosa pudica                     0 0

4 Cyperus rotundus                     0 0

5 Desmodium triflorum 0.24 0.07 0.12 0.34 0.08     0.07     0.92 6

6 Lindernia crustacea 0.22   0.32     0.02 0.29 0.05     0.9 5

7 Eleusine indica                 0.28 0.32 0.6 2

8 Axonopus compressus 0.33 0.98 0.65 0.91 0.72 1.32 0 0 0.58 0.59 6.08 8

9 Paspalum conjugatum                     0 0

10 Brachiaria mutica                     0 0

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLINGTable of date for the measurement of surface of aerial coverage and relative species coverage using line transect technique

Student's name : Hong Chia HawHabitat : Open field which is hot and wet throughout the yearLocation of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowDistance of each interval : 1.5mTotal number of intervals : 10Total length of line transect : 1.5mDate :

Line Transect 2

No Name of Plant Species

Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X Total Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X along each line transect (m)

Number of Intervals of where each Species X is found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus kyllinga 0.16 0.2 0.75 0.59 0.73 0.18       0.3 2.91 7

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus             0.56  0.58   1.14 2

3 Mimosa pudica                     0 0

4 Cyperus rotundus                     0 0

5 Desmodium triflorum 0.57                   0.57 1

6 Lindernia crustacea                     0 0

7 Eleusine indica                     0 0

8 Axonopus compressus 0.33 1.2 0.65 0.91 0.72 1.32    0.58 0.59 6.3 8

9 Paspalum conjugatum                     0 0

10 Brachiaria mutica                     0 0

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Table of date for the measurement of surface of aerial coverage and relative species coverage using line transect technique

Student's name : Edward Lee Kuan MunHabitat : Open field which is hot and wet throughout the yearLocation of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowDistance of each interval : 1.5mTotal number of intervals : 10Total length of line transect : 1.5mDate :

Line Transect 3

No Name of Plant Species

Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X Total Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X along each line transect (m)

Number of Intervals of where each Species X is found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus kyllinga                     0  

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus   0.05         0.07       0.12 2

3 Mimosa pudica                     0  

4 Cyperus rotundus                     0  

5 Desmodium triflorum                     0  

6 Lindernia crustacea               0.08     0.08 1

7 Eleusine indica 0.09         0.62 0.37 0.08 1.1 0.87 3.13 6

8 Axonopus compressus 0.65 0.1 1.2 1.15 1.5 0.88 0.58 0.12 0.63 0.87 7.68 10

9 Paspalum conjugatum                     0  

10 Brachiaria mutica                     0  

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Table of date for the measurement of surface of aerial coverage and relative species coverage using line transect technique

Student's name : Edward Lee Kuan MunHabitat : Open field which is hot and wet throughout the yearLocation of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowDistance of each interval : 1.5mTotal number of intervals : 10Total length of line transect : 1.5mDate :

Line Transect 4

No Name of Plant Species

Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X Total Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X along each line transect (m)

Number of Intervals of where each Species X is found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus kyllinga                 0.05   0.05 1

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus 0.08   0.02   0.08           0.18 3

3 Mimosa pudica                     0  

4 Cyperus rotundus                     0  

5 Desmodium triflorum     0.23   0.06 0.03 0.04   0.12   0.48 5

6 Lindernia crustacea       0.32 0.07   0.04       0.43 3

7 Eleusine indica                     0  

8 Axonopus compressus 0.9 0.8 1.25 1.03 1.29 1.28 1.32 1.31 1.12 1.17 11.47 10

9 Paspalum conjugatum                     0  

10 Brachiaria mutica                     0  

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Table of date for the measurement of surface of aerial coverage and relative species coverage using line transect technique

Student's name : Kang Chin HooiHabitat : Open field which is hot and wet throughout the yearLocation of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowDistance of each interval : 1.5mTotal number of intervals : 10Total length of line transect : 1.5mDate :

Line Transect 5

No Name of Plant Species

Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X Total Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X along each line transect (m)

Number of Intervals of where each Species X is found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus kyllinga         0.39           0.39 1

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus 0.33       0.45 0.44 0.43       1.65 4

3 Mimosa pudica 0.32 0.22         0.32 0.21   0.23 1.3 5

4 Cyperus rotundus                     0  

5 Desmodium triflorum   0.23 0.34 0.33             0.9 3

6 Lindernia crustacea           0.33   0.65 0.44 0.33 1.75 5

7 Eleusine indica                     0  

8 Axonopus compressus 0.45 0.66 0.23     0.45 0.23 0.03 0.38 0.47 2.9 8

9 Paspalum conjugatum                     0  

10 Brachiaria mutica                     0  

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Table of date for the measurement of surface of aerial coverage and relative species coverage using line transect technique

Student's name : Kang Chin HooiHabitat : Open field which is hot and wet throughout the yearLocation of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowDistance of each interval : 1.5mTotal number of intervals : 10Total length of line transect : 1.5mDate :

Line Transect 6

No Name of Plant Species

Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X Total Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X along each line transect (m)

Number of Intervals of where each Species X is found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus kyllinga     0.11 0.14 0.35   0.08 0.25     0.93 5

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus 0.22 0.45   0.43 0.07     0.15 0.34 0.09 1.75  

3 Mimosa pudica     0.21     0.33         0.54 2

4 Cyperus rotundus                     0  

5 Desmodium triflorum 0.26   0.23 0.15 0.19 0.23         1.06 5

6 Lindernia crustacea 0.12   .       0.39 0.23 0.24 0.46 1.44 5

7 Eleusine indica                     0  

8 Axonopus compressus 0.78 0.94 0.33 0.57 0.25 0.3 0.67 0.25 0.47 0.3 4.86 10

9 Paspalum conjugatum                     7  

10 Brachiaria mutica                     0  

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Table of date for the measurement of surface of aerial coverage and relative species coverage using line transect technique

Student's name : Matthew Ng Yoke WooiHabitat : Open field which is hot and wet throughout the yearLocation of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowDistance of each interval : 1.5mTotal number of intervals : 10Total length of line transect : 1.5mDate :

Line Transect 7

No Name of Plant Species

Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X Total Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X along each line transect (m)

Number of Intervals of where each Species X is found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus kyllinga   0.24 0.35 0.45   0.21 0.06 0.14 0.16   1.61 7

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus                     0  

3 Mimosa pudica                     0  

4 Cyperus rotundus 0.23     0.21             0.44 2

5 Desmodium triflorum 0.13 0.2   0.42 0.51   0.27 0.34 0.41   2.28 7

6 Lindernia crustacea                     0  

7 Eleusine indica                     0  

8 Axonopus compressus 0.36 0.64 0.44   0.64 0.21 0.48 0.14 0.42 0.41 3.74 9

9 Paspalum conjugatum                     0  

10 Brachiaria mutica                     0  

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Table of date for the measurement of surface of aerial coverage and relative species coverage using line transect technique

Student's name : Matthew Ng Yoke WooiHabitat : Open field which is hot and wet throughout the yearLocation of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowDistance of each interval : 1.5mTotal number of intervals : 10Total length of line transect : 1.5mDate :

Line Transect 8

No Name of Plant Species

Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X Total Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X along each line transect (m)

Number of Intervals of where each Species X is found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus kyllinga                     0  

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus 0.32 0.51 0.41 0.46 0.53   0.25 0.15 0.51   3.14 8

3 Mimosa pudica                     0  

4 Cyperus rotundus      0.22      0.32         0.54  2

5 Desmodium triflorum                     0  

6 Lindernia crustacea                     0  

7 Eleusine indica                     0  

8 Axonopus compressus 0.41 0.66 0.35 0.71 0.84 0.24 0.31 0.76 0.8 0.92 6 10

9 Paspalum conjugatum                     0  

10 Brachiaria mutica 0.25 0.22       0.32 0.67       1.46 4

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Table of date for the measurement of surface of aerial coverage and relative species coverage using line transect technique

Student's name : Catherine Tan Yee WenHabitat : Open field which is hot and wet throughout the yearLocation of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowDistance of each interval : 1.5mTotal number of intervals : 10Total length of line transect : 1.5mDate :

Line Transect 9

No Name of Plant Species

Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X Total Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X along each line transect (m)

Number of Intervals of where each Species X is found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus kyllinga                     0  

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus                     0  

3 Mimosa pudica                     0  

4 Cyperus rotundus                     0  

5 Desmodium triflorum 0.32 0.42 0.53 0.43 0.38 0.12 0.34 0.43 0.09 0.31 3.37 10

6 Lindernia crustacea                     0  

7 Eleusine indica                     0  

8 Axonopus compressus 0.31 0.56 0.43 0.61 0.89 1.3 0.93 0.51 1.1 0.61 7.25 10

9 Paspalum conjugatum 0.32   .           0.22 0.54 1.08 3

10 Brachiaria mutica 0.02     0.26     0.08 0.21     0.57 5

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Table of date for the measurement of surface of aerial coverage and relative species coverage using line transect technique

Student's name : Catherine Tan Yee WenHabitat : Open field which is hot and wet throughout the yearLocation of place : Island GladesType of Plants : As listed belowDistance of each interval : 1.5mTotal number of intervals : 10Total length of line transect : 1.5mDate :

Line Transect 10

No Name of Plant Species

Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X Total Length of Aerial Coverage of each species X along each line transect (m)

Number of Intervals of where each Species X is found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Cyperus kyllinga                 0.32 0.56 0.88 2

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus 0.32 0.09 0.29 0.48 0.35 0.21 0.38 0.43     2.55 8

3 Mimosa pudica                     0  

4 Cyperus rotundus  0.22              0.21     0.43  2

5 Desmodium triflorum                     0  

6 Lindernia crustacea                     0  

7 Eleusine indica                     0  

8 Axonopus compressus 0.53 1.29 1.03 0.39 0.51 0.83 0.42 0.19 0.08 0.41 5.68 10

9 Paspalum conjugatum 0.21 0.05               0.31 0.57 3

10 Brachiaria mutica       0.33 0.21   0.16 0.37 0.78   1.85 5

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLINGCalculation for Line Transect

NoName of Plant Species

Total Length of Aerial Coverage of Each Species (X) in all the 10 line transects (m)

Coverage Percentage (%)

Percentage Relative Coverage (%)

1 Cyperus kyllinga 7.08 7.08 X 100% = 4.7215X10

7.08 X 100% = 6.67106.09

2Chrysopogon aciculatus 12.11

12.11 X 100% = 8.0715X10

12.11 X 100% = 11.41106.09

3 Mimosa pudica 1.841.84 X 100% = 1.2315X10

1.84 X 100% = 1.73106.09

4 Cyperus rotundus 1.411.41 X 100% = 0.9415X10

1.41 X 100% = 1.33106.09

5 Desmodium triflorum 9.589.58 X 100% = 6.3915X10

9.58 X 100% = 9.03106.09

6 Lindernia crustacea 2.852.85 X 100% = 1.915X10

2.85 X 100% = 2.69106.09

7 Eleusine indica 3.733.73 X 100% = 2.4915X10

3.73 X 100% = 3.52106.09

8Axonopus compressus 61.96

61.96 X 100% = 41.3115X10

61.96 X 100% = 58.40106.09

9Paspalum conjugatum 1.65

1.65 X 100% = 1.115X10

1.65 X 100% = 1.56106.09

10 Brachiaria mutica 3.883.88 X 100% = 2.5815X10

3.88 X 100% = 3.66106.09

  Total 106.09 70.73 100.00

Calculation of the Frequency of Species X using Line Transect Technique

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

No Name of Plant Species

Total Number of Intervals Species X are found in all 10 Transect

Frequency

1 Cyperus kyllinga 24

24250

x100 %=9.6 %

2 Chrysopogon aciculatus 36

36250

x100=14.4 %

3 Mimosa pudica 7

7250

x100 %=2.8 %

4 Cyperus rotundus 6

6250

x100 %=2.4 %

5 Desmodium triflorum 37

37250

x100 %=14.8 %

6 Lindernia crustacea 19

19250

x100 %=7.6 %

7 Eleusine indica 8

8250

x100 %=3.2%

8 Axonopus compressus 93

93250

x100 %=37.2%

9 Paspalum conjugatum 6

6250

x100 %=2.4 %

10 Brachiaria mutica 14

14250

x100 %=5.6 %

Total 250 100 %

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10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

BAR CHART SHOWING FREQUENCY OF PLANT SPECIES UNDER STUDY IN

THE LINE TRANSECT TECHNIQUE

Cyperus kyllinga Chrysopogon aciculatus Mimosa pudica Cyperus rotundus

Desmodium triflorum Lindernia crustacea Eleusine indica Axonopus compressus

Paspalum conjugatum Brachiaria mutica

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ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Plan showing the placement of line transects in the study area

- Insert hand drawn picture -

OVERALL DISCUSSIONThe soil obtained from the study is found to be made up of different components, they

are sand (both coarse and fine sand), silt and clay. These components were mechanically separated using the principles of sedimentation. This principle calls that the components of the soil can be separated according to their weight. The soil sample collected was mixed with adequate amount of water and was left to settle. At the bottommost section of the measuring cylinder in which the soil was mixed with water, is the settlement of sand (both coarse and fine) because this component is the heaviest among all the components of soil. Silt particles settle on top of the layer of sand and clay settles on top of the layer of silt. The clay particles settles last as they are of the least in weight. The percentage content of the components in the soil were calculated and by referring to a texture triangle, the texture of soil was determined.

To obtain a sample of soil, an empty can of predetermined volume was used. The metal can (which is perforated at its closed end) was pushed into the ground until the perforated base of the metal can levels with the surface of the ground. A hammer was used to aid penetration of the can. The metal can was carefully knocked using the hammer in order not to distort the can which will then change the predetermined volume of the can. This also ensures that the content of the soil is undisturbed. The content of the soil were then emptied into a measuring cylinder with water. The total volume is recorded. Then, the mixture was stirred thoroughly to ensure all soil particles are broken up. Then, the total volume of the stirred mixture was then recorded. The difference between the first total volume and the second total volume is the amount of air trapped in the soil. The percentage of air in the soil was then determined.

To determine the water content of soil, we used a technique of elimination. Here, water is eliminated from the soil and the difference in weight before and after elimination of water would be the amount of water present in the soil. Evaporation eliminates water. A relatively small amount of soil was placed into an empty petri dish whereby the weight of the petri dish was already determined. The weight of the soil and the petri dish was recorded. The petri dish containing the soil was placed in an oven which was preheated at 105°C. This particular temperature chosen is higher than the boiling point of water . This will ensure that enough energy is provided to the water molecules to enable evaporation but not enough to oxidize the organic matter contained in the soil. To foolproof this method, the petri dish was taken out of the oven in a predetermined period of time and left to cool in a dessicator. Then, it is weighed again. Then, it is placed back into the oven for further drying. This sequence of action is repeated until a constant weight is obtained.

OVERALL DISCUSSIONThe dried soil sample from the experiment to determine the water content of soil was

used in the subsequent experiment to determine the organic matter in the soil. This time, the soil sample was placed in a closed crucible and was heated strongly with a Bunsen burner. From time to time, the lid of the crucible was opened briefly and its contents agitated to allow entry of oxygen for combustion. The soil was burned until red hot. The heating, cooling, weighing and reheating process as done in the previous experiment was used in this experiment as well until a constant weight is obtained.

The pH of soil was determined by mixing the same volume of soil and barium sulphate into a test tube. Barium sulphate flocculates the colloidal particles of soil. Then, water is added followed by BDH universal indicator. Then, the test tube was stoppered and shaken vigorously. The test tube is then left on the rack for 5 minutes. The colour of the liquid in the boiling tube was compared with the colours on the BDH indicator reference colour chart and the pH of the soil was determined.

The Tullgren funnel is used to collect soil organisms. The portion of soil used was broken up before being placed on the wire mesh in the funnel to ensure that the light from the bulb is able to reach all parts of the soil. The experiment uses the application of the response of organisms towards bright light, high temperatures and low moisture. Organisms dislike bright, dry and hot conditions. Hence, they are forced to migrate to the lower part of the soil which is less bright, less warm and more humid. As they move downwards, they eventually fall into the 4% formalin solution.

The Baermann funnel is used to collect aquatic organisms. The experiment applies the same concept as used by the Tullgren funnel. In fact, the Baermann funnel is a modified version of the Tullgren funnel. A portion of soil was placed in a muslin cloth, tied up and suspended in the middle of the Baermann funnel. A tube with clip was placed on the outlet of the funnel into a small beaker containing 4% formalin solution. The organisms will migrate downwards and gather there at the mouth of the tube because theses organism are denser than water. The clip of the small tubing was opened periodically to allow flow of organisms into the formalin solution.

OVERALL SUMMARYThe area under study selected was a park in Island Glades.

From the experiments conducted on the soil sample, we found that (in order of experiment conducted)

1. The soil from the study area is of the sandy loam variety.

2. The air content of the soil is 9.67%.

3. The water content is 37.65%.

4. The percentage of organic matter in the soil is 6.29%.

5. The pH of the soil is around pH 6.0. BDH indicator was used. The colour of the solution was compared to a BDH colour reference chart.

The soil has an adequate amount of air, relatively high percentage of water and relatively high percentage of organic matter. These optimum conditions will help the plants to grow healthily.

We have also conducted two types of quantitative analysis in the study area, one to determine the types of organisms living in the soil and another to analyze the plant communities in the study are using quadrat sampling and line transect sampling technique.

From the Tullgren funnel experiment, we found that the soil is home to organisms such as centipedes, millipedes, ants, earthworms, earwigs and ground beetles.

From the Baermann funnel, we found that Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp. and Euglena sp. Live in the soil sample.

From the qualitative analysis of plant communities in the study area using the quadrat sampling technique, we found 10 species of plants inhabiting the study area. They are Cyperus kyllinga, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Mimosa pudica, Cyperus rotundus, Desmodium triflorum, Lindernia crustacean, Eleusine indica, Axonopus compressus, Paspalum conjugatum and Brachiaria mutica.

PROJECT PLANNING

Selection of study area All membersPreparation of quadrats Edward LeePreparation of line transects Hong Chia HawPreparation of data tables Catherine Tan Yee

WenPreparation of other materials used to carry out ecological sampling (hammer, measuring tape and such)

Matthew NgHong Chia Haw

Preparation of report EveryoneDrawings Catherine Tan Yee

WenKang Chin HooiMatthew Ng

Graphical presentations Kang Chin HooiHong Chia HawEdward Lee

Contents Edward LeeMatthew NgHong Chia HawKang Chin HooiCatherine Tan

Calculations Kang Chin HooiHong Chia Haw

Photography Kang Chin HooiHong Chia HawEdward LeeMatthew Ng

Proofreading Edward LeeCatherine Tan Yee WenMatthew Ng

Project planning

REFERENCES

Work scheduleDate Time Activity Attendanc

eEdward Lee

Hong Chia Haw

Kang Chin Hooi

Matthew Ng

Catherine Tan

24/11/08 10.00am Soil sampling for lab work

/ / / / /

25/11/08 8.00am Meet in school to carry out analysis of soil

/ / / / /

6/12/08 5.00pm – 6.00pm

Briefing and demo on quadrat sampling in the selected study area

/ / 0 / /

8/12/08 9.00am –12.30pm

Quadrat sampling

/ 0 / / 0

9/12/08 10.00am-2.00pm

Continue quadrat sampling

/ / / 0 /

11/12/08 8.00am-2.30pm

Sampling using line transect technique

/ / / / /

12/12/08 9.00am-3.15pm

Continue sampling using line transect

0 / / / 0

3.15pm –4.30pm

Break and analyze data

/ / / / /

4.30pm – 4.45pm

Distribute workload and set deadline

/ / / / /

REFERENCES20/12/08 10.00am Compile

reports/ / / / /

http://www.donnan.com/soilph.htm

http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/soil_pH/plant_pH.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_pH

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrat

http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/howto.htm

http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/3howto.htm#SYSTEMATIC%20SAMPLING

http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/wetland_survey/line.htm

http://www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/hmv1/watrsoil/theta.htmhttp://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TCS-30_web.pdf

http://www.usyd.edu.au/su/agric/ACSS/sphysic/water.html

http://campbellsci.com/documents/apnotes/soilh20c.pdf

http://www.fao.org/docrep/r4082e/r4082e03.htm

http://www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/hmv1/watrsoil/frontp.htm

http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TCS-30_web.pdf

http://www.usyd.edu.au/su/agric/ACSS/sphysic/water.html

http://campbellsci.com/documents/apnotes/soilh20c.pdf

http://www.fao.org/docrep/r4082e/r4082e03.htm

http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Water_content

http://web1.msue.msu.edu/imp/modzz/00001813.html

http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0452.htm

http://www.ar.wroc.pl/~weber/def2.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_material

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/feature/backyard/orgmtrsl.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_factor

http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/SCI_ED/grade10/ecology/biotic/biot.htm#Cons_2

http://www.bcgrasslands.org/grasslands/bioticcomponents.htm

http://www.burkardscientific.co.uk/agronomics/pdf/TullgrenFunnelUnit.pdf

http://www.saburchill.com/lab/experiments/expt01.html

http://www.burkardscientific.co.uk/agronomics/tullgren_funnels.htm