Faiz Rasool - Higher Education Commissionprr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/8970/1/... · (FAIZ RASOOL) ii CONTENTS CHAPTER TITLE PAGE # Acknowledgements i Contents ii List

Ecology and Ethnobotany of Acacia jacquemontii Benth in Thal Desert

By

Faiz Rasool

(2003-ag-1887)

M.Sc. (Hons.) Forestry

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSPHY

IN

FORESTRY

Department of Forestry and Range Management

FACULITY OF AGRICULTUE

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

FAISALABAD

(PAKISTAN)

2016

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that contents of the thesis, “Ecology and Ethnobotany of Acacia

jacquemontii Benth in Thal Desert” are product of my own research and no part has been

copied from any published source (except the references standard mathematical and genetic

models/equations/ protocols etc. I further declare that this work has not been submitted for

award of any other diploma/degree. The university may take action if the information

provided is found inaccurate at any stage. In case of any default, the scholar will be

proceeded against as per HEC plagiarism policy.

FAIZ RASOOL

2003-ag-1887

The Controller of Examinations,

University of Agriculture,

Faisalabad.

We, the supervisory committee certify that the contents and form of thesis submitted by

Mr. Faiz Rasool, 2003-ag-1887, have been found satisfactory and recommend that it be

processed for evaluation of the external examiners for the award of degree.

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE:

Chairman: ____________________________

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ishaque

Member: _____________________________

Dr. Shahid Yaqoob

Member: ______________________________

Prof. Dr. Asif Tanveer

Who always pray to see the bud of their wishes

Bloom into a flower

To whom who lives in my mind,

In my heart

Throughout the whole span of my life and is

Nearest, dearest and deepest to me

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All the praises are credited to the sole creator of the entire universe ALMIGHTY

ALLAH, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful and the Most Compassionate, Who granted

me the power of vision and wisdom to unknot the mysteries of the universe in a more syneckatic

manner what people call it SCIENCE. And only by the grace of ALLAH, I was capable to make

this material contribution to already existing ocean of knowledge. I invoke Allah’s blessings

and peace for my beloved Prophet HAZRAT MUHAMMAD (PBUH), who is eternally present

torch of direction and knowledge for humanity as a whole and whose honorable and spiritual

teachings enlightened my heart, soul and mind.

All acclamation, appreciation and praise for ALMIGHTY ALLAH, the most gracious and

compassionate, whose blessings and exaltation flourished my thoughts and thrived my

ambition to have the cherished fruit of my modest efforts in the form of this manuscript form

the blooming spring of blossoming knowledge. My special praises for my HOLY PROPHET,

HAZRAT MUHAMMAD (SAW), who is forever a torch of guidance of the entire humanity.

With a deep sense of gratitude, I want to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor,

prof. Dr. Muhammad Ishaque, for this immense guidance and insight throughout this research.

The confidence, profound knowledge and dynamism of prof. Dr. Muhammad Ishaque would

be remembered lifelong. I would also like to thank these remarkable people for their diligence

while reading my numerous revisions. What I know today about the process of research, I

learned from prof. Dr. Muhammad Ishaque. I am also thankful to Dr. Shahid Yaqoob and Prof.

Dr. Asif Tanveer, for their precious support throughout my research work.

My deepest appreciation goes to all my colleagues and friends for providing me constant

support and encouragement from the first day to the last. I cannot even imagine these years

without them. I owe my motivation, success and this thesis to them.

(FAIZ RASOOL)

ii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE #

Acknowledgements i

Contents ii

List of tables vii

List of figures x

Abstract xii

Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter-2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 6

2.1 Acacias 6

2.1.1 General Description 6

2.1.2 Leaves 6

2.1.3 Flowers 6

2.1.4 Pods 7

2.1.5 Wood use 7

2.1.6 Adaptations in dry environment 7

2.1.7 Common uses 9

2.1.8 Medicinal uses 9

2.2 Acacia jacquemontii Benth 11

2.2.1 Taxonomy 11

2.2.2 Distribution 11

2.2.3 Description of plant 11

2.2.4 Flower, Pod and Seed production 12

2.2.5 Seed Germination and Root Development 13

2.2.6 Adaption for survival in dry conditions 13

2.2.7 Biomass Production 13

2.2.8 Chemical composition 14

2.2.9 Medicinal uses 14

2.2.10 Common uses 15

2.2.10.1 Poles and Fuel wood 15

2.2.10.2 Forage and bark 15

2.2.10.3 Agro-forestry and Shelterbelts use 16

2.2.10.4 Planting for sand dune stabilization 16

2.2.10.5 Coppicing Behavior 17

2.2.10.6 Contribution in soil improvement 17

Chapter-3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 18

3.1 Description of the Study Area 18

3.1.1 Climate 18

3.2 Study Sites 18

iii

3.2.1 Sites in South-Central Thal 23

3.2.1.1 Choubara site 23

3.2.1.2 Kharewala site 23

3.2.2 Sites in North-Central Thal 25

3.2.2.1 Northern Dagar Kotli site 25

3.2.2.2 Southern Dagar Kotli site 25

3.3 Components of the study 27

1 Field Work 27

Π Nursery Work 27

Ш Laboratory Work 27

1 FIELD WORK 27

3.3.1.1 Measurements of Acacia plants 27

3.3.1.2 Plant canopy spread of the shrub 28

3.3.1.3 Associated pant species with shrub 28

3.3.1.4 Ethnobotanical uses of shrub 28

3.3.1.5 Field observations 31

Π LABORATORY WORK 31

3.3.2.1 Soil Analysis 31

3.3.2.2 Preparation of soil extract 31

3.3.2.3 Analytical procedures 31

3.3.2.4 Reagents and standard solutions 31

3.3.2.5 Moisture content 32

3.3.2.6 Sodium and potassium 32

3.3.2.7 Calcium and magnesium 32

3.3.2.8 Chlorides 32

3.3.2.9 Organic matter 32

3.3.2.10 Sulphur 33

3.3.2.11 Phosphate/ Phosphorous 33

3.3.2.12 Total nitrogen 33

3.3.3 Chemical composition of plants 33

3.3.3.1 Primary compounds 33

3.3.3.2 Secondary compounds 34

3.3.3.1 Primary compounds 34

3.3.3.1.1 Crude protein (%) 34

3.3.3.1.2 Crude fiber (%) 35

3.3.3.1.3 Crude fat 35

3.3.3.1.4 Ash contents 35

3.3.3.1.5 Plant Minerals 36

3.3.3.1.5.1 Macro and Micro-nutrients 36

iv

3.3.3.1.5.2 Determination of phosphorus 36

3.3.3.1.5.3 Potassium and Sodium 36

3.3.3.1.5.4 Determination of calcium, magnesium, iron, copper and zinc 36

3.3.3.2 Secondary metabolites determination 37

3.3.3.2.1 Total phenolics 37

3.3.3.2.2 Flavonoid content 37

3.3.3.2.3 Total Tannins 38

3.3.3.2.4 Alkaloids 38

3.3.3.2.5 Saponin 38

Ш NURSERY WORK 39

3.3.4 Seed germination experiments 39

3.3.4.1 Seed germination in petri dishes 39

3.3.4.2 Pots experiments 39

3.3.4.3 Root-Shoot experiments 40

3.3.4.4 Root-Shoot weights and elongation 40

3.4 Statistical Analysis 40

Chapter-4 RESULTS 41

1 FIELD WORK 41

4 Growth behavior of A. jacquemontii in the field 41

4.1 Twig parameters of the shrub 41

4.1.1 Diameter 41

4.1.2 Length 47

4.1.3 Number of nodes 52

4.1.4 Number of nodes with leaves 56

4.1.5 Total number of leaves 60

4.1.6 Number of immature flower clusters 65

4.1.7 Number of mature flower clusters 70

4.1.8 Number of immature pods 75

4.1.9 Number of mature pods 80

4.1.10 Number of secondary branches 85

4.2 Plant canopy spread of the shrub 89

4.3 Associated plants species with the shrub 92

4.4 Ethnobotanical uses of shrub 97

4.4.1 Uses by rural people 97

4.4.2 Uses by Greek Practitioners (Herbal plant

experts/herbal medicinal practitioners) 99

4.4.3 Field observations 101

4.4.3.1 Many Animals and Insect species feeding on Acacia 101


v

4.5 Soil Aanlysis 103

4.5.1 Influence of A. jacquemontii canopy cover on chemical

soil properties 103

4.5.1.1 Soil moisture contents 103

4.5.1.2 Soil organic matter 103

4.5.1.3 Soil nitrogen 104

4.5.1.4 Soil Ec 104

4.5.1.5 Soil pH 104

4.5.1.6 Soil phosphorous 105

4.5.1.7 Soil potassium 105

4.5.1.8 Soil sodium 105

4.5.1.9 Soil sulphur 106

4.5.1.10 Soil calcium 106

4.5.1.11 Soil magnesium 106

4.5.1.12 Soil chloride 106

4.5.1.13 Soil carbonates 107

4.5.1.14 Soil bicarbonates 107

4.5.1.15 Soil iron 107

4.5.1.16 Soil zinc 107

4.5.1.17 Soil copper 108

4.5.1.18 Soil nickel 108

4.5.2 Chemical composition of Acacia 117

Ш NURSERY WORK 119

4.6.1 Petri dishes Experiments 119

4.6.2 Pots Experiments 119

4.7 Root-Shoot Experiments 122

4.7.1 Root/shoot elongation 122

4.7.2 Root/shoot fresh weight 122

4.7.3 Root/shoot dry weight 122

4.7.4 Shoot diameter of seedlings 122

4.7.5 Number of secondary branches/seedling 123

Chapter-5 DISCUSSION 128

1 FIELD WORK 128

5.1 Growth behavior of Acacia plants in the Field 128

5.1.1 Twig diameter 128

5.1.2 Twig length and no. of nodes 129

5.1.3 Number of nodes with leaves 130

5.1.4 Total no. of leaves 131

5.1.5 No. of immature and mature flower clusters 131

vi

5.1.6 No. of immature and mature pods 132

5.1.7 No. of secondary branches 133

5.2 Density of other associated plants species 134

5.3 Ethnobotanical uses of shrub 134


5.4 Influence of plant canopy on soil properties 135

5.5 Chemical composition of Acacia plants 136

Ш NURSERY WORK 137

5.5.1 Seed germination experiments 137

5.5.2 Seed germination in petri dishes 137

5.5.3 Seed germination in pots 138

5.5.4 Root/Shoot experiments 139

5.5.4.1 Root/shoot weight and elongation 139

Chapter- 6 SUMMARY 140

Management implications 143

LITERATURE CITED 144

APPENDIX 155

vii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE #

4.1a

Mean diameter (mm) of twigs of small and large A.

jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different sampling periods

during 2013 and 2014 in South-Central Thal 43

4.1b

Mean diameter (mm) of twigs of small and large A.


during 2013 and 2014 in North-Central Thal 44

4.2a

Mean length (cm) of twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii

plants at 2 sites at different sampling periods during 2013

and 2014 in South-Central Thal 48

4.2b

Mean length (cm) of twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii

plants at 2 sites at different sampling periods during 2013

and 2014 in North-Central Thal 49

4.3a

Mean number of nodes on the twigs of small and large A.



4.3b

Mean number of nodes on the twigs of small and large A.



4.4a

Mean number of nodes with leaves on the twigs of small and

large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different sampling

periods during 2013 and 2014 in South-Central Thal 57

4.4b

Mean number of nodes with leaves on the twigs of small and


periods during 2013 and 2014 in North-Central Thal 58

4.5a

Mean total number of leaves on the twigs of small and large

A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different sampling periods


4.5b

Mean total number of leaves on the twigs of small and large



4.6a

Mean number of immature flower clusters on the twigs of

small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different

sampling periods during 2013 and 2014 in South-Central

Thal

66

4.6b

Mean number of immature flower clusters on the twigs of

small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different

sampling periods during 2013 and 2014 in North-Central

Thal

67

viii

4.7a

Mean number of mature flower clusters on the twigs of small

and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different


Thal

71

4.7b

Mean number of mature flower clusters on the twigs of small



Thal

72

4.8a

Mean number of immature pods on the twigs of small and


periods during 2013 and 2014 in South-Central Thal 76

4.8b

Mean number of immature pods on the twigs of small and


periods during 2013 and 2014 in North-Central Thal 77

4.9a

Mean number of mature pods on the twigs of small and large



4.9b

Mean number of mature pods on the twigs of small and large

A. jacquemontii plants at 2 site at different sampling periods

during 2013 and 2014 in North- Central Thal 82

4.10a

Mean number of secondary branches on the twigs of small



Thal

86

4.10b

Mean number of secondary branches on the twigs of small



Thal

87

4.11a Density of plants species associated with A. jacquemontii in

South-Central Thal at Choubara site during 2013 and 2014 93

4.11b Density of plants species associated with A. jacquemontii in

South-Central Thal at Kharewala site during 2013 and 2014 94

4.11c

Density of plants species associated with A. jacquemontii in

North-Central Thal at Northern Dagar Kotli site during 2013

and 2014 95

4.11d

Density of plants species associated with A. jacquemontii in

North-Central Thal at Southern Dagar Koti site during 2013

and 2014 96

4.12 Traditional/common uses of A. jacquemontii as told by the

local inhabitants in the vicinity of study area in 2014 98

ix

4.13 Medicinal uses of A. jacquemontii as told by Greek

Practitioners 100

4.14a

Soil composition under and between canopies of small and

large A. jacquemontii plants at Choubara site in South-

Central Thal in 2013 109

4.14b


large A. jacquemontii plants at Choubara site in South-


4.15a


large A. jacquemontii plants at Kharewala site in South-


4.15b


large A. jacquemontii plants at Kharewala site in South-


4.16a


large A. jacquemontii plants at Northern Dagar Kotli site in

North-Central Thal in 2013 113

4.16b


large A. jacquemontii plants at Northern Dagar Kotli site in


4.17a


large A. jacquemontii plants at Southern Dagar Kotli site in


4.17b


large A. jacquemontii plants at Southern Dagar Kotli site in


4.18 Chemical composition of A. jacquemontii on dry matter

basis during the year 2014 118

x

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No. TITLE PAGE #

1 Map of Thal Rangelands of Pujnab, Pakistan 4

3.1 Choubara site in South-Central Thal 19

3.2 Kharewala site in South-Central Thal 20

3.3 Northern Dagar Kotli site in South-Central Thal 21

3.4 Southern Dagar Kotli site in South-Central Thal 22

3.5 Map of Sites in South-Central Thal 24

3.6 Map of Sites in North-Central Thal 26

3.7 Rainfall data of South-Central sites were collected on

monthly basis from February to August in 2013 and 2014 29

3.8 Rainfall data of South-Central sites were collected on

monthly basis from February to August in 2013 and 2014 30

4.1

Net increase in twig diameter of small and large A.

jacquemontii plants during sampling of about 6 months in

the growing season and dormant at all sites in 2013 and 2014 45

4.2 Measuring the twig diameter of A. jacquemontii with the help

of digital vernier caliper 46

4.3

Net increase in twig length of small and large A.

jacquemontii plants during sampling of about 6 months in


4.4 Measuring the twig length of A. jacquemontii with the help

of measuring tape 51

4.5

Net increase in number of nodes on twigs of small and large

A. jacquemontii plants during sampling of about 6 months in


4.6

Net increase in nodes with leaves on twigs of small and large

A. jacquemontii plants during sampling of about 6 months in


4.7

Net increase in total number of leaves on twigs of small and

large A. jacquemontii plants during sampling of about 6

months in the growing season and dormant at all sites in 2013

and 2014

63

4.8 Leaves of A. jacquemontii 64

4.9

Net increase in number of immature flower clusters on twigs

of small and large A. jacquemontii plants during sampling of

about 6 months in the growing season and dormant at all sites

in 2013 and 2014

68

4.10 Immature flower clusters of A. jacquemontii 69

4.11

Net increase in number of mature flower clusters on twigs of

small and large A. jacquemontii plants during sampling of


in 2013 and 2014

73

xi

4.12 Mature flower clusters of A. jacquemontii 74

4.13

Net increase in number of immature pods on twigs of small

and large A. jacquemontii plants during sampling of about 6

months in the growing seasons at all sites in 2013 and 2014 78

4.14 Immature pods of A. jacquemontii 79

4.15

Net increase in number of mature pods on twigs of small and

large A. jacquemontii plants during sampling of about 6

months in the growing season and dormant at all sites in 2013

and 2014

83

4.16 Immature and mature pods of A. jacquemontii 84

4.17

Net increase in number of secondary branches on twigs of

small and large A. jacquemontii plants during sampling of


in 2013 and 2014

88

4.18a

Perimeter canopy cover of A. jacquemontii of small and large

plants sampling at 2 sites South-Central Thal during 2013

and 2014

90

4.18b

Perimeter canopy cover of A. jacquemontii of small and large

plants sampling at 2 sites North-Central Thal during 2013

and 2014 91

4.19 White spider and their egg sacs (Photo. a-b) observed on

Acacia plants during the growing seasons 2013 and 2014 102

4.19

Heavy population of Bark Beetles were also seen feeding

on bark of Acacia plant branches (Photo. c-d) which is

severely damaging for this plant species during early stage 102

4.20 Hourly germination of A. jacquemontii seeds in different

water treatments in petri dishes in 2013 121

4.21 Seeds germination of A. jacquemontii at 3 soil depths during

February in 2013 121

4.22 Root-shoot elongation of A. jacquemontii seedlings in 2013

and 2014 124

4.23 Root-shoot fresh weights of A. jacquemontii seedlings in

2013 and 2014 125

2.24 Root-shoot dry weights of A. jacquemontii seedlings in 2013

and 2014 126

4.25 Mean shoot diameter and secondary branches per seedlings

of A. jacquemontii in 2013 and 2014 127

xii

ABSTRACT

The main objectives of the present study were to determine the growth behavior,

chemical composition, ethnobotanical uses and the density of neighboring plant species

of Acacia jacquemontii Benth at different locations during the growing seasons of 2013

and 2014 in Thal desert of Pakistan. Four sites dominated by this Acacia species were

selected. At each site 5 small and 5 large Acacia plants were randomly selected. On

each plant, 8 twigs in cardinal directions were selected and tagged. Growth parameters

of the twigs were measured after every 15 days from February to August in 2013 and

2014. Chemical composition of plant leaves and pods was determined one time during

the peak of growing season in 2013. Seed germination, root-shoot fresh/dry weights,

root-shoot elongation were measured in the nursery conditions during 2014. Data

analysis indicated that the species had small and regular increase in twig diameter.

Large plants of the species had a greater increase in twig diameter than the small plants.

The species increased the length of its twigs as well as the number of nodes on the

twigs and followed the monopodial growth pattern. Species exhibited highest leaf

production during the peaks of growing seasons. Species was deciduous and generally

the twigs of large plants produced more leaves, flower clusters, pods and secondary

branches than the twigs of small plants. In the dormant season (from September-

January) twigs of the plants grew at a very slow rate. During 2014, because the rainfall

was below the average, twig growth characteristics measured were smaller than those

measured for 2013. The low rainfall in 2014 changed the densities of other species

associated with Acacia plants. In nursery conditions, seeds soaked with cold/hot water

had higher germination (82-94 %) in petri dishes than the non-soaked seeds of the

species. Seeds sown in pots had 51-70 % germination. Seedlings of the species had

higher fresh/dry weights of their shoots than the roots. In contrast, the roots of the

Acacia seedlings elongated at a higher rate than the shoots. Leaves and pods of the

species had about 22 % and 33 % crude proteins respectively. The species produced

high concentrations of secondary compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins,

tannins, total phenolics and hydrogen cyanides in the leaves. The plants produced these

compounds for defending themselves from herbivores. The ethnobotanical use of this

species was largely prevailing in the area. Due to the prevalence of acute poverty, rural

people of the desert generally used to purchase the preserved parts of this plant species

at lower prices from the Greek Practitioners (Herbal Medicinal Experts) for the

treatment of their common ailments. Local people considered this plant species as

“Shrub of Ghost” and had strong beliefs on Necromancy under this shrub.

1

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Deserts have played a significant role in human development and adaptation. They

seem to be one of the major terrestrial habitats that directed early human distribution, indicating

barriers at some times, corridors at others (Gamble, 1993). They are found to be the large

groups of dry lands alongside the tropics in both the Southern and Northern hemispheres

(Mares, 1999). Approximately 50 % of the world’s land area are considered to be rangelands

(Zhaoli, 2004), which provides about 70 % of the feed requirements of domestic ruminants

worldwide (Friedel et al., 2000). Livestock is a fast emerging agricultural sub-sector,

contributing for as much as 50 % of GDP in countries having substantial areas of rangeland

(World Bank, 2007).

The boundaries of these deserts, due to various climatic and human factors are

constantly changing and are likely to float over the next century as human prompted global

warming takes effect. Aridity is one of the main characteristic of world deserts. Arid lands are

frequently distressed with only one of the roles of animal production and have countless

environmental importance in rangelands. The predominant flora of deserts shields often brittle

soil profiles, bind large volumes of CO2 and play a vital role in providing fresh clean water

(NAPCD, 2001). Economically, rangelands are responsible for providing services and

essential goods to mankind. Vegetation comprises medicinal plants, timber, germplasm for

new and natural standing crop and pasture plants and entertaining prospects. In many parts of

the developing world, feed for traditional livestock rearing systems is provided by the

rangelands and considered as one of the great economic and social importance, as it provides

a livelihood to millions of people (Havstad et al., 2007).

Rangelands, though considered as a prospective means since long, have undergone

constant process of land degradation, due to increase both in livestock and human populations

combined with common existence of intense famines. Subsequently, the insubstantial arid

ecosystems have got distressed, as apparent from the degradation of plant cover, the decline of

soil and decrease in livestock productivity. Such a state of activities is not only undesirably

affecting human beings, but is also generating ecological and health threats (Afzal et al., 2001).

2

Pakistan is located between the latitudes 23° and 36° north and between the longitudes

of 61° and 75° east (FAO, 1987). The importance of rangelands of Pakistan cannot be under

assessed at any cost. Out of the total area of 79.6 million hectare of Pakistan, about 52.2 million

hectare area of the country is under rangelands, out of this 18.5 million hectare is productive

and used for animal grazing. These rangelands provide 40-60 % forage requirements of

different grazing animals but due to severe degradation, the productivity of the rangelands has

declined 10-50 % of their potential productivity (Quraishi, 2005).

Livestock contributed approximately 11.6 percent to national GDP during 2010-12.

Livestock production is the major land use of Thal range area, like other range lands of the

country as it is the second biggest economic activity in the country. Livestock is the persistent

source of one fourth (25-30 %) population of the country. At present, the estimated numbers

of livestock heads in Pakistan are 167.5 million (GOP, 2012). But the supply of cultivated

green fodder for livestock has declined due to decrease in cultivated area for fodder production

(Sarwar et al., 2002).

Improper land use, mismanagement, overgrazing, overstocking, deforestation

increased human population pressure, encroachments into rangelands, soil erosion, land

degradation and widespread of poisonous plants have seriously demolished efficiency of

rangelands in the country (Quraishi et al., 2006). Plant cover is depleted to the magnitude that

any appropriate environmental change may not be possible within a predictable time-period

through protective processes in many areas. The severe droughts in arid and semi-arid areas

undesirably disturb floral growth and reproduction that leads to extra damage of primary output

and ecological conflicts (Afzal et al., 2008).

Thal desert in Pakistan comprises of about 2.5 million hectares in the Punjab Province.

It lies between 71.07 0E and 31-33 0N latitude at an altitude of 200 meters. This desert is

generally consisted of the districts Bakkhar, Layyah, Mianwali, Muzaffargarh and some parts

of Sargodha, Khoshab, and Jhang districts. About 32 % of Thal is comprised of grazing lands.

Around about 50-60 % of this desert area is under sand dunes and the remaining of the area is

almost in level conditions (Quraishi et al., 2006).

3

In winter season the temperature of the Thal area goes down up to 0 0C and rises up to

44 0C in summer season of the year. Strong winds are very frequent which cause severe soil

erosion. The soil is moderately calcareous, alkaline clay loam and alluvial with sandy texture

(Sultani et al., 1985). Main flora of Thal range areas consist of shrubs and bushes rather than

grasses or herbs. Common shrubs of this desert are Acacia jacquemontii, Calligonum

polygonoides, Capparis decidua, Haloxylon recurvum, Prosopis cineraria, P. juliflora,

Solvadora oleoides, Sudea fruticosa and Tamarix aphylla (Quraishi et al., 2006).

Acacia is widely distributed and frequently present in many places of the world. Acacia

species are commonly adapted to the dry environment (Heil et al., 2004). In the desert

landscapes species have wild growth and are drought tolerant. These species particularly play

a vital role in the form of nitrogen fixation, sand dunes maintenance, and provision of

shade/shelter to grazing livestock and wildlife, and are the source of forage, fuelwood, timber

and medicinal goods in desert rangelands (Aref et al., 2003).

Acacia jacquemontii Benth locally known as Bable, is one of the supreme valuable

multiuse shrub of arid and semi-arid areas of Thal, D. G. Khan, Cholistan, and Pothowar in

Pakistan. It is hardy in nature and well-adjusted to the severe climatic conditions. It is an

excellent source of fuel, forage, browse, gum tannin, small poles and has numerous medicinal

uses for livestock as well as for human beings (Rao and Chaudhary, 2002). The exceptional

sand binding capability due to copious root organization makes it potential species for sand

dunes stability. Baskets and other household articles are made from young shoots and branches

of this shrub. Wood yields excellent quality charcoal which is used in making gun powder.

Each plant of this shrub yields 100-150 g edible gum which is highly priced in pharmaceuticals

(Chaudhary et al., 2009). Its dried thorny branches are used as fence whereas the bark is used

in small sized tanneries for imparting black or brown paint to the leather (Mertia et al., 2009).

4

Fig. 1: Map of Thal Rangelands of Punjab, Pakistan

5

Lack of conservation efforts and heavy removal of this shrub by local people have

become a great threat for the existence and survival of this species. In spite of its high

significance, very little research work has been done on this shrub in the world. Need of the

time is to study and conduct more research on this threatened plant species. Therefore a study

on this species in Thal desert area was conducted with following main objectives.

To determine the growth behavior of this species in field and nursery.

To find out the density of other associated plant species with this shrub.

To assess the nutritional and toxicological composition of this species for ruminants.

To investigate the ethnobotanical/traditional uses of the shrub by local communities.

6

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1: Acacias

2.1.1: General Description

The genus Acacia is from an ancient Greek word “Akakia” commonly known as hard

or sharp pointed (Allred, 2000). It is the most significant genus of family Fabaceae, first of all

described by Linnaeus in 1773. It is estimated that there are roughly 1380 species of Acacia

found worldwide. About two-third of Acacia species are native to Australia and rest of the

species spread around the tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Maslin et al., 2003;

Orchard and Maslin, 2003; Gamble, 1993).

2.1.2: Leaves

The foliage color of Acacia ranges from light or dark green to blue or silver-grey. The

plants often bear spines, especially those species growing in arid regions. These sometimes

represent branches or twigs that have become short, narrow, hard, and pungent (Clemens et

al., 1977). The "leaves" on many of the species are not leaves at all. They are modified petioles,

which are the parts of the stem that attach the leaves to the branch. When the petioles form in

this manner, they are called phyllodes. The leaves of the Acacia are alternate and pinnated.

The individual leaflets form a feather shape. The Acacia leaves drop when provoked with

severe drought. This protective adaptation is called semi-deciduous. The loss of leaves

prevents evaporation and slows plant growth. This conserves moisture and plant energy until

rains come and then the plant can resume growth. This is also a common desert plant adaptation

where they will cease growth until resources are available (Singh and Gurcharan, 2004).

2.1.3: Flowers

Acacia flowers are typically small, yellow and fragrant with many stamens, giving the

flower a fuzzy appearance. Flower heads are actually lots of little flowers bundled together.

Most species have clusters of flowers that are yellow or cream in color. Some may be white or

pink. They feature long stamens that can make it difficult to observe the small petals. Individual

7

flowers are arranged in inflorescences that may be either globular heads or cylindrical spikes.

The flowers of the species do not produce any nectar. However, the leaf and phyllode glands

secrete a nectar or sugary substance which attracts ants, bees, butterflies and other insects.

These plants are mostly insects pollinated. The color of flowers in each species is fairly

consistent and can aid in identifying different species (Palmer et al., 2008).

2.1.4: Pods

After the flowers are spent, Acacia’s plants form seed pods that look like dry and long

capsules. The pods stay on the tree for some time and drop when conditions are favorable. The

heavy, thick pod protects the seeds and the germination only occurs when the rainy season

appears. This allows the seedling the best chance of surviving. Temperature need to be above

7-8 0C and there must be at least 25-50 mm of rainfall to initiate seed germination (Clemens et

al., 1977).

2.1.5: Wood use

The Acacia tree and shrubs grows to a height of 30-31 meters, wood is used for furniture,

cabinet wood and craft wood, and musical instruments (Holmes, 1981). Wood of the Acacias

species is highly resistant to fungi and insects. The color of the plant wood is influenced by its

growing conditions. It has a yellow to white sapwood while the heartwood has light brown to

darker brown color. The wood may also have irregular streaks of red or golden brown. The

wood of the plants has no noticeable taste or odor but it imparts a distinctive flavor when used

in food preparation. Pulpwood is suitable in lightweight offset papers. It is also used in paper

tissue where it improves softness (Sorensson, 1997; Zobel, 1984). Timber of some species is

used in local buildings, sawn for railway sleepers, railway carriages, for local furniture and is

one of the best sources of tannins, gums and charcoal (AbdEl-Hafiz, 2001).

2.1.6: Adaptations in dry environment

Acacia species have the most obvious characteristic of drought-resisting plants. Stems

are often heavily waxed to reduced cuticular water loss. Typical leaves of warm desert Acacia

plants are small and narrow that enables them to maintain their leaf temperature near to the

8

ambient temperature. Such leaves help the species to avoid lethal summer time temperature

during summer drought. Leaves are often reduced to spines, and this increases the volume to

surface ratio. Spines also help to reduce heat load, and dissipate heat (Barr and Atkinson,

1970).

Acacia species are extremely drought-tolerant and are very important for soil

conservation. The plant species reproduce naturally by seed germination. Most of the Acacia

species grow in the arid and semi-arid regions, with an average temperature of 40-45 °C in

summer and less than 5 °C in winter. These plants species are equipped with most of the

features required to withstand severe climatic conditions, therefore they are considered as the

most successful "survivors" in the arid regions (Ibrahim and Aref, 2000; Aref, 2000). Being

prickly or Thorne in nature, these species are generally drought resistant and are native to arid

zones. The plants can also survive drought conditions because of their long tap roots which

reach deep ground water sources (Heil et al., 2004).

The Acacia plants developed very useful physical and behavioral adaptations to

discourage animals from eating their leaves. They develop long, sharp thorns and a symbiotic

relationship with stinging ants (Clemens, 1977). The ants live in Acacia thorns by making

holes in them and then feed on the nectar produced by these plants. When an animal takes a

bite of leaves (and thorns), it also gets a mouthful of angry stinging ants. The ants defend their

homes from other insects as well, thus protecting the Acacia species (Heil et al., 2004). Another

behavioral adaptation of the species aimed at preventing grazing animals is a chemical defense

system that is triggered when the animals begins to munch on the leaves. A poisonous alkaloid

that tastes nasty is pumped into the plant leaves which make these leaves inedible for the

browsing animals. In some Acacia species, the plants emit a chemical into the air during their

browsing which makes other associated Acacia plants to pump alkaloid into their leaves

(Palmer et al., 2008). These species have remarkable resistance to the fire and have the quality

of re-sprouting and even recovering after their burning by the natural fires (Sorensson, 1997).

9

2.1.7: Common uses

The trees and shrubs of these species are of central importance in the rural economy of

many of the world’s arid and semi-arid areas. Since the earlier times, all Acacia plants are

suitable materials for timber, fuelwood, forage, soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and soil

conservation by wind or water erosion and sand dunes stabilization (AbdEl-Hafiz, 2001).

Acacia plants are considered as erosion-control plants, with their easy spreading and adaptation

nature while some Acacia plants are potentially invasive species (Barr and Atkinson, 1970).

The plants of the Acacia species are very suitable for the production of paper and have

similar pulping properties to a range of other tropical timbers (Nasroun, 1992). The dark brown

wood is strong, durable, nearly twice as hard as teak, very shock resistant and is used for

construction, tool handles and carts. Leaves and pods contain highly digestive proteins and are

rich in minerals and generally used for feeding sheep and goats in certain parts of South Asia.

The plant species also have a wide range of secondary compounds including tannins, oxalates,

cyanides, saponin, amines, alkaloids, fluoroacetate and other toxins. The leaves of many

species have usually large amounts of tannins and are commercially important for tanning

leather (Pandey and Sharma, 2005).

2.1.8: Medicinal Uses

Acacia plants have significant pharmacological and toxicological effects. The decoction

of the leaves is used for astringent to the bowels, cure of bronchitis, heals fracture and is good

for eye diseases (Rushd and Kulliyat, 1987). Bruised leaves of the plants are applied to sore

eyes in children. Paste of burnt leaves is effective ointment for itching. Tender leaves beaten

into a pulp are used as a gargle in spongy gums, sore throat and as wash in hemorrhagic ulcers

and wound (Said, 1997). Leaves extract is an astringent and injected to allay irritation in acute

gonorrhea and leucorrhoea. Further, bruised leaves formed into a poultice and applied to ulcer

act as a stimulant and astringent. The tender leaves growing tops rubbed into a paste with sugar

and water act as a demulcent useful in coughs. The tender leaves beaten into a pulp are given

in diarrhea as astringent (Nadkarni, 2005).

10

The bark contains a large quantity of tannin and is a powerful astringent; its decoction

is largely used as a gargle and mouth wash in cancerous and syphilitic affections. Infusion of

bark is given in chronic diarrhea and diabetes. The juice of the bark mixed with milk is dropped

into the eye in conjunctivitis (Nadkarni, 2005). Decoction of bark is largely used as an

astringent douche in gonorrhea, cystitis, vaginitis, leucorrhoea and prolapse of uterus (Said,

1997). It is used for a tonic in diarrhea and dysentery and good cure for insanity. The flowers

are reported to reduce body temperature (Rushd and Kulliyat, 1987). The pods of these plants

species are reported helpful in removing catarrhal matter and phlegm from bronchial tubes

African Zulu tribes use the bark of these species for treatment of cough (Sonibare and ZO,

2008). The fruits are found to be useful in diarrhea, dysentery and diabetes (Anonymous,

2003).

Powder of root is useful in leucorrhoea, (Gilani et al., 1999) in wound healing and

useful in burning sensation (Rao et al., 1967). Various plants parts used in hair-fall, ear-ache,

syphilis, cholera, dysentery and leprosy (Asolkar et al., 2005). The powdered gum mixed with

quinine is useful in fever cases complicated with diarrhea and dysentery (Nadkarni, 2005). It

stops bleeding and is also useful in diabetes (Asolkar et al., 2005). Various parts of Acacia

plants are useful for antimicrobial activity in humans (Saini et al., 2008). These species form

a good habitat for the honey bee that produces good quality honey that is commercially known

as Acacia honey (Elkhalifa, 1996). Ethno medicinally the species have long been used for the

treatment of skin, sexual, stomach and tooth problems. Many herbal products derived from

these species are sold in market in their pure or mixed form such as, Babool tooth paste, Ayur

Shampoo, Nyle Shampoo in India (Maslin et al., 2003).

11

2.2 Acacia jacquemontii Benth

2.2.1: Taxonomy

Scientific name: A. jacquemontii Benth (Fabaceae), common name “Bable” or “Kikri”

in Pakistan. In India, this shrub is called as “Bhu-Banwali”, “Gulli Bouli” and “Ratabouli”

(Mertia et al., 2009).

2.2.2: Distribution

This plant species mainly occurs in desertic regions of Australia and Africa. In Asia it is

widely distributed in Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq (Mertia et al., 2009). On sand

dunes and interdunal sandy plains, it naturally distributes in patches, but on bare undulating

sand dunes its frequency and density is more. It is a potential but lesser known multipurpose

shrub of arid and semi-arid regions (Singh et al., 2003).

2.2.3: Description of plant

This Acacia is an erect, multi-stemmed, and small to large shrub. It can attain a height

ranging from 1.5 to 4.5 m in different habitats and soil types. The crown is variable in size,

flattened, spreading and erect. The number of stems or branches on the individual plant varies

from 4 to 46. Due to multi-stem growth characteristics, the plants attain a good canopy spread

within 4 to 5 years. The growth of shrub is very fast in early stage while it slows down after 5

to 6 years. Plant stems are stiff, smooth and brown in color. Thickness of stem varies from 1.0

to 5.9 cm. Twigs are zigzag with grayish brown bark. Young shoots of the stems are slightly

short and soft. Spines are arranged in paired, straight, slender and 2.0 to 5.0 cm long. They are

white in color and most often smooth. Leaves are bi-pinnate 2.5-5.0 cm long with 2-4 pairs of

pinnae. The Leaflets of this species are in 5-10 pairs, sessile, 2.5-3.0 mm long, linear oblong,

obtuse, and glabrous. Common petiole is 2.5 to 5.0 cm long with small or indistinct glands

between the upper pair of pinnae (Mertia et al., 2009).

12

2.2.4: Flower, pod and seed production

This shrub produces yellow sweet scented flowers, inflorescence globose heads, 12-16

mm in diameter, peduncles 2-3, slender, axillary, close cluster, bracts 2-3, about the middle of

the peduncle. Calyx campanulate, 1.2 to 1.5 mm long; the teeth short, deltoid and corolla 3

mm Long, lobes ovate-oblong, acute. Stamens indefinite, anthers are not gland tipped

(Parveen and Qaiser, 1998). Pollens are 12-16 celled polyads and tectum subpsilate. Length,

breadth and exine thickness of pollens are 39.40, 50.26 and 1.79, um, respectively and ovary

included in calyx tube or inferior. This species produces sweet scented flowers and attracts

birds and insects toward extra floral nectories. The yellow sweet scented flowers of this shrub

make the birds and insects main vectors of pollination (Ford and Forde, 1976). Pods of this

shrub show considerable variation in shape, size and color. They are stalked ovate oblong,

round at base, flat, straight, transversely veined, glabrous and 4 to 6 seeded. The length of the

pod of this shrub varies from 5.2 to 10.0 cm, and 1.0 to 1.7 cm in width while weight of

individual pod ranges from 0.2 to 0.6 gram. The pods of this species are pinkish-white in color

with prominent pink colored lining. Seeds are brown to dark brown in color, smooth,

compressed and 5.5 to 7.5 mm in diameter. The individual seed weight ranges from 0.03 to

0.06 g while the weight of its100 seeds is about 4.9 g (Mertia et al., 2009).

The seed setting is mainly controlled by evaporation of this shrub (Khan, 1970). Seed

setting is poor if windy days are prolonged. Pods are dehiscent and burst on drying. Fallen

seeds are blown by wind to distant places. Some seeds are also buried in the ground with

deposition of windblown sand on them. Seed of this species dispersal also takes place by

animals, which pass out undamaged seeds through the digestive tract. The phenological

behavior of this shrub is mainly influenced by rainfall, temperature and evaporation. Rainfall

usually affects leafing while temperature influences flowering and fruiting. The time of

flowering varies at different locations. In hyper arid conditions, the flowering on the plants

initiate in middle February while the pods mature either at the end of April or early May the

year (Bhandari, 1990).

13

2.2.5: Seed germination and root development

The seeds of this shrub start germinating when favorable conditions are available. The

germination of seed is epigeal. The radicle emerges and moves downward. The growth and

elongation of roots is faster than of shoot. The primary tap root is long and thick (Mertia and

Prasad, 2005).Young seedlings of the shrub are relatively more susceptible to frost than the

mature plants (Joshi et al., 1983). Young plants (seedlings) oftenly grow very fast and can

attain a height of 32 to 70 cm in a year after transplanting in the field. In shallow and gravely

soils the growth of seedlings are slow and poor (Sharma et al., 1984). This species develops

profuse root system. Main root divides into several sub roots called lateral roots which combine

and make a strong root network that binds sand in the rhizosphere. Normally its root penetrate

4 to 6 meter deep in search of water, whereas in sand dunes the roots may penetrate even deeper

in search of water (Mertia et al., 2009). This species starts coppicing either after the period of

every 5 to 6 years or when its plants attains a height of about 4 meters (Mertia and Prasad,

2005).

2.2.6: Adaptation for survival in dry conditions

Plants of this species have small and waxed leaves which help the shrub to reduce its

transpiration rate and survive in dry conditions. Long tap roots of the plants can reach deep

ground water sources which are helpful for the shrub to utilize ground water and remain green

during the water shortage in the dry environment. Plants develop long, sharp thorns and a

symbiotic relationship with stinging ants. When an animal takes a bite of leaves (and thorns),

it also gets a mouthful of angry, stinging ants. The ants defend their homes from other insects

as well, thus protecting this shrub (Choudhary et al., 2009). Like several other Acacia species,

this shrub accumulates free amino acids including specially proline during moisture stress

which helps this shrub to with stand drought conditions (Singh et al., 1972).

2.2.7: Biomass production

Production of above ground biomass in this species depends on site, habitat and climate

of the area. The plants growing in deep soils yield highest above ground biomass as compared

to plants growing in shallow soils. Soil conditions had no significant bearings on proportionate

14

allocations of different components of total accumulated biomass i.e. twigs, branches, leaves,

seed and stem wood. It exhibits maximum biomass of stem wood and twigs production in deep

soils followed by medium and shallow soils (Kunhamu et al., 2005).

2.2.8: Chemical composition

This plant species was assessed for active principles to ascertain the rationale for its

use in traditional medicine. Preliminary phytochemical screening of the stem bark extracts

showed that it possessed the active principles alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, terpenoids and

tannins. The antimicrobial activity of the extracts was assayed against pathogenic strains of

Bacillus cereus, Bacillus pumilus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus

aureus, S. pyrogenes, and Candida albcans using the agar diffusion method. The plant extract

exhibited antimicrobial activity against all the test microorganisms. B. cereus and B. pumilus

were the most susceptible to the plant extract while Candida albicans was the most resistant.

The minimum inhibitory concentration of the stem bark extract of the plant ranged

between 30 and 50 mg/ml while the minimum bactericidal concentration ranged between 35

and 60 mg/ml. This species could be a potential source of antimicrobial agents (Choudhary et

al., 2009). This plant is rich in primary metabolites as protein, fats, and fibers (Harsh and

Bohra, 2006) and has been used industrially to prepare biodegradable plastics (Pataeu et al.,

1994), oils, gums, dyes and inks (Morris, 1997).

2.2.9: Medicinal uses

Leaves and branches of this species are used to cure diarrhea, dysentery, stomachache

and astringent (Khan et al., 2013). The bark of the root is used as inocula for fermentation and

making local sprit (Al-Mosawi, 2006). The bark of tree is used to induce spontaneous abortion

in women in any stage of pregnancy. The bark of tree is also used for snake bites. The dried

bark is converted in form of paste with water. The paste is applied on cut by snake bite. Fibers

extracted from bark are also used to tie on the spot where scorpion has stung. This is supposed

to give relief to the poison (Choudhary et al., 2009). Gum of the shrub is a complex and

variable mixture of arabinogalactan, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides and glycoproteins. It

has been extensively used by tribal communities for kidney, asthma, and renal disorder. Gum

produced by this species is edible and highly priced in pharmaceutical industries (Harsh and

15

Bohra, 2006). Gum of this plant is also added in various food preparations to serve as health

tonic. Especially such food preparation is used by patients in case of fatal illness, accidents

leading to severe injury or by women after child birth (Al-Mosawi, 2006). It is believed that

incorporation of gum helps in fast recovery from such conditions. Gum also has demulcent and

astringent properties and often added for medicine for this purpose. For curing asthma gum of

the plant is boiled and given once a day for one month duration. Gum is also eaten for the

treatment of sores in the mouth (Choudhary et al., 2009).

2.2.10: Common uses

2.2.10.1: Poles and fuel wood

Depending on length and thickness of poles (stems), local inhabitants of Jodhpur use

the stem of this shrub for various purposes (Mertia et al., 2009). The stems with a height of 3

meter and thickness of about 40 mm are preferred by villagers for making frames thatched

houses and huts. Poles of medium height (2-3 m) and moderate thickness (20-40 mm) are

preferably used for making household granaries, baskets and other household articles and are

a good source of income for sustenance of poor desert dwellers particularly in the periods of

drought and famines (Bhandari, 1990). As a fuel wood this species is an excellent material that

yields high quality charcoal which is used in making gunpowder. It has a gradual burning

property which enables the fire wood to burn for longer duration. During burning its wood

releases intense heat and therefore this plant is preferred by goldsmiths, silversmiths and

ironsmiths (Dhir et al., 1984).

2.2.10.2: Forage and bark

This shrub provides good browse for goats and camels. The camels browse leaves,

pods and green tender branches. During scarcity in drought years the foliage and pods are

threshed out and used as fodder for goats (Bhandari, 1990). The foliage of this species is fairly

rich in all micro and macro mineral nutrients and can sustain feeding animals during scarcity

of fodder (Sharma et al., 1984). Bark of this shrub is a good source of tannin, used in small

size tanneries to impart brown to black color to the leather. The bark of the root is used in

distillation of spirit (Al-Mosawi, 2006). The bark is obtained as a by-product by felling of plant

16

either for poles or fuel wood. It is separated by heating the poles or roots with wooden mallets

and peeling of the stripes. The separated stripes are dried in open and chipped into smaller

pieces for use in tanneries (Dhir et al., 1984; Choudhary et al., 2009).

2.2.10.3: Agro-forestry and shelterbelts use

Due to fast growth habit, this Acacia species is suitable for planting at field boundary

in single or double row as bio-fence. It develops dense canopy in 2-3 year which acts as a

barrier for any biotic interference. Studies conducted at Cazrirrs, Jaisalmer, revealed that when

planted on field bund, it attained height of 2.5 m in 3 years with 16 stems per plant. This shrub

is used for shelterbelts with pyramidal shape and reduce the speed of wind and interception of

blown sand (Kaul, 1969; Choudhary et al., 2009; Sharrow and Ismail, 2004). Because of its

multiple uses, it is viewed as potential species for alternate land use system or agroforestry. In

a study, conducted in sandy soil in Bikaner, this species has been integrated in agri-silvi-

pasture system along with other woody perennials like, Calligonum polygonoides, Tecomella

undulata and Prosopis cineraria. It showed relatively fast growth and attains an average plant

height of 19.3 and 149 cm after 12 and 36 months, respectively after planting (Mertia et al.,

2009).

2.2.10.4: Planting for sand dune stabilization

This plant species is one of the most important arid shrubs for sand dune stabilization

in Thar Desert. It is an excellent sand binder on bare sand dunes and improves the soil

conditions (Singh et al., 2006). It is evident that soil pH and electrical conductivity (EC) in soil

samples collected from below plant canopy and open field are comparable. However, a

significant increase in soil organic carbon at 15 cm depth in samples collected from below

canopy area as compared to open field indicates that the species has got the ability to improve

soils (Yasin, 2013). Vigorous growth due to its efficient moisture utilization makes it a

promising species for planting on sand dunes due to its extensive root system (Tewari et al.,

2000).

17

2.2.10.5: Coppicing behavior

Mertia et al. (2009) reported that this shrub coppiced well when cut at ground 1evel

in Thar Desert of India. The growth of coppice in terms of height and stem diameter became

profuse. Young new coppice shoots regenerated up to three months as evident by increase in

their number. After three months, number of coppice/thicket declines due to mortality of some

of the tender shoots and became immobile after five months.

2.2.10.6: Contribution in soil improvement

Noureen, (2007) studied the effect of plant cover of this shrub on the physiochemical

properties of soils in the Cholistan desert. She reported that the amounts of moisture content,

organic matter, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorous, potassium, Sulphur, carbonates/bicarbonates

of the soil were higher under the plant canopies of this shrub than in the open areas. She also

reported a lower soil pH under the canopies of the shrub than in the soils of open areas. The

findings of this researcher indicated overall an increased soil improvement because of the plant

canopy of this shrub.

Yasin, (2013) studied the influence the plant canopy A. jacquemontii Benth on soil

composition properties of soils in the Thal desert. He reported that Soil moisture contents,

Organic matter, Carbonates, Bicarbonates, pH, Ec, N, Na, K, Ca, Mg, S, Cl, P and heavy metals

i.e. Fe, Cu, Zn and Ni were higher under the plant canopies of this shrub than in 150 and 300

cm away from the canopy. He analyzed these soil composition properties under and away from

the canopy at two depths 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm and reported that the mean values of above

mentioned elements were higher under the canopy while lower away from the canopy at both

depths respectively. The findings of this researcher indicated overall an increased soil

improvement because of the plant canopy of this shrub.

18

Chapter 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1: Description of the Study Area

Thal desert in Pakistan consist of about 2.5 million hectares. It comprise of districts of

Mianwali, Bakkhar, Layyah, Muzaffargarh and some parts of Sargodha and Jhang districts in

the Punjab Province of the country (Fig. 1). The wide spread natural woody vegetation of this

desert consists of drought shrubs and trees like Calligonum polygonoides, Capparis decidua,

A. jacquemontii, Propsopis juliflora. Salvodora oleoides, Suedea fruticosa, Ziziphus

mauritiana, Tamarix aphylla, Prosopis cineraria and Haloxylon recurvum (Quraishi et al.,

2006). The soil of the desert is moderately calcareous, alkaline, clay loam and alluvial with

sandy texture. About cover 50-60 % of Thal area is under sand dune (Sultani et al., 1985).

3.1.1: Climate

The temperature varies between 0 0C to 44 0C in winter and summer months of the

year. Strong winds are commonly which cause severe soil erosion (Sultani et al., 1985). North-

Eastern parts of this desert receives more rainfall than its Southern parts (GOP, 1974)

3.2: Study Sites

This study was conducted at selected sites in the Central Thal desert in districts Layyah

and Bakkhar. Before the start of the research work, a field survey was conducted to determine

the distribution patterns of A. jacquemontii. From this survey four sites dominated by this

Acacia species were chosen. Two sites were in the South-Central Thal and two sites were in

the North-Central Thal (Figures 3.1-4). The descriptions of the study sites are given below:

19

Fig. 3.1: Choubara site in South-Central Thal

20

Fig. 3.2: Kharewala site in South-Central Thal

21

Fig. 3.3: Northern Dagar Kotli site in North-Central Thal

22

Fig. 3.4: Southern Dagar Kotli site in North-Central Thal

23

3.2.1: Sites in South-Central Thal

3.2.1.1: Choubara site

The site was located in Rakh Choubara (state owned area), about 68 km the east of

Layyah. It lies between latitude 300 54' 20" 0N and 71 30' 51" 0E at a longitude and altitude

144 meter (Fig. 3.5). The site was close to the road and was covered with sandy soils. The

topography of the site was undulating and consists of sand dunes. The site was dominated by

A. jacquemontii. Very few shrubs of Karir (Capparis decidua) and Mallah (Ziziphus

nummularia) were scattered in the site as well. On side of the site local people used to cultivate

crop of gram (Cicer arietinum) on their privately owned sand dunes. The site was openly

grazed by the herds of local graziers on regular basis. Overall the site was conserved and

protected through controlled grazing by the Punjab Forest Department.

3.2.1.2: Kharewala site

The site was situated along the road in Rakh Kharewala (state owned area), about 95

km east of Layyah. It lies between latitude 300 54' 05" 0N and 71 34'18" 0E at a longitude and

altitude 144 meter (Fig. 3.5). About half of the topography of the site consisted of high ridges

of sand dunes while other half of it was generally flat. The site was dominated by A.

jacquemontii. Other woody species like Van (Salvadora oleoides) and Phog (Calligonum

polygonoides) were also sporadically distributed. The site was openly grazed by the herds of

local graziers on regular basis. Overall the site was conserved and protected through controlled

grazing by the Punjab Forest Department.

24

Fig. 3.5: Map of sites in South-Central Thal

25

3.2.2: Sites in North-Central Thal

3.2.2.1: Northern Dagar Kotli site

The site was present about 59 km east of Bakkhar near the road in the northern part of

Rakh Dagar Kotli (state owned area). It lies between latitude 310 23' 48" 0N and 71 25' 15" 0E

at a longitude and altitude 147 meter (Fig. 3.6). The site had generally flat topography with

small sand dunes. The site was dominated by A. jacquemontii with very few trees of Frash

(Tamrix aphylla). This site was openly grazed by the herds of local graziers on regular basis.

Overall the site was conserved and protected through controlled grazing by the Punjab Forest

Department.

3.2.2.2: Southern Dagar Kotli site

The site was located in the southern part of Rakh Dagar Kotli (state owned area), about

60 km South-East of Bakkhar city, about 11 km from the road. It lies between latitude 310 23'

26" 0N and 71 26' 26" 0E at a longitude and altitude 147 meter (Fig. 3.6). The site had rough

topography and consists of high ridges of sand dunes. Ridge tops of the site were dominated

by A. jacquemontii while other few plant species like Phog (Calligonum polygonoides) white

Kikar (Acacia albida) were also found nearby. The site was openly and regularly grazed by

the herds of local graziers. In the south of the site, local people practiced rain-fed farming of

gram crop (Cicer arietinum) on their privately owned lands. Site was conserved and protected

through controlled grazing by the Punjab Forest Department.

26

Fig. 3.6: Map of sites in North-Central Thal

27

3.3: Components of the study

The study consisted of three components:

I: Field Work: Field studies were conducted for determining the growth behavior

and ethnobotanical uses this Acacia shrub.

Π: Laboratory Work: Laboratory studies were carried out for soil analysis and

the chemical composition of the species.

Ш: Nursery Work: Nursery studies were done for determining the germination and

root/shoot growth of Acacia seedlings.

I: FIELD WORK

3.3.1.1: Measurements of Acacia plans

At each study site all the A. jacquemontii plants were counted and assigned the number.

From these plants, 5 small and 5 large Acacia plants were randomly selected. The small plants

were about 1 meter tall while large plants were more than 2 meter tall. On each selected plant,

8 twigs (2 from each side of the plant, according to cardinal directions) were selected and

tagged. The various growth parameters of these twigs were recorded every 15 days from Mid-

February to August during 2013 and 2014. Basal diameter of the twigs was measured with a

digital Vernier caliper at the base of the twig close to the main branch. Length of the twigs was

measured with a measuring tape while the total number of nodes, nodes with leaves, total

number of leaves, number of immature/mature flower clusters, number of green

immature/mature pods and secondary branches per twig were counted at each sampling period.

The above growth parameters of the twigs were also studied in the dormant season (September-

January) in between the year 2013 and 2014. For this purpose, the last sampling data of twig

parameters in August 2013 and the first sampling data of twig parameters in February 2014

was used to calculate average growth of twig parameters in the dormant season (winter season).

At each selected site one rain gauge was installed in the safe open place within the

Acacia plants. A small amount of cooking oil was put in the rain gauges so that the amount of

28

the rain within the rain gauge could not be evaporated. The rainfall data of each site was

collected on monthly basis from February to August (growing seasons of the species) in 2013

and 2014. 6½ months such rainfall data of each site were summarized (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

3.3.1.2: Plant canopy spread of the shrub

Canopy spread of small and large A. jacquemontii plants over the ground surface at

each site was estimated during the peak of growing season (August) during 2013 and 2014.

Canopy spread (perfery) outer boundary of each Acacia plants was vertically visualized

downward during noon time and delineated by drawing outer boundary line on the ground

around the canopy shade was delineated on the ground surface. The circumference (perimeter)

of the canopy shade was calculated. Mean values of the canopy spread of were calculated for

each years.

3.3.1.3: Associated pant species with shrub

Plant density of other species associated with A. jacquemontii at each site was measured

with the help of quadrate having the size of 0.5x0.5 meter. Four quadrates were placed under

the canopy of each Acacia plant in cardinal directions below the tagged twigs. The other four

quadrates were placed between canopies of Acacia plants, about 1.5 meter away from those

quadrates which were below the canopy of Acacia plants. The density data of other associated

plants species within these quadrates were recorded during the peak of growing season in

summer (August) during 2013 and 2014. Later on the density of associated species was

calculated on m2 basis.

3.3.1.4: Ethnobotanical uses of shrub

Ethnobotanical uses of plant in the form of food, shelter, medicine etc. by the local

communities were assessed by developing an Interview Schedule (Questionnaire). Thirteen

local people and 13 Hakims (Practitioners of Unani/Greek medicines) involved in the

traditional were interviewed near each study site. Data were tabulated and analyzed.

29

Fig. 3.7: Rainfall data of South-Central Thal sites collected on monthly basis from

February to August in 2013 and 2014

42

22

4

16

36

14 13

147

10 14

29

3 2

26

3

87

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

February March April May June July August Total rainfall

Aver

age

rain

fall

(m

m)

Months/Year

Choubara site

2013

2014

37

20

412

2015

11

119

915

30

2 3

24

2

85

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

February March April May June July August Total

rainfall

Aver

age

rain

fall

(m

m)

Months/Year

Kharewala site

2013

2014

30

Fig. 3.8: Rainfall data of North-Central Thal sites collected on monthly basis from

February to August in 2013 and 2014

77

2342

018

3217

209

16 224 3 0

74

6

125

0

50

100

150

200

250


rainfall

Aver

age

rain

fall

(m

m)

Months/Year

Northern Dagar Kotli site

2013

2014

88

20

41

0

2133

19

222

1423

3 2 0

81

5

128

0

50

100

150

200

250


rainfall

Aver

age

rain

fall

(m

m)

Months/Year

Southern Dagar Kotli site

2013

2014

31

3.3.1.5: Field Observations

Field observation on this Acacia species were also recorded during the growing

seasons (February to August) in 2013 and 2014.

Π: LABORATORY WORK

3.3.2.1: Soil Analysis

For analysis of soil composition at each site, soil samples were collected under and

between the canopies of selected Acacia plants during summer season of 2013 and 2014. These

samples were taken at the 3 soil depths each of 15, 30 and 45 cm both under and between plant

canopies. Four soil samples were collected under each Acacia canopy, while other 4 soil

samples were collected 1.5 m and 3.0 m away from the Acacia plants in cardinal directions. A

composite soil sample was made after taking four samples at each soil depth.

3.3.2.2: Preparation of soil extract

One hundred milliliter of bi-distilled water was added to a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask

which contained 25 g of the soil sample. The flask was shaken with the help of mechanical

shaker for two hours and the suspension was left for 36 hours to saturate. The suspension was

filtered using the Buckner funnel with the help of suction pump to get the clear sample extract.

The extract was used for the estimation of soluble cat ions and anions i.e., sodium, potassium,

calcium, magnesium, chlorides, phosphates and sulphates.

3.3.2.3: Analytical procedures

3.3.2.4: Reagents and standard solutions

Analytical grade reagents were used throughout the studies. The standard solutions

(1000 mg/L) of Na, K, Ca and Mg were procured from Merck Chemicals, Germany. These

solutions were diluted with suitable amount of distilled water to get desired working standard

solutions.

32

3.3.2.5: Moisture content

Moisture contents in soil samples were measured with the help of ScalTec Moisture

analyzer at 110 ºC.

3.3.2.6: Sodium and potassium

Sodium and Potassium were estimated with the help of flame photometer (Rhoades,

1982).

3.3.2.7: Calcium and magnesium

In the present study, Calcium and Magnesium ions of soil samples were estimated by

using the method of complexometric titration with disodium salt of ethylenediamine tetra

acetic acid (EDTA) (Rhoades, 1982).

3.3.2.8: Chlorides

Chlorides in the samples were estimated by Flow Injection Analyzer method

(Diamond, 2001). In this method, thiocyanate ion was liberated from mercuric thiocyanate by

the formation of soluble mercuric chloride. In the presence of ferric ion, free thiocyanate ion

forms the highly colored ferric thiocyanate, of which the absorbance was proportional to the

chloride concentration. The absorbance of the ferric thiocyanate was read at 480 nm (Cecil

7000, UK).

3.3.2.9: Organic matter

The organic matter was oxidized with a known amount of chromate in the presence of

sulphuric acid and the remaining chromate was determined spectrophotometric ally at 600 nm

wavelength. The calculation of organic matter was based on organic matter containing 58 %

carbon (Nelson & Sommers, 1982).

33

3.3.2.10: Sulphur

Sulphur in soil extracts was determined by gravimetric method (Smittenberg et al.,

1951). Barium Sulphur was precipitated in hydrochloric acid using Barium chloride. The

barium Sulphur was filtered, dried and weighed.

3.3.2.11: Phosphate/ Phosphorous

The phosphate content of the soil samples was analyzed using spectrophotometric

method (Olsen & Sommers, 1982). The phosphate was reacted with Sodium molybdate and

Potassium pyrosulfate in acidic solution to form phosphomolybdic acid, which was reduced to

a blue compound in the presence of ascorbic acid. The absorption was measured at wavelength

of 565 nm.

3.3.2.12: Total Nitrogen

Nitrogen in soil samples was analyzed by Kjeldahl Method (Bremner & Mulvaney,

1982, Isaac & Jhonson, 1976).

3.3.3: Chemical Composition of Acacia Plants

Leaves of the species were collected from the field (from all selected sites) at peak

growing seasons (March 2013-2014) while the pods were collected at the maturity end of

May-June in 2013-2014 and their composite samples were prepared accordingly. After this

chemical composition was done for following compounds by using per standard techniques

of analysis.

3.3.3.1: Primary compounds

a. Crude protein %

b. Crude fiber %

c. Minerals %

34

3.3.3.2: Secondary compounds

a. Alkaloids

b. Hydrogen Cyanides (HCN)

c. Total phenolics

d. Condensed tannin

e. Saponins

3.3.3.1: Primary Compounds

3.3.3.1.1: Crude protein (%)

The percentage of nitrogen in each sample was determined by using Kjeldahl’s

method as given in AOAC (2003). Sample is digested in sulphuric acid H2SO4 to convert

organic form of ‘N’ to inorganic form i.e. ammonium sulphate and it was distilled in Kjeldhal’s

apparatus by using NaOH so that all ammonia liberated and absorbed in boric acid having

indicator. Ammonia absorbed by boric acid was noted by titrating against H2SO4. The nitrogen

content was calculated according to the following formula.

N (%) = Vol. of H2SO4 used x 0.0014 x 250 x 100

Wt. of sample x Vol. of sample taken

Crude protein was calculated by multiplying with the factor as follows:

Crude protein (%) = N (%) x 6.25

35

3.3.3.1.2: Crude fiber (%)

Two gram of moisture free and ether extracted plant sample was taken in 500 ml

digestion flask. 200 ml of 1.25 percent H2SO4 was also added. The sample was digested for

30 minutes on crude fiber extraction apparatus. The sample was filtered through Buckner

funnel with the help of suction pump. After filtration the residue was washed with hot water

and 15 ml ethanol. The sample was dried in an oven at 135 °C for 2 hours. Cooled, weighed

and then ignited in a furnace at 600 °C for 30 minutes and weighed again AOAC, (2000).

The crude fiber contents were calculated by using the following formula.

Wt. of residue after acid/alkali treatment-wt. after ignition

Crude fiber (%) = ------------------------------------------------------------ ---------X 100

Total weight of sample

3.3.3.1.3: Crude fat (%)

The total fat content was determined by using n-hexane solvent in Soxhlet

apparatus according to the method described in AOAC (2003). Moisture free samples were

packed in filter paper and put in the tube of Soxhlet apparatus. The samples were run for 2

hours and the fat extract was collected in the flask of the apparatus. Extra n-hexane was

evaporated by putting the fat extract in the drying oven and the crude fat was determined

according to the following formula.

Fat (%) = Weight of fat in sample x 100

Weight of sample

3.3.3.1.4: Ash contents (%)

The oven dried plant sample (1 gram) was taken in an already weighed crucible.

The crucible was placed in a furnace for ignition at 600 °C for one hour, cooled and weighed

to calculate the percentage of ash contents AOAC, (2000).

Wt. of Ash

Ash contents (%). = -------------------------X 100

Wt. of sample

36

3.3.3.1.5: Plant Minerals

3.3.3.1.5.1: Macro and Micro-nutrients

Plant samples (comprising of leaves) of A. jacquemontii were collected and then

oven-dried for 48 hours at 70°C. After this, these samples were ground in mortar with the help

of pestle. Then dried samples (100 mg) were boiled in 10 ml of 1.4N HNO3 on hotplate (TH-

550; Advantec, Tokyo, Japan) 100°C for 30 min. After cooling, the suspension was diluted

250 times with distilled water and afterward it was analyzed for the determination of N, P, K,

Na, Ca, Mg, Cu, Mn and Zn following Bhargava and Raghurpathi (1995) method.

3.3.3.1.5.2: Determination of phosphorus

0.1 mL of sample solution already prepared by wet digestion method was taken in

a volumetric flask. Then 8.6 ml of distilled water was added along with 1mL of ammonium

molybdate reagent. After swirling the flask to mix solution, 0.4 mL of aminonephthol

sulphonic acid was added. The absorbency was measured using distilled water as reagent blank

in place of sample solution at 720 nm on a spectrophotometer. Phosphorus concentration was

determined by comparing the absorbency to a previously prepared standard curve (Fiske and

Subbarow, 1925; Bolts and Mellon, 1948).

3.3.3.1.5.3: Potassium and Sodium

Potassium and sodium were measured by flame photometer following AOAC

(2000) method. For the measurement of potassium and sodium, KCl and NaCl were used as

standards respectively. Standard curves for K and Na were prepared by using 10, 20, 30 and

40 ppm concentrations respectively. Fresh working standards were prepared immediately

before use.

3.3.3.1.5.4: Determination of calcium, magnesium, iron, copper and zinc

Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Iron (Fe), copper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn) from

samples of A. jacquemontii leaves were determined by using Spectrophotometer following

Bhargava and Raghurpathi (1995) method. For the estimation of these ions, calcium chloride,

37

magnecium sulphate, iron sulphate, copper sulphate and zinc oxide were employed as

standards respectively and their standard curves were obtained by using 10, 20, 40, 80 and 100

ppm for Ca, 5, 10, 15 and 20 ppm for Mg, 1, 2, 3 ppm for Fe, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 and 2 ppm for Cu

and 0.2, 0.3, 0.5 and 2 ppm for Zn respectively. These working standards were arranged as

fresh just before exercise.

3.3.3.2: Secondary metabolites determination

All these secondary metabolites in this study were determined as per standard

procedures. The method for the preparation of fat-free samples for the determination of tannins,

alkaloids and saponin is same as mentioned above:

3.3.3.2.1: Total phenolics

Contents of total phenols were determined as reported by Julkenen-Titto, (1985) 37

pipet Folin-Ciocalteu reagent method. The dilutions were made to ensure the oxidation of 1

mL of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent with 200 μL, followed by the neutralization with 2 mL of 7.5

% sodium carbonate (w/v). Finally, this volume was made up to 7 mL with deionized water.

The absorbance of the resulting blue color was measured at 765 nm on spectrophotometer with

a 1 cm cell after incubation for 2 h in the dark at room temperature. Tannic acid was used as a

standard for the calibration curve.

3.3.3.2.2: Flavonoid content

The total flavonoids content was measured by using the colorimetric assay (Zhishen

et al., 1999) with minor modifications. One ml of dilute sample from the above was added to

a 10 mL of volumetric flask containing 4 mL of distilled water followed by immediate addition

of 0.6 mL of 5 % NaNO2, 0.5 mL of 10 % AlCl3 after 5 min, and 2 mL of 1 M NaOH after 1

min. Furthermore, each reaction flask was then immediately diluted with 2.4 mL of distilled

water and mixed. The absorbance of pink colored solution was noted at 510 nm. The quercetin

(in μg/g range) was used as a standard for the calibration curve. The total flavonoids content

of the samples was calculated by using the following linear equation based on calibration

curve:

38

Y = 0.0205X. 1494; r = 0.9992

Where Y is the absorbance, and X is the flavonoid content in μg g-1.

3.3.3.2.3: Total Tannins

Tannins determination was done according to the method of Van-Burden and

Robinson, (1981) with some modifications. A 0.5 g of fat free sample from the above was

added 25 to 50 mL of distilled water in a 500 mL flask, kept on a shaker at 100 rpm for 1 h,

filtered into a 50 mL volumetric flask and made the volume up to the mark. Then 5 mL of the

filtrate was 38 pipetted out into a test tube and mixed with 2 ml of 10 fold diluted of 0.1 M

FeCl3 in 0.1 NaCl and 0.008 M potassium ferrocyanide and kept at room temperature. The

absorbance was measured at 605 nm within 10 min. Standard curve was prepared using 10, 20,

30, 40 and 50 μg/mL tannic acid to quantitatively determine the tannins in the samples.

3.3.3.2.4: Alkaloids

Alkaloids in the dried samples were estimated following the method of Harborne

(1973). To 0.5 g of fat free samples from the above in 250 mL beaker, 20 mL of 10 % acetic

acid in ethanol was added, covered and allowed to stand for 4 h and filtered. The filtrate was

concentrated on a water bath at 90 oC till one-quarter of the original volume of extract was

attained. Concentrated ammonium hydroxide was toted up drop by drop to the concentrated

extract until the completion of precipitates. The whole solution was allowed to settle,

precipitates collected and washed with dilute ammonium hydroxide followed by refilteration.

The resultant residue was weighed after oven drying to express as the quantity of alkaloids.

3.3.3.2.5: Saponin

Saponin was determined according to the method of Chapagain and Wiesman,

(2005). Defatted residue (0.1 g) was dried for 24 h in a screw capped test tube and 30 mL of

methanol were poured. The test tubes were kept over a shaker at 100 rpm for two days and

then the solution was centrifuged. Three consecutive extractions were carried out followed by

pooling of three resultant extractions by the methanol. The extract was evaporated on a rotary

39

evaporator. In the end, a yellowish crystalline powder was carefully weighed to express as

saponin.

Ш: NURSERY WORK

Ripened pods of Acacia species were collected from the field and seeds were isolated

from pods. Then such seeds were stored in sealed paper bags for one a week and were dried

under normal room temperature. Only mature and uniform sized seeds were used in the

following germination experiments.

3.3.4: Seed germination experiment

3.3.4.1: Seed germination in petri dishes

Mature and uniform seeds of this species were sown in large petri dishes. Before

sowing in the petri dishes, seeds were soaked with cold water (for 12 hours) and hot water (100

0C for 3 hours). In 3 petri dishes, cold water-soaked seeds were used while in another 3 petri

dishes hot water-soaked and 3 petri dishes, untreated seeds were used. Seed germination

percentage was recorded on hourly basis. In each petri dish a blotting paper was laid out and

100 seeds were placed at equal spacing on the blotting papers. Later on, seeds in the Petri

dishes were covered with another blotting paper. Small quantities of water were added over

the blotting papers so that they may be become moist and wet.

3.3.4.2: Pots experiments

Mature and uniform seeds of this species were sown in the earthen pots in nursery

conditions. In this experiment, 300 pots were used and in each pot 10 non-water soaked seeds

were sown. Each pot contained 5 kg of field soil, collected from the depths of 0-0.5 m, 0.5-

1.0 m and above >1.0 m. First 100 pots contained field soil collected from the depth of 0-0.5

m while other 100 pots had field soil collected from the depth of 0.5-1.0 m. The reaming 100

pots contained field soil collected from the depth of above 1.0 m. After seed sowing 500 ml

water was supplied to each pot on daily basis for the period of one week. Daily seed

germination was recorded up to 19 days.

40

3.3.4.3: Root-shoot experiments

In this experiment, pots of seed germination test were used. The pots were divided into

3 categories i.e. pots filled with the soils of 0-0.5 m, 0.5-1.0 m and above 1.0 m depths. In each

pot category, there were 63 pots which were selected randomly. At the end of pot germination

test, only one seedling per pot was kept and the other seedlings were uprooted manually from

the pots of each category. Later on the seedlings of the pots were tested for their root-shoot

weights and elongation.

3.3.4.4: Root-shoot weights and elongation

Three weeks later when the germination was completed in all the pots, the plant species

was studied for its root-shoot elongation. For fresh and dry weights of root-shoots, 3 seedlings,

1 seedling from each of 3 pots of each category were uprooted and washed with tape water so

that soil particles should be detached from the roots. In this way, 9 seedlings from 3 categories

of the pots were uprooted and later were dried for 3 days in the open air. With the help of

knife, roots and shoots were separated at their joint point (collar). During this experiments,

500 ml of water was provided regularly by biweekly basis. The data on the root-shoot

fresh/dry weights and root-shoot elongation of Acacia seedlings were recorded on bimonthly

basis for 14 months (from February 2013 to March 2014). The mean values of root-shoot

weights and elongation obtained from seedlings of three category of pots at each bimonthly

period were combined has single mean values.

3.4: Statistical analysis

Field data on the growth behavior of the species were analyzed by using Repeated

Measure Design. Nursery data on the root-shoot weights and elongation were analyzed by

using Complete Randomized Design. For the soil analysis and chemical composition of the

species, means were calculated along with the Standard Error (Steel et al., 1997 and Jones

et al., 2003).

41

Chapter 4 RESULTS

I: FIELD WORK

4: Growth behavior of A. jacquemontii in the field

4.1: Twig parameters of the shrub

4.1.1: Diameter

During the sampling period of 6 months and 2 weeks (from February to August) in 2013

(normal year of rainfall) and in 2014 (dry year), mean values of twig diameter of the shrub at

two locations in the South-Central Thal are given in Table 4.1a. During 2013 (year of normal

rainfall) twig diameter of small and large plants at Choubara site grew from a mean of 1.6 mm

to 3.8 mm (2.2 mm diameter increase) and 2.1 mm to 4.4 mm (2.3 mm diameter increase),

respectively. In 2014 (dry year) at this site, twig diameter of small and large plants grew from

a mean of 4.2 mm to 5.7 mm (1.5 mm diameter increase) and 5.0 mm to 6.5 mm (1.5 mm

diameter increase), respectively. In 2013 (year of normal rainfall) twig diameter of small and

large plants at Kharewala site grew from a mean of 1.7 mm to 3.6 mm (1.9 mm diameter

increase) and 2.3 mm to 4.5 mm (2.2 mm diameter increase), respectively. While in 2014 (dry

year) at this site, twig diameter of small and large plants grew from a mean of 4.3 mm to 5.6

mm (1.3 mm diameter increase) and 5.7 mm to 7.1 mm (1.4 mm diameter increase),

respectively.

Mean values of twig diameter of the shrub at two locations in the North-Central Thal

are given in Table 4.1b. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), twig diameter of small and large

plants at the Northern Dagar Kotli site grew from a mean of 1.5 mm to 3.8 mm (2.3 mm

diameter increase) and 2.4 mm to 4.9 mm (2.5 mm diameter increase), respectively. In 2014

(dry year) at this site, twig diameter of small and large plants grew from a mean of 4.8 mm to

6.3 mm (1.5 mm diameter increase) and 5.6 mm to 7.0 mm (1.4 mm diameter increase),

respectively. In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), twig diameter of small and large plants at

Southern Dagar Kotli site grew from a mean of 2.0 mm to 4.2 mm (2.2 mm diameter increase)

and 2.4 mm to 4.9 mm (2.5 mm diameter increase), respectively. While in 2014 (dry year) at

this site, twig diameter of small and large plants grew diameter from a mean of 5.0 mm to 6.4

42

mm (1.4 mm diameter increase) and 5.8 mm to 7.1 mm (1.3 mm diameter increase),

respectively.

Year wise comparison of twig diameter indicated that at each site, both small and large

A. jacquemontii plants grew more in twig diameter in 2013 than in 2014 because of relatively

more rainfall in 2013 than 2014 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

43

Table 4.1a: Mean diameter (mm) of twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different sampling

periods during 2013 and 2014 in South-Central Thal

Dates

Small plants1 Large plants1

2013 2014 2013 2014 Choubara site Kharewala site Choubara site Kharewala site Choubara site Kharewala site Choubara site Kharewala site

Means2 SE* Means SE Means SE Means SE Means SE Means SE Means SE Means SE

15/02 1.6 0.07 1.7 0.07 4.2 0.09 4.3 0.07 2.1 0.08 2.3 0.08 5.0 0.07 5.7 0.08

28/02 1.8 0.07 1.9 0.07 4.3 0.09 4.4 0.08 2.3 0.09 2.5 0.07 5.1 0.08 5.8 0.08

15/03 1.8 0.07 2.0 0.08 4.4 0.09 4.5 0.08 2.3 0.09 2.6 0.07 5.2 0.08 5.9 0.08

30/03 1.8 0.07 2.2 0.07 4.5 0.09 4.6 0.07 2.4 0.09 2.8 0.07 5.3 0.08 6.0 0.08

15/04 1.9 0.07 2.3 0.07 4.6 0.09 4.7 0.08 2.5 0.09 3.0 0.07 5.4 0.07 6.1 0.08

30/04 2.0 0.07 2.5 0.07 4.7 0.08 4.8 0.08 2.6 0.08 3.2 0.07 5.5 0.08 6.2 0.07

15/05 2.2 0.07 2.6 0.07 4.8 0.09 4.9 0.08 2.8 0.08 3.3 0.07 5.6 0.08 6.3 0.08

30/05 2.3 0.08 2.7 0.06 4.9 0.08 5.0 0.08 2.9 0.08 3.4 0.07 5.7 0.08 6.4 0.08

15/06 2.5 0.08 2.8 0.06 5.1 0.09 5.1 0.08 3.1 0.08 3.6 0.07 5.8 0.08 6.5 0.08

30/06 2.7 0.08 2.9 0.07 5.2 0.09 5.2 0.08 3.3 0.08 3.7 0.07 5.9 0.08 6.6 0.08

15/07 2.9 0.08 3.0 0.07 5.4 0.09 5.3 0.07 3.5 0.08 3.8 0.07 6.1 0.08 6.7 0.08

30/07 3.4 0.08 3.2 0.06 5.5 0.09 5.4 0.08 3.7 0.08 4.1 0.07 6.2 0.08 6.8 0.07

15/08 3.5 0.08 3.4 0.06 5.6 0.09 5.5 0.08 3.9 0.08 4.3 0.07 6.3 0.08 6.9 0.07

30/08 3.8 0.08 3.6 0.06 5.7 0.10 5.6 0.08 4.4 0.08 4.5 0.07 6.5 0.08 7.1 0.08 Net

increase 2.2 - 1.9 - 1.5 - 1.3 - 2.3 - 2.2 - 1.5 - 1.4 - 1At each site 5 small and 5 large plants were sampled 2Means of 40 twigs on plants at each sampling data

*Standard Error

44

Table 4.1b: Mean diameter (mm) of twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different sampling periods

during 2013 and 2014 in North-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site


15/02 1.5 0.05 2.0 0.07 4.8 0.07 5.0 0.10 2.4 0.08 2.1 0.08 5.6 0.08 5.8 0.08

28/02 1.7 0.05 2.1 0.07 4.9 0.07 5.1 0.10 2.6 0.07 2.3 0.08 5.7 0.09 5.9 0.08

15/03 1.9 0.05 2.3 0.07 5.0 0.08 5.2 0.11 2.8 0.07 2.4 0.09 5.8 0.09 6.1 0.08

30/03 2.0 0.05 2.5 0.07 5.1 0.08 5.4 0.11 3.0 0.08 2.6 0.09 5.9 0.09 6.1 0.08

15/04 2.3 0.05 2.6 0.08 5.2 0.08 5.5 0.10 3.2 0.08 2.8 0.08 6.0 0.09 6.2 0.08

30/04 2.4 0.05 2.8 0.08 5.3 0.08 5.6 0.10 3.3 0.07 3.0 0.08 6.1 0.09 6.3 0.08

15/05 2.6 0.05 3.1 0.08 5.4 0.08 5.7 0.10 3.4 0.07 3.2 0.08 6.2 0.09 6.4 0.08

30/05 2.7 0.05 3.3 0.08 5.6 0.08 5.8 0.11 3.6 0.08 3.3 0.08 6.3 0.09 6.5 0.08

15/06 2.9 0.05 3.4 0.08 5.7 0.09 5.9 0.10 3.9 0.08 3.5 0.08 6.4 0.09 6.6 0.08

30/06 3.2 0.05 3.5 0.08 5.8 0.09 6.0 0.11 4.2 0.08 3.7 0.08 6.5 0.09 6.7 0.11

15/07 3.3 0.05 3.7 0.08 5.9 0.08 6.1 0.11 4.4 0.08 3.9 0.08 6.5 0.09 6.8 0.08

30/07 3.5 0.06 3.9 0.08 6.1 0.09 6.2 0.11 4.6 0.08 4.1 0.08 6.7 0.09 6.9 0.08

15/08 3.6 0.6 4.1 0.08 6.2 0.09 6.3 0.11 4.8 0.08 4.2 0.08 6.9 0.09 7.0 0.08

30/08 3.8 0.06 4.2 0.07 6.3 0.11 6.4 0.11 4.9 0.08 4.4 0.08 7.0 1.30 7.1 0.08 Net

increase 2.3 - 2.2 - 1.5 - 1.4 - 2.5 - 2.3 - 1.4 - 1.3 - 1At each site 5 small and 5 large plants were sample 2Means of 40 twigs on plants at each sampling data

*Standard Error

45

Fig.4.1: Net increase in diameter of twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants

during sampling of about 6 months in the growing and dormant seasons

at all sites in 2013 and 2014

Note: Values taken from Table 4.1 a-b

1.7

3.8

2.2

4.6

0.80.9

4.6

6.1

5.5

7.1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final

Small plants Large plants Small

plants

Large

plants

Small plants Large plants

Growing season (Mid Feb-Aug-2013) Dormant Period

(Sept-Jan 2013-

2014)

Growing season (Mid Feb-Aug-2014)

Net

incr

ease

in t

wig

dia

met

er (

mm

)

46

Fig 4.2: Measuring the twig diameter of A. jacquemontii with the help of digital vernier caliper

47

4.1.2: Length

Mean values of twig length of the shrub at two locations in the South-Central Thal are

given in Table 4.2a. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), twig length of small and large plants

at Choubara site grew from a mean of 27.3 cm to 51.7 cm (24 cm length increase) and 43.5 cm

to 71.8 cm (28 cm length increase), respectively. While in 2014 (dry year) at same site; twig

length of small and large plants grew from a mean of 62.9 cm to 78.2 cm (15 cm length

increase) and 85.5 cm to 103.5 cm (18 cm length increase), respectively. Throughout in 2013

(year of normal rainfall), twig length of small and large plants at Kharewala site grew from a

mean of 23.4 cm to 46.6 cm (23 cm length increase) and 38.6 cm to 68.6 cm (30 cm length

increase), respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at this site, twig length of small and large

plants grew from a mean of 61.7 cm to 76.1 cm (14 cm length increase) and 80.1 cm to 99.5

cm (19 cm length increase), respectively.

Mean values of twig length of the shrub at two locations in the North-Central Thal are

given in Table 4.2b. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), twig length of small and large plants

at Northern Dagar Kotli site grew from a mean of 20.3 cm to 43.5 cm (23 cm length increase)

and 37.6 cm to 62.8 cm (25 cm length increase), respectively. The data were recorded in 2014

(dry year) at this site, twig length of small and large plants grew from a mean values of 56.2

cm to 71.1 cm (15 cm length increase) and 77.1 cm to 94.0 cm (17 cm length increase),

respectively. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), twig length of small and large plants at

Southern Dagar Kotli site grew from a mean of 33.1 cm to 55.2 cm (22 cm length increase)

and 37.6 cm to 62.8 cm (25 cm length increase), respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at

same site, twig length of small and large plants grew from a mean of 64.0 cm to 80.1 cm (16

cm length increase) and 81.3 cm to 99.8 cm (18 cm length increase), respectively.

Year wise comparison of twig length indicated that at each site, both small and large

A. jacquemontii plants grew more in twig length in 2013 than in 2014 because of relatively

more rainfall in 2013 than 2014.

48

Table 4.2a: Mean length (cm) of twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different sampling periods

during2013 and 2014 in South-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014 Choubara site Kharewala site Choubara site Kharewala site Choubara site Kharewala site Choubara site Kharewala site


15/02 27.3 1.70 23.4 0.97 62.9 2.23 61.7 1.12 43.5 1.42 38.6 1.32 85.5 1.70 80.1 0.98

28/02 30.3 1.90 26.2 0.96 63.2 2.11 62.4 1.11 44.5 1.11 39.9 1.41 86.4 2.71 82.5 1.04

15/03 31.0 1.83 28.1 0.95 64.4 2.11 64.4 1.10 45.5 1.11 41.6 1.35 87.5 1.65 83.0 0.99

30/03 32.0 1.90 29.9 0.98 65.6 2.11 65.7 1.14 46.9 1.92 43.7 1.34 89.0 1.61 84.8 0.99

15/04 35.1 1.95 33.6 1.07 66.8 2.10 66.8 1.10 49.5 1.92 49.3 1.30 91.9 1.61 85.2 1.04

30/04 36.4 2.10 37.3 1.21 67.2 2.01 67.0 1.10 51.8 1.83 54.2 1.30 92.4. 1.61 87.5 1.10

15/05 39.5 1.94 38.7 1.21 68.7 2.05 68.9 1.21 53.9 1.80 55.5 1.24 93.6 1.53 88.1 1.10

30/05 39.7 2.20 40.1 1.21 69.4 1.82 69.4 1.21 56.9 1.80 56.5 1.24 95.4 1.60 90.8 1.15

15/06 42.6 2.23 41.5 1.20 71.5 1.90 71.6 1.20 60.7 1.90 57.7 1.24 96.8 2.94 91.4 1.14

30/06 44.7 2.30 43.0 1.20 72.1 1.12 72.2 1.15 63.3 1.90 59.1 1.20 97.1 1.14 93.1 1.20

15/07 46.4 2.31 43.6 1.20 73.6 1.12 73.7 1.20 65.8 1.90 61.8 1.17 99.5 1.20 94.5 1.20

30/07 48.3 2.32 44.3 1.21 75.3 1.20 74.8 2.51 68.0 1.92 63.3 1.17 101.4 1.21 96.1 1.21

15/08 49.8 2.30 44.9 1.21 76.4 1.21 75.2 2.40 68.8 1.91 65.1 1.17 102.1 1.16 97.2 1.21

30/08 51.7 2.30 46.6 1.20 78.2 1.20 76.1 1.20 71.8 1.90 68.6 1.16 103.5 1.15 99.5 1.15 Net

increase 24 - 23 - 15 - 14 - 28 - 30 - 18 - 19 - 1At each site 5 small and 5 large plants were sampled 2Means of 40 twigs on plants at each sampling data *Standard Error

49

Table 4.2b: Mean length (cm) of twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different sampling periods

during 2013 and 2014 in North-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014 Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site


15/02 20.3 1.06 33.1 1.52 56.2 1.54 64.0 1.30 37.6 1.15 38.8 1.50 77.1 3.22 81.3 0.99

28/02 24.3 0.99 35.7 1.51 57.1 1.54 65.1 1.30 41.7 0.92 44.2 1.30 79.3 3.08 82.2 1.03

15/03 26.4 0.96 37.2 1.44 58.3 1.56 66.1 1.20 44.3 1.00 46.2 1.31 81.4 3.05 83.0 1.04

30/03 27.3 0.99 39.9 1.44 59.7 1.61 68.6 1.20 46.9 1.20 49.5 1.22 82.1 2.81 85.2 0.91

15/04 29.1 1.02 40.2 1.51 60.5 1.43 69.1 1.20 47.4 1.11 52.8 1.22 83.4 2.85 86.6 0.91

30/04 31.0 1.14 43.1 1.50 62.8 1.51 70.7 1.20 48.1 1.13 54.4 1.14 84.0 2.91 87.0 0.83

15/05 32.7 1.41 44.7 1.44 63.3 1.50 71.1 1.20 50.2 1.30 56.6 1.12 85.6 2.91 89.4 0.82

30/05 33.1 1.20 45.8 1.34 64.9 1.50 73.7 1.20 52.4 2.71 59.9 1.10 86.7 2.97 90.2 0.84

15/06 34.4 1.43 47.1 1.34 65.0 1.50 74.5 1.20 53.9 3.21 62.3 1.10 88.6 2.95 91.8 0.84

30/06 35.8 1.41 48.4 1.34 66.3 1.50 75.5 1.22 55.6 3.21 63.6 1.02 89.8 2.75 93.6 0.85

15/07 37.3 1.41 50.7 1.32 67.6 1.50 77.3 1.24 56.0 3.12 65.1 0.99 90.5 2.74 94.6 0.92

30/07 39.3 1.41 52.9 1.32 68.0 1.50 78.1 1.26 58.5 3.11 67.2 0.98 91.2 2.76 96.6 0.93

15/08 41.8 1.40 54.7 1.32 69.6 1.50 79.6 2.32 59.6 3.12 69.8 0.97 92.3 2.76 97.9 0.94

30/08 43.5 1.41 55.2 1.31 71.1 1.51 80.1 1.31 62.8 2.74 71.3 0.96 94.0 2.75 99.8 0.95 Net

increase 23 - 22 - 15 - 16 - 25 - 32 - 17 - 18 - 1At each site 5 small and 5 large plants were sampled 2Means of 40 twigs on plants at each sampling data

*Standard Error

50

Fig. 4.3: Net increase in length of twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants

during sampling of about 6 months in the growing and dormant seasons at

all sites in 2013 and 2014


26.9

49.3

39.6

51.2

11.9

29.8

61.2

75.3

81

99.2

0

20

40

60

80

100

120



plants

Large

plants



(Sept-Jan 2013-

2014)


Net

incr

ease

in t

wig

len

gth

(cm

)

51

Fig 4.4: Measuring the twig length of A. jacquemontii with the help of measuring tape

52

4.1.3: Number of nodes

Mean values of number of nodes on the twig of the shrub at two locations in the South-

Central Thal are given in Table 4.3a. Throughout in 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of

nodes on the twig of small and large plants at Choubara site produced from a mean range of

15.2 to 33.8 (19 number of nodes increase) and 18.4 to 42.4 (24 number of nodes increase),

respectively. While in 2014 (dry year) at same this site, number of nodes on the twig of small

and large plants produced with a mean range of 36.1 to 49.5 (13 number of nodes increase)

and 44.6 to 56.5 (12 number of nodes increase), respectively. During 2013 (year of normal

rainfall), number of nodes on the twig of small and large plants at Kharewala site produced

from a mean range of 13.2 to 30.4 (17 number of nodes increase) and 18.8 to 35.0 (16 number

of nodes increase), respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at the same above site, number of

nodes on the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 32.7 to 43.3 (11 number

of nodes increase) and 37.2 to 47.4 (10 number of nodes increase), respectively.

Mean values of number of nodes on the twig of the shrub at two locations in the North-

Central Thal are given in Table 4.3b. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of nodes

on the twig of small and large plants at Northern Dagar Kotli site produced from a mean of

17.0 to 30.0 (13 number of nodes increase) and 18.0 to 32.9 (15 number of nodes increase),

respectively. The data were recorded in 2014 (dry year) at this site, number of nodes on the

twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 32.6 to 42.7 (10 number of nodes

increase) and 32.9 to 43.0 (10 number of nodes increase), respectively. Whereas in 2013 (year

of normal rainfall), number of nodes on the twig of small and large plants at Southern Dagar

Kotli site produced from a mean of 15.6 to 30.0 (14 number of nodes increase) and 20.2 to

36.1 (16 number of nodes increase), respectively. While in 2014 (dry year) at same site, number

of nodes on the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 34.0 to 42.4 (8 number

of nodes increase) and 37.6 to 46.4 (9 number of nodes increase), respectively.

Year wise comparison of number of nodes on the twig indicated that at each site, both

small and large A. jacquemontii plants produced more in number of nodes on the twig in 2013

than in 2014 because of relatively more rainfall in 2013 than 2014.

53

Table 4.3a: Mean number of nodes on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different sampling

periods during2013 and 2014 in South-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014

Choubara site Kharewala site Choubara site Kharewala site Choubara site Kharewala site Choubara site Kharewala site


15/02 15.2 0.92 13.2 0.71 36.1 1.04 32.7 0.92 18.4 0.90 18.8 0.75 44.6 0.94 37.2 0.80

28/02 16.9 0.80 16.7 0.70 37.3 1.03 33.8 0.91 23.1 0.99 20.5 0.80 45.6 0.94 38.2 0.72

15/03 19.0 0.85 18.4 0.71 38.6 1.10 34.7 0.90 24.5 0.99 22.1 0.91 46.2 0.93 39.0 0.72

30/03 20.0 0.10 19.7 0.71 39.2 1.02 35.8 0.90 25.7 0.98 23.0 0.82 46.5 1.32 40.0 0.71

15/04 22.3 1.02 21.2 0.84 40.2 1.10 36.6 0.91 28.2 0.95 26.6 0.90 48.3 0.94 40.9 0.71

30/04 23.9 1.02 23.0 0.91 41.4 1.10 37.5 0.84 30.6 0.98 28.9 0.82 48.8 0.90 41.9 0.71

15/05 25.2 1.10 24.0 0.91 42.4 1.10 38.3 0.91 32.0 1.03 29.6 0.83 49.6 0.90 42.6 0.71

30/05 25.5 1.15 24.6 0.84 44.2 1.10 39.1 0.85 33.4 1.03 30.7 0.83 50.3 0.90 43.3 0.70

15/06 27.6 1.15 26.1 0.94 45.0 0.90 40.2 0.91 35.7 0.98 31.6 0.82 51.2 0.90 44.6 0.62

30/06 29.0 1.14 27.0 0.93 46.1 0.90 40.9 0.90 37.5 0.94 32.0 0.81 52.3 0.65 45.3 0.65

15/07 30.1 1.14 27.5 0.93 47.1 0.91 42.1 0.90 39.0 .095 32.6 0.80 53.3 0.64 46.3 0.64

30/07 31.6 1.12 27.9 0.92 48.1 0.91 42.1 0.91 40.6 0.99 33.2 0.81 54.3 0.64 47.3 0.64

15/08 32.5 1.12 28.3 0.92 49.1 0.91 43.1 0.91 41.1 1.01 34.6 0.81 55.4 0.63 47.4 0.63

30/08 33.8 1.11 30.4 1.01 49.5 0.90 43.3 0.91 42.4 1.00 35.0 0.81 56.5 0.63 47.4 0.64

Net


*Standard Error

54

Table 4.3b: Mean number of nodes on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different sampling

periods during 2013 and 2014 in North-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014 Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site


15/02 17.0 0.81 15.6 0.90 32.6 0.74 34.0 0.71 18.0 0.82 20.2 0.90 32.9 1.12 37.6 0.75

28/02 18.4 0.80 17.7 0.83 33.5 0.72 34.8 0.64 20.7 0.80 22.3 0.91 32.7 1.11 38.3 0.71

15/03 19.6 0.80 19.3 0.82 34.4 0.73 35.0 0.61 22.1 0.81 24.0 0.91 33.6 1.10 38.7 0.71

30/03 21.0 0.80 21.0 0.82 35.5 0.71 35.5 0.61 22.8 0.74 25.6 0.90 34.3 0.91 38.8 0.65

15/04 22.0 0.80 22.5 0.80 36.2 0.71 36.1 0.54 24.3 0.70 27.4 0.91 34.3 1.14 39.3 0.62

30/04 23.0 0.80 24.1 0.80 37.1 0.71 37.0 0.52 25.6 0.71 28.4 0.85 36.4 0.90 40.0 0.61

15/05 24.0 0.81 25.2 0.75 38.0 0.65 37.7 0.50 26.3 0.74 30.0 0.91 37.2 0.90 40.4 0.60

30/05 24.7 0.72 26.7 0.75 39.1 0.63 38.3 0.51 26.4 1.10 31.5 0.90 38.3 0.90 41.2 0.61

15/06 26.1 0.81 27.3 0.80 39.7 0.62 39.1 0.50 26.6 1.32 32.1 0.85 39.1 0.85 42.0 0.54

30/06 27.2 0.82 27.8 0.74 40.5 0.61 39.7 0.51 27.0 1.31 33.0 0.81 40.4 0.73 42.5 0.54

15/07 28.2 0.81 28.4 0.70 41.2 0.60 40.3 0.52 28.3 1.24 33.6 0.81 41.1 0.72 43.2 0.54

30/07 29.3 0.80 28.7 0.71 42.0 0.62 41.1 0.50 29.8 1.21 34.1 0.80 41.6 0.75 44.3 1.12

15/08 29.8 0.81 29.6 0.70 42.6 0.62 41.9 0.51 30.3 1.21 35.0 0.72 42.3 0.3 45.7 0.60

30/08 30.0 0.72 30.0 0.70 42.7 0.62 42.4 0.51 32.9 1.13 36.1 0.72 43.0 0.72 46.4 0.55 Net


*Standard Error

55

Fig. 4.5: Net increase in number of nodes on twigs of small and large A.

jacquemontii plants during sampling of about 6 months in the

growing and dormant seasons at all sites in 2013 and 2014


15.2

32.3

18.8

36.6

1.6 1.5

33.85

44.5

38.1

48.4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60



plants

Large

plants



(Sept-Jan 2013-

2014)


Net

incr

ease

in n

o.

of

no

des

56

4.1.4: Number of nodes with leaves

Mean values of nodes with leaves on the twig of the shrub at two locations in the South-

Central Thal are given in Table 4.4a. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), nodes with leaves

on the twig of small and large plants at Choubara site produced from a mean range of 4.6 to

27.5 (23 number of nodes with leaves increase) and 5.1 to 37.2 (32 number of nodes with

leaves increase), respectively. While in 2014 (dry year) at same site, nodes with leaves on the

twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 3.4 to 15.4 (12 number of nodes with

leaves increase) and 3.9 to 16.9 (13 number of nodes with leaves increase), respectively.

Whereas in 2013 (year of normal rainfall), nodes with leaves on the twig of small and large

plants at Kharewala site produced from a mean of 3.3 to 24.7 (21 number of nodes with leaves

increase) and 1.6 to 30.4 (29 number of nodes with leaves increase), respectively. During 2014

(dry year) at same site, nodes with leaves on the twig of small and large plants from a mean

range of 4.8 to 18.9 (14 number of nodes with leaves increase) and 3.0 to 16.4 (13 number of

nodes with leaves increase), respectively.

Mean values of nodes with leaves on the twig of the shrub at two locations in the North-

Central Thal are given in Table 4.4b. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), nodes with leaves

on the twig of small and large plants at Northern Dagar Kotli site produced from a mean of 0.1

to 28.4 (28 number of nodes with leaves increase) and 2.0 to 26.1 (24 number of nodes with

leaves increase), respectively. The data were recorded in 2014 (dry year) at this site, nodes

with leaves on the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 15.0 to 33.1 (18

number of nodes with leaves increase) and 14.6 to 29.5 (15 number of nodes with leaves

increase), respectively. While in 2013 (year of normal rainfall), nodes with leaves on the twig

of small and large plants at Southern Dagar Kotli site produced from a mean of 3.0 to 27.0 (24

number of nodes with leaves increase) and 6.5 to 31.2 (25 number of nodes with leaves

increase), respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at same site, nodes with leaves on the twig

of small and large plants produced from a mean of 10.4 to 25.4 (15 number of nodes with

leaves increase) and 14.4 to 26.4 (12 number of nodes with leaves increase), respectively.

Year wise comparison of nodes with leaves on the twig indicated that at each site, both

small and large A. jacquemontii plants produced more in nodes with leaves on the twig in 2013

than in 2014 because of relatively more rainfall in 2013 than 2014.

57

Table 4.4a: Mean number of nodes with leaves on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different

sampling periods during 2013 and 2014 in South-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014



15/02 4.6 0.50 3.3 0.80 3.4 0.90 4.8 0.33 5.1 0.54 1.6 0.30 3.9 0.91 3.0 0.20

28/02 10.3 0.71 5.8 0.85 4.9 0.91 4.7 0.51 13.7 1.03 7.8 0.90 4.7 0.80 4.0 0.41

15/03 11.8 0.80 9.2 0.91 5.3 0.94 5.0 0.53 17.3 0.93 12.0 0.83 5.4 0.80 5.2 0.45

30/03 14.6 0.82 12.2 0.83 6.1 0.95 6.1 0.55 20.2 1.01 14.3 0.60 6.9 0.73 6.5 0.56

15/04 17.3 0.91 15.7 0.81 6.9 0.92 7.0 0.60 23.7 0.93 21.2 0.80 7.0 0.80 7.7 0.61

30/04 19.4 0.93 18.3 0.61 7.7 0.91 9.1 0.60 25.2 0.91 23.0 0.72 8.1 0.81 8.3 0.60

15/05 20.7 0.94 19.4 0.61 8.2 0.95 12.0 0.61 26.8 0.92 24.0 0.90 9.9 0.81 9.2 0.60

30/05 21.1 1.04 20.7 0.61 9.6 0.93 13.4 0.52 27.6 0.93 25.5 0.70 10.6 0.72 10.2 0.61

15/06 22.7 1.03 21.7 0.62 10.5 0.94 14.4 0.52 29.6 0.92 26.0 0.78 11.2 0.74 11.1 0.60

30/06 21.3 0.91 22.0 0.63 11.1 0.52 15.3 0.52 28.6 0.83 26.2 0.74 12.1 0.60 12.0 0.54

15/07 22.2 0.93 22.1 0.71 12.4 0.55 16.4 0.55 30.8 0.70 27.0 0.74 13.5 0.64 13.0 0.61

30/07 26.3 0.90 22.6 0.71 13.4 0.55 17.4 0.55 35.4 0.81 28.0 0.74 14.1 0.61 14.1 0.61

15/08 27.2 0.90 23.5 0.71 14.5 0.54 18.5 0.53 36.1 0.81 29.7 0.80 15.7 0.61 15.2 0.61

30/08 27.5 0.91 24.7 0.64 15.4 0.51 18.9 0.51 37.2 0.80 30.4 0.80 16.9 0.60 16.4 0.61 Net


58

Table 4.4b: Mean number of nodes with leaves on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at

different sampling periods during 2013 and 2014 in North-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014 Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site


15/02 0.1 0.05 3.0 0.40 15.0 0.51 10.4 0.99 2.0 0.50 6.5 1.20 14.6 0.81 14.4 1.20

28/02 2.3 0.51 6.0 0.61 16.3 0.50 12.3 0.91 3.5 0.90 6.3 0.70 15.4 0.75 15.2 0.99

15/03 7.0 0.81 9.7 0.72 18.0 0.51 13.0 0.91 9.3 1.12 9.5 0.71 17.5 0.80 16.8 0.90

30/03 11.2 0.70 12.1 0.70 20.7 0.50 14.1 0.91 11.7 0.94 12.5 0.71 18.1 0.72 17.3 0.95

15/04 15.4 0.64 16.0 0.60 22.0 0.73 15.1 0.82 17.1 0.73 19.0 0.71 19.0 0.90 18.5 0.96

30/04 17.7 0.54 19.3 0.62 24.5 0.60 17.6 0.82 20.0 0.75 22.1 0.71 20.0 0.81 19.3 0.94

15/05 18.3 0.72 20.2 0.60 26.8 0.61 18.1 0.82 21.4 0.75 23.4 0.71 21.1 0.82 20.3 0.99

30/05 20.4 0.72 21.0 0.61 28.9 0.61 19.2 0.80 19.8 0.98 24.3 0.70 22.2 0.81 20.5 0.99

15/06 22.6 0.83 21.6 0.54 29.6 0.61 20.7 0.82 20.6 1.21 25.3 0.70 23.5 0.81 21.3 0.91

30/06 23.4 0.84 22.5 0.60 30.4 0.60 21.2 0.82 21.4 1.22 27.0 0.71 24.3 0.80 22.0 0.83

15/07 24.2 0.84 24.0 0.54 31.5 0.60 22.2 0.81 22.5 1.21 28.8 0.65 25.7 0.80 23.6 0.82

30/07 26.2 0.82 25.6 0.53 32.2 0.61 23.1 0.81 23.5 1.20 29.4 0.63 27.4 0.81 24.5 0.81

15/08 27.7 0.81 26.8 0.60 32.8 0.54 25.9 0.81 24.3 1.21 30.5 0.64 28.1 0.81 25.1 0.80

30/08 28.4 0.81 27.0 0.54 33.1 0.54 25.4 0.80 26.1 1.21 31.2 0.63 29.5 0.80 26.4 0.81

Net

increase 28 - 24 - 18 - 15 - 24 - 25 - 15 - 12 -

1At each site 5 small and 5 large plants were sampled 2Means of 40 twigs on plants at each sampling data

*Standard Error

59

Fig. 4.6: Net increase in number of nodes with leaves on twigs of small and large A.

jacquemontii plants during sampling of about 6 months in the growing

seasons at all sites in 2013 and 2014


24

28

14

15

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Small plants Large plants Small plants Large plants

Growing season (Mid Feb-Aug-2013) Growing season (Mid Feb-Aug-2014)

Net

incr

ease

in n

od

es w

ith l

eaves

60

4.1.5: Total number of leaves

Mean values of total number of leaves on the twig of the shrub at two locations in the

South-Central Thal are given in Table 4.5a. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), total number

of leaves on the twig of small and large plants at Choubara site produced from a mean range

of 5.1 to 26.2 (21 number of leaves increase) and 3.1 to 30.1 (27 number of leaves increase),

respectively. While in 2014 (dry year) at same site, total number of leaves on the twig of small

and large plants produced from a mean range of 2.6 to 15.5 (13 number of leaves increase) and

2.0 to 16.3 (14 number of leaves increase), respectively. Throughout 2013 (year of normal

rainfall), total number of leaves on the twig of small and large plants at Kharewala site

produced from a mean of 2.4 to 25.8 (23 number of leaves increase) and 1.2 to 24.2 (23 number

of leaves increase), respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at the above same site, total

number of leaves on the twig of small and large plants produced form a mean of 1.5 to 15.8

(14 number of leaves increase) and 1.7 to 16.3 (15 number of leaves increase), respectively.

Mean values of total number of leaves on the twig of the shrub at two locations in the

North-Central Thal are given in Table 4.5b. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), total number

of leaves on the twig of small and large plants at Northern Dagar Kotli site produced from a

mean of 0.1 to 22.2 (22 number of leaves increase) and 1.0 to 21.1 (20 number of leaves

increase), respectively. The data were recorded in 2014 (dry year) at this site, total number of

leaves on the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 1.6 to 15.5 (14 number

of leaves increase) and 3.2 to 17.5 (14 number of leaves increase), respectively. During 2013

(year of normal rainfall), total number of leaves on the twig of small and large plants at

Southern Dagar Kotli site produced from a mean of 1.8 to 22.4 (21 number of leaves increase)

and 1.6 to 26.0 (24 number of leaves increase), respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at

same site, total number of leaves on the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean

of 2.4 to 18.6 (16 number of leaves increase) and 2.3 to 14.4 (12 number of leaves increase),

respectively.

Year wise comparison of total number of leaves on the twig indicated that at each site,

both small and large A. jacquemontii plants produced more in total number of leaves on the

twig in 2013 than in 2014 because of relatively more rainfall in 2013 than 2014.

61

Table 4.5a: Mean total number of leaves on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different

sampling periods during 2013 and 2014 in South-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014



15/02 5.1 0.61 2.4 0.61 2.6 0.50 0.0 0.00 3.1 0.50 1.2 0.20 2.0 0.32 0.0 0.00

28/02 4.4 0.60 1.7 0.71 4.0 0.63 0.0 0.00 3.0 0.44 2.5 0.61 4.1 0.51 0.0 0.00

15/03 7.2 0.51 3.5 0.70 5.8 0.72 1.5 0.20 5.8 0.60 4.4 0.61 7.3 0.71 1.7 0.20

30/03 8.6 0.60 5.3 0.72 8.3 0.84 2.8 0.30 7.5 0.54 6.8 0.71 11.0 0.82 3.0 0.31

15/04 11.5 0.80 12.2 0.81 11.2 0.90 4.4 0.32 15.4 0.62 18.3 0.83 14.6 0.80 5.0 0.41

30/04 14.6 0.90 14.4 0.71 13.8 0.81 6.2 0.35 18.3 0.61 19.3 0.81 18.6 0.85 7.1 0.44

15/05 16.7 0.90 16.0 0.62 18.0 0.72 9.6 0.41 20.1 0.61 20.0 0.81 22.0 0.80 10.0 0.50

30/05 17.2 0.80 17.0 0.64 21.0 0.80 12.6 0.43 22.4 0.60 20.5 0.90 25.7 0.80 13.0 0.55

15/06 18.6 0.80 18.0 0.61 22.1 0.84 14.6 0.40 24.5 0.71 21.4 0.74 27.4 0.74 14.7 0.51

30/06 20.1 0.90 19.6 0.61 16.8 0.41 16.8 0.41 27.0 0.73 22.1 0.74 16.5 0.50 16.5 0.50

15/07 21.8 0.91 20.5 0.61 18.2 0.41 18.2 0.41 28.0 0.81 23.0 0.74 18.3 0.51 18.6 0.50

30/07 22.1 0.91 21.6 0.61 20.0 0.40 20.0 0.41 28.1 0.75 23.7 0.80 20.3 0.42 20.3 0.42

15/08 24.4 0.90 23.3 0.61 17.5 0.41 17.8 0.41 29.1 0.73 24.7 0.81 17.8 0.41 17.8 0.41

30/08 26.2 0.90 25.8 0.63 15.5 0.42 15.8 0.41 30.1 0.72 24.2 0.70 16.3 0.34 16.3 0.34

Net


62

Table 4.5b: Mean total number of leaves on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at different

sampling periods during 2013 and 2014 in North-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014 Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site


15/02 0.1 0.03 1.8 0.30 1.6 0.31 0.0 0.00 1.0 0.30 1.6 0.31 3.2 0.40 0.0 0.00

28/02 0.4 0.13 2.2 0.32 3.0 0.31 2.4 0.51 1.2 0.41 1.8 0.30 3.4 0.41 2.3 0.30

15/03 4.2 0.73 3.6 0.40 4.6 0.33 4.3 0.60 5.5 0.90 2.8 0.40 5.1 0.51 2.8 0.40

30/03 6.0 0.71 5.3 0.44 6.4 0.41 6.3 0.80 5.8 0.81 4.5 0.50 7.4 0.82 3.4 0.40

15/04 9.3 0.61 8.6 0.60 8.1 0.51 8.5 0.63 10.5 0.64 11.6 0.60 8.8 0.61 4.4 0.40

30/04 11.6 0.54 13.0 0.51 10.2 0.51 8.5 0.63 12.8 0.51 13.7 0.51 10.8 .061 6.0 0.42

15/05 13.5 0.50 14.0 0.51 11.7 0.51 10.4 0.61 14.3 0.43 13.6 0.40 11.5 0.71 7.6 0.51

30/05 13.9 0.41 15.4 0.63 13.5 0.51 12.1 0.61 14.1 0.75 17.6 0.31 12.2 0.63 8.4 0.51

15/06 13.6 0.42 16.4 0.53 14.1 0.50 13.8 0.52 14.4 0.91 18.6 0.33 14.8 0.66 9.0 0.52

30/06 16.8 0.43 17.5 0.53 15.6 0.51 14.0 0.53 14.8 0.92 20.1 0.41 15.6 0.60 10.1 0.51

15/07 18.0 0.43 19.0 0.52 17.7 0.55 15.0 0.61 16.3 0.91 22.3 0.45 16.7 0.60 11.3 0.52

30/07 20.0 0.50 20.3 0.51 18.6 0.80 16.5 0.61 17.7 0.98 23.8 0.44 16.8 0.61 12.0 0.61

15/08 20.4 0.41 22.1 0.53 16.3 0.52 17.7 0.60 19.3 0.99 24.8 0.51 17.0 0.54 13.8 0.61

30/08 22.2 0.61 22.4 0.50 15.5 0.44 18.6 0.60 21.1 1.01 26.0 0.44 17.5 0.51 14.4 0.81

Net


63

Fig. 4.7: Net increase in total number of leaves on twigs of small and large A.




22

24

14

16

0

5

10

15

20

25

30



Net

incr

ease

in t

ota

l no

. o

f le

aves

64

Fig 4.8: Leaves of A. jacquemontii

65

4.1.6: Number of immature flower clusters

Mean values of number of immature flower clusters on the twig of the shrub at two

locations in the South-Central Thal are given in Table 4.6a. During 2013 (year of normal

rainfall), number of immature flower clusters on the twig of small and large plants at Choubara

site produced from a mean range of 2.4 to 9.3 (7 number of immature flower clusters increase)

and 11.5 to 35.3 (24 number of immature flower clusters increase), respectively. While in 2014

(dry year) at same site, number of immature flower clusters on the twig of small and large

plants produced from a mean range of 1.3 to 4.1 (3 number of immature flower clusters

increase) and 4.8 to 7.5 (3 number of immature flower clusters increase), respectively. During

2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of immature flower clusters on the twig of small and

large plants at Kharewala site produced from a mean range of 5.1 to 15.0 (10 number of

immature flower clusters increase) and 9.2 to 29.5 (20 number of immature flower clusters

increase), respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at this site, number of immature flower

clusters on the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean range of 3.4 to 5.7 (2

number of immature flower clusters increase) and 1.8 to 3.5 (2 number of immature flower

clusters increase), respectively.

Mean values of number of immature flower clusters on the twig of the shrub at two

locations in the North-Central Thal are given in Table 4.6b. During 2013 (year of normal

rainfall), number of immature flower clusters on the twig of small and large plants at Northern

Dagar Kotli site produced from a mean of 2.4 to 21.2 (19 number of immature flower clusters

increase) and 4.8 to 19.4 (15 number of immature flower clusters increase), respectively. . The

data were recorded in 2014 (dry year) at same site, number of immature flower clusters on the

twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 3.6 to 6.6 (3 number of immature

flower clusters increase) and 1.2 to 5.1 (4 number of immature flower clusters increase),

respectively. Whereas in 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of immature flower clusters

on the twig of small and large plants at Southern Dagar Kotli site produced from a mean of 4.8

to 16.9 (12 number of immature flower clusters increase) and 5.1 to 19.1 (14 number of

immature flower clusters increase), respectively. While in 2014 (dry year) at this site, number

of immature flower clusters on the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 2.2

to 5.9 (4 number of immature flower clusters increase) and 6.8 to 9.6 (3 number of immature

flower clusters increase), respectively.

66

Table 4.6a: Mean number of immature flower clusters on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites

at different sampling periods during 2013 and 2014 in South-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014


Means2 SE* Means SE Means SE Means SE Mean

s SE

Mean

s SE

Mean

s SE Means SE

15/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

28/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/03 2.4 1.99 5.1 1.91 1.3 1.11 3.4 0.80 11.5 5.82 9.2 3.73 4.8 0.90 1.8 0.73

30/03 10.0 2.63 20.1 2.44 6.5 1.50 11.0 1.41 31.7 9.41 37.0 4.22 15.1 2.00 4.1 1.41

15/04 15.6 3.11 16.5 2.11 11.0 1.21 13.5 1.63 52.3 12.3 24.3 2.21 16.2 1.93 4.5 1.62

30/04 9.3 0.64 18.0 1.11 4.1 0.84 12.3 1.70 35.3 20.3 29.5 1.11 7.5 1.41 9.5 1.93

15/05 0.0 0.00 15.0 0.41 0.0 0.00 5.7 1.21 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 3.5 1.41

30/05 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

Net

increase 7 - 10 - 3 - 2 - 24 - 20 - 3 - 2 - 1At each site 5 small and 5 large plants were sampled\ 2Means of 40 twigs on plants at each sampling data

*Standard Error

67

Table 4.6b: Mean number of immature flower clusters on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at


Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014 Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site


15/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

28/02 2.4 2.42 4.8 1.41 3.6 0.30 2.2 1.51 4.8 3.13 5.1 2.60 1.2 0.32 6.8 1.61

15/03 20.4 2.52 12.0 1.83 7.1 0.91 7.7 2.23 16.4 3.31 22.4 3.21 7.2 0.55 15.6 2.17

30/03 21.2 2.51 16.4 2.81 6.1 0.61 10.7 2.61 19.4 1.91 30.0 4.51 5.5 0.63 17.3 2.41

15/04 0.0 0.00 16.9 0.73 6.6 0.82 5.9 1.53 0.0 0.00 19.1 1.24 5.1 0.83 9.6 0.61

30/04 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/05 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/05 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 Net


68

Fig. 4.9: Net increase in number of immature flower clusters on twigs of small and large A.

jacquemontii plants during sampling of about 6 months in the growing seasons at all

sites in 2013 and 2014


12

18

3 3

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20



Net

incr

ease

in n

o.

of

imm

ature

flo

wer

clu

ster

s

69

Fig 4.10: Immature flower clusters of A. jacquemontii

70

4.1.7: Number of mature flower clusters

Mean values of number of mature flower clusters on the twig of the shrub at two

locations in the South-Central Thal are given in Table 4.7a. During 2013 (year of normal

rainfall), number of mature flower clusters on the twig of small and large plants at Choubara

site produced from a mean of 1.3 to 6.9 (6 number of mature flower clusters increase) and 3.1

to 17.3 (14 number of mature flower clusters increase) respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry

year) at this site, number of mature flower clusters on the twig of small and large plants

produced from a mean of 1.4 to 3.7 (2 number of mature flower clusters increase) and 2.0 to

5.3 (3 number of mature flower clusters increase), respectively. During in 2013 (year of normal

rainfall), number of mature flower clusters on the twig of small and large plants at Kharewala

site produced from a mean of 6.6 to 14.5 (8 number of mature flower clusters increase) and 2.0

to 14.1 (12 number of mature flower clusters increase), respectively. While in 2014 (dry year)

at same site, number of mature flower clusters on the twig of small and large plants produced

from a mean of 1.3 to 3.0 (2 number of mature flower clusters increase) and 1.4 to 4.3 (3

number of mature flower clusters increase), respectively.

Mean values of number of mature flower clusters on the twig of the shrub at two

locations in the North-Central Thal are given in Table 4.7b. During 2013 (year of normal

rainfall), number of mature flower clusters on the twig of small and large plants at Northern

Dagar Kotli site produced from a mean of 5.7 to 17.7 (12 number of mature flower clusters

increase) and 3.8 to 15.7 (12 number of mature flower clusters increase) respectively. The data

were recorded in 2014 (dry year) at this site, number of mature flower clusters on the twig of

small and large plants produced from a mean of 1.4 to 6.8 (5 number of mature flower clusters

increase) and 2.0 to 6.7 (5 number of mature flower clusters increase) respectively. During

2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of mature flower clusters on the twig of small and large

plants at Southern Dagar Kotli site produced from a mean of 4.0 to 14.7 (11 number of mature

flower clusters increase) and 3.8 to 15.7 (12 number of mature flower clusters increase)

respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at same site, number of mature flower clusters on the

twig of small and large plants produced a mean of 2.8 to 5.4 (3 number of mature flower

clusters increase) and 3.2 to 7.1 (4 number of mature flower clusters increase), respectively.

71

Table 4.7a: Mean number of mature flower clusters on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at

different sampling periods during 2013 and 2014 in South-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014



15/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

28/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/04 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/04 1.3 0.03 6.6 0.92 1.4 0.30 1.3 0.30 3.1 0.81 2.0 1.32 2.0 0.52 1.4 0.30

15/05 0.8 0.20 6.8 0.92 5.0 0.70 4.5 0.71 7.0 0.80 12.6 1.10 3.0 0.90 4.0 0.61

30/05 7.4 0.80 7.0 0.72 2.5 0.80 2.5 0.90 9.6 1.50 8.4 0.90 5.7 0.91 6.7 0.92

15/06 6.9 1.11 14.5 0.20 3.7 0.64 3.0 0.94 17.3 3.50 14.1 0.03 5.3 0.71 4.3 1.02

30/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

Net


72

Table 4.7b: Mean number of mature flower clusters on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at


Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014 Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site


15/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

28/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/03 5.7 1.13 4.0 0.43 1.4 0.30 2.8 0.65 5.4 1.51 3.8 0.91 2.0 0.32 3.2 0.61

15/04 7.4 1.21 5.2 0.65 4.1 0.91 3.3 0.91 6.0 1.61 7.2 1.12 4.2 0.60 4.4 0.74

30/04 8.5 1.33 6.0 1.00 5.0 0.61 5.1 0.82 5.8 1.11 9.3 1.44 5.4 0.63 6.6 0.90

15/05 17.7 0.96 14.7 0.70 6.8 0.82 5.4 0.91 18.7 1.20 15.7 0.74 6.7 0.83 7.1 0.91

30/05 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

Net


*Standard Error

73

Fig. 4.11: Net increase in number of mature flower clusters on twigs of small and large A.

jacquemontii plants during sampling of about 6 months in the growing seasons

at all sites in 2013 and 2014


9

13

3

4

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14



Net

incr

ease

in n

o.

of

mat

ure

flo

wer

clu

ster

s

74

Fig 4.12: Mature flower clusters of A. jacquemontii

75

4.1.8: Number of immature pods

Mean values of number of immature pods on the twig of the shrub at two locations in

the South-Central Thal are given in Table 4.8a. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number

of immature pods on the twig of small and large plants at Choubara site produced from a mean

of 2.0 to 6.8 (5 number of immature pods increase) and 2.8 to 7.5 (5 number of immature pods

increase), respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at same site, number of immature pods on

the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 1.0 to 2.2 (2 number of immature

pods increase) and 1.3 to 3.5 (2 number of immature pods increase), respectively. While in

2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of immature pods on the twig of small and large plants

at Kharewala site produced n from a mean of 1.7 to 5.5 (4 number of immature pods increase)

and 1.2 to 6.9 (6 number of immature pods increase), respectively. During 2014 (dry year) at

this site, number of immature pods on the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean


increase), respectively.

Mean values of number of immature pods on the twig of the shrub at two locations in

the North-Central Thal are given in Table 4.8b. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number

of immature pods on the twig of small and large plants at Northern Dagar Kotli site produced

from a mean of 1.7 to 6.7 (5 number of immature pods increase) and 1.6 to 8.5 (7 number of

immature pods increase), respectively. The data were recorded in 2014 (dry year) at this site,

number of immature pods on the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean values


increase), respectively. While in 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of immature pods on

the twig of small and large plants at Southern Dagar Kotli site produced from a mean of 2.6 to

7.1 (5 number of immature pods increase) and 1.2 to 6.9 (6 number of immature pods increase),

respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at same site, number of immature pods on the twig

of small and large plants produced from a mean of 0.6 to 1.1 (1 number of immature pods

increase) and 0.9 to 2.6 (2 number of immature pods increase), respectively.

Year wise comparison of twig number of immature pods indicated that at each site,

both small and large A. jacquemontii plants production more in number of immature pods in

2013 than in 2014 because of relatively more rainfall in 2013 than 2014.

76

Table 4.8a: Mean number of immature pods on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at


Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014



15/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

28/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/03 2.0 0.51 1.7 0.21 1.0 0.25 0.4 0.25 2.8 0.50 1.2 0.21 1.3 0.20 1.0 0.21

15/04 2.4 0.50 4.3 0.40 2.0 0.33 2.7 0.33 3.1 0.51 2.8 0.25 2.0 0.31 2.1 0.32

30/04 3.5 0.51 5.4 0.41 3.0 0.44 3.0 0.44 3.1 0.51 4.1 0.25 2.5 0.42 3.1 0.44

15/05 6.8 0.51 5.5 0.41 2.2 0.30 1.2 0.30 7.5 0.51 6.9 0.14 3.5 0.12 4.3 0.13

30/05 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 Net


77

Table 4.8b: Mean number of immature pods on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at


Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014 Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site


15/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

28/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/04 1.7 0.16 2.6 0.21 1.0 0.21 0.6 0.21 1.6 0.15 1.2 0.23 1.1 0.24 0.9 0.40

30/04 10.0 0.12 3.1 0.31 2.0 0.30 1.5 0.61 4.0 0.31 4.0 0.34 2.4 0.31 2.0 0.51

15/05 3.3 0.18 4.8 0.61 1.4 0.43 2.0 0.70 5.7 0.33 5.5 0.41 4.4 0.51 2.1 0.71

30/05 6.7 0.23 7.1 0.61 2.7 0.53 1.1 0.35 8.5 0.35 6.9 0.50 3.3 0.51 2.6 0.41

15/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 Net


78

Fig. 4.13: Net increase in number of immature pods on twigs of small and large A.




5

6

1.5

2.2

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7



Net

incr

ease

in n

o.

of

imm

ature

po

ds

79

Fig 4.14: Immature pods of A. jacquemontii

80

4.1.9: Number of mature pods

The mean values of number of mature pods on the twig of the shrub at two locations in

the South-Central Thal are given in Table 4.9a. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number

of mature pods on the twig of small and large plants at Choubara site produced from a mean

of 2.5 to 5.1 (3 number of mature pods increase) and 2.6 to 7.7 (5 number of mature pods

increase), respectively. While in 2014 (dry year) at this site, number of mature pods on the

twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 1.0 to 2.4 (1 number of mature pod

increase) and 1.3 to 2.9 (2 number of mature pods increase), respectively. Whereas in 2013

(year of normal rainfall), number of mature pods on the twig of small and large plants at

Kharewala site produced from a mean of 2.3 to 4.2 (2 number of mature pods increase) and

3.3 to 7.2 (4 number of mature pods increase), respectively. During 2014 (dry year) at same

site, number of mature pods on the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 1.1

to 2.5 (1 number of mature pods increase) and 2.5 to 3.1 (1 number of mature pod increase),

respectively.

Mean values of number of mature pods on the twig of the shrub at two locations in the

North-Central Thal are given in Table 4.9b. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of

mature pods on the twig of small and large plants at Northern Dagar Kotli site produced from

a mean of 1.6 to 7.2 (6 number of mature pods increase) and 2.7 to 7.7 (5 number of mature

pods increase) respectively. The data were recorded in 2014 (dry year) at this site, number of

mature pods on the twig of small and large plants produced from a mean of 0.8 to 2.2 (1 number

of mature pod increase) and 1.0 to 4.1 (3 number of mature pods increase) respectively.

Whereas in 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of mature pods on the twig of small and

large plants at Southern Dagar Kotli site produced from a mean of 1.5 to 5.2 (4 number of

mature pods increase) and 2.1 to 7.8 (6 number of mature pods increase) respectively. While

in 2014 (dry year) at same site, number of mature pods on the twig of small and large plants

produced from a mean of 0.6 to 2.3 (2 number of mature pods increase) and 1.1 to 3.1 (2

number of mature pods increase), respectively.

81

Table 4.9a: Mean number of mature pods on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at


Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014



15/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

28/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/04 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/04 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/05 2.5 0.20 2.3 0.20 1.0 0.20 1.1 0.20 2.6 0.20 3.3 0.21 1.3 0.30 2.5 0.30

30/05 5.1 0.71 4.2 0.30 2.4 0.40 2.5 0.41 7.7 0.70 7.2 0.31 2.9 0.41 3.1 0.41

15/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

Net


82

Table 4.9b: Mean number of mature pods on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites at


Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014 Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site


15/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

28/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/04 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/04 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/05 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/05 1.6 0.22 1.5 0.12 0.8 0.10 0.6 0.25 2.7 0.16 2.1 0.20 1.0 0.23 1.1 0.41

15/06 2.8 0.14 5.2 0.24 1.8 0.33 2.3 0.61 3.3 0.22 7.8 0.30 2.4 0.34 3.1 0.61

30/06 7.2 0.80 0.0 0.00 2.2 0.30 0.0 0.00 7.7 0.14 0.0 0.00 4.1 0.80 0.0 0.00

15/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

Net


83

Fig. 4.15: Net increase in number of mature pods on twigs of small and large A.




4

5

1.2

2

0

1

2

3

4

5

6



Net

incr

ease

in n

o.

of

mat

ure

po

ds

84

Fig 4.16: Mature pods of A. jacquemontii

85

4.1.10: Number of secondary branches

Mean values of number of secondary branches on the twig of the shrub at two locations

in the South-Central Thal are given in Table 4.10a. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall),

number of secondary branches on the twig of small and large plants at Choubara site grew

from a mean of 0.3 to 0.8 (0.5 number of secondary branches increase) and 0.5 to 1.4 (1.2

number of secondary branches increase), respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at this site,

number of secondary branches on the twig of small and large plants grew from a mean of 1.1

to 1.3 (0.2 number of secondary branches increase) and 1.2 to 1.4 (0.2 number of secondary

branches increase), respectively. Throughout 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of

secondary branches on the twig small and large plants at Kharewala site grew from a mean of

0.2 to 0.6 (0.4 number of secondary branches increase) and 0.4 to 0.9 (0.5 number of secondary

branches increase), respectively. While in 2014 (dry year) at same site, number of secondary

branches on the twig of small and large plants grew from a mean of 1.0 to 1.1 (0.1 number of

secondary branches increase) and 1.1 to 1.2 (0.1 number of secondary branches increase),

respectively.

Mean values for twig number of secondary branches of the shrub at two sites in the

North-Central Thal are given in Table 4.10b. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of

secondary branches on the twig of small and large plants at Northern Dagar Kotli site grew

from a mean of 0.2 to 1.0 (0.8 number of secondary branches increase) and 0.3 to 0.9 (0.6

number of secondary branches increase) respectively. The data recorded in 2014 (dry year) at

same site, number of secondary branches on the twig of small plants grew from a mean 1.2 to

1.6 followed by large plants 1.2 to 1.6 (0.4 number of secondary branches increase),

respectively. Whereas in 2013 (year of normal rainfall), number of secondary branches on the

twig at Southern Dagar Kotli site of small and large plants grew from a mean of 0.4 to 1.0 (0.6

number of secondary branches increase) and 0.5 to 1.2 (0.7 number of secondary branches

increase), respectively. While in 2014 (dry year) at this site, number of secondary branches on

the twig of small and large plants grew from a mean of 1.3 to 1.5 (0.2 number of secondary

branches increase) and 1.6 to 2.0 (0.4 number of secondary branches increase), respectively.

In the dormant season, the growth of above twig parameters/characteristics was very slow.

86

Table 4.10a: Mean number of secondary branches on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at

2 sites at different sampling periods during 2013 and 2014 in South-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014



15/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

28/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/03 0.0 0.00 0.2 0.06 1.1 0.10 1.0 0.09 0.5 0.07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 1.1 0.10

30/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/04 0.3 0.08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.4 0.07 1.2 0.11 0.0 0.00

30/04 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/05 0.0 0.00 0.5 0.08 1.1 0.09 1.4 0.09 0.7 0.08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 1.3 0.09

30/05 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.6 0.08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/06 0.5 0.08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 1.4 0.10 0.0 0.00

30/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/07 0.0 0.00 0.6 0.08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.9 0.07 0.0 0.00 1.2 0.09

30/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/08 0.8 0.10 0.0 0.00 1.3 0.10 1.1 0.09 1.4 0.07 0.0 0.00 1.4 0.09 0.0 0.00

30/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

Net

increase 0.5 - 0.4 - 0.2 - 0.1 - 1.2 - 0.5 - 0.2 - 0.1 - 1At each site 5 small and 5 large plants were sampled 2Means of 40 twigs on plants at each sampling data *Standard Error

87

Table 4.10b: Mean number of secondary branches on the twigs of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at 2 sites

at different sampling periods during 2013 and 2014 in North-Central Thal

Dates


2013 2014 2013 2014 Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site

Northern Dagar

Kotli site

Southern Dagar

Kotli site


15/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

28/02 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 1.2 0.11 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/03 0.2 0.06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 1.3 0.07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 1.6 0.09

30/03 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 1.3 0.11 0.0 0.00

15/04 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.3 0.08 0.5 0.06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/04 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/05 0.0 0.00 0.4 0.06 1.5 0.09 1.7 0.11 0.0 0.00 1.0 0.10 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

30/05 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/06 0.6 0.08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.7 0.08 0.0 0.00 1.5 0.08 1.7 0.10

30/06 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/07 0.0 0.00 0.6 0.07 0.0 0.00 1.5 0.12 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 2.0 0.80

30/07 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00

15/08 1.0 0.10 1.0 0.11 1.6 0.08 0.0 0.00 0.9 0.09 1.2 0.09 1.6 0.07 0.0 0.00

30/08 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 Net

increase 0.8 - 0.6 - 0.4 - 0.2 - 0.6 - 0.7 - 0.3 - 0.4 - 1At each site 5 small and 5 large plants were sampled 2Means of 40 twigs on plants at each sampling data

*Standard Error

88

Fig. 4.17: Net increase in number of secondary branches on twigs of small and large A.




0.6

0.7

0.2 0.2

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8



Net

incr

ease

in n

o.

of

seco

nd

ary b

ranch

es

89

4.2: Plant canopy spread of the shrub

Mean values of canopy spread (m) at two locations each in the South-Central and

North-Central Thal are given in Figures 4.18a-b. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), canopy

spread of small and large plants at Choubara site mean increase 0.39 m and 2.34 m respectively.

Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at this site, canopy spread of small and large plants increase from

a mean of 0.79 m and 2.87 m respectively. Similarly, throughout 2013 (year of normal

rainfall), canopy spread of small and large plants at Kharewala site mean increment was

noticed from a mean value of 0.87 m and 2.11 mm respectively. While in 2014 (dry year) at

the same site, canopy spread of small and large plants increase from a mean of 0.97 m and 2.78

m respectively.

Throughout 2013 (year of normal rainfall), canopy spread of small and large plants at

Northern Dagar Kotli site mean increment 0.76 m and 3.73 m respectively. While in 2014 (dry

year) at the same site, canopy spread of small and large plants increase from a mean of 1.13 m

and 4.30 m respectively. During 2013 (year of normal rainfall), canopy spread of small and

large plants at Southern Dagar Kotli site the results showed that mean increase 1.63 m and 3.85

m respectively. Whereas in 2014 (dry year) at this site, canopy spread of small and large plants

increase from a mean of 2.04 m and 4.38 m respectively.

90

Fig. 4.18a: Canopy spread of A. jacquemontii of small and large plants sampled

at 2 sites in South-Central Thal during 2013 and 2014

91

Fig. 4.18b: Canopy spread of A. jacquemontii of small and large plants sampled

at 2 sites in North-Central Thal during 2013 and 2014

92

4.3: Associated plants species with the shrub

Mean values of densities of other associated plants with A. jacquemontii at each location

in South-Central and North-Central Thal are given in Tables 4.11a-b-c-d. In 2013 (year of

normal rainfall) and 2014 (dry year) almost 8 plant species were found both under and between

the Acacia canopies. These species were Aristida depressa Trin (Lum grass), Carthamus

oxyacantha M. Bieb. (Puth kanda), Cenchrus ciliaris L. (Dhaman/Buffel grass), Cymbopogon

jwarancusa (Jones) Schult., (Khawai grass), Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (Khabal/Bermuda

grass), Cyperus rotundus L., (Deela), Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf. (Murgha grass),

Elinorus hirsutus (Forssk.) Munro ex Benth. (Ghorkha grass) and Panicum antidotale Retz

(Malai grass). The densities of these species were however relatively greater between the

Acacia plants than under the Acacia plants in each site and each year. In 2014 (dry year) the

densities of these species at each site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year

than 2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

93

Table. 4.11a: Density of plants species associated with A. jacquemontii in South-Central Thal at Choubara site during

2013 and 2014

Under A. jacquemontii plants Between A. jacquemontii plants

Scientific Name Common Name Density (# / m2) Scientific Name Common Name Density (# / m2)

2013

Aristida depressa Lumb grass 0.80

Carthamus oxyacantha Puth kanda 0.53

Cymbopogon jwarancusa Khawai grass 0.11

Cynodon dactylon Khabal grass 1.40

Cyperus rotundus Deela 0.64

Dichanthium annulatum Murgha grass 0.73

Elinorus hirsutus Gorkha grass 0.10

Panicum antidotale Malai grass 0.73









2014

















*Density calculated from 40 quadrates placed under and between Acacia plants of both sizes

**Data were recorded once at the peak of growing season in July in each study year

94

Table. 4.11b: Density of plants species associated with A. jacquemontii in South-Central Thal at Kharewala site during

2013 and 2014



2013

















2014



















95

Table. 4.11c: Density of plants species associated with A. jacquemontii in North-Central Thal at Northern Dagar Kotli site

during 2013 and 2014



2013



Cenchrus ciliaris Dhaman grass 0.43














2014



















96

Table. 4.11d: Density of plants species associated with A. jacquemontii in North-Central Thal at Southern Dagar Koti site

during 2013 and 2014



2013

















2014



















97

4.4: Ethnobotanical uses of shrub

4.4.1: Uses by rural people

Traditional uses of this shrub as told by the local people near the study sites are given in

Table 4.12. On the average, about 85 % of the local people of all sites revealed ‘forage/fodder’

as the most common use of this shrub. The second common use of the shrub as indicated by

about 83 % of the local people was in the form of firewood. About 77 % of people mentioned

the usage of shrub in the form of shelterbelts around their houses and farm crops. About 58 %

of the people depicted the medical use of this shrub against different ailments. Nearly 36 % of

people pointed out the usage of shrub in providing material for the sweeping purposes.

Other uses as told by few people were related to the religious believes of local people

about this plant species. About 12 % of the people mentioned this plant as the “Shrub of

Ghost.” Nearly 14 % of the people pointed out “Necromancy” under this shrub.

98

Table 4.12: Traditional/Common uses of A. jacquemontii as told by the local inhabitants in the vicinity of study area in 2014

Sites Respondents

(No.)

Common uses Uses based upon religious

beliefs

Medicines Forage/Fodder Firewood

(smokeless

flames

gives more

heat)

Sweeping

material

Shelterbelts Shrub of

Ghost

Necromancy

under this

shrub

Choubara 13

6

(46)

11

(84)

11

(84)

3

(23)

9

(69)

2

(15)

0

(0)

Kharewala 13

7

(54)

10

(77)

10

(77)

4

(30)

10

(77)

0

(0)

3

(23)

Northern

Dagar Kotli 13

8

(61)

11

(84)

10

(77)

5

(38.5)

11

(84)

1

(7.7)

4

(30)

Southern

Dagar Kotli 13

9

(69)

12

(92)

12

(92)

7

(53.8)

10

(77)

3

(23)

0

(0)

Average -

7.5

(57.7)

11

(84.6)

10.7

(82.7)

4.7

(36.5)

10

(76.9)

1.5

(11.5)

1.7

(13.5)

Note: Figures in the parentheses are percentages

99

4.4.2: Uses by Greek Practitioners (Herbal experts/herbal medicinal practitioners)

Medicinal uses of the shrub told by local Greek Practitioners near the study sites are

given in Table 4.13. Local Greek Practitioners used plant parts of this shrub for the treatment

of various ailments of local populations. The parts of the used for this purpose were leaves,

thorns, roots, pods, gum and tooth sticks from branches. On the average, about 17 % of the

practitioners used to treat stomach pain/kidney stone problems of local people by providing

them preserved leaves of the shrub. About 13 % of the practitioners prescribed thorns of this

shrub for the treatment of chicken pox or small pox diseases in the people.

For controlling and killing of lice in heads, nearly 35 % of the practitioners

recommended the root powder of the species. About 56 % of the practitioners prescribed pods

and gum of plant for the treatment of general/sexual weakness and nightfall. For controlling

the inflammation of tooth gum, about 33 % of the practitioners asked for the use of tooth sticks

prepared from the plant branches. The rural people of the study area used to purchase above

mentioned plant parts from the practitioners at very low costs.

100

Table 4.13: Medicinal uses of A. jacquemontii as told by Greek Practitioners in 2014

Sites Respondents

(N0.)

Plant parts used for the treatment of ailments

Leaves Thorns Roots Pods and gum Tooth sticks of

branches

Stomach

pain/kidney

stone (N0.)

Chicken

pox/Small pox

(N0.)

Head lices

killing (No.)

General/Sexual

weakness and

nightfall (No.)

Inflammation of

tooth gums (No.)

Choubara 13

3

(23)

2

(15)

4

(30)

8

(61)

6

(46)

Kharewala 13

2

(15)

0

(0)

6

(46)

7

(53.8)

7

(53.8)

Northern

Dagar Kotli 13

2

(15)

2

(15)

4

(30)

9

(69.2)

2

(15)

Southern

Dagar Kotli 13

2

(15)

3

(23)

4

(30)

5

(38.5)

2

(15)

Average -

2.2

(17.3)

1.7

(13.5)

4.5

(34.6)

7.2

(55.7)

4.2

(32.7)

Note: Figures in the parentheses are percentages

101

4.4.3: Field Observations

4.4.3.1: Birds and insect species feeding on Acacia

This is well understood that this shrub contribute to the desert landscape in South-

Central and North-Central Thal of Southern Punjab, Pakistan, by adding to habitat and food

for livestock. This plant species is also aesthetically important to those who travel through Thal

desert. This species provides cover and food for many wildlife as well as domesticated animals.

The browse parts and fruit of this Acacia species are rich sources of digestible protein for

herbivores. This shrub exhibits great diversity in its habitat, associated plant species, plant

type, growth behavior, flowering and fruiting. During the growing period 2013 and 2014

variety of insects were observed on this plant at flowering time. Large sized white desert

spiders (Olios giganteus) were observed which sometimes lay eggs in the form of clusters/egg

sacs on the coppices/stems of small and large plants of this shrubs. Egg sacs are attached on

the small plants branches and stems with sticky material. Heavy population of bark beetles

(Scolytus schevyrewi) of light brown greenish color with black spots at their wings were also

seen which feed on the bark of this shrub. Lady bird beetles (Coc cinellidae), feed on

caterpillars’ larvae and eggs. The dusky cotton bugs (Oxycarenus hyalipennis Costa.) was seen

to suck the pollen nectar from the mature clusters of yellow sweet scented flowers. Black

drango (Dicrurus macrocercus) is also observed to feed on these beetles which are found on

this Acacia species.

102

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 4.19: White spider and their egg sacs (Photo. a-b) observed on Acacia plants

during the growing seasons 2013 and 2014

Heavy population of Bark Beetles were also seen feeding on bark of

Acacia plant branches (Photo. c-d) which is severely damaging for this

plant species during early stage

103

Π: LABORATORY WORK

4.5: Soil Analysis

4.5.1: Influence of Acacia canopy cover on chemical soil properties

Mean values of following soil chemical properties at 3 soil depths, both under and

between canopies of Acacia plants at each site in South-Central and North-Central Thal are

given in Tables 4.14a-b to 4.17a-b.

4.5.1.1: Soil moisture contents

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, soil moisture contents at the depths of

15, 30 and 45 cm under both small and large Acacia plants varied from 1.0 to 5.2 %. In 2014

(dry year), soil moisture contents under both small and large Acacia plants at the above depths

varied from 0.5 to 4.0 %. These results indicated that at each site and in each year, soil moisture

decreased gradually from top soil to lower soil. However moisture contents of soil collected

under the canopy cover were higher as compared to between the canopies which indicates that

canopy cover decreases the rate of evaporation of water from soil and water holding capacity

of soil is increased. In 2014 (dry year) the soil moisture contents at this site declined because

of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

4.5.1.2: Soil organic matter

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, organic matter contents at the depths of


(dry year), organic matter contents under both small and large Acacia plants at the above depths

varied from 0.1 to 2.5 %. These results indicated that at each site and in each year, soil organic

matter increased gradually from top soil to lower soil. The reason for relatively lower organic

matter at the top soils than the deep soils may be because more evaporation at the upper soil

surface than the bottom soils. The organic matter is produced to soil only due to fallen leaves

and branches of the shrubs and associated plants species and decomposed in the presence of

moisture. The organic matter contents of soil covered by the shrub canopies was found to be

higher as compared to between canopies. In 2014 (dry year) the soil organic matter contents at

104

this site declined because of relatively lower rainfall which results in less decomposition of

litter than 2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

4.5.1.3: Soil nitrogen

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, soil nitrogen contents at the depths of


(dry year), nitrogen contents under both small and large Acacia plants at the above depths

varied from 0.1 to 1.4 %. These results indicated that at each site and in each year, soil nitrogen

increased progressively from top soil to lower soil. The amount of nitrogen in soils is

influenced by the amount of organic matter present and canopy cover in addition to the nitrogen

cycle. The reason for relatively lower nitrogen at the top soils than the deep soils may be

because more nodule formation is done in upper layer of soil than in lower horizon. In 2014

(dry year) the soil nitrogen contents at this site declined because of relatively lower moisture

which results in slow activity of microbial bacteria than 2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

4.5.1.4: Soil Ec

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, soil Ec at the depths of 15, 30 and 45

cm under both small and large Acacia plants varied from 0.03 to 0.07 (dS m-1). In 2014 (dry

year), Ec contents under both small and large Acacia plants at the above depths varied from

0.04 to 0.07 (dS m-1). These results indicated that at each site and in each year, soil Ec increased

progressively from top soil to lower soil. In 2014 (dry year) the soil EC at this site declined

because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

4.5.1.5: Soil pH

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, soil pH at the depths of 15, 30 and 45

cm under both small and large Acacia plants varied from 7.25 to 7.51. In 2014 (dry year), pH

value under both small and large Acacia plants at the above depths varied from7.31 to 7.44.

These results indicated that at each site and in each year, soil pH increased progressively from

top soil to lower soil. In 2014 (dry year) the soil pH at this site declined because of relatively

lower rainfall in this year than 2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

105

4.5.1.6: Soil phosphorous

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, soil phosphorous values at the depths of

15, 30 and 45 cm under both small and large Acacia plants varied from 3.4 to 9.6 (mg kg-1). In

2014 (dry year), soil phosphorous contents under both small and large Acacia plants at the

above depths varied from 3.1 to 9.4 (mg kg-1). These results indicated that at each site and in

each year, soil phosphorous increased progressively from top soil to lower soil. In 2014 (dry

year) the soil phosphorous at this site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year

than 2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

4.5.1.7: Soil potassium

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, potassium contents at the depths of 15,

30 and 45 cm under both small and large Acacia plants varied from 101 to 168 (mg kg-1). In

2014 (dry year), soil potassium contents under both small and large Acacia plants at the above

depths varied from 98 to 164 (mg kg-1). These results indicated that at each site and in each

year, soil potassium increased progressively from top soil to lower soil. In 2014 (dry year) the

soil potassium at this site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013

shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

4.5.1.8: Soil sodium

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, sodium values in soils of Thal desert at

the depths of 15, 30 and 45 cm under both small and large Acacia plants varied from 19 to 49

(mg kg-1). In 2014 (dry year), soil sodium contents under both small and large Acacia plants at

the above depths varied from 24 to 47 (mg kg-1). These results indicated that at each site and

in each year, soil sodium increased progressively from top soil to lower soil. In 2014 (dry year)

the soil sodium at this site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013


4.5.1.9: Soil sulphur

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, Sulphur contents in soils of Thal desert

at the depths of 15, 30 and 45 cm under both small and large Acacia plants varied from 7.9 to

106

15.4 (mg kg-1). In 2014 (dry year), soil Sulphur contents under both small and large Acacia

plants at the above depths varied from 9.8 to 14.9 (mg kg-1). In 2014 (dry year) the soil Sulphur

at this site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013 shown in (Fig.

3.7 and 3.8).

4.5.1.10: Soil calcium

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, calcium contents in soils of Thal desert


8.8 (meq L-1). In 2014 (dry year), soil calcium contents under both small and large Acacia

plants at the above depths varied from 3.9 to 8.8 (meq L-1). In 2014 (dry year) the soil calcium

at this site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013 shown in (Fig.

3.7 and 3.8).

4.5.1.11: Soil magnesium

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, magnesium contents in soils of Thal

desert at the depths of 15, 30 and 45 cm under both small and large Acacia plants varied from

1.1 to 4.8 (meq L-1). In 2014 (dry year), soil magnesium contents under both small and large

Acacia plants at the above depths varied from 1.4 to 4.9 (meq L-1). In 2014 (dry year) the soil

magnesium at this site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013


4.5.1.12: Soil chloride

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, chloride contents in soils of Thal desert


38.4 (meq L-1). In 2014 (dry year), soil chloride contents under both small and large Acacia

plants at the above depths varied from 15.8 to 38.4 (meq L-1). In 2014 (dry year) the soil

chloride at this site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013 shown

in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

107

4.5.1.13: Soil carbonates

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, carbonates contents in soils of Thal


0.7 to 2.9 (meq L-1). In 2014 (dry year), soil carbonates contents under both small and large

Acacia plants at the above depths varied from 0.6 to 3.7 (meq L-1). In 2014 (dry year) the soil

carbonate at this site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013 shown

in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

4.5.1.14: Soil bicarbonates

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, bicarbonates contents in soils of Thal


22.4 to 60.1 (meq L-1). In 2014 (dry year), soil bicarbonates contents under both small and

large Acacia plants at the above depths varied from 21.6 to 61.2 (meq L-1). In 2014 (dry year)

the soil bicarbonates at this site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than

2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

4.5.1.15: Soil iron

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, iron contents in soils of Thal desert at

the depths of 15, 30 and 45 cm under both small and large Acacia plants varied from 0.2 to 1.4

(mg kg-1). In 2014 (dry year), soil iron contents under both small and large Acacia plants at the

above depths varied from 0.1 to 1.5 (mg kg-1). In 2014 (dry year) the soil iron at this site

declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

4.5.1.16: Soil zinc

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, zinc contents in soils of Thal desert at

the depths of 15, 30 and 45 cm under both small and large Acacia plants varied from 1.3 to 6.4

(mg kg-1). In 2014 (dry year), soil zinc contents under both small and large Acacia plants at

the above depths varied from 1 to 6.6 (mg kg-1). In 2014 (dry year) the soil zinc at this site

declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8).

108

4.5.1.17: Soil copper

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, copper contents in soils of Thal desert


2.2 (mg kg-1). In 2014 (dry year), soil copper contents under both small and large Acacia plants

at the above depths varied from 0.3 to 2.1 (mg kg-1). In 2014 (dry year) the soil copper at this

site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and

3.8).

4.5.1.18: Soil nickel

In 2013 (year of normal rainfall), at each site, nickel contents in soils of Thal desert


0.09 (mg kg-1). In 2014 (dry year), soil nickel contents under both small and large Acacia plants

at the above depths varied from 0.01 to 0.09 (mg kg-1). In 2014 (dry year) the soil nickel at this

site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year than 2013 shown in (Fig. 3.7 and

3.8).

109

Table 4.14a: Soil composition under and between canopies of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at Choubara site in

South-Central Thal in 2013

Soil composition

Under Canopy of small plants Between canopies of small plants

Distance from canopy

1.5 m Away from canopy 3.0 m Away from canopy

Soil depths* Soil depths Soil depths 15 cm 30 cm 45 cm 15 cm 30 cm 45 cm 15 cm 30 cm 45 cm

Means SE Means SE Means SE Means SE Means SE Means SE Means SE Means SE Means SE

Moisture contents (%) 3.2 0.04 3.1 0.05 2.9 0.05 2.5 0.01 2.3 0.00 2.1 0.01 1.7 0.00 1.1 0.01 1.0 0.01

Organic matter (%) 1.1 0.05 0.9 0.05 0.6 0.02 0.9 0.01 0.7 0.03 0.3 0.00 0.7 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.2 0.01

Nitrogen (%) 1.0 0.04 0.8 0.05 0.7 0.03 0.8 0.03 0.5 0.09 0.3 0.07 0.6 0.07 0.5 0.03 0.3 0.05

Ec (dS m-1) 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.00

pH 7.31 0.01 7.31 0.01 7.31 0.01 7.25 0.01 7.25 0.01 7.25 0.01 7.44 0.01 7.44 0.01 7.44 0.01

Phosphorous (mg kg-1) 9.2 0.11 8.1 0.10 7.2 0.11 7.1 0.10 6.5 0.05 5.2 0.09 5.8 0.08 4.9 0.29 3.8 0.09

Potassium (mg kg-1) 164 0.68 148 0.51 128 0.32 129 0.58 118 0.80 110 0.51 114 0.40 112 0.51 108 0.51

Sodium (mg kg-1) 42 1.24 38 0.51 33 0.37 47 0.51 42 0.51 38 0.58 35 0.51 33 0.87 22 0.51

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.5 0.15 12.9 0.04 13.5 0.05 12.3 0.15 12.2 0.16 12.9 0.04 9.8 0.06 10.1 0.09 10.5 0.05

Calcium (meq L-1) 7.2 0.08 7.9 0.19 8.2 0.08 6.5 0.11 6.1 0.07 7.1 0.10 6.1 0.07 5.8 0.06 6.5 0.05

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.6 0.05 2.1 0.07 2.5 0.05 2.8 0.05 3.1 0.07 3.5 0.07 3.1 0.09 3.5 0.05 3.9 0.04

Chloride (meq L-1) 27.2 0.05 35.3 0.04 36.8 0.08 20.2 0.05 22.4 0.07 24.5 0.09 22.6 0.07 24.3 0.05 26.8 0.13

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.1 0.06 1.4 0.07 1.6 0.06 0.9 0.01 1.5 0.06 2.2 0.05 1.0 2.11 1.1 0.07 1.5 0.07

Bicarbonates (meq L-1) 48.5 0.21 51.2 0.48 58.2 0.16 28.1 0.09 33.5 0.08 44.5 0.26 33.5 0.20 35.6 0.20 44.3 0.12

Iron (mg kg-1) 0.5 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.7 0.01

Zinc (mg kg-1) 3.3 0.05 5.1 0.07 5.9 0.08 1.8 0.07 3.9 0.06 5.4 0.05 2.1 0.07 3.3 0.08 4.4 0.06

Copper (mg kg-1) 1.0 0.03 1.1 0.06 1.4 0.07 0.8 0.01 1.0 0.02 1.4 0.02 1.1 0.07 1.5 0.08 1.6 0.04

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.03 0.01

Under Canopy of large plants Between canopies of large plants Moisture contents (%) 3.5 0.05 3.3 0.05 3.0 0.01 3.1 0.01 3.0 0.01 2.8 0.01 2.8 0.01 2.5 0.01 2.1 0.01

Organic matter (%) 1.9 0.15 1.3 0.05 0.8 0.01 1.1 0.05 0.9 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.1 0.01

Nitrogen (%) 1.4 0.01 1.0 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.4 0.01

Ec (dS m-1) 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.01

pH 7.31 0.01 7.31 0.01 7.31 0.01 7.25 0.00 7.25 0.00 7.25 0.00 7.44 0.01 7.44 0.01 7.44 0.01


Potassium (mg kg-1) 168 0.51 149 0.66 120 0.51 141 0.66 134 0.51 120 0.51 148 0.51 128 0.51 119 0.66

Sodium (mg kg-1) 47 0.51 35 0.51 39 0.66 49 0.66 44 0.51 39 0.66 39 0.66 34 0.51 25 0.51

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.9 0.07 13.2 0.05 15.3 0.05 12.5 0.05 14.9 0.07 15.3 0.05 9.9 0.06 10.3 0.05 10.7 0.05

Calcium (meq L-1) 7.8 0.05 8.1 0.05 7.4 0.05 6.8 0.05 6.5 0.05 7.4 0.05 7.3 0.05 6.1 0.05 6.8 0.05

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.7 0.05 2.2 0.05 4.5 0.05 2.9 0.06 3.4 0.05 4.5 0.05 3.5 0.05 3.7 0.05 4.8 0.05

Chloride (meq L-1) 28.1 0.06 34.5 0.05 25.9 0.06 21.3 0.05 23.1 0.06 25.9 0.07 23.5 42.42 25.4 0.01 28.4 0.05

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.5 0.05 1.8 0.05 2.9 0.06 1.1 0.06 1.7 0.05 2.9 0.07 1.1 0.06 1.5 0.05 2.2 0.05


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.5 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.6 0.01 1.0 0.01

Zinc (mg kg-1) 3.3 0.05 5.1 0.06 5.9 0.06 1.9 0.15 4.1 0.06 5.9 0.07 2.3 0.05 3.7 0.05 5.2 0.05

Copper (mg kg-1) 1.1 0.06 1.5 0.05 1.6 0.05 0.9 0.01 1.0 0.01 1.6 0.05 1.3 0.05 1.9 0.06 2.1 0.07

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.03 0.01

*A composite soil sample was made after taking four samples at each soil depth around Acacia plants

110

Table 4.14b: Soil composition under and between canopies of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at Choubara site in South-Central

Thal in 2014

Soil composition







Organic matter (%) 1.4 0.04 1.1 0.03 0.8 0.01 0.9 0.03 0.6 0.01 0.2 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.2 0.00 0.1 0.00

Nitrogen (%) 0.9 0.00 0.8 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.8 0.00 0.6 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.2 0.00

Ec (dS m-1) 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.00

pH 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00 0.31 0.00 7.25 0.00 7.44 0.00 7.44 0.00 7.44 0.00


Potassium (mg kg-1) 155 0.63 138 0.63 119 0.40 122 0.40 124 0.63 119 0.68 119 0.63 111 0.40 109 1.03

Sodium (mg kg-1) 41 0.49 36 0.40 30 0.32 41 0.80 39 0.97 32 0.40 42 0.40 38 0.63 32 0.40

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.1 0.04 12.4 0.06 13.3 0.08 11.9 0.06 13.6 0.04 14.8 0.06 11.4 0.14 12.1 0.04 13.7 0.04

Calcium (meq L-1) 7.1 0.06 7.6 0.05 7.9 0.06 5.8 0.04 5.4 0.04 6.8 0.06 4.8 0.08 4.1 0.06 5.5 0.08

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.4 0.04 1.9 0.04 2.2 0.04 2.2 0.04 2.7 0.06 3.1 0.06 1.9 0.04 1.8 0.06 2.1 0.04

Chloride (meq L-1) 27.5 0.06 35.1 0.06 35.4 0.22 18.7 0.04 19.4 0.06 22.3 0.04 18.9 0.04 19.4 0.06 22.8 0.04

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.1 0.00 1.2 0.04 1.5 0.04 0.6 0.01 1.2 0.04 2.2 0.04 0.7 0.01 1.4 0.04 2.4 0.28


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.4 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.8 0.00 0.2 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.6 0.01 0.1 0.00 0.2 0.00 0.6 0.00

Zinc (mg kg-1) 3.1 0.06 4.8 0.06 5.1 0.06 1.4 0.04 2.9 0.08 3.9 0.06 1.1 0.04 2.4 0.06 3.4 0.06

Copper (mg kg-1) 0.8 0.01 1.1 0.03 1.2 0.04 0.7 0.00 1.0 0.00 1.5 0.06 0.4 0.00 0.5 0.00 1.5 0.04

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.11 0.02 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.04 0.01


Organic matter (%) 1.5 0.01 1.7 0.04 0.8 0.018 1.2 0.045 1.4 0.013 0.6 0.012 1.1 0.019 0.5 0.002 0.3 0.005

Nitrogen (%) 1.2 0.06 0.9 0.03 0.7 0.039 0.8 0.048 0.6 0.042 0.4 0.032 0.6 0.019 0.4 0.035 0.2 0.006

Ec (dS m-1) 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.002 0.05 0.002 0.06 0.002 0.05 0.002 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.001 0.05 0.002

pH 7.31 0.02 7.31 0.02 7.31 0.022 7.25 0.021 7.25 0.021 7.25 0.021 7.44 0.00 7.44 0.031 7.44 0.031


Potassium (mg kg-1) 164 1.98 132 1.32 128 1.28 139 1.29 129 2.71 121 2.69 127 1.29 118 2.69 111 2.67

Sodium (mg kg-1) 47 1.48 35 2.44 39 2.54 44 5.06 45 1.51 38 2.62 46 35 43 2.43 34 2.88

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.9 0.58 13.2 0.62 13.8 0.72 12.1 0.48 13.8 0.41 14.5 0.62 10.2 9.8 11.5 0.76 12.3 0.74

Calcium (meq L-1) 7.8 0.40 8.1 0.32 8.7 0.34 5.4 0.28 6.8 0.51 7.5 0.38 4.7 6.1 5.1 0.458 6.4 0.29

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.7 0.06 2.2 0.07 2.8 0.08 2.5 0.08 3.1 0.19 4.4 0.17 1.8 3.1 2.2 0.18 3.4 0.14

Chloride (meq L-1) 28.1 1.38 34.5 1.28 37.8 1.23 20.8 1.48 23.1 1.58 25.7 1.64 21.6 22.6 24.6 1.66 27.8 1.44

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.5 0.06 1.8 0.07 2.4 0.074 1.0 0.029 1.3 0.080 2.9 0.007 1.1 0.98 1.4 0.073 3.7 0.075


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.48 0.04 0.79 0.02 0.91 0.071 0.18 0.006 0.17 0.068 0.5 0.042 0.15 0.25 0.14 0.006 0.5 0.039

Zinc (mg kg-1) 3.3 0.17 5.1 0.08 5.9 0.086 1.1 0.034 3.6 0.28 4.9 0.081 1.0 2.1 2.7 0.18 4.2 1.25

Copper (mg kg-1) 1.1 0.04 1.5 0.06 2.1 0.044 0.6 0.017 0.9 0.013 1.3 0.045 0.6 1.1 0.7 0.007 1.2 0.007

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.08 0.004 0.01 0.012 0.05 0.006 0.03 0.007 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.005 0.01 0.006


111

Table 4.15a: Soil composition under and between canopies of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at Kharewala site South-Central Thal in 2013

Soil composition







Organic matter (%) 1.7 0.05 1.4 0.05 0.4 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.1 0.01

Nitrogen (%) 0.9 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.5 0.00 0.3 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.2 0.01

Ec (dS m-1) 0.07 0.01 0.06 0.13 0.06 0.13 0.07 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00

pH 7.32 0.01 7.32 0.01 7.32 0.01 7.29 0.01 7.29 0.01 7.29 0.01 7.46 0.01 7.46 0.01 7.46 0.01


Potassium (mg kg-1) 152 0.58 140 0.51 122 0.66 140 0.51 119 0.58 115 0.51 141 0.58 132 0.66 109 0.58

Sodium (mg kg-1) 45 0.75 36 0.58 34 0.58 48 0.58 44 0.58 33 0.51 34 0.58 32 0.51 25 0.58

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.6 0.05 12.7 0.05 13.4 0.05 12.4 0.05 13.9 0.07 14.5 0.05 8.8 0.05 9.9 0.06 10.3 0.05

Calcium (meq L-1) 6.9 0.06 7.8 0.06 8.1 0.07 6.2 0.07 5.8 0.06 6.9 0.07 6.5 0.06 5.8 0.06 6.3 0.07

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.3 0.05 2.3 0.05 2.6 0.07 2.9 0.06 3.3 0.05 3.6 0.05 2.8 0.06 3.3 0.05 3.7 0.05

Chloride (meq L-1) 26.9 0.06 34.8 0.06 35.6 0.05 18.9 0.07 21.6 0.06 25.3 0.05 19.8 0.06 23.4 0.04 25.9 0.06

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.4 0.05 1.6 0.05 1.7 0.05 0.7 0.01 1.6 0.05 2.4 0.05 0.9 0.01 1.2 0.05 1.4 0.05


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.3 0.00 0.7 0.00 0.9 0.00 0.2 0.00 0.4 0.01 0.8 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.9 0.00

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.9 0.06 4.8 0.06 6.1 0.07 2.1 0.08 3.5 0.06 5.7 0.06 1.5 0.05 3.2 0.07 4.6 0.05

Copper (mg kg-1) 0.8 0.01 1.0 0.01 1.3 0.05 0.7 0.01 1.1 0.05 1.6 0.06 1.0 0.01 1.2 0.05 1.7 0.06

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.01

Under Canopy of large plants Between canopies of large plants


Organic matter (%) 2.1 0.05 1.5 0.06 0.7 0.01 1.1 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.2 0.01

Nitrogen (%) 1.2 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.2 0.01

Ec (dS m-1) 0.07 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.01

pH 7.32 0.01 7.32 0.01 7.32 0.01 7.29 0.01 7.29 0.01 7.29 0.01 7.46 0.01 7.46 0.01 7.46 0.01


Potassium (mg kg-1) 166 0.51 148 0.51 131 0.55 152 0.51 139 0.66 121 0.66 141 0.66 133 0.51 115 0.51

Sodium (mg kg-1) 44 0.51 37 0.51 35 0.51 47 0.51 45 0.51 36 0.58 38 0.51 36 0.58 29 0.66

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.6 0.05 12.7 0.05 13.5 0.05 12.9 0.07 14.2 0.05 14.9 0.07 9.5 0.05 10.8 0.05 11.4 0.05

Calcium (meq L-1) 7.4 0.05 7.9 0.07 8.7 0.05 6.5 0.05 5.9 0.07 7.1 0.06 7.1 0.06 5.8 0.05 6.6 0.05

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.6 0.05 2.4 0.05 2.9 0.06 3.2 0.05 3.5 0.05 4.3 0.05 3.1 0.07 3.6 0.06 4.6 0.05

Chloride (meq L-1) 27.5 0.05 35.2 0.05 36.9 0.07 19.7 0.05 22.6 0.05 26.5 0.05 20.2 0.05 25.6 0.05 27.4 0.05

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.6 0.05 1.7 0.05 2.2 0.05 1.0 0.01 1.7 0.05 2.7 0.05 1.0 0.01 1.2 0.05 2.1 0.06


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.4 0.01 0.7 0.01 1.0 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.5 0.01 1.0 0.02

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.9 0.07 4.8 0.05 6.1 0.07 2.2 0.05 4.8 0.05 6.1 0.07 1.7 0.05 3.2 0.05 5.1 0.07

Copper (mg kg-1) 1.0 0.02 1.2 0.06 1.8 0.05 0.8 0.01 1.1 0.06 1.9 0.07 1.1 0.06 1.4 0.05 1.9 0.07

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.03 0.01


112

Table 4.15b: Soil composition under and between canopies of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at Kharewala site in

South-Central Thal in 2014

Soil composition







Organic matter (%) 1.8 0.00 1.2 0.04 0.6 0.00 1.1 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.5 0.00 0.2 0.00 0.1 0.17

Nitrogen (%) 1.0 0.00 0.8 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.9 0.00 0.6 0.01 0.3 0.00 0.6 0.00 0.4 0.00 0.2 0.00

Ec (dS m-1) 0.07 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00

pH 7.32 0.00 7.32 0.00 7.32 0.00 7.29 0.00 7.29 0.00 7.29 0.00 7.29 0.00 7.29 0.00 7.29 0.00


Potassium (mg kg-1) 149 1.03 137 0.63 115 0.58 133 0.40 128 0.87 118 0.58 120 0.40 114 0.40 99 0.40

Sodium (mg kg-1) 44 0.40 34 0.40 31 0.40 45 0.58 40 0.40 29 0.40 43 0.40 36 0.40 30 0.63

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.1 0.04 12.5 0.04 13.3 0.04 12.1 0.04 13.5 0.04 14.4 0.06 10.1 0.03 11.4 0.06 12.8 0.06

Calcium (meq L-1) 6.5 0.08 7.6 0.61 8.4 0.04 6.1 0.06 5.9 0.06 7.2 0.06 4.8 0.06 3.9 0.06 4.1 0.09

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.4 0.04 2.2 0.06 2.5 0.04 2.5 0.04 3.1 0.06 3.7 0.06 2.3 0.04 3.4 0.06 3.9 0.06

Chloride (meq L-1) 25.8 0.04 33.4 0.04 35.1 0.08 17.8 0.09 20.2 0.06 24.6 0.06 16.5 0.06 19.6 0.06 25.4 0.06

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.5 0.28 1.4 0.04 1.8 0.06 0.7 0.00 1.5 0.04 2.6 0.04 0.9 0.01 1.8 0.06 2.9 0.06


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.2 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.7 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.5 0.00 0.8 0.00 0.1 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.6 0.00

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.4 0.06 4.6 0.04 5.9 0.09 1.4 0.04 2.9 0.04 3.9 0.04 1.1 0.04 2.4 0.06 3.4 0.04

Copper (mg kg-1) 0.6 0.04 0.7 0.00 1.1 0.03 0.6 0.00 1.1 0.00 1.7 0.04 0.5 0.00 1.1 0.11 1.4 0.04

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.01


Organic matter (%) 2.5 0.00 1.8 0.04 1.1 0.00 1.1 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.6 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.1 0.17

Nitrogen (%) 1.4 0.00 1.0 0.00 0.9 0.00 0.9 0.00 0.6 0.01 0.3 0.00 0.8 0.00 0.7 0.00 0.5 0.00

Ec (dS m-1) 0.07 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00

pH 7.32 0.00 7.32 0.00 7.32 0.00 7.29 0.00 7.29 0.00 7.29 0.00 7.29 0.00 7.29 0.00 7.29 0.00


Potassium (mg kg-1) 162 1.03 139 0.63 129 0.58 142 0.40 137 0.87 118 0.58 142 0.40 122 0.40 109 0.40

Sodium (mg kg-1) 45 0.40 39 0.40 33 0.40 45 0.58 43 0.40 33 0.40 41 0.40 38 0.40 31 0.63

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.4 0.04 12.8 0.04 13.6 0.04 11.9 0.04 13.2 0.04 13.4 0.06 10.2 0.03 12.5 0.06 11.9 0.06

Calcium (meq L-1) 7.1 0.08 7.5 0.61 8.4 0.04 5.3 0.06 5.5 0.06 6.8 0.06 4.4 0.06 4.6 0.06 4.3 0.09

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.4 0.04 2.2 0.06 2.6 0.04 2.9 0.04 3.1 0.06 4.4 0.06 3.1 0.04 3.5 0.06 4.7 0.06

Chloride (meq L-1) 26.1 0.04 34.6 0.04 37.4 0.08 18.6 0.09 22.6 0.06 26.4 0.06 19.2 0.06 23.6 0.06 27.8 0.06

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.7 0.28 1.8 0.04 2.4 0.06 1.1 0.00 1.6 0.04 2.4 0.04 1.4 0.01 1.7 0.06 2.9 0.06


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.4 0.00 0.7 0.00 1.0 0.01 0.1 0.01 0.1 0.00 0.7 0.00 0.1 0.01 0.1 0.01 0.7 0.00

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.7 0.06 4.9 0.04 6.4 0.09 1.9 0.04 3.9 0.04 5.4 0.04 1.2 0.04 3.6 0.06 4.7 0.04

Copper (mg kg-1) 1.1 0.04 1.3 0.00 1.8 0.03 0.6 0.00 0.8 0.00 1.4 0.04 0.4 0.00 0.4 0.11 1.3 0.04

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.01 0.01


113

Table 4.16a: Soil composition under and between canopies of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at Northern Dagar Kotli site

in North-Central Thal in 2013

Soil composition







Organic matter (%) 1.9 0.05 1.6 0.04 0.4 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.1 0.01

Nitrogen (%) 1.3 0.01 1.1 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.1 0.01

Ec (dS m-1) 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.00

pH 7.33 0.01 7.33 0.01 7.33 0.01 7.28 0.01 7.28 0.01 7.28 0.01 7.48 0.01 7.48 0.01 7.48 0.01


Potassium (mg kg-1) 154 0.58 134 0.58 130 0.51 136 0.51 121 0.51 110 0.51 139 0.58 117 0.51 112 0.58

Sodium (mg kg-1) 43 0.51 39 0.58 36 0.58 49 0.58 40 0.51 36 0.51 36 0.51 31 0.58 21 0.51

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.1 0.07 12.6 0.05 13.3 0.05 12.2 0.06 13.7 0.05 14.1 0.07 7.9 0.06 9.1 0.07 10.4 0.06

Calcium (meq L-1) 6.5 0.05 7.6 0.05 8.4 0.05 6.3 0.05 5.6 0.05 6.7 0.06 6.7 0.06 5.6 0.06 6.4 0.06

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.8 0.06 1.9 0.06 2.1 0.07 2.5 0.05 3.1 0.07 3.5 0.06 3.5 0.05 3.6 0.05 3.8 0.05

Chloride (meq L-1) 26.5 0.06 33.9 0.06 36.2 0.08 17.8 0.06 19.6 0.06 24.8 0.06 18.6 0.06 21.9 0.06 24.7 0.06

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.0 0.01 1.1 0.04 1.5 0.05 0.7 0.01 1.8 0.05 2.3 0.05 0.8 0.01 1.0 0.01 1.2 0.05


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.4 0.01 0.7 0.01 1.0 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.9 0.01

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.8 0.06 4.6 0.06 5.9 0.06 2.4 0.05 3.8 0.06 5.8 0.06 1.3 0.05 3.9 0.04 4.5 0.05

Copper (mg kg-1) 0.7 0.01 0.9 0.01 1.5 0.06 0.7 0.01 1.4 0.05 1.5 0.06 1.2 0.05 1.4 0.06 1.5 0.06

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.03 0.01


Organic matter (%) 2.8 0.05 1.6 0.05 0.9 0.01 1.0 0.00 0.7 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.1 0.00

Nitrogen (%) 1.5 0.01 1.4 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.9 0.00 0.6 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.3 0.01

Ec (dS m-1) 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.01

pH 7.33 0.01 7.33 0.01 7.33 0.01 7.28 0.01 7.28 0.01 7.28 0.01 7.48 0.01 7.48 0.01 7.48 0.01


Potassium (mg kg-1) 161 0.51 139 0.51 128 0.51 139 0.51 124 0.68 111 0.51 142 2.42 120 0.73 110 0.51

Sodium (mg kg-1) 45 0.51 41 0.51 37 0.66 49 0.51 42 0.51 37 0.51 37 0.51 34 0.51 22 0.68

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.4 0.05 12.9 0.06 13.7 0.05 12.6 0.05 13.9 0.07 15.4 0.05 9.1 0.07 10.3 0.05 11.1 0.07

Calcium (meq L-1) 6.9 0.06 7.6 0.05 8.8 1.41 6.4 0.05 6.1 0.07 6.9 0.06 6.9 0.06 5.3 0.05 6.8 0.05

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.9 0.06 2.1 0.07 2.7 0.05 2.8 0.05 3.3 0.05 3.9 0.07 3.7 0.05 3.8 0.05 4.5 0.05

Chloride (meq L-1) 27.1 0.07 34.5 0.05 37.6 0.05 18.6 0.05 21.2 0.07 25.8 0.05 19.8 0.05 22.1 0.06 25.6 0.05

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.1 0.05 1.4 0.05 1.8 0.05 0.9 0.01 1.9 0.06 2.9 0.06 1.1 0.01 1.1 0.05 1.8 0.05


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.5 0.00 0.7 0.01 1.1 0.05 0.2 0.01 0.6 0.00 0.9 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.6 0.01 1.0 0.01

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.8 0.05 4.6 0.07 5.9 0.06 2.3 0.05 3.9 0.06 5.9 0.06 1.6 0.05 4.1 0.06 4.9 0.06

Copper (mg kg-1) 0.9 0.01 1.1 0.05 1.7 0.05 0.9 0.01 1.4 0.05 2.1 0.07 1.3 0.03 1.5 0.05 2.2 0.05

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.03 0.01


114

Table 4.16b: Soil composition under and between canopies of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at Northern Dagar Kotli site


Soil composition







Organic matter (%) 1.5 0.03 1.2 0.04 0.9 0.04 1.1 0.03 0.6 0.00 0.4 0.01 0.5 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.1 0.00

Nitrogen (%) 0.9 0.00 0.7 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.7 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.2 0.01 0.6 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.2 0.00

Ec (dS m-1) 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00

pH 7.33 0.00 7.33 0.00 7.33 0.00 7.28 0.00 7.28 0.00 7.28 0.00 7.28 0.00 7.28 0.00 7.28 0.00


Potassium (mg kg-1) 151 0.40 136 0.63 131 0.40 131 0.40 126 0.40 118 0.63 115 0.63 112 0.40 101 0.32

Sodium (mg kg-1) 41 0.63 40 0.40 38 0.40 43 0.40 35 0.58 26 0.63 39 0.40 31 0.63 24 0.40

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 11.9 0.06 12.7 0.06 13.6 0.04 12.4 0.04 13.4 0.06 14.5 0.06 9.8 0.06 12.6 0.06 14.5 0.04

Calcium (meq L-1) 6.1 0.05 7.8 0.06 8.5 0.04 6.0 0.01 5.9 0.11 6.9 0.06 5.2 0.00 4.8 0.08 4.7 0.04

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.5 0.04 1.9 0.04 2.4 0.04 2.1 0.06 3.4 0.04 3.6 0.06 2.7 0.05 3.8 0.06 3.9 0.06

Chloride (meq L-1) 25.1 0.04 34.5 0.09 36.9 0.09 16.1 0.05 17.9 0.09 23.7 0.06 15.8 0.05 16.7 0.09 22.9 0.04

Carbonates (meq L-1) 0.9 0.01 1.4 0.04 1.3 0.04 0.6 0.01 1.9 0.04 2.4 0.04 0.7 0.01 2.1 0.08 2.8 0.06


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.5 0.01 0.9 0.00 1.1 0.03 0.1 0.00 0.5 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.1 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.7 0.01

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.2 0.06 4.8 0.04 6.2 0.06 2.1 0.06 3.4 0.04 5.1 0.06 1.9 0.06 3.2 0.04 4.8 0.08

Copper (mg kg-1) 0.7 0.00 1.0 0.01 1.4 0.04 0.6 0.01 1.4 0.01 1.4 0.04 0.5 0.01 1.2 0.01 1.2 0.04

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.00


Organic matter (%) 2.4 0.03 1.9 0.04 0.8 0.04 1.4 0.03 0.9 0.00 0.5 0.01 0.9 0.00 0.6 0.00 0.2 0.00

Nitrogen (%) 1.2 0.00 0.9 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.8 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.3 0.01 0.7 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.3 0.00

Ec (dS m-1) 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00

pH 7.33 0.00 7.33 0.00 7.33 0.00 7.28 0.00 7.28 0.00 7.28 0.00 7.28 0.00 7.28 0.00 7.28 0.00


Potassium (mg kg-1) 160 0.40 145 0.63 136 0.40 128 0.40 115 0.40 109 0.63 118 0.63 107 0.40 101 0.32

Sodium (mg kg-1) 43 0.63 44 0.40 39 0.40 46 0.40 44 0.58 35 0.63 44 0.40 41 0.63 31 0.40

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.1 0.06 13.1 0.06 13.9 0.04 12.4 0.04 13.6 0.06 14.9 0.06 13.4 0.06 12.4 0.06 13.8 0.04

Calcium (meq L-1) 6.2 0.05 7.8 0.06 8.8 0.04 6.1 0.01 5.8 0.11 4.8 0.06 5.2 0.00 4.8 0.08 4.7 0.04

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.5 0.04 2.2 0.04 2.8 0.04 2.5 0.06 3.1 0.04 3.5 0.06 2.7 0.05 3.7 0.06 2.9 0.06

Chloride (meq L-1) 26.4 0.04 34.8 0.09 36.9 0.09 17.4 0.05 21.2 0.09 25.9 0.06 18.4 0.05 22.6 0.09 26.7 0.04

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.1 0.01 1.1 0.04 1.9 0.04 0.9 0.01 1.5 0.04 2.8 0.04 1.0 0.01 1.7 0.08 2.9 0.06


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.3 0.01 0.8 0.00 1.1 0.03 0.2 0.00 0.4 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.1 0.00 0.4 0.00 0.5 0.01

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.6 0.06 4.7 0.04 6.1 0.06 1.8 0.06 2.9 0.04 4.5 0.06 1.4 0.06 2.5 0.04 4.1 0.08

Copper (mg kg-1) 0.8 0.00 1.1 0.01 1.8 0.04 0.7 0.01 1.1 0.01 1.9 0.04 0.5 0.01 1.0 0.01 1.0 0.04

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.00


115

Table 4.17a: Soil composition under and between canopies of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at Southern Dagar Kotli site


Soil composition







Organic matter (%) 1.9 0.07 1.2 0.05 0. 8 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.2 0.01

Nitrogen (%) 0.9 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.1 0.01

Ec (dS m-1) 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.01

pH 7.35 0.01 7.35 0.01 7.35 0.01 7.31 0.01 7.31 0.01 7.31 0.01 7.51 0.01 7.51 0.01 7.51 0.01


Potassium (mg kg-1) 152 0.51 139 0.51 129 0.58 130 0.58 117 0.51 111 0.51 120 0.51 112 0.51 101 0.51

Sodium (mg kg-1) 44 0.51 37 0.51 35 0.51 46 0.51 41 0.51 34 0.51 37 0.51 28 0.51 19 0.51

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 11.9 0.07 12.4 0.03 12.9 0.06 12.1 0.06 12.9 0.06 13.9 0.06 8.4 0.05 9.8 0.05 10.6 0.05

Calcium (meq L-1) 6.4 0.05 7.4 0.05 7.9 0.06 6.2 0.08 5.5 0.05 6.2 0.07 6.4 0.05 5.8 0.05 6.2 0.08

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.1 0.04 1.8 0.05 2.3 0.05 2.7 0.05 3.5 0.05 3.8 0.05 3.1 0.07 3.7 0.05 3.9 0.05

Chloride (meq L-1) 27.1 0.05 34.5 0.05 37.1 0.07 16.5 0.05 19.4 0.05 26.6 0.05 19.1 0.08 22.3 0.05 25.4 0.05

Carbonates (meq L-1) 0.9 0.01 1.0 0.01 1.3 0.05 0.8 0.01 1.7 0.05 2.6 0.05 0.7 0.01 0.9 0.01 1.3 0.05


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.3 0.01 0.7 0.01 1.1 0.05 0.2 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.5 0.01 1.0 0.01

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.6 0.05 4.8 0.05 6.4 0.05 2.6 0.05 4.1 0.07 5.3 0.05 1.4 0.25 3.6 0.05 4.1 0.07

Copper (mg kg-1) 0.8 0.01 1.0 0.01 1.4 0.05 0.8 0.01 1.2 0.05 1.7 0.05 0.9 0.01 1.3 0.05 1.4 0.05

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.04 0.01


Organic matter (%) 2.4 0.05 1.4 0.05 0.7 0.01 0.9 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.2 0.01

Nitrogen (%) 1.1 0.01 1.0 0.01 0.7 0.01 1.0 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.1 0.01

Ec (dS m-1) 0.06 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.01

pH 7.35 0.01 7.35 0.01 7.35 0.01 7.31 0.01 7.31 0.01 7.31 0.01 7.51 0.01 7.51 0.01 7.51 0.01


Potassium (mg kg-1) 159 0.51 141 0.73 131 0.51 141 0.51 128 0.40 119 0.51 135 0.51 121 0.51 115 0.51

Sodium (mg kg-1) 46 0.51 38 0.51 34 0.51 47 0.51 42 0.32 35 0.51 39 0.51 33 0.51 25 0.51

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 12.2 0.08 12.6 0.05 13.1 0.07 12.1 0.18 13.5 0.07 14.7 0.05 9.4 0.07 10.2 0.07 10.9 0.06

Calcium (meq L-1) 6.7 0.05 7.8 0.05 8.1 0.07 6.5 0.03 5.7 0.05 6.4 0.05 6.6 0.05 5.8 0.05 6.3 0.05

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.5 0.05 1.9 0.06 2.5 0.05 2.9 0.06 3.7 0.05 4.1 0.07 3.4 0.05 3.9 0.07 4.2 0.04

Chloride (meq L-1) 27.6 0.05 35.2 0.07 38.4 0.05 18.1 0.07 20.1 0.07 27.6 0.05 20.1 0.07 23.5 0.05 26.1 0.07

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.0 0.01 1.1 0.04 1.5 0.05 0.9 0.01 1.8 0.05 2.8 0.04 0.9 0.01 1.3 0.05 1.9 0.06


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.4 0.01 0.8 0.01 1.4 0.05 0.3 0.01 0.7 0.01 1.1 0.05 0.3 0.01 0.5 0.01 1.0 0.01

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.6 0.05 4.8 0.05 6.4 0.05 2.8 0.05 4.4 0.05 5.6 0.05 1.7 0.05 3.8 0.05 4.5 0.05

Copper (mg kg-1) 0.7 0.01 1.0 0.01 1.7 0.05 1.0 0.01 1.2 0.05 1.9 0.07 0.9 0.01 1.3 0.05 1.4 0.05

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.04 0.01


116

Table 4.17b: Soil composition under and between canopies of small and large A. jacquemontii plants at Southern Dagar Kotli site


Soil composition







Organic matter (%) 1.6 0.03 1.1 0.06 0.8 0.00 1.0 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.4 0.00 0.1 0.00

Nitrogen (%) 0.6 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.4 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.2 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.2 0.01 0.1 0.00

Ec (dS m-1) 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00

pH 7.35 0.00 7.35 0.00 7.35 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00


Potassium (mg kg-1) 149 0.58 133 0.40 126 0.40 128 0.63 122 0.32 110 0.58 119 0.87 108 0.58 98 0.40

Sodium (mg kg-1) 40 0.40 39 0.58 38 0.58 44 0.63 45 0.63 32 0.63 42 0.40 41 0.40 29 0.40

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 10.6 0.09 12.8 0.04 13.1 0.05 11.8 0.06 13.1 0.04 14.1 0.05 10.1 0.06 12.4 0.05 11.9 0.06

Calcium (meq L-1) 6.1 0.04 7.7 0.09 8.2 0.06 5.9 0.08 5.8 0.06 6.7 0.06 4.6 0.06 4.1 0.08 5.7 0.06

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.6 0.00 2.8 0.01 3.1 0.20 1.8 0.08 3.1 0.06 4.1 0.06 2.1 0.04 3.4 0.06 4.9 0.06

Chloride (meq L-1) 25.3 0.04 35.1 0.06 38.4 0.04 16.2 0.06 19.1 0.05 25.7 0.06 15.9 0.06 20.4 0.06 24.6 0.09

Carbonates (meq L-1) 0.6 0.00 1.1 0.03 1.5 0.06 0.77 0.01 1.6 0.06 2.7 0.10 0.9 0.01 1.7 0.04 2.9 0.04


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.3 0.01 0.9 0.02 1.4 0.04 0.1 0.00 0.5 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.9 0.00 0.4 0.00 0.7 0.01

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.4 0.04 4.9 0.04 6.6 1.18 2.4 0.04 4.5 0.04 5.1 0.06 1.7 0.06 4.9 0.06 4.4 0.06

Copper (mg kg-1) 0.7 0.01 1.1 0.03 1.8 0.06 0.6 0.01 1.1 0.03 1.5 0.04 0.4 0.01 1.0 0.03 1.2 0.04

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.03 0.00 0.06 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.00


Organic matter (%) 2.1 0.03 1.2 0.06 0.7 0.00 0.9 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.3 0.00 0.1 0.00

Nitrogen (%) 1.0 0.00 0.8 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.8 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.3 0.01 0.1 0.00

Ec (dS m-1) 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00

pH 7.35 0.00 7.35 0.00 7.35 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00 7.31 0.00


Potassium (mg kg-1) 157 0.58 141 0.40 133 0.40 134 0.63 127 0.32 111 0.58 134 0.87 127 0.58 109 0.40

Sodium (mg kg-1) 44 0.40 39 0.58 33 0.58 43 0.63 44 0.63 36 0.63 40 0.40 39 0.40 33 0.40

Sulphur (mg kg-1) 11.9 0.09 12.7 0.04 13.4 0.05 12.1 0.06 13.2 0.04 14.2 0.05 11.4 0.06 10.9 0.05 13.5 0.06

Calcium (meq L-1) 6.5 0.04 7.9 0.09 8.2 0.06 6.3 0.08 5.1 0.06 5.9 0.06 4.3 0.06 4.8 0.08 4.1 0.06

Magnesium (meq L-1) 1.4 0.00 2.1 0.01 2.7 0.20 2.6 0.08 3.4 0.06 3.9 0.06 2.8 0.04 3.9 0.06 3.7 0.06

Chloride (meq L-1) 25.9 0.04 34.5 0.06 37.9 0.04 17.6 0.06 20.1 0.05 28.7 0.06 16.7 0.06 18.9 0.06 29.7 0.09

Carbonates (meq L-1) 1.0 0.00 1.2 0.03 1.7 0.06 0.8 0.01 1.4 0.06 2.6 0.10 0.9 0.01 1.6 0.04 2.8 0.04


Iron (mg kg-1) 0.3 0.01 0.9 0.02 1.5 0.04 0.1 0.00 0.7 0.01 1.0 0.01 0.2 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.8 0.01

Zinc (mg kg-1) 2.5 0.04 4.7 0.04 6.6 1.18 1.5 0.04 4.3 0.04 5.1 0.06 1.1 0.06 4.6 0.06 4.8 0.06

Copper (mg kg-1) 0.5 0.01 1.1 0.03 1.9 0.06 0.8 0.01 0.9 0.03 1.2 0.04 0.3 0.01 0.8 0.03 1.1 0.04

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.03 0.00 0.07 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.00

*A composite soil sample was made after taking four samples at each soil depth around Acacia plant

117

4.5.2: Chemical composition of Acacia

The mean values of the chemical analysis on dry matter basis of leaves and seeds of

this shrub in the growing season of the years 2013-2014 are given in Table 4.18. The leaves

and seeds of the species had about 22 % and 33 % crude proteins respectively. The leaves and

seeds contained about 49 % and 15 % crude fiber respectively. The fats in leaves and seeds of

the shrub were about 17 % and 28 % respectively. Over all, seeds of the species had relatively

more crude proteins and fats than its leaves. In contrast, the leaves of the species had relatively

more crude fiber than its seeds. Plant leaves of the species included macro-elements as well

and had about 0.1 % phosphorus, 0.6 % potassium, 1.2 % calcium, 0.1 % sodium and 0.6 %

magnesium. Micro-elements in the plant leaves comprised of mainly iron (246 ppm),

manganese (29.2 ppm), zinc (27.9 ppm) and copper (14.4 ppm).

The secondary compounds in leaves consisted of mainly alkaloids, flavonoids,

saponins, tannins, total phenolic and hydrogen cyanide. The amounts of alkaloids, flavonoids,

saponins, tannins, total phenolics and hydrogen cyanide found in the leaves were 5.8, 168, 196,

124, 137 and 0.2 g/kg, respectively.

118

Table 4.18: Chemical composition of A. jacquemontii on dry matter basis during the

years 2013-2014

Nutrients Leaves Seeds

Means SE Means SE

Primary compounds (%)

Crude protein 22.5 0.08 32.7 0.04

Crude Fiber 48.9 0.04 14.9 0.04

Fat 17.2 0.04 27.8 0.06

Ash 4.1 0.06 13.6 0.04

Macro-elements (%)

Phosphorous 0.16 0.01 - -

Potassium 0.58 0.01 - -

Calcium 1.21 0.01 - -

Sodium 0.14 0.00 - -

Magnesium 0.64 0.00 - -

Micro-elements (ppm)

Iron 246 0.60 - -

Manganese 29.2 0.06 - -

Zinc 27.9 0.06 - -

Copper 14.4 0.06 - -

Secondary compounds (g/kg)

Alkaloids 5.8 0.06 - -

Flavonoids 168 0.85 - -

Saponins 196 0.60 - -

Tannins 124 0.60 - -

Total Phenolic 137 0.60 - -

Hydrogen cyanides 0.2 0.04 - - 1Seeds were analyzed only primary compounds 2Mean of four samples 3Leaves were collected at the peak of growing season of the species only in 2014

*Standard Error

119

Ш: NURSERY WORK

4.6.1: Petri dishes experiments

Mean values of germination percentage of Acacia seeds in petri dishes are given in Fig.

4.20. Results indicated that the seeds soaked in cold water had about 33 % germination after 8

hours of their sowing in the petri dishes. The seeds soaked with hot water and untreated seeds

(control) did not show any germination in these hours. After 16 hours of sowing, seeds treated

with cold and hot water indicated about 60 % and 66 % germination respectively, while there

was no seed germination in case of untreated seeds (control). After 24 hours period of sowing,

cold water-treated and hot water-treated seeds showed about 78 % and 76 % germination

respectively, while untreated seeds (control) had about 15 % germination. After 32 hours of

sowing, cold water-treated and hot water-treated seeds showed about 94 % and 82 %

germination respectively. The germination of untreated seeds was about 32 %. The above

results depicted that seeds of this species had more germination when treated with cold water

than the others two treatments.

4.6.2: Pots experiments

Mean values of seed germination of Acacia in the pots are given in Fig. 4.21.

Germination results showed that during first week of February 2013, the seed germination in

the field soils, collected up to the depths of 0.5 m, 0.5-1.0 m and above 1.0 m were about 29

%, 30 % and 36 % respectively. During the second week of the month, the seed germination

in the soils, collected from the depths of 0.5 m, 0.5-1.0 m and above 1.0 m were about 48 %,

54 % and 65 % respectively, while in the 3rd week the seed germination in the soils of these

depths were about 51 %, 57 % and 70 % respectively. The findings of germination indicated a

regular increase in seed germination in each week at each soil depths. Overall the seed

germination in each week was highest in the soil collected from the depth of above 1.0 m.

Minimum germination of seeds was found in the shallow soils in each week.

120

Fig. 4.20: Hourly germination of A. jacquemontii seeds in different water treatments in petri dishes in 2013

33

60

78

94

0

66

76

82

0 0

15

32

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

8 hr 16 hr 24 hr 32 hr

Ger

min

atio

n (

%)

Soaked seeds with cold water for 12 hrs

Soaked seeds with hot water for 3 hrs

Untreated seeds (control)

121

Fig. 4.21: Seeds germination in pots of A. jacquemontii at 3 soil depths during February in 2013

29 30

36

48

54

65

51

57

70

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3

Ger

min

atio

n (

%)

Soil depths

0-0.5 m

0.5-1 m

> 1.0 m

122

4.7: Root-Shoot Experiments

4.7.1: Root/shoot elongation

Mean values of root/shoot elongation of Acacia seedlings on bi-monthly basis in

nursery are given in Fig 4.22. The results showed that during the period of 14 months both root

and shoot of the seedling had regular increase in their lengths. In this period both root and

shoot of the seedlings grew from 15.5 cm to 85.4 cm and 10.2 cm to 78.2 cm respectively,

indicating an increase of about 70 cm in their lengths. Overall the rate of bi-monthly increase

in root length was greater than the rate of shoot length.

4.7.2: Root/shoot fresh weight

Mean values of root/shoot fresh weight of Acacia seedlings on bi-monthly basis in

nursery are given in Fig 4.23.The results showed that during the period of 14 months both root

and shoot of the seedling had regular increase in their fresh weights. In this period both root

and shoot of the seedlings produced from 1.6 g to 24.7 g and 1.9 g to 29.0 g respectively,

indicating an increase of about 23.1 g in root and 27.1 g in shoot fresh weights. Overall the

rate of bi-monthly increase in shoot fresh weight was greater than the rate of root fresh weight.

4.7.3: Root/shoot dry weight

Mean values of root/shoot dry weight of Acacia seedlings on bi-monthly basis in

nursery are given in Fig 4.24. The results showed that during the period of 14 months both root

and shoot of the seedling had regular increase in their dry weights. In this period both root and

shoot of the seedlings produced from 0.3 g to 5.4 g and 0.6 g to 11.2 g respectively, indicating

an increase of about 5.1 g in root and 10.6 g in shoot dry weights. Overall the rate of bi-monthly

increase in shoot dry weight was greater than the rate of root fresh weight.

4.7.4: Shoot diameter of seedlings

Mean values of shoot diameter of Acacia seedlings on bi-monthly basis in nursery are

given in Fig 4.25.The results showed that during the period of 14 months shoot of the seedling

123

had regular increase in diameter. In this period shoot diameter of the seedlings produced from

1.0 mm to 8.0 mm respectively, indicating an increase of about 7 mm in shoot diameter.

4.7.5: Number of secondary branches/seedling

Mean values of number of secondary branches/seedling of Acacia seedlings on bi-

monthly basis in nursery are given in Fig 4.25.The results showed that during the period of 14

months secondary branches of the seedling had regular increase in the side branches. In this

period secondary branches of the seedlings produced from 3.0 to 6.0 respectively, indicating

an increase of about 3 secondary branches/seedling.

124

Fig 4.22: Root-shoot elongation of A. jacquemontii seedlings in 2013 and 2014

15.5

26.6

37.6

46.3

60.2

72.7

85.4

10.2

17

31.4

38.5

48.7

64.3

78.2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Mar-Apr 2013 May-Jun 2013 Jul-Agu 2013 Sep-Oct 2013 Nov-Dec 2013 Jan-Feb 2014 Mar-Apr 2014

Ro

ot

and

Sho

ot

len

gth

(cm

)

Months/years

ROOT

Shoot

125

Fig 4.23: Root-shoot fresh weights of A. jacquemontii seedlings in 2013 and 2014

1.6

4

7.2

11.9

16.5

20.1

24.7

1.9

5.4

7.9

10.4

17.2

24.5

29

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35


Ro

ot

and

Sho

ot

fres

h w

eight

(g)

Months/years

ROOT

Shoot

126

Fig 4.24: Root-shoot dry weights of A. jacquemontii seedlings in 2013 and 2014

0.3

0.9

1.62.1

3

4.2

5.4

0.6

1.7

2.9

4.9

5.9

6.7

11.2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14


Ro

ot

and

Sho

ot

dry

wei

ght

(g)

Months/years

ROOT

Shoot

127

Fig 4.25: Mean shoot diameter and secondary branches per seedlings of A. jacquemontii in 2013 and 2014

1

2

3

4

5

7

8

0 0

3

4

5 5

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Chapter 5 Discussion

I: FIELD WORK

5.1: Growth behavior of Acacia plants in the Field

The aim of the field investigation was to study some morphological and physiological

responses of this shrub over the 6 months growing season each in the year in 2013 and 2014.

The year 2013 was a year of normal rainfall (174 mm) while the year 2014 was a dry year

because of very low rainfall (105 mm).

5.1.1: Twig diameter

During the sampling period of about 6 months in the growing season, small and large

plants of this shrub had a mean net increase of about 2.1 mm and 2.3 mm respectively in their

twig diameter at the each site in 2013 (year of normal rainfall). In the growing season 2014

(dry year), both plant sizes of the species had a mean net increase of about 1.4 mm in their twig

diameter at each site (Fig. 4.1 ). In 2014, as the rainfall was low, both plant sizes of the shrub

showed very little increase in their twig diameter on all sites. The small increase in the twig

diameter indicated that this species decreased its growth when the climatic conditions were

unfavorable. Even in the year of 2013 when the rainfall was relatively better, both plant sizes

of the species had very small (< 2.5 mm) increase in twig diameter which showed that this

species had slow growth in desert areas. This slow or restricted growth of twig diameter

observed in the study may be a morphological adaptation of the shrub for its existence and

survival in water stressed or dry conditions of deserts.

Like that of other Acacia species, the slow growth of the twig diameter of this shrub

may also be because of reduction of twig weight in dry conditions of the desert. El-Gendy et

al. (2012) reported that water stress in Acacia saligna reduced the fresh and dry weights of its

shoots. Aref and El-Juhany, (1999) reported that the seedling growth of Acacia gerrardii and

Acacia tortilis reduced significantly as result of water deficit treatment. These researchers

pointed out that the mean stem diameter as well as the mean total dry weight of seedlings of

these two species declined in water deficit treatment than in the well water treatment. Bray,

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(1993) indicated that in arid and semi-arid regions, water is the most important limiting factor

for growing plants. Water stress adversely influences growth and metabolism of many plants,

the responses depending on severity and duration of the stress, plant genotype, developmental

stage and environmental factors. According to Bisht, (1993), the growth of plants is usually

reduced under the condition of water stress, because the supply of nutrients to a plant is directly

related to water movement in roots, and when such movement ceases because of lower soil

moisture availability, roots are limited to those nutrient ions within the range of diffusion.

The findings of the twig diameter provided an evidence this shrub adjust its growth

according to the environmental conditions especially the rainfall. When the amount of rainfall

is unfavorable, the species decreases its twig diameter and vice versa. This growth

characteristic of the shrub like other perennial woody plants support, the species to survive and

exist in desert conditions.

5.1.2: Twig length and number of nodes

During the growing season of 2013 and 2014, both small and large Acacia plants

indicated a regular and continuous increase in their twig length and number of nodes on their

twigs at the each site. However, in the dry year (2014), increase in twig length and number

nodes on the twigs was smaller than in 2013.

On all the sites in 2013, small and large Acacia plants had a mean net increase of about

23 cm and 29 cm respectively in their twig lengths while in dry year (2014), mean net increase

in twig length of small and large plants was 15 cm and 18 cm respectively (Fig. 4.3). The mean

net increase in the number of nodes on the twigs of small and large plants was of about 16 and

18 nodes respectively in 2013 while in dry year (2014), such net increase in number of nodes

on the twigs of both plant sizes was of about 10 nodes (Fig. 4.5).

The above findings of regular and continuous increase in twig length and number of

nodes on both plants sizes of species during both years gave evidence that this species followed

monopodial growth pattern of twig elongation. Anonymous (2015) reported that trees with

determinate growth habit exhibit only a single growth flush in the spring, which involves the

elongation and maturation of these pre-formed stem units in the bud. The above findings also

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indicated that during dry year (2014), the rates of twig elongation and the production of nodes

on the twigs were lower than in 2013 which may be because of lower rainfall of 2014.

Keskitalo et al. (2005) reported that water stress be among the main factors involved

in triggering emergence of nodes production in deciduous trees. Borchert, (1994) stated that

the defective imitation of nodes during the early dry season was directly influenced by the

decline in soil moisture and increasing water stress conditions. It can be concluded that for

adaptation and survival in the water stressed/dry condition of the desert, the species reduced

its growth in terms of twig elongation and node production. Kozlowski, (1982) reported that

like other xerophytic plants, Acacia plants have the ability to resist drought and cope with arid

environments through their morphological and physiological adaptations. Dhupper, (2013)

reported that the plants response to water stress is relative to its morphology and different

stages of growth and biomass production. The stem growth of seedlings of Acacia nilotica was

highest under intermediate soil water stress level, although plant growth rates are generally

reduced when soil water supply is limited.

5.1.3: Number of nodes with leaves

In the growing season of both years, there was a regular increase in the number of nodes

with leaves on the twigs of both plant sizes of the species on all sites. The mean net increase

in the number of nodes with leaves on the twigs of small and large plants in the 2013 was of

about 24 and 27 nodes respectively at each site. In the dry year of 2014, the net increase in the

number of nodes with leaves on the twigs of small and large plants was of about 15 and 13

nodes at each site (Fig. 4.6). These findings of the leaf-bearing nodes indicated that during dry

conditions of 2014, both small and large Acacia plants either reduce their leaf production on

their individual nodes or shed the leaves from the each individual node in order to cope with

the water stressed or dry conditions in this year. This growth behavior of the species may be

an adaptation mechanism of the species which might be a helpful strategy for survival and

existence against the harsh climatic conditions of the desert. Lieberman, (1984) reported that

the moisture appears to be a major determinant of the timing of leaf formation in dry tropical

plants.

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5.1.4: Total number of leaves

During both years of sampling periods in the growing seasons, there was a regular and

continuous increase in the leaf production on the twigs of both small as well large Acacia plants

on all sites. The mean net increase in the total number of leaves on the twigs of small and large

Acacia plants was of about 22 and 24 leaves in 2013 while such increase in leaf production on

twigs of both Acacia plant sizes was of about 14 leaves in the dry year 2014 (Fig. 4.7). These

findings on leaf production of the species indicated the species reduced its leaf production in

the dry year. Begg, (1980) reported that under the water stress conditions, Acacia plants start

shedding their leaves for their survival in the drought conditions. Borchet, (2004) also stated

that the leaf fall from the plants of Acacia gaumeri during the dry season was directly

influenced by the decline in soil moisture and increasing water stress conditions. Kramer,

(1980) reported that in response to high water stress conditions and transpiration rates, Acacia

species reduced their leaves production by the process of leaf shedding.

The findings of total number of leaves on the twigs of the shrub gave evidence that this

species adjust its growth according to the environmental conditions especially the rainfall. The

reduction of leaves in the dry season (water stress) may be because of an adaptation

characteristic of the species for either avoiding itself from the water losses from the leaves in

the form of transpiration or receiving low moisture and nutrients below the ground surface.

5.1.5: Number of immature and mature flower-clusters

Small and the large plants of the Acacia started the production of immature flower-

clusters on their twigs early during the start of growing season at all sites during the both years

of study. Such flower clusters were in the form of small green balls. Within the period of about

2 months, the formation of such clusters on the Acacia twigs was nearly complete. The net

mean production of such clusters on the twigs of small and large Acacia plants was about 12

and 18 clusters in 2013 while in dry year, such production of clusters on twigs of both plant

sizes was about 3 clusters (Fig. 4.10).

The above findings of immature flower-clusters indicated that the species produced

such clusters concurrently soon with formation of leaves on the twigs during the early periods

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of the growing season. Being the more mature enough, small Acacia plants produced more

such flower clusters on their twigs than the small plants during the normal year rainfall.

However in the dry year of 2014, both plants sizes of the species produced very low green

immature flower-clusters (about 3 in number). Very low production of such flower-clusters in

the dry year may be the phonological adaptation of the species for avoiding from the harsh dry

climatic conditions in the desert.

Appearance of mature flower-clusters on the species occurred for a period of nearly 2

months in the middle of the growing season on all the sites during both years of the study. The

net mean production of such clusters on the twigs of small and large Acacia plants was about

9 and 13 mature flower clusters respectively during the year of normal rainfall while in the dry

year of 2014, such cluster production only about 3 and 4 clusters respectively. Large Acacia

plants produced relatively more such clusters on their twigs than the small plants. The reason

of more such clusters on the large plants was because these plants were well established and

were more mature enough than the small plants. Production of mature flower cluster on the

plants declined in the dry year of 2013 which may be an adaptation phenomenon of the species

for survival in the water stressed condition in the desert (Fig. 4.11).

5.1.6: Number of immature and mature pods

Immature pods (green in color) of Acacia plants appeared only for a period of 2 months

during the middle of the growing season at each site in 2013 and 2014. After remaining on the

twigs for 2 months, these immature pods became matured. Small and the large plants had a

mean net production of about 5 and 6 immature pods respectively on their twigs on all sites in

2013. In the dry year (2014), mean net production of such pods on the twigs of small and large

Acacia plants was only 1 and 2 pods respectively (Fig. 4.14). The finding of immature pods

production on the Acacia plants depicted that large Acacia plant produced greater number of

immature pods than the small plants during both year of the study. The reason for more

production of such pods on large plants may be that these plants were well established and

were more mature then the small plant. The findings on pods indicated that during the dry year,

species decline the production of immature pods on its twigs which may phonological

adaptation of the species in dry environment of the desert

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Both small and the large plants produced mature pods on their twigs during middle of

the growing season in both year of the research. These pods remained on the plant only for a

period of 2 to 3 weeks and later on these pods dropped their seeds on the ground surface. The

mean net production of such pods on the twigs of small and large Acacia plants was about 4

and 5 pods respectively on the all sites during 2013 while in dry year, the production of such

pods on small and large plants was about 1 and 2 pods respectively (Fig. 4.15). These finding

on mature pods production indicated that large plant being more mature and well established

produced more mature pods than the small plants during both years. These findings also

showed that during dry year, both plant sizes of species reduced the production of mature pods

on their twigs. The lower production of mature on the plant in dry year may be because of

phonological adaptation of the species in the arid conditions of the desert.

5.1.7: Number of secondary braches

Throughout the growing seasons in both years, small and large plants produced

secondary branches on their twigs. The mean net production on secondary branches on both

plant sizes of species was <1.0 during the both years on all sites (Fig. 4.17). In the dry (2014)

mean net production of secondary branches was extremely lower than 2013. The above

findings on secondary production indicated that species had very slow growth rate of its

secondary branches production which may be because of adaptation strategy for existence in

the desert conditions. Findings also indicated that the species further reduced the production

of secondary branches in the year of water stress on dry year 2014. Malamy, (2005) reported

that many Acacias species respond to water limitation by inhibiting their side branching.

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5.2: Density of other associated plants species

In both years of study 8 plant species were found under and between the Acacia

canopies. These species were Aristida depressa (Lum grass), Carthamus oxyacantha (Puth

kanda), Cenchrus ciliaris (Dhaman grass), Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Khawai grass), Cynodon

dactylon (Khabal), Cyperus rotundus (Deela), Dichanthium annulatum (Murgha grass),

Elinorus hirsutus (Ghorkha grass) and Panicum antidotale (Malai grass) respectively. The

densities of these species were however relatively greater between the Acacia plants than under

the canopy of Acacia shrub at each site and in each year. During (dry year) the densities of

these species at each site declined because of relatively lower rainfall in this year. Our findings

are also in line with those of Arshad and Akbar, (2002), who reported that plant species was

the dominant life form among the grasses of Cholistan desert. According to Asri, (2003),

associated plants species are the indicators of dry conditions.

Some scientists reported the same canopy cover effects on understory vegetation of

Acacia plants was lower as compared to between the canopies (Callaway et al., 1991) while many

others reported that the effect of tree canopy cover on understory vegetation diversity was

much low (Hong et al., 1997). The variation in the understory flora was may be due to the

presence of thick litter layers or some plant species were sensitive to thick litter layers

(Holderegger, 1996; Nisar et al., 2013).

5.3: Ethnobotanical uses of shrub

Traditionally, rural populations, had great dependence on this shrub. For raising

livestock and food cooking, pastoral people depended largely (above 82 %) on forage and

firewood of this plant species. They preferred the firewood of this shrub because it gave

smokeless flames and more heat during food cooking. Majority of people grew the shelterbelts

of the shrub around their living places and used the branches of plant for sweeping purposes.

Because of prevailing acute poverty in the study areas, local people used the parts of this shrub

for the treatments of their ailments. For medicinal purposes, their dependency on this species

was above 50 %. Small fraction (11.13 %) of the local people had religious beliefs/affiliations

with this plant species. Such people called this species as shrub ghost and believed on

Necromancy under this shrub. Such beliefs/attachments with the shrub used to give mental

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satisfaction to local people against their various psychological disorders and suspense’s. The

Greek practitioners in the area used to provide preserved parts of the species to the local people

for treatments of their common ailments.

The above findings on the ethnobotanical uses of this plant species are in the line with

the findings of Azhar, (2014) who reported the major share of medicinal shrubs in pastoral life

in the Cholistan desert. He found that wild plants in this desert of Pakistan had multipurpose

utilization as firewood, medicinal, forage and use in religious ceremonies.

Π: LABORATORY WORK

5.4: Influence of plant canopy on soil properties

The plant canopy this Acacia shrub improved the soil compositions in the desert. The

amounts of moisture contents, organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil were higher

under the plant canopies than in between the plant canopies of the species on all sites in both

years. Such soil components were relatively higher under the canopies of larger plants than

those of the smaller plants. The reason for higher amounts of such components under the

canopies of Acacia plants may be because of lower evaporation rate from soil surface, more

litter and its decomposition, and nitrogen fixation process under the canopies than in between

the canopies.

Naureen, (2007) reported the effect of plant cover of A. jacquemonttii on the

physiochemical properties of soils in the Cholistan desert. She found more quantities of

moisture contents, organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus in soils under canopies than those

in between the canopies of this shrub. Yasin, (2013) reported similar findings on the effect of

plant cover of A. jacquemonttii on the physiochemical properties of soils in the Thal desert.

Garcia and Mckell, (1970) reported that higher moisture contents under the plant

canopy is due to the effect of exudates from plant roots or litter degradation in the soil due to

leakage of organic leachates from decaying foliage or litter. Such decomposition process

becomes helpful for soil for retaining its moisture for long times under the plant canopies. Fu

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et al, (2007) and Wasonga et al. (2003) stated that under the plant canopies of most of the

Acacia species, soil moisture contents are higher than those of barren areas.

Arshad et al. (2008) found higher amounts of organic matter in the soils lying under

the canopies of Acacia species. These researchers reported that increased organic matter in the

under canopy soils might be due to higher organic matter production by the plants. Kellman,

(1979) and Moro et al. (1997) found similar results on organic matter under the canopy of

plants as compared to that found in open areas. These researched reported that increase organic

matter in the soils under the plant canopy may be the result of higher organic matter production

by plants and slower rate of its mineralization under plant canopies due to reduction in

temperature.

Khanna, (1998) reported that the amount nitrogen in soil is influenced by the amount

of organic matter and canopy cover in addition to the nitrogen cycle. According this researcher,

higher nitrogen in soil may be because the nitrogen is fixed by Acacia plants is released into

soil through litter fall and root/nodule decay. Karim et al. (2009) found higher concentration

of phosphorus and other mineral contents in soils under the canopies A. jacquemonttii plants

and other woody shrubs than in the barren soils of Cholistan desert. Findings of the study

indicated also that plant canopy of this Acacia shrub influenced the amounts other soil contents

(like pH, potassium, carbonates, zinc, nickel, copper, iron etc.) as well.

5.5: Chemical composition of Acacia plants

Leaves and seeds of this shrub had about 23 and 33 % crude proteins respectively.

These amounts of proteins were much higher. These findings are in line with the findings of

Aganga et al. (1998) who reported that many Acacia species are quite rich in proteins and

minerals. While studying the chemical composition of Acacia nilotica plants, Rubanza et al.

(2005) found about 10-14 % crude proteins in the leaves/seeds of this species. In another study,

Abdullaha et al. (2014) reported that 19 % crude proteins in seeds and 10-20 % crude proteins

in the leaves of Acacia nilotica. Holechek and Herbal, (1986) reported that diets having

generally 6-12 % crude proteins are required for maintenance and production of livestock.

Olafadehan et al. (2009) reported that the most difficult constraint in small ruminant

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production in the tropics is the inadequacy and poor quality of the energy and protein feed

stuffs, partially during the dry season.

In the arid and semiarid zones, crude protein content in forage is poor, which is the

major limiting factor of or livestock’s production. This issue increases the cost of conventional

protein supplements for livestock particularly for ruminants, which leads the loss of weights

and high mortality rates Abdullaha et al. (2014). A. jacquemontii had high amounts of crude

proteins and adequate amount of minerals in its leaves. This indicated that this shrub is highly

nutritious and palatable for the ruminants. This plant species contained higher amounts of

secondary compounds in its leaves and seeds. Such compounds helped the species for its

heavily consumption by the herbivores in dry conditions in the Thal.

Ш: NURSERY WORK

5.5.1: Seed germination experiments

5.5.2: Seed germination in petri dishes

Cold/hot water soaked seeds had greater germination (over 80 %) than the non-soaked

seeds. Higher germination of the soaked seeds indicated that the soaking was very helpful in

softening and breaking the hard seed coats leading to increased germination of the seeds.

Mertia and Prasad, (2006) reported that seed dormancy in many Acacia species and other

woody plants occurs because of the hard seed coat. The hard seed coat may be impermeable

for water and gases or it may be mechanically debarring the emergence of the embryo from

the seed. According to previous studies conducted by (Edwards, 1973; Clement et al., 1977;

Raddad, 2007 and Danthu et al., 1992) most of the Acacia species have hard coat, which

studied one of the several strategies for survival in the spatial and temporal adaptable

environment.

In another study Lorilla, (1992) reported that Acacia magnium was not germinate if

not treated with cold and hot water. Nasroun and Al-Mana, (1992) similarly, postulated that

boiling the seeds of A. salicina, A. saligna, A. seyal, A. farnesiana and A. tortilis did not

increase their germination percentage significantly. This may be due to varying the response

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of Acacia to hot water treatment with species (Bebawi and Mohammed, 1985).Soaking in tap

water for 24 or 48 or 72 in the present study resulted in lower germination percentage

comparing with boiling in water. Similar result was obtained previously by Goda, (1987); who

found soaking the seeds of Acacia nilotica in tap water for 72 h promoted a very slight

germination (4%). Danthu et al. (1992), therefore, recommended untreated seeds for field

sowing and 12-24 h soaking in water for tree nurseries and showed that all Acacia species had

the greatest germination percentage when boiled in water and left to cool to room temperature

apart from Acacia ehrenbergiana which did not so, but had higher and similar percentages

either when soaked in tap water for different times or untreated.

The higher germination of soaked seeds also depicted that the species had smaller

amounts of inhibitions (like abscisic acid etc.) in its seeds. Magnani et al. (1993) reported that

a number of inhibitors are found in the seeds of Acacia species or other woody plants. These

inhibitors often decrease the germination of seeds.

5.5.3: Seed germination in pots

Species should higher germination (70 %) in pots having field soil which was collected

at greater depths than in pots filled with the shallow soils. The reason for higher germination

of the seeds in deep soils may be that such soils may be having more soil nutrients than the

shallow soils.

Stofella and Kahn (2001); Szmidt et al. (2003) reported that the deep soil usually have

more soil organic matter and other nutrients which promote seed germination in most Acacia

species and other woody plants. The best the germination percentage the seeds that were

showed near soil surface. This finding concurs with that of (Cox et al.1993), who found the

emergence of Acacia constricta Benth and Prosopis velutina seedlings was greatest from seeds

sown at 1 to 2 cm depths in sandy loam soil. This may reflect a general survival strategy

adopted by Acacia spp.; that they have the ability to accumulate large quantities of viable seeds

in the soil (Cole, 1986; Holmes et al., 1987 and Sabiiti et al. 1987).

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5.5.4: Root-Shoot Experiments

5.5.4.1: Root/shoot weight and elongation

Shoot of the seedlings of the species weighed more both in the fresh and dry form than

roots after their germination in the field soils. The greater weights of shoots of seedlings may

be because of production of leaves, branches, hard stem and thorns over the period of 14

months. The roots of the seedlings on the other hand were soft and had relatively lower

amounts of fibrous material than the shoots of the seedlings. Seedlings under limited watering

and in different sandy soils developed longer roots to uptake limited water available in the soil.

The rapid development of a deep root system that can access water stored lower in the soil

profile may be essential for successful seedling establishment (Joffre et al., 2002; Otieno et

al., 2005).

When grown in the field soils, seedlings of the species had greater elongation of their

roots than the shoots over the period of 14 months. The higher root elongation rate may be

because of the adaptation of the species to search moisture deep into the ground. Kandpal et

al. (2005) reported that the continuous moisture availability for longer duration in deep soil is

probably allow Acacias and woody plants protoplasm to multiply at maximum rate and utilize

photo synthetically active radiation efficiently to produce higher growth of shoot and root.

Fitzpatrick, (2001) stated that results from previous study confirm the numerous assertions

outlined in the literature about the positive effects of soils on the growing media characteristics,

in terms of probably ameliorating their physical (bulk density, porosity, water holding

capacity) and chemical (reactivity, conductivity, CEC, nutrient content, C/N) conditions of the

Acacia plants (Mexal and Fisher, 1987).

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Chapter 6 SUMMARY

The aims of this study were to investigate some morphological/physiological responses

of A. jacquemontii Benth in the field/nursery conditions, to determine its chemical

composition, to find out the contribution of species in soil improvement and to assess the

ethno-botanical uses of this Acacia species. The findings of the study have been summarized

as below:

1. The species grew very slow with < 2.5 mm increase in twig diameter in the six month growing

season of the year when the rainfall in the desert was overall conducive and favorable. In the

dry year, species further reduced the growth of twig diameter. Such growth adaptation

characteristic helped the species to continue its survival in the harsh climatic conditions of the

desert.

2. The species followed the monopodial growth pattern of twig elongation. The rate of its twig

elongation in the growing season was within the range of 23-29 cm with a production of 15-

18 twig nodes in the year of normal rainfall which decreased in the dry year. Reducing the twig

elongation and node production by the species in dry climatic conditions was the growth

adaptation mechanism that supported the species to thrive and continue its flourishment in the

dry environment.

3. The species kept 24-28 leaf-bearing nodes on the twigs in the favorable rainfall year but in dry

year such nodes declined. Producing no leaves at all on some of its twig nodes or keeping some

of its nodes leafless by shedding, the species handled dry conditions prone to its survival and

existence in the desert.

4. The species produced about 22 leaves per twig in the year of normal rainfall but in dry year

reduced greatly its leaf production through leaf-shedding. Decreased leaf production in the dry

conditions was the growth adaptation of species in unfavorable climatic conditions.

5. Soon after the beginning of the growing season, the species used to complete the production

process of flower clusters and pods within the period of 45 days. In this period, immature

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flower clusters were converted into mature flower clusters. The mature flower clusters gave

rise to immature pods which ultimately were converted into mature pods.

6. In the year of favorable rainfall, the species produced 12-18 immature and 9-13 mature flower

clusters. Production of immature and mature pods on the species was within the range of 4-6

pods in this year. Being the well-established and mature enough, large plants of the species

produced relatively more flower clusters and pods than the small plants. In the growing season

of dry year, the species reduced the production flower clusters and pods which helped the

species to maintain and store its energy for surviving in the prevailing dry conditions in the

desert.

7. Species produced very low secondary branches (< 1 secondary branch per twig) in year of

normal rainfall. In the dry year, species almost ceased the production of secondary branches

on twigs. Having the advantage of greater maturity over the small plants, large plants of the

species produced more secondary branches on their twigs in each year. Overall the production

of secondary branches on the Acacia plants was extremely low and slow which helped survive

the species in the dry environment of the desert.

8. In both study years, on all sites, this Acacia species grew with the association of 8 other plant

species namely Aristida depressa, Carthamus oxyacantha, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cymbopogon

jwarancusa, Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Dichanthium annulatum and Panicum

antidotale. The composition of these associated species did not change both under and between

the canopies of Acacia plants at each site and in each year. However, the density of such

associated species was greater between the Acacia canopies than under Acacia canopies.

Overall the density of above associated species was very low (< 2 plants/m2), both under and

between canopies of Acacia species on all sites in the year of normal rainfall. In dry year, the

density of these species declined further because of dry conditions of the desert.

9. This Acacia species improved the soil composition in the desert. The amounts of moisture

contents, organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil increased under the plant canopies

than in between the plant canopies of the species. Improvement of soil composition was higher

under canopies of large plants than those of small plants. Findings of the study indicated also

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that plant canopy of this Acacia shrub influenced the amounts other soil contents (like pH,

potassium, carbonates, zinc, nickel, copper, iron etc.) as well.

10. From nutritional point of view, this shrub was highly palatable and nutritious for ruminants as

its leaves and seeds contained about 22 % and 33 % crude proteins respectively. On the other

hand, species produced high amounts of toxic secondary compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids,

saponins, tannins, total phenolics and hydrogen cyanides in the leaves. Presence of these

secondary compounds in leaves defended the species from its heavy utilization by ruminants

and other herbivores in the dry conditions of the desert.

11. Seeds of the species when soaked with cold/hot water, had 82-94 % germination in the petri

dishes while non-soaked seeds had very low germination. Seeds sown in pots (with sandy loam

soil of the field) had 51-70 % germination in the nursery conditions.

12. Over the period of 14 months, seedlings of this Acacia species gained more weights (both fresh

and dry) in shoots than in the roots when such seedlings grew in the field sandy loam soil. In

this period, shoot diameter of the seedlings increased up to 8 mm while these seedlings

produced 6 secondary branches on the main shoot. In the field soil, roots of the seedlings

elongated at higher rates than the shoots.

13. Overall, the ethnobotanical potential of this shrub in socio-economic uplift of local people was

well recognized in desert. Besides using this shrub for shelterbelts, firewood, forage, medicines

etc., local people had strong religious beliefs/attachments with this plant species. They called

the species as the ‘Shrub of Ghost’ and believed on the concept/performance of Necromancy

under this shrub. The Greek practitioners in the area used to provide preserved parts of the

species to the local people cheaper rates for treatments of their common ailments.

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Management Implications

Acacia jacquemontii Benth has managed to adapt in the dry environmental conditions

of Thal desert of Pakistan. This species enhances the vegetation diversity in this desert and has

lot of ethnobotanical uses for rural people living in the acute poverty hit areas in this desert. In

the past minimal research work on this species has been conducted so far. Currently because

of high human- impact activities and poverty of the rural communities, plant population of the

species is declining at an alarming rate in the desert. Restoration and conservation of this

species in the area requires more knowledge about its growth behavior. The findings of this

study give important information on the growth characteristics and adaptation mechanism of

the species for surviving in the harsh environmental conditions of the desert. Such information

would be very useful for the conservation and management of this shrub species in future.

Nutritional findings of the species are very useful as these findings would guide the rangeland

managers about the palatability and toxicity of the shrub in the desert. Ethnobotanical findings

of the study provide the trend of rural human population dependence on various plant parts of

the species for medical treatment of the different diseases common in the area. Study has thus

provided important findings that were almost unknown before. Such findings would be very

helpful for further research on the species as well as for better management and conservation

of the species in the desert environment.

144

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http://remade.org.uk/

I

APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire for Ethnobotanical Survey of Acacia jacquemontii Benth in Thal Desert

(For Local people and Greek Practitioners),

1: General Information.

Name of the respondent.

District name

Tehsil name

Name of the village

Age of respondent

2: Community status (Main occupation of the respondents).

(Herb collector, Pansari, Hakim etc): ____________

3: What are the common uses of the shrub in the area?

Common Uses Part used* Purpose of uses (subsistence or income**)

Medicinal

Fodder

Firewood

Food

Miscellaneous

* Roots=1, Stem=2, Bark=3, Resin/gums=4, Flower=5, Fruit=6, leaves=7, others=8, ** If yes then

income of the last year.

II

4: What are the medicinal uses of the shrub and how they are used, give the information?

Sr. No. Name of Ailment Part used* Use method

* Roots=1, Stem=2, Bark=3, Resin/gums=4, Flower=5, Fruit=6, leaves=7, others=8,

5: Is the Medicinal shrub used singly or in combination with other plants, if yes then

which plants?

Ailment Used singly In combination (other plants)

1.________________ 2.________________ 3.________________ 1.________________ 2.________________ 3.________________ 1.________________ 2.________________ 3.________________

6. From where you obtain this shrub when needed?

a) Open market b) Direct from the site c) Herb dealer or collecter

7. What you feel about demand of Medicinal shrubs as a whole.

1) High demand _______ 2) Low demand __________ 3) Moderate demand ________

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