F&B AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Full Papers

FAST FOOD AND CULTURAL IMPACT: THE PERCEPTION OF CHINESE AND p. 13 SWISS CONSUMERS Reza Etemad-Sajadi & Daniela Rizzuto, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne THE INFLUENCE OF ECOCENTRIC AND ANTHROPOCENTRIC ATTITUDES p. 23 AND INTRINSIC PRODUCT ATTRIBUTES ON ORGANIC WINE PREFERENCES Imran Rahman, Tyler Stumpf & Dennis Reynolds, Washington State University, Pullman RESTAURANT ENTREPRENEURS’ CHARACTERISTICS AND STRATEGIC ACTIONS p. 37 AND CONSIDERATIONS Christine Demen-Meier, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne & François Pageau, Institut de tourisme et d’hôtellerie du Québec EXPLORING SERVICE SABOTAGE BEHAVIORS IN THE FOOD AND BEVERAGE p. 38 INDUSTRY Lou-Hon Sun, National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism ETHNIC MINORITY PERCEPTIONS OF SELF-SERVICE TECHNOLOGY IN LIMITED p. 39 SERVICE RESTAURANTS Clark S. Kincaid & Seyhmus Baloglu, University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV) CHALLENGES FOR PROCUREMENT IN THE UK CATERING INDUSTRY p. 47 Jane Eastham, Sheffield Hallam University FROM CRADLE-TO-CRADLE: FOOD SOURCING AND ATTITUDES OF RESTAURANTS p. 57 TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTS. THE CASES OF THE CARIBBEAN, USA, SWITZERLAND AND WALES Ian Jenkins, Robert Bristow & Ralph Cervera, STAR (Swiss Tourism Applied Research), LRG-University of Applied Sciences Switzerland & Westfield State University, Massachusetts THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY & SERVICE OPERATIONS p. 67 MANAGEMENT TOOLS AND HOTEL PROFITABILITY & CUSTOMER SATISFACTION Karolin Kokaz Pucciani, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne & Jean Hurpé, Swissôtel Nankai Osaka THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIVIDUALISM/COLLECTIVISM AND FOOD p. 81 HANDLER'S PRACTICES Ma'moun A. Habiballah, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University & Elizabeth M. Ineson, Manchester Metropolitan University

Short Papers GENERATION Y AND ORGANIC WINE: IS IT LOVE AT FIRST SIGHT? p. 82 Elena Cavagnaro, Stenden University of Applied Sciences, Academy of International Hospitality Research INFLUENCE OF FESTIVAL ATTRIBUTE QUALITIES ON SLOW FOOD TOURISTS’ p. 87 EXPERIENCE, SATISFACTION AND INTENTION TO RE-VISIT Timothy Jung, Manchester Metropolitan University, Mincheol Kim, Jeju National University & Elizabeth M. Ineson, Manchester Metropolitan University CLEANER GUESTROOMS FOR A BETTER LODGING INDUSTRY - A HACCP-BASED p. 92 MODEL FOR HOTEL HOUSEKEEPING Sheryl Kline, University of South Carolina, Jack Neal, University of Houston, Barbara Almanza, Purdue University & Olivia V. Stroia, University of South Carolina

Posters

OSTRICH MEAT AS A NEW PRODUCT IN THE HOSPITALITY OFFER IN REPUBLIC OF p. 93 MACEDONIA Gordana Petrovska-Rechkoska, Risto Rechkoski & Elena Petrovska, University “Sv.Kliment Ohridski”-Bitola, Faculty of tourism and hospitality-Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia ICT AND E-BUSINESS IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY IN THE REPUBLIC OF p. 95 MACEDONIA Mirjana Sekulovska, University St. Kliment Ohridski-Bitola, Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality-Ohrid & Emilijan Sekulovski, Politecnico di Milano O B/HRM

FINANCE

Full Papers

SPECIFICITY, FINANCIAL CONTRACT, AND LIQUIDITY OF COMMERCIAL REAL p. 96 ESTATE: A CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR LODGING PROPERTIES Inès Blal, Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne & Nicolas Graf, ESSEC Business School A STUDY OF THE EVOLUTION OF HIGH-END WINES IN SWITZERLAND p. 105 Philippe Masset, Jean-Philippe Weisskopf & Vincent Deboccard, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne ACQUISITION PREMIUMS AND PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENTS FOR ACQUIRERS p. 106 AND TARGETS IN THE LODGING INDUSTRY Jin-young Kim, Kyunghee University & Linda Canina, Cornell University THE CONDITIONAL CAPM IN THE TRAVEL AND LEISURE INDUSTRY p. 107 Alexis Beck & Philippe Masset, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne RESTAURANT RISK: IDENTIFYING THE GAP BETWEEN RESEARCH AND INDUSTRY p. 117 PRACTICES Meng-Mei Chen & Raphael Zanoni, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne

Posters PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT IN THE CROATIAN HOSPITALITY INDUSRY – A p. 126 COMPARATIVE STUDY Milena Peršić , Sandra Janković & Katarina Poldrugovac, Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management , University of Rijeka

INNOVATION

Full Papers MANAGERIAL CAPABILITY FOR INNOVATION IN IRISH TOURISM MICRO FIRMS p. 128 Arthur Kearney & Denis Harrington, Waterford Institute of Technology

Short Papers SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM INDUSTRIES p. 137 AS A BUSINESS MODEL FOR BRINGING ABOUT SOCIAL IMPROVEMENT IN DEVELOPING ECONOMIES Philip Sloan, Claudia Simons-Kaufmann & Willy Legrand, International University of Applied Sciences Bad Honnef

HOSPITABLY SOCIAL OR SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLE? AN EXAMINATION OF SOCIAL p. 142 ENTREPRENEURSHIP WITHIN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY Colin Johnson, Mehmet Ergul & Geoffrey Desa, San Francisco State University

Posters A CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR MANAGING THE HOSPITALITY INNOVATION PROCESS p. 149 Robert Harrington, University of Arkansas & Michael Ottenbacher, Heilbronn University

MARKETING

Full Papers ONLINE MARKETING PRACTICES OF DIFFERENT HOTEL SEGMENTS: CONTENT p. 150 ANALYSIS Maryam Khan, Howard University Washington CSR: ARE VISITORS WILLING TO PAY FOR RESPONSIBILITY? p. 158 Henri Kuokkanen & Michael Macdonald, Glion Institute of Higher Education CAPTURING THE GUEST EXPERIENCE IN HOTELS. PHASE TWO: EXPLORATORY p. 169 STUDY ON THE SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMFORTABLE AND INVITING AMBIENCE Ruth Pijls & Brenda Groen, Saxion University of Applied Sciences EFFECT ON PRICES OF THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE SAILING BOATS: A HEDONIC p. 179 PRICES APPROACH Neven Sipic, Zagreb School of Business AN EXPLORATION OF THE RELEVANCE AND RECALL OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN HOTEL p. 188 ROOM PURCHASE Hilary Catherine Murphy & Meng-Mei Chen, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne EXPLORING THE MOTIVES OF HOTEL GUESTS IN THEIR CHOICES ABOUT p. 189 SUSTAINABILITY WITH REGARD TO HOTEL STAY Arjan van Rheede & Rob J. Blomme, Hotelschool The Hague THE PRESENCE OF A VIRTUAL AGENT ON THE RESTAURANT’S WEBSITE: THE p. 195 IMPACT ON WEB-USERS’ PERCEPTION Reza Etemad-Sajadi, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne CUSTOMERS’ LIGHTING NEEDS AND WANTS AT THE RESTAURANT p. 204 Caroline Jacquier & Agnès Giboreau, Food and Hospitality Research Center – Institut Paul Bocuse FREQUENCY AND MAGNITUDE OF EMOTIONAL DESCRIPTORS OF HOSPITALITY p. 212 CUSTOMER REVIEWS: AN INDEX VALIDATION Samad Laaroussi & Lohyd Terrier, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne EXAMINE THE ANTECEDENTS AND OUTCOMES OF RELATIONSHIP QUALITY p. 226 Christina Geng-qing Chi, Washington State University & Wen Biyan, Jinan University HOTEL SEARCH AND SELECTION ATTRIBUTES FOR LEISURE TRAVELERS – THE p. 235 CASE OF SWISS OFFICIAL STAR RATING Horatiu Tudori & Francine Federer, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne

STATUS-SEEKING CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND ITS IMPACT ON THE HOSPITALITY p. 236 CONSUMPTION OF YOUNG PROFESSIONAL FEMALES Kimberley Anne Kirk-Macaulay & Susan Horner, Bournemouth University

Short Papers USING HOTEL STORIES TO ADD NEW VALUE TO THE HOTEL EXPERIENCE p. 237 Bastienne Bernasco, Saxion University of Applied Research EXPLORING SERVICE ENCOUNTER QUALITY WITH TOURISM STUDENTS p. 242 Sanna-Mari Renfors & Vappu Salo, Satakunta University of Applied Sciences A MODIFIED ORGANIZATIONAL BUYING BEHAVIOR MODEL OF THE MEETING p. 247 PROFESSIONAL'S SITE SELECTION PROCESS Carole Sox, Sheryl Kline, Sandy Strick & Xiang Robert Li, University of South Carolina ASSESSING ATTENDEES' ATTITUDES TOWARDS A SPECIAL EVENT: APPLYING p. 248 HEDONIC DIMENSIONS Deborah Breiter, Diehdra Potter & Duncan Dickson, Rosen College of Hospitality Management University of Central Florida GUEST JOURNEY EXPERIENCE MAPPING p. 249 Jan Huizing, Karoline W. Wiegerink & Danilo Huss, Hotelschool The Hague THE SENIOR TRAVELER: PERCEPTIONS OF CHINESE SENIORS TOWARDS FUTURE p. 250 TRAVEL Howard Adler & Tong Ji, Purdue University YOUTH TRAVEL AND THEIR DESTINATION CHOICE p. 254 Ali Sukru Cetinkaya, Selcuk University, Yuliya Skorobogatova, Università della Svizzera Italiana & Muzaffer Uysal, Virginia Tech EXPLORING THE INFLUENCE OF FOUR REALMS OF EXPERIENTIAL MARKETING p. 258 ON IMPULSE BUYING IN CHINESE NEW YEAR FESTIVAL Austin Rong-Da Liang, National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism & Jun-Shu Zhang, Shanghai Normal University IS GENERATION Y READY TO GO GREEN? p. 264 Marketa Kubickova, H. G. Parsa & K. Nusair, Rosen College of Hospitality Management University of Central Florida

Posters ONLINE HOTEL BRAND IMAGE: HOTEL MARKETING MANAGERS' PERSPECTIVES p. 265 Duangthida Nunthapirat & Hesham Al-Sabbahy, School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Surrey WHICH FACTORS ARE IMPORTANT FOR CUSTOMERS CONCERNING HOTEL p. 267 LOYALTY PROGRAM DESIGN? Mareike Haas, Heilbronn University, Michael Ottenbacher Heilbronn University & Robert J. Harrington University of Arkansas GETTING TO KNOW THE CONTENT OF THE ‘WOW’ p. 269 Lysbeth Vink, Annette Kappert-White & Daphne Dekker, Hotelschool The Hague

OB/HRM

Full Papers THE EFFECTS OF HOPE AND WORK ENGAGEMENT ON FRONTLINE EMPLOYEES’ p. 272 PERFORMANCE OUTCOMES Osman M. Karatepe, Faculty of Tourism Eastern Mediterranean University WHEN EMPLOYEES WALK THE COMPANY TALK: THE BENEFITS OF INVOLVEMENT p. 281 IN CORPORATE PHILANTHROPY FOR EMPLOYEE COMMITMENT AND GOODWILL Steffen P. Raub, Ecole Hôtelière Lausanne THE IDEAL BOSS IN HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY - THE SEARCH GOES ON p. 282 Kari Nurminen, HAAGA-HELIA University of Applied Sciences THE USE OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT TO EXPLAIN SELF-PERCEIVED p. 283 EMPLOYABILITY Jenny Sok, Hotelschool The Hague, Rob Blomme, Nyenrode Business University & Debbie Tromp, Hotelschool The Hague ACCEPTANCE OF LOW PAY: A STUDY OF PEOPLE IN LOW PAID JOBS p. 294 Sumeetra Ramakrishnan, Middlesex University INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE AS AN ANTECEDENT OF FRONTLINE EMPLOYEES' p. 295 JOB ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS IN THE HOTEL SECTOR Ankie Hoefnagels, Maastricht Hotel Management School, Armand Odekerken, Maastricht Hotel Management School & Josee Bloemer, Radboud University EXPATRIATE MANAGERS IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY AND NEGOTIATION p. 310 SUCCESS: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF SPANISH HOTEL CHAINS IN LATIN AMERICA Agustín Alonso, Ana Arencibia, Desiderio J. García-Almeida & Ancor Suárez, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT IN THE JORDANIAN HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY: p. 311 DOES THE CONTEXT MATTER? Andrew Lockwood, University of Surrey, Hesham Al-Sabbahy, University of Surrey, Khaled Odeh, Al-Hussein bin Talal University & Samer Al-Sabi, Al-Hussein bin Talal University HUBS AND SPOKES: CHARACTERISTICS OF CAREER NETWORKS OF p. 323 MICHELIN-STARRED CHEFS Florian Aubke, Marc Stierand & Stefanie Krätz, MODUL University Vienna & NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences TO WHAT EXTENT DOES A STAR RETAIN TALENT? p. 324 Stéphanie Pougnet, Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne ROLE AMBIGUITY AND ROLE CONFLICT IN OUTSOURCED AND p. 325 PROPRIETARY-MANAGED SPAS Veronica Waldthausen & Demian Hodari, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne THE INFLUENCE OF COMMUNICATION QUALITY BETWEEN SUPERIORS AND p. 327 SUBORDINATES ON THE TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE HOTEL INDUSTRY José Luis Ballesteros Rodríguez, Desiderio J. García Almeida, Crisanto Román Montoya & Carmen Domínguez-Falcón, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria & Lopesan REVISITING HOSPITALITY COMPETENCIES: THE CASE OF CYPRUS p. 328 Stelios Marneros, European University of Cyprus & Anastasios Zopiatis, Cyprus University of Technology

MANAGING HUMAN RESOURCES IN HOSPITALITY. THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING p. 337 COMMITTED EMPLOYEES. Ana Machado Sampaio, ISMAI - Instituto Superior da Maia & Angeles Cabarcos , Universidade de Santiago de Compostela “DON'T THINK THERE AREN'T CROCODILES BECAUSE THE WATER IS CALM”: A p. 347 STUDY OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT NARRATIVES FROM THE MALAYSIAN HOTEL INDUSTRY Jing Jing Lee and Lyn Glanz, Glion Institution of Higher Education Les Roches-Gruyère University of Applied Sciences EMPLOYING MIGRANT WORKERS IN THE HOSPITALITY SECTOR - A STRATEGY p. 357 FOR GAINING COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE? Hania Janta, University of Surrey, Peter Lugosi, Oxford Brookes University, Lorraine Brown, Bournemouth University & Adele Ladkin, Bournemouth University

Short Papers HOSPITALITY AND LANGUAGE p. 358 Leanne Schreurs, Saxion Hospitality Business School ASSESSING EFFECTS OF ACCULTURATION ON SERVICE FAILURE RESPONSES: p. 363 INSIGHTS FROM AUSTRALIAN-CHINESE CONSUMERS Karin Weber, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Beverley Sparks, Griffith Business School & Cathy Hsu, Hong Kong Polytechnic University A BETTER HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES: p. 364 NATIONALISATION IN ROTANA HOTELS Olga Kampaxi, Cesar Ritz Colleges A STUDY OF EMOTIONAL LABOUR OF FAST FOOD EMPLOYEES p. 365 Hazrina Ghazali, Nurhasmilaalisa Abdul Halim & Yap Sing Yee, University PUTRA Malaysia HOSPITALITY EMPLOYEE WELL-BEING: INSIGHT FROM A LUXURY HOTEL IN p. 370 THAILAND Ewa M. Mottier & Robert A. Lewis, Les Roches-Gruyère University of Applied Sciences/Les Roches International School of Hotel Management THE LOW LEVEL OF ORGANISATIONAL SOCIAL CAPITAL IN HOTELS – A NEW p. 375 ZEALAND CASE STUDY Anthony Brien, Lincoln University, Nicholas Thomas, DePaul University & Ananda Hussein, Lincoln University HOSPITALITY BUSINESS: EXPLORING A NEW RESEARCH AGENDA p. 380 Brenda Groen, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Xander Lub, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Ruth Pijls, Saxion University of Applied Sciences & Rene Rijnders, Dutch Board of Hotel & Catering Industry

Posters A CASE STUDY OF MANAGEMENT NEGLIGENCE RESULTING IN WORKPLACE p. 381 VIOLENCE Stuart Feigenbaum, Hotelschool Den Haag & Suzanne Murrmann, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University STUDY OF PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN THE FIELD OF TOURISM IN LATVIA p. 383 Margarita Platace & Agita Donina, Faculty of International Tourism, School of Business Administration Turiba

PEDAGOGY

Full Papers EDUCATING THE NEW GENERATION OF GLOBAL MANAGERS: TESTING CULTURAL p. 384 INTELLIGENCE FOR BUSINESS STUDY ABROAD PARTICIPANTS A.J. Singh, Chunyan Peng & Linn Van Dyne, Eli Broad College of Business Michigan State University HOSPITALITY STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF DIGITAL TOOLS FOR LEARNING AND p. 395 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Alisha Ali, Sheffield Hallam University, Hilary Catherine Murphy, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne & Sanjay Nadkarni, Emirates Academy HOSPITALITY EDUCATION: CREATING SUSTAINABLE EMPOWERMENT p. 396 OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN IN NIGERIA Belinda Nwosu, Wavecrest College of Hospitality STUDENT DETERMINANTS OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND PROGRAM p. 405 COMPLETION INTENTION Brian Soule, Pennsylvania State University, James A. Busser, University of Nevada & Cynthia Carruthers, University of Nevada DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF AN ELEARNING COURSE PRESENTING A p. 406 REGIONAL DESTINATION. THE CASE OF “TICINO SWITZERLAND TRAVEL SPECIALIST” Nadzeya Kalbaska, Olena Sorokolit & Lorenzo Cantoni, Università della Svizzera italiana

Short Papers EXPECTATIONS CREATED: A REVIEW OF GRADUATE MANAGEMENT TRAINING p. 415 PROGRAMMES FROM INTERNATIONAL HOTELS’ CORPORATE WEBSITES Fang Wang & Maureen Brookes, Oxford Brookes University PERCEPTIONS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF NUMERACY AS AN EMPLOYABILITY SKILL p. 420 BY HOSPITALITY STUDENTS AND EMPLOYERS: A COMPARISON OF UNITED KINGDOM AND HONG KONG Anne Conneally & David Egan, Sheffield Hallam University EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS ON THE STUDY PROGRESS OF p. 427 HOSPITALITY STUDENTS Nije Bijvank M., Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Woelders L., VU University, Verweij C. F., Saxion University of Applied Sciences & Tonnaer G. H., Saxion University of Applied Sciences REASONS FOR DROPPING OUT OF TOURISM STUDIES p. 432 Heli Müristaja, Tiina Viin & Rita Viik, Pärnu College, University of Tartu ASSESSING THE COMPETENCIES NEEDED BY HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT p. 437 GRADUATES IN INDIA Li-Ting (Grace )Yang, University of South Carolina, Charles G. Partlow, University of South Carolina, Jaisree Anand, Auro University & Vimal Shukla, Auro University HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT MBA PROGRAMMES – MEETING THE EMPLOYABILITY p. 442 NEEDS OF STUDENTS AND EMPLOYERS Seth Lewis, Ealing Hammersmith West London College

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY (ELT) PERSPECTIVE: THE CASE OF GAP YEAR p. 447 TRAVEL RESEARCH Novie Johan, University of Surrey THE IMPACT OF SUMMER STUDY ABROAD ON STUDENTS' VENTURESOMENESS: p. 448 AN EXAMINATION USING PLOG'S PSYCHOGRAPHIC PERSONALITY TYPES Makarand Mody, Susan Gordon, Howard Adler & Xinran Lehto, Purdue University PROFILING HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT STUDENTS p. 453 Wendy Smeets, Hotelschool The Hague THE IMPORTANCE OF HOSPITALITY CONCEPT WITHIN THE TEACHING METHODS p. 459 OF VOCATIONAL COLLEGE FOR CATERING AND TOURISM MARIBOR Nataša Artič & Helena Cvikl, Vocational College for Catering and Tourism Maribor A SCHOLARSHIP OF TEACHING AND LEARNING PROJECT IN HOSPITALITY AND p. 465 TOURISM: PERCEPTIONS OF PLACE THROUGH THE PHOTO VOICES OF STUDENTS Cynthia S. Deale, East Carolina University

Poster ASSESSING INTERCULTURAL SENSITIVITY OF STUDENTS AND ACADEMIC p. 466 PROGRAMS IN HOSPITALITY Larisa Buhin Loncar & Lucija Marinov, American College of Management and Technology COMPARING ORANGES WITH APPLES? LOOKING FOR ACADEMIC AND p. 467 PRACTITIONERS INTERESTS ON SUSTAINABILITY IN HOSPITALITY Elena Cavagnaro & Ernst Jonker, Stenden UAS STUDENTS GET INVOLVED IN HOTEL RECYCLING EFFORTS p. 470 Betsy Stringam, New Mexico State University

REVENUE MANAGEMENT

Full Paper GAME-THEORETIC OPTIMIZATION IN CONJOINT PRICING p. 471 Bjorn Arenoe & Jean-Pierre van der Rest, Hotelschool The Hague

Short Paper

TOURISM, CULTURAL HERITAGE AND REVENUE MANAGEMENT p. 479 Kate Varini, Oxford Brookes University & Rafael Matos-Wasem, Institute for Tourism, HES-SO Valais

Posters HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION BETWEEN THE FORECASTING SUPPORT p. 484 SYSTEM AND THE REVENUE MANAGER Larissa Koupriouchina, Hotelschool The Hague, Jean-Pierre Van Der Rest, Hotelschool The Hague & Mark Dechesne, Leiden University

STRATEGY

Full Papers WHO'S IN CHARGE NOW? THE DECISION AUTONOMY OF HOTEL GENERAL p. 486 MANAGERS Demian Hodari & Willl Hobden, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne AN EXAMINATION OF FRANCHISEE BUSINESS START UP THROUGH AN p. 487 ENTREPRENEURIAL LENS Maureen Brookes, Oxford Brookes University, Levent Altinay, Oxford Brookes University & Ruth Yeung, Institute for Tourism Studies, Macau HOSPITALITY FOR A BETTER WORLD: IS THE HOSPITABILITY INDUSTRY p. 488 MITIGATING ITS ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS? AN EMPIRICAL STUDY ON THE HOTELIERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONLINE SELF-AUDIT TOOLS AND THE BARRIERS AND MOTIVATORS TO INVEST IN GREEN AND ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES. Willy Legrand, Cornelius Kirsche, Philip Sloan & Claudia Simons-Kaufmann, International University of Applied Sciences Bad Honnef CARBON FOOTPRINT MITIGATION THROUGH ENERGY SMART HOTEL p. 498 BENCHMARKING: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SELF-ADMINISTERED ENERGY AUDIT ONLINE TOOLS FOR HOTELS Willy Legrand, Sabine Allhoff, Philip Sloan & Claudia Simons-Kaufmann, International University of Applied Sciences Bad Honnef “HOSPITALITY TOMORROW”: A CASE FOR DESIGN DRIVEN INNOVATION IN p. 509 HOSPITALITY RESEARCH Xander D. Lub, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Laura Niño Caceres,Thought Refinery & René Rijnders, Dutch Board of Hotel & Catering Industry NEW VENTURE ENTRY MODE AND COMPETITIVE DYNAMICS: AN INVESTIGATION OF p. 519 LONG-TERM HOTEL PERFORMANCE Cathy A. Enz & Linda Canina, Cornell University DEVELOPMENT OF DYNAMIC CAPABILITIES: NEW ROLE OF HOTEL MANAGEMENT p. 527 COMPANIES Mozgovaya Evelina, HEC Geneva, Haemmerli Mike, Kempinski Hotels & Ferrary Michel, HEC Geneva THE HOTEL AS THE HOLIDAY / STAY DESTINATION: TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS p. 537 Detta M. Melia & Gereva Hackett, Dublin Institute of Technology

Short Papers A SET OF TOOLS FOR THE RISK ASSESSMENT OF BUSINESS ETHICS IN AN p. 547 ORGANISATION Benjamin Wirz, University of Surrey INTERNATIONAL HOTEL EXPANSION IN INDIA: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES p. 553 Maryam Khan, Howard University DOES CUSTOMER LOYALTY TRANSLATE INTO LONG TERM PROFITABILITY WITHIN p. 558 THE HOTEL INDUSTRY? INVESTIGATING THE IMPACT OF NET PROMOTERS ON FIRM PERFORMANCE Betsy Stringam, New Mexico State University, John Gerdes, University of South Carolina & Basak Denizci Guillet, Hong Kong Polytechnic University

AN EXPLORATION OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SERVICE QUALITY, p. 564 SUSTAINABLE COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE AND FIRM PERFORMANCE. Stuart Feigenbaum, Hotelschool The Hague

Posters CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND IMPACT ON HOTEL INDUSTRIES p. 569 Babak Khazaeli, Université de Rennes1 KEY BENCHMARKS ANALYSIS IN THE EVALUATION OF ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE p. 570 OF SPA HOTELS IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC Alexey Kondrashov, Department of Tourism, University of Economics in Prague

TOURISM

Full Papers

SHANGHAI RESIDENTS’ PERCEIVED SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF THE p. 573 WORLD EXPO 2010: INSIGHTS FROM A LONGITUDINAL STUDY Xiang Robert Li, University of South Carolina, Cathy H.C. Hsu, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University & Laura Lawton, Griffith University DESTINATION MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATIONS - QUEST FOR PRESENT AND p. 574 FUTURE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, A CROSS-COUNTRY ANALYSIS Katarzyna Klimek, University of Applied Sciences, Institute of Tourism HOW ORGANIZATION OF HOTEL INDUSTRY AFFECTS THE TOURIST DESTINATION p. 587 POSITIONING – AN EXAMPLE OF ISTRIA TOURIST DESTINATION Nadia Pavia, Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management Opatija & Tamara Floricic, Juraj Dobrila University of Pula CRUISE TOURISM IN JUNEAU, ALASKA: AN INCONVENIENT TRUTH? p. 599 Barbara Hoffmann & Alice Yau, Cesar Ritz Colleges REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE TRANSITION AND POST-TRANSITION ERA: p. 600 CASE ESTONIAN TOURISM REGIONS 1991-2011 Ain Hinsberg & Tiit Kask, Estonian School of Hotel & Tourism Management EHTE SUSTAINABILITY VALUES AND TOURISTS’ DESTINATION CHOICES p. 610 E. Sirakaya-Turk, University of South Carolina & Seyhmus Baloglu, UNLV TRANSFORMATIONAL HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM: THE HEALTH AND WELLNESS p. 611 SECTORS Melanie Smith, Budapest Business School EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL OF DEVELOPING DOMESTIC TOURISM IN ROMANIA p. 621 Colin Seeley & Gelu Pui, César Ritz Colleges IS THERE A FUTURE / CAREER FOR TOURIST GUIDES? p. 631 Detta M. Melia, & Josephine Rice, Dublin Institute of Technology AN ANALYSIS OF THE CONCEPT OF “ADVENTURE” IN ADVENTURE TOURISM. p. 643 CASE STUDY: GUIDED SKI MOUNTAINEERING IN THE EUROPEAN ALPS Christine Barnes, Swiss Hotel Management School

Short Papers

MEDICAL TOURISM AS A MEANS OF COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE: THE CASE OF p. 653 TURKEY Mehmet Ergul, San Francisco State University, Colin Johnson, San Francisco State University, Ali Sukru Cetinkaya, Selcuk University & David S. Martin, Auburn University SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT – FACTORS FOR LOCAL RESIDENTS’ p. 654 ATTITUDE TOWARDS TOURISM AND TOURISTS (THE CASE OF BULGARIA) Maria Vodenska, Tourism Department, Sofia University REDEFINING COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM p. 659 Emmanuel Barreto, Eurofin Hospitality MAKING SPACE HOSPITABLE: UNDERSTANDING THE COMPLEXITIES OF REUSING p. 664 THE HISTORIC BUILT ENVIRONMENT FOR HOSPITALITY Ian Elsmore, Sheffield Hallam University & Tanya Rountree, Nottingham Trent University THE CITY HOSPITALITY EXPERIENCE MODEL – SHAPING A HOSPITABLE CITY p. 665 Monique van Prooijen-Lander & Karoline W. Wiegerink, Hotelschool The Hague

Posters CULTURAL ROUTES IN TURKEY; EVLIYA ÇELEBI WAY p. 670 Canan Baştemur, Kastamonu University IMPORTANCE OF SPECIAL ACTIVITIES TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AS PERSPECTIVE p. 674 SYNERGY OF INCENTIVE TRAVEL AND EXPERIENCE ECONOMY IN LITHUANIA Nida Kaladyte & Skirmante Vaitkute, Vilnius kolegija/ University of Applied Sciences Vilnius State University

FAST FOOD AND CULTURAL IMPACT: THE PERCEPTION OF CHINESE AND SWISS CONSUMERS

Reza Etemad-Sajadi*

Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne Lausanne, Switzerland

reza.etemad@ehl.ch

and

Daniela Rizzuto Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne

Lausanne, Switzerland daniela.rizzuto@ehl.ch

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this research is to investigate the degree of satisfaction and loyalty of Chinese and Swiss fast-food consumers. The aim is to compare Chinese/Swiss consumers’ perception of meal quality, service quality, price and their influence on their satisfaction and loyalty. The image of fast-food restaurants in the two countries is also compared.

Key Words: Service quality, Fast-food restaurants, Customer satisfaction, Customer loyalty, Culture

INTRODUCTION

Competition in the fast food market is growing and success depends more and more on customer retention. Therefore, service improvements are the key to competitive success. To succeed in different countries, fast-food providers must adapt themselves to local preferences (Qin et al., 2010). Indeed, despite a more and more globalized world, customers have differing needs and perceptions. Although, causes of satisfaction and dissatisfaction can sometimes be generalized, there are some variations according to cultural background. Therefore, it is important to identify the specific characteristics of culturally diverse markets (Brady et al., 2001). Indeed, most studies report an effect of culture (Hofstede, 1991) on perceptions and this implies that service offerings need to be adapted to the environment (Donthu and Yoo, 1998; Furrer et al., 2000; Hoare and Butcher, 2008; Laroche et al., 2004). It is crucial to understand how customers evaluate services so firms can adapt their offerings accordingly. By adapting to the local needs and preferences a step towards superior service quality is undertaken.

The way that service quality and meal quality are perceived by local consumers will influence customers’ satisfaction and consequently their loyalty in the future. Indeed, consumer loyalty is a pre-requisite for a successful and profitable business. Several authors also argued that satisfaction is an antecedent of loyalty (Woodside et al., 1989; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Kandampully and Suhartanto, 2000; Lovelock and Wright, 2002; Hong and Goo, 2004; Ekinci et al., 2008; Faullant et al., 2008). Service quality has a direct impact on customer satisfaction and an indirect impact on customer loyalty. However, there are several more factors that must be taken into account such as the impact of firm’s image or even the perception of price fairness. A complete picture is essential in order to truly deliver what customers desire based on their national culture.

For this research, McDonald’s was chosen as it is the world’s market leader in fast food, the local leader in Switzerland and well represented in China. McDonald’s is an example of combination between its process of globalization, standardization and adaptation to local communities (Vignali, 2001). Switzerland and China were selected to represent two different cultures. Moreover, while McDonald’s is seen as a usual fast-food restaurant in some countries, it represents a symbol in others. Our goal is to investigate the antecedents of satisfaction and loyalty of Chinese and Swiss fast-food consumers.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The relationship between service quality, satisfaction, and loyalty

Several models exist to measure the quality of service perceived by the consumers. One of the most famous is SERVQUAL. Parasuraman et al. (1988) developed SERVQUAL instrument which measures customers’ perception of the received service and relate it to their expectations and the gap measures client’s satisfaction. Indeed, consumer perception of service quality is critical for the success of a firm as it is linked with customer satisfaction and loyalty (Parasuraman et al., 1985; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Baker and Crompton, 2000; Lee et al., 2000; Caruana, 2002; Hong and Goo, 2004; Ladhari, 2009). Customer satisfaction acts as a mediator between service quality and loyalty and has an overall stronger effect on loyalty than service quality. However, satisfaction alone may not be enough to actually achieve loyalty (Woodside et al., 1989; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Kandampully and Suhartanto, 2000; Lovelock and Wright, 2002; Hong and Goo, 2004; Ekinci et al., 2008; Faullant et al., 2008). It was found that the majority of customers who assert to be brand loyal did switch brand recently even if they were generally satisfied with their regular brand. Therefore, in order to become loyal and profitable for the company, a customer must be highly satisfied. Any drop from total satisfaction results in a major drop in loyalty (Jones and Sasser, 1995). Moreover, less money needs to be invested in attracting new customers as highly satisfied customers spread positive word of mouth and recommend the service to others (Lovelock and Wright, 2002). As far as restaurant experience is concerned, Stevens et al. (1995) adapted SERVQUAL to the restaurant industry and called it DINESERV. Several authors argued that food, physical environment, and employee services are major components and have an impact on customer satisfaction (Ryu et al., 2012; Chow et al., 2007; Jang and Namkung, 2009). In the fast food industry, several authors studied the impact of perceived service quality on customer satisfaction and loyalty (Stevens et al., 1995; Brady et al., 2001; Qin and Prybutok, 2009; Gilbert et al., 2004; Qin et al., 2010; Johns and Howard, 1998; Law et al, 2004). The factors such as the taste of food, the outlet cleanliness, the fast service, and the friendliness of staff seem to play a major role. Moreover, two values that are gaining importance are price and nutritional values (Kara et al., 1995; Oyewole, 1999; Min, 2011). Convenient operating hours are a further significant point for consumers (Oyewole, 1999).

Challenges when dealing with customers in different countries/cultures

One of the most important research studying cultural differences between countries was done by Hofstede in 1991. He stated that differences in thinking needed to be taken into consideration if one wants to define effective solutions in a cross-cultural context. People acquire patterns of thinking, feelings and potential acting during their childhood which are formed afterwards by their social environment. Picking up on the theory of Hofstede, Laroche et al. (2004) defined culture as the sum of learned beliefs, values, and customs that create behavioural norms for a given society. Culture is one of the key constraints to complete marketing standardization. In fact, it has been noted that the inability of firms and their managers to make adjustments to the demands of the international business environment, principally due to the inability or unwillingness of managers to appreciate cultural challenges, has been cited as the principal cause of international business failures. For business success in new geographic areas, it is vital to develop strategies that adapt to the cultural environment of the country. Depending on the characteristics of the culture, the service provider needs to work harder to delight its customers. As standardization is necessary in order to control cost, managers need to ensure that they offer the same services to similar customers. However, in parallel smart firms are customizing their offerings and services to local markets (Ueletschy et al., 2008). With the trend of globalization, growth of transnational corporations, and the emergence of culture related issues, cultural differences have become significant when explaining the behaviour of consumers and designing efficient marketing strategies and tools (Weiermair and Fuchs, 2000).

Hofstede (1991) identified five dimensions of culture which are i) power distance (the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally), ii) individualism versus collectivism (the degree of interdependence a society maintains among its members), iii) masculinity versus femininity (the fundamental issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best or liking what you do), iv) uncertainty avoidance (the extent to which the members of a

culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these), and v) long-term versus short-term orientation (the extent to which a society shows a pragmatic future-oriented perspective rather than a conventional historical short-term point of view). These cultural dimensions have been widely used in explaining customers’ perception of service quality in different cultures (Donthu and Yoo, 1998; Furrer et al., 2000; Hoare and Butcher, 2008). Donthu and Yoo (1998) analysed the effect of Hofstede’s dimensions on customers’ service quality expectations. They found that the level of expectation is higher for customers with a culture identified to be individualistic, low on power distance, short-term oriented and high on uncertainty avoidance. Laroche et al. (2004) and Ueletschy et al. (2008) found that some measures of service quality and satisfaction were constant across cultures. This suggests that some marketing measures can be standardized but that total standardization will not lead to satisfaction. Whereas consumers from collectivist and/or high uncertainty avoiding cultures tend to voice praise when they receive superior service, they are also less apt to switch service providers and to voice criticism when they receive inferior customer service. In direct contrast, consumers from individualistic and/or low uncertainty avoiding cultures are less likely to praise superior service but are more apt to switch and to voice criticism.

Culture in Switzerland versus China

Table 1 shows a comparison of culture between Switzerland and China. According to Hofstede (1991) Switzerland is an individualistic and masculine culture with a small power distance and a relative high tolerance for uncertain situations. Chinese culture is characterized by a large power distance, collectivism and a long-term orientation.

Table 1: Cultural distance between Switzerland and China (Hofstede, 1991)

Note: PDI = Power distance, IDV = Individualism, MAS = Masculinity/Feminity, UAI = Uncertainty avoidance, LTO = Long term orientation China’s fast food market

In 2006, fast food industry revenues reached 35 billion dollars in China (Datamonitor, 2007). In 2009, its revenues reached 64 billion dollars while fast food industry revenues in the world reached 486 billion dollars (Euromonitor, 2010). With the fast-growing middle class in China, their lifestyle is changing and less people are cooking at home (Cullen et al., 2008). However, fast food in the Chinese market share accounts for only 9.8% of Chinese sales for outside meals versus 84.5% in America (Datamonitor, 2007). This implies an important potential of growth in China (Qin et al., 2010). By 2014, it is predicted that fast food will account for 26% of the consumer foodservice market (Euromonitor, 2010). International fast-food chains are rushing into China due to the huge market potential. Asian fast-food restaurants represent by far the largest sub-sector in the fast food industry. This implies that Chinese customers are obviously accustomed to their local cuisine. Additionally, Asian fast-food restaurants also have lower selling prices than Western fast-food outlets. Indeed, prices in McDonald’s and Kentucky Fried Chicken are often too high for people living in underdeveloped cities and rural areas. McDonald’s who is present in China since 1990, is number two with 15.8% market share compared to

40.2% of KFC (Euromonitor, 2010). As local products are favoured by Chinese customers, Western fast-foods such as McDonald’s must adapt their offers to the local market.

Switzerland’s fast food market

Sales of fast food remained strong in 2009, indicating that they have not suffered from or were not greatly impacted by the recent credit crunch. Indeed, they even benefited as customers downgraded from more expensive restaurants. In 2009, sales reached 1.5 billion dollars (Euromonitor, 2007). Further, the popularity of fast-food outlets among youngsters contributed to the growth. An estimated 20% of young people in Switzerland aged between 15 and 24 eat fast food more than twice a week (Euromonitor, 2010). The fast food industry is predicted to grow further, supported by time-pressed and busy customers looking for time-saving solutions (Euromonitor, 2010). Fast-food providers are challenged by the increasing health focus and campaigns sponsored by the Federal Office of Public Health and major consumer protection associations that prompt Swiss consumers to limit their fast food consumption. As a reaction to this trend, fast-food restaurants have adjusted their menu offerings. In order to cater to the health conscious clientele, they make ingredient and nutritional information available on their menus (Euromonitor, 2010). Burger fast food dominates the market with almost 50% of the total fast food value in 2009. McDonald’s is a major contributor to the fast food brand with 42% market share (Euromonitor, 2010) and its first restaurant opened in 1976.

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

Figure 1 represents the research model. The goal of this research is not to test the complete model, but to observe the impact of nationality on the other variables. As we already have an idea of the five dimensions of national culture described by Hofstede for the two countries, we focused on the consumers’ nationality instead of asking them questions related to Hofstede’s dimensions. We also aim to determine whether nationality has a moderating role on the other relationships between the different latent variables. As SERVQUAL instrument has been used in several different cultural contexts, we opted for this instrument and we adapted the items of the five dimensions of SERVQUAL, which are reliability, responsiveness, assurance, tangibles, and empathy, to the fast food industry. We only focused on consumer perception of performance and not on their expectation. In this sense, we were more similar to SERVPERF.

Figure 1: Initial research model

 

Notes: Links between IVs (independent variables) and DVs (dependent variables) based on literature Our specific 6 hypotheses

METHODOLOGY

Sampling and data collection procedures

Switzerland and China were selected to represent Western and Asian cultures. We selected McDonald’s as it is globally a standardized and well-known fast-food chain. Students were chosen for our two samples. They were identified to be the current customers of fast-food restaurants and consequently possess an intuitive understanding of fast-food outlets. Further, they do not have a lot of discretionary income to spend on eating out and are therefore likely to choose cheap options such as McDonald’s. A student sample was also chosen to enhance sampling equivalence. This approach is often used for cross-cultural studies as they minimize demographic and socioeconomic variances (Clarke, 2001). Indeed, students share similar characteristics which facilitate a comparison of the variables in question. Research was facilitated through the easy access to universities and therefore to the target population. The sampling frame consists of Swiss students at Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne and University of St. Gallen, and Chinese students from the Beijing Hospitality Institute.

The questionnaire was sent to 683 Swiss students and to 572 students in China which results in a total number of 1255. A total of 118 responses were collected, 66 from Swiss students and 52 from Chinese students. This results in an overall response rate of 9.4% (9.7% for the Swiss sample, 9.1% for the Chinese sample). The relatively low response rate of the present study can be explained by the length of the questionnaire. Indeed, as we wanted to increase the reliability of respondents, we had several items for the majority of our latent variables.

Data analysis method

Data analysis was performed using ANOVA. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was also adopted to test the hypotheses because the model contains latent variables. We chose partial least square (PLS), because it does not require a large sample (Fornell and Lacker, 1981). SmartPLS 2.0 was used for the analysis. We employed a bootstrapping method (200 sub-samples) to test the significant level of regression path coefficients.

RESULTS

Reliability and validity of measures

All latent variables have a cronbach’s α higher than 0.6, which confirms that the scale reliabilities have adequate and stable measurement properties. Validity is assessed based on three main criteria, namely unidimensionality, convergent, and discriminant validity. An exploratory factor analysis can verify unidimensionalty. In our case, validity is confirmed and sufficient to support the model.

Results and discussion

Table2 shows the comparison of means between the perception of Chinese and Swiss fast-food consumers. The first major difference comes from the perception of product quality. Chinese consumers perceive a higher quality of product in McDonald’s (mean = 3.28) compared to Swiss consumers (mean = 2.25). This difference seems to be very important. On Figure 2, we see that the nationality explains 25.7% of variance of product quality perceived. Hence H2 is supported. Vignali (2001) argued that the perception of the quality of McDonald’s products varies based on the country. This point can also explain the fact that there is no significant difference of perception about price. Indeed, the perception about the fairness of the price is very similar in the two samples. Consumers in China appear to be willing to pay a higher price relative to their earnings due to the fact that they perceive a higher quality in McDonald’s products. Hence H3 is supported.

Another significant difference is the image of the company. We notice that Chinese consumers have a better image of McDonald’s (mean = 3.68) compared to Swiss consumers (mean = 3.36). Hence, H4 is supported. On can conclude that compared to China, McDonald’s managers in Switzerland should work harder

in order to improve their image. Healthy meals are gaining importance and compared to Chinese consumers, Swiss consumers seem to not be convinced enough by the efforts done by McDonald’s or other fast-food restaurants.

As far as the degree of general satisfaction is concerned, there is no significant difference between the two samples. However, Chinese consumers seem to have a higher degree of loyalty towards McDonald’s (mean = 3.07) compared to Swiss consumers (mean = 2.71), even if they are not more satisfied about McDonald’s. Hence H5 is rejected and H6 is supported.

As far as the quality of service is concerned, we observe a significant difference for these two sub-dimensions: reliability and tangibles. Chinese consumers perceive these two sub-dimensions more positively compared to Swiss consumers. Hence one can claim that H1 is partially supported.

Table2: Comparison between the perception of Chinese and Swiss fast-food consumers: ANOVA results

Mean Total Mean

Min Max ANOVA (F)

p-value Constructs Swiss China 1. Reliability 3.264 3.599 3.412 1 5 7.965 .006* 2. Tangibles 3.401 3.691 3.529 1 5 5.984 .016* 3. Responsiveness 3.104 3.196 3.145 1 5 .691 .407 4. Assurance 3.159 3.299 3.221 1 5 1.145 .287 5. Empathy 3.294 3.361 3.324 1 5 .335 .564 6. Product quality 2.257 3.288 2.711 1 5 40.153 .000** 7. Price 2.969 3.076 3.016 1 5 .304 .582 8. Image 3.369 3.680 3.506 1 5 7.247 .008** 9. Satisfaction 3.216 3.406 3.300 1 5 2.385 .125 10. Loyalty 2.716 3.071 2.872 1 5 5.290 .023*

Notes: * Significant at the 0.05 level. ** Significant at the 0.01 level.

Figure 2 presents the results of the PLS analysis. We observe the values of different path coefficients. As mentioned below the variable nationality is not ordinal. However, as we only have two groups (codification: Swiss consumers = 1 and Chinese consumers = 2), we normalized the data in order to measure the impact of this variable on the others. As mentioned above, the profile of respondents (China versus Swiss consumers) influences significantly i) the product quality perceived (γ = 0.507), ii) the image perceived of McDonald’s (γ = 0.203), and iii) the degree of loyalty (γ = 0.139).

As a moderator variable, we can observe that nationality influences the impact of image on the degree of loyalty. This means that for Swiss consumers, the image (negative or positive) perceived about the company has a more important impact on their loyalty compared to Chinese consumers (γ = -0.163). The negative value is due to our codification. We also observe that nationality influences the impact of service quality on the image of McDonald’s. It means that for Chinese consumers, the quality of service perceived has less influence on the image of the company compared to Swiss consumers (γ = -0.356).

On the Figure 2, we also observe other relations between our latent variables, which confirm the literature and where there is no difference between our two samples (e.g. the impact of satisfaction on loyalty). We also observe that the firm’s image and service quality influence customer satisfaction the most (respectively γ = 0.379 and γ = 0.327). 45.2% of variance in customer’s satisfaction is explained by the independent variables. Product quality and price fairness seem to not have an impact on customer satisfaction in a fast-food context. One can also claim that customer satisfaction is the variable that has the strongest influence on customer loyalty (γ = 0.468). The image of the company perceived by the customer also has an impact on loyalty (γ = 0.183). The overall variance explained in customer loyalty is 50.6%, indicating that the proposed model in this study could well predict and explain customer loyalty in our context.

Fast-food managers must adapt themselves to the preferences of local consumers. However, this study also showed that not all variables are perceived differently by Swiss and Chinese consumers. This implies that some measures can be standardized in order to save costs.

Figure 2: Results of the PLS analysis

Notes: * Significant at 0.05 level. ** Significant at 0.01 level. a The variable nationality is not ordinal. However as we have 2 groups (codification: Swiss consumers = 1 and

Chinese consumers = 2), we normalized the data in order to measure the impact of this variable on the others. b The 5 dimensions of SERVQUAL which are reliability, empathy, responsiveness, tangibles, and assurance define

the latent variable service quality. We decide to not put them in the Figure 2 in order to keep it more readable.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE WORK

This study is subject to some limitations. First, we must be careful in the generalization of our findings to all fast-food restaurants, due to the fact that it concerns McDonald’s. Second, the size of our two samples is small and is limited to students. Thus, the two samples do not represent the entire consumer population. Nevertheless, the use of a student sample is not rare as students are a legitimate proportion of the customer base of many fast-food restaurants (Min, 2011). Third, as we selected students from cities, we again must be careful in the generalization of our findings. For example, one can suppose that Mcdonald’s prices perceived by people living in Chinese cities are different compared to people living in underdeveloped cities and rural areas. Fourth, measurement of product quality perceived was carried out using a single-item scale.

A possible area for future research is to explore other fast-food providers and compare results with McDonald’s. It would also be interesting to study other types of restaurants and to observe the similarities and differences between the two cultures. Another possible area for future research is the comparison with other countries and cultures such as the US, India, Japan, etc. Finally, it may be useful to make the same research in ten years and observe the evolution of behaviours and perceptions over time.

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The Influence of Ecocentric and Anthropocentric Attitudes and Intrinsic Product Attributes on Organic Wine Preferences

Imran Rahman

Tyler Stumpf Prof. Dennis Reynolds (der@wsu.edu)

Washington State University Pullman, Washington, USA

Stand-up Presentation at the 2012 EuroCHRIE Conference

Lausanne, Switzerland

ABSTRACT

This experimental study, employing sensory evaluation in conjunction with a survey eliciting participants’ attitudes towards environmental issues, investigated whether ecocentric and anthropocentric values or attitudes influence consumer preference for organic wines. The means-end approach, evaluative conditioning, and consumer involvement provided the underlying theoretical foundation for the study. Despite strong theoretical underpinnings, the results indicate that taste alone among intrinsic wine attributes influenced participant preference for wines, whether organic or non-organic. Ecocentric and anthropocentric values or attitudes were found not to significantly influence participants’ preference for organic wine.

INTRODUCTION Since the advent of the “New Environmental Paradigm” (Catton & Dunlap, 1978) in the late 1970s, researchers interested in consumer behavior have paid increasing attention to the interface between society and the natural environment, including the importance of environmental consciousness as a factor that can influence human behavior (Dunlap and Catton, 1979). Now more than ever it is important to understand how consciousness of environmental issues affects consumer preferences and purchase decisions. The corresponding trend towards sustainable consumption has generated growing demand for products that incorporate social and environmental considerations into their design and delivery (Seyfang, 2007). This growing consumer demand warrants a deeper understanding of consumer purchase motivations and attitudes toward organic products (Yiridoe, 2005). The burgeoning segment of “ethical” consumers focuses on a range of issues associated with corporate responsibility, foremost among which is its concern with the environmental or ecological impact of purchase decisions (Tallontire, Rentsendorj, & Blowfield, 2001). As a result of the growing paradigm shift towards ‘eco-friendly’ lifestyles, consumers are “basing their purchasing decisions on how well products satisfy individual needs, while minimizing the negative impact on the natural environment” (Barber, Taylor, & Deale, 2010, p. 65). We observe evidence of this trend towards eco-friendly products in increasing demand for organically produced foods and beverages. Organic farming and production methods utilize natural, organic inputs and sustainable technologies to bring products in several segments—food, beverages, cosmetics, clothing, etc.—to the marketplace. Consumers concerned with sustainable consumption appreciate eco-friendly packaging practices and organic products, which they perceive as fitting their sense of identity, attitudes, and personal values (Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006). In short, today’s consumers “tend to view consumption acts both as an experience and as a slice of life” that reflects underlying values (Mora & Moscarola, 2010, p. 675). Prior studies have examined how environmental attitudes can impact purchase decisions (Balderjahn, 1988; Barber, 2010; Mainieri, Barnett, Valdero, Unipan, & Oskamp, 1997), the impact of product labeling on consumer preferences (Celhay & Passebois, 2011; Grankvist, Dahlstrand, & Biel, 2004), and factors that impact preferences for organic products (Chryssohoidis & Krystallis, 2005; Demeritt, 2002; Lodorfos & Dennis, 2008; Padel & Foster, 2005), but few, if any, studies have investigated these issues as we have, by combining three underlying theoretical approaches—means-end, evaluative conditioning, and consumer involvement. In this paper we deploy these approaches to examine factors that play into consumer purchase decisions regarding organic wines by combining a survey to elicit environmental attitudes with sensory evaluation, namely wine tasting. To our knowledge ours is the

only study of consumer preferences for organic wines that includes wine tasting and sensory evaluation in its methodology in an experimental setting. In particular, to contribute our unique approach to the literature, we conducted an empirical investigation that examines how consumer attitudes regarding environmental issues and values affect preferences for organic wines. To this end, we utilized an experimental research design to investigate the interplay between organic and non-organic wine cues, environmental attitudes, and wine preferences. The overarching purpose of this research is to extend our understanding of both the ways in which environmental attitudes affect consumer behavior and the role of product labeling in the formation of consumer perceptions, including preferences based on taste and other sensory modalities. Our methodology enabled us to examine the role of both extrinsic attributes, such as consumer values, and the intrinsic attributes of wine (taste, bouquet, and appearance) in the process through which consumers include labeling information when evaluating organic wines.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Sustainable Consumption Over the past decade, consumers have increasingly linked their consumption behaviors with social issues of personal relevance (Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006). Today’s consumer may integrate corporate ethics and social responsibility, fair trade, worker exploitation, animal rights, local economic development, nationalism, and support for diversity in addition to or instead of environmental awareness into their perceptions of and preferences for particular brands and products. As Solomon (1983, p. 319) aptly asserts, “Consumption does not occur in a vacuum; products are integral threads in the fabric of social life.” Environmental considerations are now given conspicuous prominence in the minds of contemporary consumers when making purchase decisions and lifestyle choices (Barber, Taylor, & Strick 2009). With the rise of ‘green consumerism,’ consumer identities, values, and attitudes play a pivotal role in connecting consumption activities and preferences with lifestyles and ideologies (Haanpaa, 2007). Thus, consumers may rely on the implicit social information that accompanies products in aligning purchase behaviors with desired social roles (Solomon, 1983). For example, in an effort to combine the satisfaction of personal needs with the broader societal obligations of environmental stewardship, consumers have increasingly assigned credence to the value of products made using organic processes. Organic Products Organic agricultural production omits the use of manufactured or ‘artificial’ chemical fertilizers and pesticides in order to reduce pollution and improve the quality of soil and the produce it yields (Reed, 2001; Seyfang, 2007). Proper labeling of organic agriculture products has been recognized as one of the first and most successful forms of labeling that signifies eco-friendly product attributes (Allen & Kovach, 2000). According to the United States Department of Agriculture (UDSA), the term organic is used in product labeling to indicate that the product has been certifiably produced via approved methods that “integrate cultural, biological, and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity” (USDA, 2012). In addition to improving and sustaining soil health, organic production reduces surface and groundwater pollution, promotes habitat and genetic diversity protection for wildlife, and preserves significant elements of the cultural landscape such as small farms (Biao, Xiaorong, Zhuhong, & Yaping, 2003). Due to consumer emphasis on health (which we note in greater detail below) and sustainability, organic agricultural products have been growing rapidly in popularity. Organic food and beverage sales in the United States grew from $1 billion to $26.7 billion between 1990 and 2010, with total global sales reaching nearly $55 billion in 2009 (Willer & Kilcher, 2011). In addition, over 130 countries worldwide now house certified organic commercial agriculture operations (Lotter, 2003). Accordingly, researchers have become increasingly interested in organic food and beverage products. Examples from the extant literature include studies on the factors that impact organic product purchase decisions (Chryssohoidis & Krystallis, 2005; Demeritt, 2002; Lodorfos & Dennis, 2008; Padel & Foster, 2005), consumer perceptions of the quality attributes of organic foods (Hay, 1989), differences in organic food purchases based on

ethnicity (Quah & Tan, 2009) and country (Thøgersen, 2010), and consumer price considerations when making organic purchase decisions (Canavari, Nocella, & Scarpa, 2005; Doorn & Verhoef, 2011; Kalogeras, Valchovska, Baourakis, & Kalaitzis, 2009). Other studies have focused on the interface between organic products and environmental issues. In their study on organic food buyers in the Netherlands, Schifferstein and Oude-Ophuis (1998) found that these consumers are keenly interested in issues relating to nature and the environment. Grunert and Juhl (1995) reported results from Denmark that found environmental attitudes and organic food purchases were positively correlated, while Davies, Titterington, and Cochrane (1995) found that environmental concern was the primary motivation for purchasing organic food products. Finally, the association between organic products and the environment dovetails with a related interest in health. Recent trends in consumption habits exhibit a greater concern for both health and the environment on the part of consumers (Molla-Bauza, Martinez, Poveda, & Perez, 2005; Smith & Marsden, 2004). Numerous studies have shown that consumers perceive organic products as healthier and of higher quality as well as being safer for the environment (Magnusson, Arvola, Hursti, Aberg, & Sjoden, 2003; Saba & Messina, 2003; Schifferestein & Oude Ophius, 1998; Williams & Hammit, 2001). Environmental concern has been found to be a major determinant of organic food purchase decisions (Grunert, 1993; Van Dam, 1991), as has concern for health and overall animal welfare (Schifferstein & Oude-Ophuis, 1998; Soil Association, 2000; Tregear, Dent, & McGregor, 1994). As such, it seems reasonable to expect that consumers with a high level of concern for health and the environment will prefer organic wines to their non-organic counterparts. Wine and Involvement Compared with scholarly interest in aspects of consumer behavior relating to organic food purchasing decisions, relatively little attention has focused on organic beverages, including organic wines, the subject of the present study. Much as both eco-consciousness and organic food consumption (Schifferstein & Oude-Ophuis, 1998) have been characterized as benchmarks of a way of life, wine has been classified as a lifestyle beverage in its own right (Bruwer, Saliba, & Miller, 2011). Many people drink wine, that is, for more than the tactile sensations it provides. Wine helps to define a person’s identity as an expression of a desire to be associated with a particular lifestyle, social class, community, or culture. Wines can embody specific sociocultural characteristics and symbolic representativeness as well as contribute to the construction of one’s personal narrative (Mora & Moscarola, 2010). In view of these considerations, researchers use the concept of consumer involvement to help them elucidate how complex emotions and attitudes towards wine products can influence consumer choices (Barber et al., 2009; Barber, Taylor & Deale, 2010; Barber Taylor & Strick, 2010; Mora & Moscarola, 2010). Consumers are considered to be ‘involved’ with a product when the product is perceived as addressing or corresponding to something of considerable value or central importance in their lives (Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006). Zaichkowsky (1985) classifies involvement into three categories: the personal (inherent interests, values, or needs that motivate one towards an object), the physical (characteristics of an object that cause differentiation and increase interest), and the situational (something that temporarily increases the relevance of or interest in an object). Involvement and aspects of personality such as attitude are regarded as accurate predictors of environmental concern or consciousness (Antil, 1984). A handful of studies have investigated the interface between wine consumerism and environmental issues from a consumer involvement perspective. For example, Barber et al. (2009) examined how product and environmental involvement, along with knowledge and attitudes, affect purchase decisions, finding that consumer knowledge regarding environmental issues that pertain to wine is related to personal involvement with broader environmental issues, and that “involvement with wine as a product will positively impact a consumer’s belief in what they know about environmental wine issues.” The same study also suggests that consumer attitudes towards environmental issues are positively related to knowledge of environmental wine issues, and that strong attitudes regarding the environment are positively associated with willingness to purchase environmentally friendly wine. Barber, Taylor, and Deale (2010) focused on wine tourism to examine the relationship between environmental involvement, environmental attitude, behavior, and purchase intentions, finding significant relationships between strong environmental attitudes and willingness to purchase environmentally friendly wines. Barber (2010)

investigated profiles of consumers who are willing to pay a premium for green wine packaging (i.e., packaging that involves minimal environmental consequences) finding that consumers with more environmentally friendly attitudes are willing to pay a premium for such products. While these studies have yielded interesting insights into the wine consumption experience, the existing body of research does little to address consumer perceptions of either the extrinsic or intrinsic attributes of organic wines. Wine Labeling Scholars are becoming increasingly interested in the impact of wine labeling and packaging on consumer wine product evaluations. Labeling can significantly influence consumer purchase behavior and perceptions of quality, particularly among those interested in specific growing practices (Dimara & Skuras, 2005). Packaging styles can supplement labeling information to communicate distinct traits that also impact consumer perceptions and purchase behavior (Jarvis, Mueller, & Chiong, 2010). Mueller and Szolnoki (2010) used the expectancy disconfirmation approach, placing subjects in the blind condition to examine the effects of brand, grape variety, origin, and packaging, finding strong support for the impact of brand name and packaging on consumer preferences, while also reporting significant consumer demographic heterogeneity and varying responses to intrinsic and extrinsic product cues. We have mentioned the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes, a distinction that is especially relevant for wine. After all, the culture of wine drinking focuses on intrinsic attributes such as aroma or bouquet, taste, color, or texture (Jarvis et al., 2010; Richardson et al., 1994). Yet research has shown that extrinsic attributes such as price, brand name, label imagery, and package design may also influence wine consumption and purchase behaviors (Richardson, Dick, & Jain, 1994). Boudreaux and Palmer (2007) investigated the effects of wine label imagery, label, and color on consumer perceptions of brand personality, finding significant evidence that these components of the wine label, and in particular label illustrations, do indeed affect perceptions of brand personality, which in turn impacts purchase intent. Jarvis et al. (2010) examined the impact of several wine label symbols, finding that distinct consumer segments reacted differentially to various metaphorical and non-metaphorical symbolic elements. Other studies have investigated which aspects of the wine label consumers seek out in purchase situations (Dimara & Skuras, 2005) and the relative impact of various labeling cues such as region of origin (Skuras & Vakrou, 2002; Tustin & Lockshin, 2001). While these and other studies in the wine literature have provided interesting insights into the impact of the extrinsic attributes of wine products, very little research has investigated how a wine’s extrinsic attributes influence consumer perceptions of its intrinsic attributes. One exception is Priilaid (2006), a study that involved sighted and blind tasting to illustrate how perceptions of wines’ intrinsic qualities are affected by extrinsic cues such as price, origin, and grape cultivar. The present study is a related but distinct variation of Priiliad’s, insofar as we use organic/non-organic labeling as an extrinsic cue posited to attempt to influence perceptions of intrinsic quality and overall wine preferences, which are in turn moderated by consumers’ environmental attitudes.

HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT Means-End Approach The means-end approach can be used as the theoretical basis for understanding the relationship between product attributes and consumer values. Several studies have used the means-end conceptual framework to study consumer perceptions of and purchase behaviors regarding organic food (Makatouni, 2002; Zanoli & Naspetti, 2002) and wine products (Fotopoulos, Krystallis, & Ness, 2003). The means-end approach conceptualizes a product as the means through which a consumer achieves a desirable end value state (Gutman, 1982). Understanding end value states is important to both managers and consumer researchers because they play a critical role in shaping consumer decision patterns (Gutman, 1982) and are especially important in product positioning and market segmentation for high-involvement products such as wine (Judica & Perkins, 1992). The means-end approach can be modeled as a chain that starts with a consumer’s perception of a product’s attributes, which leads to perceptions about the functional and then social and psychological consequences of the

product’s use (Fotopoulos et al., 2003). These perceived consequences are governed by the values that are personally relevant to individual consumers, who will thus prefer products with attributes that help them achieve a desired end state that corresponds with their personal values (Judica & Perkins, 1992). In simple terms, consumers rely on perceived attributes or “cues” to help them make a purchase decision (Crane & Clarke, 1988).These means-end considerations result in our first research hypothesis: Hypothesis 1: The presence of an organic cue will influence subjects’ wine preferences such that

preference ratings will be significantly higher when the cue is present. When purchasing a specific food or wine product, consumers prefer specific attributes that they perceive as quality cues (signals) that pertain to the whole product. Examples of quality cues for wine can include taste, aroma, type, vintage, price, label, country of origin, and bottle enclosures. Based on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic cues (Olson 1977; Olson & Jacoby, 1972), taste, appearance, and bouquet are examples of intrinsic cues for wine whereas vintage and country of origin serve as extrinsic cues. Therefore, when a label or menu informs a consumer that a wine is organic (the manipulation used in this study), it is providing an extrinsic cue. Insofar as the means-end approach links product choice (the means) with product attributes and values (the ends), we expect certain product attributes and personal environmental values to determine consumer choice regarding organic wines. Thus, keeping in mind the ecological and health benefits of organic wines, ecocentrism—valuing nature for its own sake—and anthropocentrism—valuing nature because of the material or physical benefits it can provide for humans (Thompson & Burton, 1994)—are also expected to influence the preference for organic wines. Evaluative Conditioning We find further theoretical support for our study methodology in the concept of evaluative conditioning. Evaluative conditioning explains an important aspect of consumer behavior that can be used to supplement the means-end model for explaining consumer preferences. Under evaluative conditioning, a person’s evaluation of a certain stimulus may depend on, and will often change with, the pairing of that stimulus with at least one other evaluated stimulus (De Houwer, Thomas, & Baeyens, 2001). One of the earliest studies of how conditioning influences affective states was conducted by Razran (1938), who asked subjects, some of whom were eating a free lunch and some of whom were being subjected to unpleasant odors (unconditioned stimuli—stimuli that elicit a target response naturally), to evaluate paintings, music, literary quotations, political slogans, and photographs (conditioned stimuli—stimuli whose pairing with an unconditioned stimulus cause them to elicit the same target response), finding that the conditioned stimuli were rated more positively when paired with the free lunch and more negatively when paired with the unpleasant odors. Following this seminal study, scholars have written extensively on the processes by which valence (positive or negative attraction to an object) is transmitted between stimuli (Davey 1994; Levey & Martin, 1975; Martin & Levey, 1978, 1994). A typical study in this area involves pairing a neutrally valenced conditioned stimulus (CS) with a liked/disliked unconditioned stimulus (US) to measure how ratings of the neutral CS fluctuate in congruence with ratings of the US. According to Davey (1994), even conceptually neutral stimuli can have liked or disliked characteristics, and the act of pairing a CS with a congruent US will elucidate previously inconspicuous liked or disliked characteristics that may be shared by both the CS and the US. For example, “if a CS is paired with a liked US, then the liked features that are shared by the CS and US will become more salient in the CS, resulting in the participant liking the CS more” (De Houwer et al., 2001, p. 853). We posit that a similar process can be used to predict consumer evaluations of organic and non-organic wines. In our study, we conceptualized organic and non-organic wines as the stimuli on which evaluations would be conditioned. Furthermore, we incorporated the means-end approach to predict the moderating effect of environmental attitudes on consumer evaluations of wines. As Chan (1996) has pointed out, a person’s response to a stimulus depends on the attention and relevance that the individual attributes to the stimulus, and external information such as product packaging can help activate relevant decision-making mechanisms, such as ecocentric and anthropocentric attitudes. Therefore, we posit the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 2: High ecocentric participants will assign significantly higher preference ratings than low ecocentric participants to organic wines accompanied by organic cues.

Hypothesis 3: High anthropocentric participants will assign significantly higher preference ratings than low anthropocentric participants to organic wines accompanied by organic cues.

Intrinsic Attributes The first three hypotheses were designed to test the effects of extrinsic cues on participants as they were asked to choose from a selection that included organic and non-organic wines. To complete our study we tested the effects of the intrinsic attributes of the wines on overall wine preference. Several intrinsic attributes have been established in wine tasting as primary determinants of wine quality—appearance, bouquet, and taste. These attributes comprise the main attributes that are evaluated when tasting wine (Ashland Vineyards, 2012; Island Winery, 2012; Kenswineguide.com, 2012). The focus on these attributes is consistent with the widely prevalent notion that the organoleptic quality of the final product (the appearance, aroma, taste, and other sensory states associated with a food or beverage) is the single most important factor that is considered in winemaking (Pretorius & Bauer, 2002). According to Bilyk, Chodak, and Gorzov (1975), taste and bouquet are key factors in determining wine quality. The appearance of wine has also been regarded as a strong intrinsic cue to quality (Charters & Pettigrew, 2006). We thereby propose the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 4: Participants’ taste ratings will significantly influence their overall rating preferences. Hypothesis 5: Participants’ bouquet ratings will significantly influence their overall rating preferences. Hypothesis 6: Participants’ appearance ratings will significantly influence their overall rating preferences.

METHODOLOGY

A total of 224 participants (108 in the treatment condition and 116 in the control condition) took part in the experiment, of whom 56.3% were female and 43.7% were male. Participant ages ranged from 21 to 67, with a mean age of 26 years. Regarding ethnicity, the majority of the participants were Caucasian (68.8%), followed by Asians (12.1%), Hispanica/Latinos (6.3%), persons of mixed race (6.3%), and African Americans (4%). Regarding educational attainment, 44.4% had earned a bachelor’s degree, 36.8% had completed high school, 11.7% had earned a master’s degree, 4.5% had completed trade school, and 2.7% had earned a doctorate. As noted, participants were divided into a control group and a treatment group. The experiment was conducted over a two-day period in a laboratory on a university campus in the northwest region of the United States. The convenience sample of students, faculty, and staff were recruited through a university-wide e-mail and stand-up posters. Two researchers along with a laboratory assistant conducted the experiment. Official identification was checked before the experiment to ensure that participants were of legal drinking age. Participants were not allowed to communicate with each other during the experiment. To begin the procedure, participants were asked to fill out a survey consisting of three parts. The first part elicited participants’ attitudes towards environmental issues. The second part was based on the wine tasting itself. The third part elicited demographic information. The survey instrument that constituted the first section was adopted from Thompson and Barton (1994) and consisted of two measures designed to elicit the degree to which participants held ecocentric or anthropocentric attitudes or values. The items in this section were measured on a seven-point Likert-style scale with anchor statements ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” After filling out the section eliciting participants’ environmental attitudes, they were asked to taste four wines, two whites and two reds. One of each type was organic. In the control condition, the white wines were labeled simply A and B and the red wines were labeled simply C and D, while in the treatment condition it was revealed that wines B and D were organic. The same four wines were used in both conditions. Price, packaging and any other information were controlled for in the experiment. The participants were asked to rate the wines on four nine-point Likert-style rating scales for appearance, bouquet, taste, and overall preference with anchor statements ranging from “dislike extremely” to “like extremely.” The experiment was concluded with the last section of the survey, which asked participants to indicate their age, gender, ethnicity, and level of education attained. Regarding data analysis, hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 were tested by undertaking independent samples t-tests. For hypothesis 2, a mean split was also performed, dividing participants into two groups—those with high and those with low ecocentric attitudes. Similarly, a mean split was carried out before testing hypothesis 3, dividing participants into those with high and those with low anthropocentric attitudes. Hypotheses 4, 5, and 6 were tested by multiple regression analysis.

RESULTS

Hypothesis 1 was tested by comparing the mean preference ratings for wine B and wine D by participants in the treatment and control conditions. This was done by undertaking an independent samples t-test. The results are provided in table 1. Table 1: T-test results for preference ratings of organic wines comparing treatment and control conditions Preference Ratings t DF

Treatment Control Appearance Wine B 6.66 6.50 .85 222

(1.46) (1.41) Appearance Wine D 6.47 6.19 1.29 222

(1.64) (1.71) Bouquet Wine B 5.95 6.10 -.73 218

(1.47) (1.51) Bouquet Wine C 5.96 5.88 .33 220

(1.65) (1.89) Taste Wine B 5.78 5.65 .49 222

(2.13) (2.01) Taste Wine D 5.24 5.10 .47 222

(2.31) (2.10) Overall Preference Wine B 6.09 5.78 1.24 222

(1.94) (1.78) Overall Preference Wine D 5.47 5.30 .61 222

(2.19) (1.96) **p

Overall Preference Wine B 6.15 6.02 .37 114 (2.05) (1.83)

Overall Preference Wine D 5.54 5.39 .38 114 (2.24) (2.15)

Anthropocentric Attitude

Appearance Wine B 6.77 6.57 .74 114 (1.24) (1.63)

Appearance Wine D 6.79 6.21 1.94 114 (1.55) (1.68)

Bouquet Wine B 6.28 5.66 2.31* 113 (1.39) (1.48)

Bouquet Wine D 6.21 5.74 1.52 113 (1.77) (1.5)

Taste Wine B 6.26 5.38 2.26* 114 (2.19) (2.02)

Taste Wine D 5.51 5.02 1.15 114 (2.33) (2.29)

Overall Preference Wine B 6.43 5.79 1.79 114 (2.09) (1.76)

Overall Preference Wine D 5.68 5.29 .34 114 (2.20) (2.17)

**p

Table 4: The influence of intrinsic on overall preference for the four wines in the control condition. Variable A B C D B SE B β B SE B β B SE B β B SE B β Constant -.03 .49 .18 .46 .34 .41 -.09 .43 Taste .65 .05 .70** .69 .05 .77** .80 .04 .86** .71 .05 .76** Appearance .24 .08 .20** .05 .08 .04 .15 .06 .12* .14 .06 .12* Bouquet .12 .07 .11 .23 .07 .20** .01 .06 .01 .16 .06 .15** R2 .70** .76** .81** .76** **p

While our convenience sample included undergraduate students, graduate students, faculty, and staff members in a university setting, the majority of participants were undergraduate students, as a result of which the mean age turned out to be only 26. The results might have differed with older participants. Similarly, our participant group was not very diverse in terms of socioeconomic background. However, student samples in experimental settings are widely used in consumer attitudinal and behavioral studies and in that respect our methodology was not without precedent. In addition, the survey questions, especially those involving ecocentric and anthropocentric measures, c