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8/2/2019 Final Paper - Retallack
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IMPROVED WATER RESOURCES GOVERNANCE IN
THE OTTAWA RIVER WATERSHED:APERSPECTIVE
ON DAM MANAGEMENT
PADM 5116 Final Paper
December 1, 2011
Matthew Retallack
ID # 100863468
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Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION 2
2.0 HISTORICAL TRANSECT 3
2.1 Dams and Environmental Flow 3
2.2 History of Governance and Intervention 4
2.3 Evolution of an Integrated Approach to Water Management 6
3.0 FRAMEWORKS FOR INSTITUTIONAL REFORM 8
3.1 Institutional Factors 9
3.2 Cooperation, Collaboration and Adaptive Management 11
3.3 Participation and the Public 14
4.0 ANALYSIS 15
4.1 Case Studies 16
4.2 Analysis of the Ottawa River Watershed 19
4.3 Recommendations 22
5.0 CONCLUSIONS 23
REFERENCES 24
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1.0 Introduction
The Ottawa River is the largest tributary to the St. Lawrence River. One and a half
million people live within its watershed and along its shores. For most of its length it acts
as a political border between Ontario and Quebec; between French and English Canada.
It has a diverse and varied economy and large urban and rural populations. Accordingly
there exist a wide range of interests in the Ottawa River watershed and a corresponding
set of expectations from the resource.
Water levels in the Ottawa River are controlled by dozens of dams and these levels are
optimised for flood control and generation of hydroelectricity. These management
objectives are supported by interjurisdictional cooperation through the Ottawa River
Regulation Planning Board. However many other social, economic and environmental
objectives are not being addressed in a similarly coordinated way and may be negatively
impacted as a result. This gives rise to concerns regarding the sustainability of water
resources management in the Ottawa River Basin. To address these concerns the central
question for this paper is how can the Ottawa River Regulation Planning Board better
respond to the range of interests and, perhaps drawing on existing water governance
infrastructure, broaden the range of socio-economic and environmental benefits that are
realised through more effective dam management?
To understand the current conditions in the river it is necessary to look back and follow
the historical progression of human activities in the Ottawa River Basin. Commercial and
industrial activities alongside expanded settlement patterns are the result of a series of
often uncoordinated decisions being made at all levels of government (Harvey, 1979).
These decisions, made in the context of societal norms and scientific understanding of
their time, define conditions along the Ottawa River as we know them today
(Benidickson, 2010). As a result of these decisions we have a legacy of both settlement
and hard infrastructure, and governance in terms of institutions and approaches. The
nature of governance in the basin provides insight into the opportunities and constraints
for improved approaches to the management of levels and flows, as affect the broader
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array of socio-economic and environmental interests. Weaving together an understanding
of where we are and how we have arrived at this place with current theory and empirical
case study evidence, it will be possible to offer contextualised and well founded
recommendations for next steps. Accordingly the objectives of this study are threefold:
1. Briefly outline the history of development in the Ottawa River basin. Relatedgovernance factors will be discussed alongside broader historical trends in water
resources governance. This contextualised understanding of governance in the
basin will be used as a basis for analysis.
2. Undertake an analysis and discussion of policy opportunities and challenges forimproved water governance in the basin drawing on current theory and empirical
evidence. This analysis will be focussed on the management of water levels and
flows as affected by the Ottawa River Regulation Planning Board and related
legislation.
3. Based on this analysis a set of policy recommendations will be presentedalongside a gap analysis identifying questions for future consideration.
2.0 Historical Transect
2.1 Dams and Environmental Flow
Dams have long been used to meet human needs for water. Primary functions could
include the provision of water for municipal, agricultural or industrial use, control of
water levels and flood risk management, provision of recreational opportunities, or some
combination of these objectives. However dams are also known to have undesirable
ecological and socio-economic consequences. By altering natural variation in water
levels dams impact wetlands, habitat and reproductive patterns (Richter et al, 2003). They
also impede or in some cases arrest fish passage, with associated ecological effects
(Haxton & Chubbuck, 2002). Dams can impact First Nations cultural rights, affect
shoreline property values and quality of life, or in extreme cases result in forced
relocation. In many parts of the world these issues have led to an overall reduction in
large dam development; however, increasing support for green energy may renew interest
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in harnessing hydroelectric power (Brusey et al, 2009). At the same time growing
concerns over loss of biodiversity and related environmental issues, as well as increased
visibility and sensitivity around social and cultural impacts, challenge new and existing
hydroelectric projects, and will have to be addressed in new and substantive way
(Cushing, 2002).
In the Ottawa River dams have blocked migration route for species such as American
shad and eels, flooded habitat and changed traditional spawning grounds (Haxton &
Chubbuck, 2002). Modification of water quality parameters including temperature,
nutrient levels and dissolved oxygen have further impacted habitat as have rapid
fluctuations of water, which can cause physiological stress and upset spawning cycles
(Ottawa Riverkeeper, 2006). The construction of dams and subsequent creation of large
reservoirs have flooded land identified by the Algonquin First Nation as traditional
territory (Ontario Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs, 2011) and large fluctuations are known
to affect shorelines and recreational opportunities.
2.2 History of Governance and Intervention
The story of industrial activity and institutional response stretches back into the
nineteenth century. The logging industry found vast resources within the Ottawa River
watershed however control structures were needed to moderate flows in the river in order
to reliably move these resources to production and further on to market. This resulted in
the construction of low dams and timber slides (Harvey, 1979; Haxton & Chubbuck,
2002). Lumber mills were built to process the wood and these drew on the river as a
source of power. They also disposed of large quantities of sawdust and other waste
materials directly in the river. In an early example of ecosystems thinking Dr. E. Van
Cortlandt, Ottawas officer of health in the late 1800s, observed these materials to be
negatively impacting spawning grounds, navigation and public health. However it was
navigation concerns that prompted Ottawa to develop federal legislation in 1867
prohibiting the disposal of mill waste in navigable waters. In 1886 this legislation was
strengthened based on concern for fisheries, although due to the economic importance of
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the logging industry mill owners were able to get exemptions. These exemptions were
ultimately done away with in 1894 (Benidickson, 2010).
With the dawn of the twentieth century lumber interests expanded into pulp and paper.
This brought a new set of water quality concerns in addition to an increased demand for
energy and the beginnings of large scale development of hydroelectric infrastructure.
Seasonal flow variability combined with expanding downstream settlement gave rise to
an increased need for flood control, providing additional impetus for dam construction
(Harvey, 1979; Benidickson, 2010), with dams eventually being built and operated by the
federal government as well as private sector interests from Ontario and Quebec.
The interests of hydropower generation and flood control however are not perfectly
aligned. In order to buffer peak flows associated with spring melt waters, large amounts
of water need to be released from principle reservoirs in the upper reaches of the Ottawa
River (Haxton & Chubbuck, 2002). This equates to a loss of revenue from the generation
of hydroelectricity, giving owner operators an incentive to maintain reservoir levels. In
1962 the federal government along with the provinces of Ontario and Quebec established
the Ottawa River Engineering Board provide hydrological information to users and
enable better coordination of infrastructure. Nonetheless in 1974 and 1976 spring
flooding resulted in $10 million of compensation being paid by various levels of
government to residents in the Ottawa River basin, with another $21.5 million in
compensation being paid to residents in the Montreal area. In 1977 the Ottawa River
Regulation Planning Committee was established to address the situation. Their mandate
was to coordinate the regulation of levels and flows in the Ottawa River taking into
account hydropower production, flood protection, navigation, low water problems, water
quality needs and recreation (Harvey, 1979). Their chief recommendation was that
ongoing coordination of dam operations was required.
In 1983 the Federal government and the governments of Quebec and Ontario signed An
Agreement Respecting Ottawa River Basin Regulation. The Ottawa River Regulation
Planning Board was prescribed by this agreement and given the mandate to provide flood
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control while meeting the interests of various users, particularly hydroelectric power
generation. The Board consists of one member each from the Federal Departments of
Environment, Public Works, and Transport; Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources;
Quebec Ministry of the Environment; Ontario Hydro and Hydro Quebec.
2.3 Evolution of an Integrated Approach to Water Management
Over the years society has internalised the insights of people like Dr.van Cortlandt and
come to understand that water management is complex. It provides or enables a multitude
of goods and services upon which we depend, while at the same time our actions can
impact or undermine the ecological systems that provide these services (Limburg et al,
2002; Fisher et al, 2008). This has given rise to an appreciation for the need to manage
water resources in a more holistic and integrated way.
While the literature does offer examples of early approaches to water management that
resemble aspects of what we currently call an integrated approach, the first modern
institutions to embody Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) principles were
Spains Confederaciones hidrogrficas, or Water Boards. Established by Royal Decree in
1926 these boards were tasked with managing public water resources on a watershed
basis. Shortly thereafter in the 1940s development of the Tennessee River Basin was
guided by an integrated approach to water resources planning. Then Chairman of the
Tennessee Valley Authority, David Lilienthal, noted that, the resources of the river were
not only to be envisioned in their entirety, they were to be developed in that unity
the waters, the land, and the forests together (Bandaragoda, 2010). Also in the 1940s we
have the emergence of Conservation Authorities in Ontario. According to Conservation
Ontario (2011), the central body for Ontarios network of non-profit Conservation
Authorities, Ontario passed the Conservation Authorities Act in 1946 in response to
concerns from agricultural, conservation and recreational interests that poor management
of land, water and forests were resulting in a depletion of natural resources and associated
effects such as soil loss and flooding. This legislation encouraged neighbouring
watershed municipalities to jointly create Conservation Authorities to provide integrated
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management of natural resources within the watershed. In the 1960s and 1970s
responsibility for water management in England and Wales was increasing being shifted
from local governments to river basin water management authorities (Watson, 2010), and
a multi-disciplinary approach was used to develop an integrated water management plan
in Germany.
By 1977 there was growing momentum behind an integrated watershed-based approach
to water management when at a United Nations conference the IWRM approach was
recommended as a means to coordinate competition for water between multiple users
(Bandaragoda, 2010). Following this recommendation IWRM began to be formalised in
the international arena. From the Dublin Statement (1992) four guiding principles were
established:
Principle 1: Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain
life, development and the environment
Principle 2: Water development and management should be based on a
participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy-makers at all levels
Principle 3: Women play a central part in the provision, management and
safeguarding of water
Principle 4: Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be
recognised as an economic good
This Statement was commended by world leaders at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro later that same year, with
conference participants recommending governments study the report and find ways to
translate it into action. Focussed more broadly on sustainable development, Agenda 21
(1992), UNCEDs primary output, identified the following three key objectives for
IWRM:
1. Priority should be given to meeting basic human needs and safeguardingecosystem.
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2. It should be carried at the level of the catchment basin or sub-basin, and should:a. use interactive and iterative multi-sectoral approaches that integrate
technological, socio-economic, environmental and human health
considerations;
b. be based community needs and priorities within the framework of nationaleconomic development policy;
c. be efficient and equitable with fully inclusive public participation in policymaking and decision making; and,
d. have institutional capacity for water policy to support sustainabledevelopment.
3. Targeted national action and sustainable resource use programmes should beprepared.
With these developments the concept of IWRM had become nuanced with its tenets
broadly accepted as defining the standard for appropriate, progressive management of
water resources. While there was still considerable room for further definition and
refinement through research and application, generally speaking key features were now in
place. Water was understood to be an essential resource supporting a number of social,
economic and environmental objectives. Accordingly effective water management
needed to coordinate multiple uses and be based on local needs and information. Decision
making should involve participatory processes that were inclusive of all sectors, the
general public, and were carried within the context of the watershed.
3.0 Frameworks for Institutional Reform
Implicit in IWRM is the recognition that water management is an inherently local
undertaking. While every application would take into account hydrology and
hydrogeology, demographics, socio-economics and water governance structure
(Bandaragoda, 2010), this would be done relative to local conditions and interests such
that what works in one situation would not necessarily work somewhere else. The open
nature of IWRM principles have resulted in a wide range of what could effectively be
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considered experimental application. These have produced partial successes, some
failures and many lessons learned. Taken together this resulted in a depth of literature and
new knowledge that refined and deepened our understanding of the mechanisms and
constraints of an integrated watershed approach to water resource management. Upstream
users were often found to have different interests from downstream users (Nelson &
Weschler, 1998), with scale becoming another important factor. Watersheds provide
ecological goods and services at scales ranging from the very local, such as spiritual and
cultural value associated with a specific place, to the entire watershed, for instance
integrated hydroelectric development of the Ottawa River. This has implications for
identification of interested stakeholders and appropriate level of institutional intervention
(Hein et al, 2006). Allocation of water towards one purpose often results in less being
available elsewhere, thereby creating a situation where decision makers are constantly
required to weight interests against one another. The manner and processes through
which tradeoffs are informed are exceedingly complex, involving stakeholders from all
sectors and the general public, a range of consultation techniques, modelling approaches
and numerous frameworks (Farber et al 2002; de Groot et al, 2002). From an ecological
perspective it is essential to respect critical thresholds and the ongoing delivery of
supporting services and primary ecological functions. For many IWRM was seen as a
surrogate for ecosystem management, and should incorporate ecosystem approaches
(Bandaragoda, 2010).
3.1 Institutional Factors
Managing water in an integrated manner using watersheds as an operational unit places
new demands on existing institutions. Coordinated decision making requires that
information be shared horizontally between different departments and decision making
groups, as well as vertically between levels of government. Furthermore, since watershed
boundaries generally do not coincide with political boundaries, there will be multiple
governments at the same level within a given watershed. For example line departments
from the provincial governments of Quebec and Ontario share decision making within the
Ottawa River watershed. At the municipal level the governments of Ottawa, Gatineau and
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many other communities make decisions that affect water resources in the basin.
Coordinating management will require governments to develop processes to integrate
existing planning processes within and between neighbouring jurisdictions and levels of
government (Pollution Probe, 2006). Additional adjustments are required to make
decision making accessible to interested and relevant stakeholders. This amounts to a
substantial shift in institutional operations, and raises a number of issues.
Chief among these are institutional readiness. From a review of the literature on
interjurisdictional and intersectoral cooperation Nelson & Weschler (1998) developed the
following list of four indicators that may provide a measure of institutional readiness:
1. level of citizen and community interest and involvement2. degree to which existing institutions are available for regional governance3. degree of informal or formal practical collaborative experience4. knowledge of missions, goals and objectives of other organisations and partners
To facilitate a comparison of institutional arrangements between river basins Blomquist
et al (2005) began by characterising successful river basin management as being
predicated by the devolution of authority to basin level and sub-basin level organisations;
the degree to which stakeholders become involved and stay engaged; an enabling legal
framework; and a level of economic resources. They suggest these conditions may be
measured using a framework built around these four variables, which appear to be
generally consistent with and complimentary to the findings of Nelson & Weschler
(1998) First there are contextual factors. These include socio-cultural and economic
factors that affect the incentive of basin stakeholders to participate, as well as the
experience and capacity of local institutions to engage with the process. Secondly, the
characteristics of the decentralisation process matter. For instance if the process was
driven from the top-down and imposed on basin stakeholders, or if it is borne of mutual
interest. Integrated management processes should take into account existing and familiar
governance institutions at the basin level, for instance working with First Nations
governance processes and leadership, and there should be ongoing support from higher
levels of government to allow changes time to take effect. The final two key variables are
the nature of relationships between government and basin-level organisations, and among
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basin-level organisations. Relevant factors include issues such as the actual (genuine)
extent of decentralisation, financial resources and autonomy, capacity to create and
modify institutional arrangements, nature of water rights, opportunities for information
sharing and communication, as well as the ability to adapt to change.
Adapting to change is of central importance to water and watershed management,
particularly given the predicted effects of climate change. Increases in temperature will
affect water quality parameters as well evapotranspiration. These factors coupled with a
predicted increase in frequency and intensity of rainfall events, as well as frequency and
severity of drought events (Mortsch et al, 2000), create a situation where management
systems will increasingly need to be more flexible and responsive.
3.2 Cooperation, Collaboration and Adaptive Management
The assumption has been that coordination alone could achieve the objectives of
integrated watershed-based resource management without any fundamental reforms of
institutional arrangements. However following a review of the literature, Watson (2010)
found that aspirations have fallen short of operational achievements. Coordination of
multiple existing agencies requires the development of new procedures and new rules to
organise the necessary resources and ensure that activities proceed in an agreed upon
manner. This implies a rule-based structure which will inherently be somewhat rigid.
The traditional view that watersheds are fairly stable, quasi-closed ecological systems is
at best a convenient approximation of reality. It is more factual to understand watersheds
as complex, non-linear, even chaotic socio-environmental systems that give rise to
wicked or messy management problems characterised by complexity, change,
uncertainty and conflict (Watson, 2010). In this context coordination that results in rigid,
rule-based systems would seem incongruent with problems that demand flexible and
dynamic response mechanisms. Adaptive management is increasingly seen as offering a
more dynamic approach. Flexible, experimental and self-organising, the adaptive
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management approach is both a tool to manage socio-economic environmental watershed
systems as well as to learn from it (Engle et al, 2011).
However the adaptive management approach relies on adaptive capacity and this is not
something that is easily measured in an accurate way. Alongside general categories such
as economic resources, technology and infrastructure, we know institutional and
governance aspects are key, but it is only possible to measure the effectiveness or level of
adaptive capacity relative to performance during a crisis. In a recent study exploring the
relationship between governance and adaptive capacity in Brazil Engle et al (2010)
developed an index consisting of nine indicators to help assess a priori the level of
governance and institutional adaptive capacity.
Brazil recently implemented a decentralised water management system where watersheds
were taken as the operational unit and stakeholder-driven basin councils were created.
Where adaptive capacity may be measured as the ability of system to respond effectively
to unforeseen shocks, Engle et al (2010) theorised that adaptive capacity increased with
representativeness of basin organisations; participation; use of scientific knowledge and
information; equality and access to decision making and to technical knowledge;
commitment; networks and connectivity between groups and stakeholders; experience;
and financial and human capital. They found that higher levels of representation and
participation contributed to a flexible and dynamic water management structure typical of
adaptive management and were able to produce more effective responses to floods and
droughts. Conversely in another study location low levels of participation and reliance on
heavy infrastructure combined with a more centralised management approach were found
to result in a more rigid governance system that was less able to adapt to climate
variability. Overall the authors concluded that there were some correlations between their
indicators and demonstrated levels of adaptive capacity however finer calibration was
needed.
Watson (2010) points to a growing literature that argues success may rest with the
development of collaborative capital. Collaboration, as a process, is distinct from
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coordination in that it involves an actual pooling of efforts and resources by two or more
stakeholders rather than an often imperfect alignment of otherwise independent and
individual efforts. This implies a sharing of power, a key challenge for collaborative
processes. The authors suggest the collaboration process is defined by four stages:
problem definition, direction setting, structuring and outcomes. Beginning with problem
setting, collaboration in this stage helps with bringing the disparate knowledge and
perspectives of participating organisations together into a common understanding. It can
also help forge connections between stakeholders. With the problem definition in place
the next step is to decide upon some course(s) of action. Joint direction setting while
challenged by differences in perspective, values and aspirations, can enhance legitimacy
of defined goals. Structuring refers to the process of organising collective resources into
procedures and arrangements designed to enable collective action. Finally the results of
these actions need to be measured with results feeding back into problem definition,
strengthening a renewed and iterative process of collaboration.
Watson (2010) suggests that while in practice collaboration will be difficult and is not a
stand alone approach, it provides the basis for a dynamic, ongoing and interactive
approach to IWRM. Success will depend on the design of institutional arrangements and
the capacity for participating organisations to reach consensus among diverse groups with
different values and objectives. The design of these institutional arrangements may
benefit from and be informed by the nine indicators proposed by Engle et al (2010). Both
of these studies suggest that though an adaptive management approach offers certain
benefits there are limitations. Perhaps in light of this there is increasing interest in
blended approaches that seek to combine aspects of IWRM and adaptive management
into more effective arrangements.
In striking this balance it is important to understand the relationships between techno-
scientific knowledge and how this relates to participation, democracy, deliberation,
diversity and adaptability. Engle et al (2011) suggest that both IWRM and adaptive
management have been informed by the literature on common pool resources
management, participatory decentralisation and resilience theory looking to: increase
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effectiveness through integration; add legitimacy through stakeholder participation;
incorporate technical expertise through including range of knowledge and social learning;
and in the case of adaptive management, become more flexible through experimentation.
While blended frameworks emphasise stakeholder participation and sector integration to
reduce uncertainty, assumptions that mechanisms such as decentralisation, participation,
social learning and integration, compliment each other need to be tested for possible
negative interactions. The authors suggest that there may be a number of tensions implicit
within blended approaches. For instance the efficiency of IWRM mechanisms that
function through existing institutions may operate at over a different time-frame than the
more discursive social learning approaches associated with adaptive management. This
aligns with findings from the earlier study into the effectiveness of an adaptive capacity
index, which found that higher levels of representativeness of organisations and
participation in system structures may exhibit trade-offs with equality of decision making
and knowledge availability (Engle et al, 2010). Overall, while adaptive approaches show
promise, reconciling them with previous and current management systems presents
certain challenges. For example the legacy of institutional development and institutional
path dependency may affect the degree to which systems are available to adaptive
processes (Nelson & Weschler, 1998; Engle et al 2011).
3.3 Participation and the Public
The importance of public involvement must be stressed. Important knowledge and
information that can be instrumental in the identification and definition of problems often
lies beyond the reach of managers and scientists. Meaningful inclusion can bring this
information to decision making, potentially allowing for more accurate and sophisticated
policy responses (Watson, 2010).
Further challenging management of these complex systems are broader changes in
governance, public administration and citizen preferences that have been slowly
developing through the later half of the twentieth century. The program-driven Keynesian
welfare state that dug deep into public coffers in order to maintain a level of societal
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stability through good times and bad has gradually fallen out of favour. Deficit financing
has become the exception not the norm. Governments are required to be leaner (Pal,
2010). At the same time falling levels of public trust in government have resulted in an
increased interest and expectation that policy development be transparent, consultative
and accountable (Pal, 2008). It has also resulted in a corresponding growth in demand for
citizen engagement and participation in governance (Bourgon, 2007). Overall this can be
characterised as a trend away from government toward governance, where agencies
are increasingly focussed on creating the conditions and facilitating action (steering), and
progressively less involved with driving policy development and implementation
(rowing) (Watson, 2010).
Drawing on the work of Rawls (1971), and his assertions of the importance of public
deliberation and access to the political agenda, Cohen (1997) suggests that democracy,
when properly conducted, involves public deliberation focussed on the common good,
requires some form of manifest equality among citizens, and shapes the identity and
interests of citizens in ways that contribute to the formation of a public conception of
common good. It is through these means, he argues, that members of a pluralist
democratic society will come to understand themselves and their own legitimate interests.
In other words participation in process gives rise to the legitimacy of its outcomes. This is
echoed by Fisher et al (2008) who found that community participation in the valuation of
ecosystem goods and services led to greater ownership of subsequent decision making.
So we see that new approaches, such as adaptive management, that draw on resources
outside government both meet public expectation and may offer more efficient forms of
governance. Moreover higher levels of public involvement can results in more legitimate
outcomes, which in turn can result more compliance requiring less enforcement.
4.0 Analysis
Existing infrastructure provides a range of benefits however there is general
acknowledgement of a need to reduce negative impacts. Restorative steps may include
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increasing minimum flows, the installation or improvement of fish ladders and periodic
release of large amounts of water to simulate storm events (Bednarek & Hart, 2005).
However the discussion thus far has highlighted the importance and complexities of
institutional dimensions.
4.1 Case Studies
Turning to the literature there are a number of case studies that employ various aspects
and combinations of approaches that have been discussed so far. For example, in
Australia, a series of extensive water management reforms were implemented to promote
ecologically sustainable development, achieve environmental improvements in water
systems, clarify users water rights, achieve efficient use and allocation, and an equitable
distribution of costs. The integration of responsibilities between water management and
other natural resources management organisations eventually led to creation of
Catchment Management Authorities (CMA), beginning in 2004. These organisations,
consisting of state and local government representatives, farmers, scientists,
conservationists and indigenous peoples, were charged with developing Catchment
Action Plans. To support the activities of CMAs in meeting their responsibilities they are
allocated a total of $406M (Myiak et al, 2004). In New South Wales high nutrient levels
were causing eutrophication issues in the Ben Chifley Dam reservoir. An integrated
assessment and modelling approach was developed to assist managers identify actions to
reduce nutrient inputs from catchment lands. Acknowledging that stakeholder
participation can result in better informed decision making, more public ownership and
more open, integrated and democratic decision making processes, project researchers
incorporated stakeholder participation throughout the model development process
(Newham et al, 2010). With stakeholder activities ranging from consultation to active
contribution in policy development the stakeholders consulted included, the Department
of Environment and Conservation, Department for Infrastructure Planning and Nature
Resource, and representatives of Central West Catchment Management Committee, the
Oberon and Evans Shire Councils, and Bathurst City Council. All of these organisational
stakeholders were already represented on the Ben Chifley Steering Committee, a
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community institution in charge of catchment management (Myiak et al,2004).
Landholders were also and consulted regarding their views and reactions, i.e. at a lower
level of engagement than organisational participants (Newham et al, 2010)
Benefits resulting from the participatory activities were found to include, identification
and action on stakeholder issues, improved information flow between researchers and
stakeholders, increased collaboration between local management agencies. Factors for
successful participatory activities included early integration of stakeholder interests, a
range of different participatory approaches and tailored activities, and support of local
management organisations. The process incorporates aspects of collaborative processes in
that stakeholders were pooling resources to collectively solve a problem (Watson, 2010),
in this case the design integrated modelling software. However participation was found to
be resource intensive and resource constrained. In addition there was little representation
from non-institutional stakeholders.
In 1991 as part of the Reservoir Releases Improvement Program the Tennessee Valley
Authority was mandated to adjust minimum flows and improve water quality parameters.
Water depths and velocities were found to be at extremely low levels during periods of
non-generation, affecting levels of dissolved oxygen in tailwaters (Bednarek & Hart,
2005). A wholly owned US Government Corporation and the nations largest public
power system, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is tasked with managing the
Tennessee River system for the purposes of navigation, flood control, power generation,
water quality, land conservation, recreation and economic development, while preserving
natural assets (TVA, 2000). Under Objective 1.2, Retain Customers and Grow
Stakeholder Support, of the TVA Strategic Plan 2000-2005 (2000), stakeholder relations
and communications are to be measured using a Stakeholder Process Satisfaction Index.
The benefits of stakeholder communications and relations were given as improved
anticipation of issues, effective internal and external communications, and stakeholder
understanding of the issues. Specific approaches to engaging stakeholders were not
given. From examination of 2002, 2004, 2008 and 2010 Annual Performance Plans,
stakeholder relations do not present themselves as a strong priority of TVA. In 2002 the
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Stakeholder Satisfaction Index was identified as a new indicator that would be developed
by 2003. The 2004 report offered the same assurances. By 2008 the index had
disappeared from the Annual Performance Plan however text referring to the benefits of
stakeholder relations continued to be found in the 2010 report.
Nevertheless, while the flow regime remained highly modified following operational
changes implemented under the Reservoir Releases Improvement Program,
improvements in ecological integrity were observed. It was further hypothesised that
increasingly natural flows could lead to even larger ecological improvements. Given the
complexities of river ecosystems experiencing multiple impairments arising from
multiple stressors, expert analysis is required. Bednarek & Hart (2005) recommend
strategies that employ experimental approaches to the improvement of dam operations,
suggesting that informed predictions of ecosystem response should in part guide
operational adjustments within an adaptive management framework that can incorporate
lessons learned into evolved approaches. It may be asked whether operational
adjustments implemented by TVA have been as effective on in terms of societal
indicators, how associated goals would have been identified, and how TVA could
demonstrate this given the apparent low level of commitment to stakeholder engagement.
Through application of their theoretical framework and subsequent analysis, Blomquist et
al (2005) found that the Fraser Basin Council (FBC), a non-governmental basin
management organisation in British Columbia, works across jurisdictional and
constitutional boundaries bringing together federal and provincial governments, and has
successfully integrated these along with First Nations governments and the interests of
private stakeholders. FBC enables information sharing and maintains a reputation for
objectivity, likely contributing to the development of a diverse financial base. A key
success factor has been the promotion of interdependency among stakeholders however
its reliance on consensus occasionally slows down decision making. Watson (2010)
highlights their CARIBOO partnership model as demonstrating a successful approach to
collaboration. The CARIBOO model consists of a Common Vision that articulates long-
term management goals, major challenges and principles to guide action. Adaptive
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Capacity arises from overlap and non-hierarchical structure that allow for discretion and
adaptability at the regional level while enabling integration of the four orders of
government (Federal, provincial, municipal, First Nations). In addition, annual meetings
provide opportunities for information exchange and social learning through exposure to
different ideas and perspectives. Resources are brought together through shared funding
arrangements. As a third-party facilitator FBC has Independence from government
control, adding to its reputation for objectivity, but maintains a connection to decision
making through continued government involvement. It Balances representation and
power through a consensus based approach, such that minority interests cannot be
outvoted by more powerful coalitions. Finally Outputs and Outcomes are monitored so
that progress can be assessed. The experiences in the Fraser Basin present an interesting
case study and approach to blending the participation and institutional integration of
IWRM with adaptive management and collaborative type approaches.
4.2 Analysis of the Ottawa River Watershed
Over the course of the last two centuries there has been a long history of industrial
activity on the Ottawa River. This prompted legislative responses focussed on issues
connected to industrial activity. While there were early insights into the broader
ecological ramifications of these activities legislation was typically in the spirit of
ensuring activities continue, but within certain limits. As such existing legislation is
limited in scope. In the case ofAn AgreementRespecting Ottawa River Regulation,flood
protection is a primary focus. The Agreement also specifies that the goals of integrated
management are to maintain the interests of various users, particularly hydroelectric
energy production. Other users are not identified explicitly and both Hydro Quebec and
Ontario Hydro are members of the Board and the Regulating Committee specified by the
Agreement. The pattern of preference is consistent and clear suggesting that there will bea certain amount of institutional path dependency to overcome if broader goals are to be
addressed in a meaningful way.
As early as 1910 the interprovincial nature of the Ottawa River watershed was identified
as constituting an additional challenge, when T. Aird Murrayargued for national level
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action citing that provincial authorities were unable to safeguard the transboundary
resources of the basin (Benidickson, 2010). In characterising the conditions in the basin
as being the aggregated result of a series of uncoordinated actions, Harvey (1979)
questioned whether the basin would have developed in the same way had the river not
been subject to management actions (or inactions) of two different provinces. Indeed
these concerns speak to the challenge for basin agencies to know and understand the
mandate of other agencies, which may in fact reside within another government, with
different political interests and concerns. When these are higher level governments with
larger mandates and associated influence over conditions in the basin, this is a key issue.
Better knowledge here can be seen as a building block for improved institutional
integration and better outcomes.
Referring to Watsons (1998) conditions of institutional readiness, the Agreement does
not suggest that participating institutions are necessarily in a state of readiness. There are
no provisions for community involvement, nor is there any specific information given
concerning the broader goals and interests affected by water resources management in the
basin. Nonetheless the Agreement has had its successes. It effectively enables
coordinated operation of multiple hydroelectric installations along the Ottawa, supplying
flood control while maximising the efficient production of electricity. Agencies and
organisations involved in this undertaking have developed a depth of experience and
presumably have honed the institutional mechanisms needed to ensure smooth and
responsive processes. These contribute to the overall institutional readiness for broader
integration of management efforts along the Ottawa however there is room to expand
their ranks.
As was the case in Tennessee, improvements in ecological integrity could be achieved
through existing institutional arrangements with some adjustment to scheduled releases.
The installation of improved fish ladders could help address concerns over access and the
migration of certain species. These actions would constitute an improvement and are
more readily available through the existing arrangement. However we know from the
findings of Engle et al in Brazil (2010) that low levels of participation combined with a
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reliance on heavy infrastructure equate to a more rigid system that is less able to adapt.
Looking beyond improved ecological integrity as an endpoint we find deeper questions
that force us to challenge our assumptions. What are the broader objectives of sustainable
water resources management? There may be outstanding issues regarding social impacts
associated with the flooding of traditional landscapes of First Nations people, or perhaps
impacts to shoreline dwellers due to operational protocols and temporal variations in
water levels, however it becomes difficult to identify specific issues in quantifiable terms.
This is the crux of the problem. Improved management requires a philosophical shift
from managing known issues to managing in such a way as to be prepared to adapt to
currently unidentifiable issues. A central part of this will be ensuring mechanisms are in
place to identify issues as they begin develop, while also ensuring the overall institutional
arrangement has the capacity to respond to these issues.
The literature on IWRM and adaptive management suggest that it would be both
meaningful and appropriate to explore opportunities for public involvement in this
regard. This is underscored by broader shifts in governance requiring governments to be
lean as well as responsive and open. The potential benefits here are better, more informed
and more legitimate decision making. This in turn may result in higher levels of
ownership and compliance, and improved overall outcomes. In the context of smaller
governments opportunities to bolster voluntary compliance are particularly valuable
when it comes to managing non-point sources pollution and other distributed behaviour-
based concerns. The absence of mechanisms to involve the public and incorporate
community knowledge and preferences in decision making reveals an institutional
arrangement that is not well positioned to identify and manage the broader range of issues
that could arise within the Ottawa River Basin, and as a result of their decision making.
As such The Ottawa River Regulation Planning Board is not currently empowered by the
terms of the Agreement to meet its mandate and maintain the interests of the variety of
water users present in the basin. Based on a current understanding of the need for an
integrated and decentralised approach that is dynamic and responsive in the face of
uncertainty, the Agreement appears ready for renewal.
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4.3 Recommendations
Historical factors and the current state of governance in the basin suggest that fully
modernising the operation and governance of hydroelectric infrastructure in such a way
as to respect and contribute to the broader array of interests implicit in sustainable waterresource management, will require a substantial amount of transition. Given that there is
no history of participation a stepped approach is recommended. This should begin with
the identification and engagement of appropriate stakeholders. These include numerous
non-governmental organisations such as Conservation Authorities; basin authorities in
Quebec mandated under the Quebec Water Act; the Ottawa Riverkeeper; and experts
from local universities. These organisations have information, expertise, resources and
invaluable connections to the community. It would be beneficial to seek ways to develop
and tap into this policy network.
While public participation may bring a range of benefits, it must be meaningful to be
sustainable. This requires higher levels of engagement as early on in the decision making
process as possible, such as at the problem definition and direction setting stages, and
will benefit from institutional readiness to incorporate the knowledge and preferences of
the broader stakeholder community into decision making. If participation is seen to be
impactful this will encourage further participation. In addition communication and
engagement processes must be adequately resourced. This will be supported by the
inclusion of other government and non-governmental stakeholders.
Building adaptive capacity has been shown to be an inherently experimental process,
implying a degree of iteration. Accordingly at this point it is inappropriate to detail a final
solution however it is possible to identify strategic next steps.
1. An institutional atlas should be developed in order to identify relevantstakeholders and inform them about one anothers goals and mandate.
2. The broader stakeholder community should embark on a collective visioningprocess. This could help refine the institutional atlas, possibly identifying
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additional interests and stakeholders. However the main purpose would be to
develop collaborative capital and a shared sense of direction from the outset.
3. Decision making should be devolved to the basin level in a meaningful manner.This includes the provision of adequate funding to support new institutional
arrangement in the early stages.
4. New arrangements should be brought together in a structured way that ensuresoutputs and outcomes are measured and made available to stakeholders
In terms of specific adjustments to the Ottawa River Regulation Board and An Agreement
Respecting Ottawa River Regulation, these will flow in large part from the collective
vision process and related activities. However it is expected that these will encompass a
statement regarding the broader interests vested in decision making concerning levels and
flows in the Ottawa River; the value of collaboration in support of the development of
adaptive capacity; and details regarding new governance arrangements that emerge from
the collective visioning process.
The interprovincial nature of the Ottawa River Basin presents an interesting and
somewhat uncommon governance challenge. It would be interesting to look more closely
at relevant institutions and assess how approaches to coordination and collaboration here
compare and contrast to approaches taken elsewhere in similar situations where multiple
higher level governments share management of a river that also acts as a political
boundary. This could involve further testing of the nine-point framework put forward by
Engle et al (2010). In addition it could be informative to investigate similar scenarios in
other country settings to observe alternative approaches and best practices.
5.0 Conclusions
Based on a historical investigation of development and governance in the Ottawa River
basin, and the current theory related to IWRM, we can conclude that governance in the
basin is defined by complex interconnecting issues, and that these issues and related
priorities are subject to change. This signals a need to redress current governance
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approaches and develop more adaptive capacity. This will have a direct bearing on the
sustainability of water resources management in the basin. Current institutional
arrangements have been effective in their mandated role, and provide as good base of
experience in interjurisdictional cooperation on which to build. However it is time to
draw on the broader resources available within the basin and adopt a more collaborative
model in order to build the adaptive capacity needed to safeguard against unforeseen
future events while meeting a broader range of social, environmental and economic
interests.
Word count: 7246
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