factors affecting the quality like drawings,specifications.pdf

8/9/2019 factors affecting the quality like drawings,specifications.pdf

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~ ) P e r g a m o n

International Journal of Project ManagementVol. 15, No. 4, pp. 235-243, 1997

© 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd and IPM A. All rights reserved

Printed in G reat Britain

0263-7863/97 17.00 + 0.00

P II : S0263- 7863 96) 00076- 2

o t a l q u a l i t y m a n a g e m e n t i n t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s

D a v i d r d it i a n d H M u r a t G u n a y d i n

Illinois Institute of Technology Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering Chicago IL 60616 USA

T h e r e i s g r e a t p o t e n t ia l f o r q u a l i ty i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e c o n s t r u c t io n p r o c e s s . A s t u d y o f t h e

l it e r a tu r e a n d o f s u r v e y s c o n d u c t e d i n th e U S A i n d i c a t e d t h a t m a n a g e m e n t c o m m i t m e n t t o

q u a l i t y a n d t o c o n t i n u o u s q u a l i t y i m p r o v e m e n t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t ; c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y

p r o f e s s i o n a l s a r e w e l l a w a r e o f th e i m p o r t a n c e o f q u a l i ty t r a i n in g ; p a r t n e r i n g a g r e e m e n t s

a m o n g t h e p a r t i e s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s c o n s t i t u t e a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p i n s e c u r i n g a h i g h

q u a l i t y p r o d u c t ; a f e e d b a c k l o o p c o u l d u p g r a d e t h e o r i g i n a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s u s e d i n t h e

i n d u s t r y ; t h e c l a ri ty o f p r o j e c t s c o p e a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s a s w e l l a s o f d r a w i n g s a n d s p e c i fi c a ti o n s

i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r h i g h p r o c e s s q u a l i t y . © 1 9 9 7 E l s e v i e r S c i e n c e L t d a n d I P M A

Keywords: T otal quality m anagement, construction, quality assurance, qua lity control

A t t a i n m e n t o f a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s o f q u a l it y i n t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n

i n d u s t r y h a s l o n g b e e n a p r o b l e m . G r e a t e x p e n d i t u r e s o f

t i m e , m o n e y a n d r e s o u r c e s , b o t h h u m a n a n d m a t e r i a l , a r e

w a s t e d e a c h y e a r b e c a u s e o f i n e f f ic i e n t o r n o n - e x i s t e n t

q u a l it y m a n a g e m e n t p r o c e d u r e s . T h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n du s t ry

h a s d e v e l o p e d T o ta l Q u a l i ty M a n a g e m e n t ( T Q M ) c o n c e p t s ,

f i rs t a p p l ie d i n J a p a n a n d i n r e c e n t y e a r s u s e d i n th e U n i t e d

S t a te s , w h i c h h a v e i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t iv i t y , d e c r e a s e d p r o d u c t

c o s t a n d i m p r o v e d p r o d u c t r e l i a b il i ty . T h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e

a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o th e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t ry . F o r e x a m p l e ,

J a p a n e s e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p a n i e s , b e n e f i t i n g f r o m t h e e x -

p e r i e nc e s o f J a p a n e s e m a n u f a c t u r e r s , b e g a n i m p l e m e n t i n g

T Q M d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s . E v e n t h o u g h c o n s t r u c t i o n i s a

c rea t i v e , o n e- t im e p ro cess , t h e Jap an ese co n s t ru c t i o n i n d u s t ry

e m b r a c e d t h e T Q M c o n c e p t s t h a t s o m e a r g u e d c o u l d o n l y

a p p l y t o m a s s p r o d u c t i o n .

T Q M i s a n e ff o r t t h a t i n v o l v e s e v e r y o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h e

i n d u s t ry i n t h e e ff o r t t o i m p r o v e p e r f o r m a n c e . I t p e r m e a t e s

e v e r y a s p e c t o f a c o m p a n y a n d m a k e s q u a l i t y a s tr a t e g i c

o b j e c t i v e . T Q M i s a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h a n i n t e g r a t e d e f f o r t

a m o n g p e r s o n n e l a t a l l l e v e l s t o i n c r e a s e c u s t o m e r s a t i s -

f a c t i o n b y c o n t i n u o u s l y i m p r o v i n g p e r f o r m a n c e . T Q M

f o c u s e s o n p r o c e s s i m p r o v e m e n t , c u s t o m e r a n d s u p p l i e r

i n v o l v e m e n t , t e a m w o r k , a n d t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n i n

a n e f f o r t t o a c h i e v e c u s t o m e r s a t i s f a c t i o n , c o s t e f f e c t i v e -

n e s s , a n d d e f e c t - f r e e w o r k . T Q M p r o v i d e s t h e c u l t u r e

a n d c l i m a t e e s s e n t i a l f o r i n n o v a t i o n a n d f o r t e c h n o l o g y

a d v a n c e m e n t .

I n th i s p a p e r , T Q M c o n c e p t s a n d t h e i r i m p l i c a t io n s i n th e

c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d . R e f e r e n c e w i l l b e

m a d e t o i n d u s t r y s u r v e y s c o n d u c t e d i n t h e U S A a n d t o t h e

p u b l i sh ed l i t e r a tu re .

D e f i n i t i o n o f q u a l i t y

Q u a l i t y c a n b e d e f i n e d a s m e e t i n g t h e l e g a l , a e s t h e t i c a n d

f u n c t io n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a p r o j e c t . R e q u i r e m e n t s m a y b e

s i m p l e o r c o m p l e x , o r t h e y m a y b e s t a t e d i n t e r m s o f th e

e n d r e s u l t r e q u i r e d o r a s a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t io n o f w h a t i s

t o b e d o n e . B u t , h o w e v e r e x p r e s s e d , q u a l i t y i s o b t a i n e d i f

t h e s t at e d r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e a d e q u a t e , a n d i f t h e c o m p l e t e d

p r o j e c t c o n f o r m s t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s .

L a w d e f i n e s q u a li t y i n t e r m s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l l i a b il i ty , a

l e g a l c o n c e p t t h a t r e q u i r e s a l l p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o k n o w t h e i r

t r a d e a n d p r a c t i c e i t r e s p o n s i b l y . E v e r y a r c h i t e c t a n d

e n g i n e e r w h o o f f e r s h i s o r h e r e x p e r t i s e to o w n e r s i s s u b j e c t

t o p ro fess io n a l l i ab i l i t y l aws .

S o m e d es ig n p ro fess io n a l s b e l i ev e t h a t q u a l i t y i s m easu red

b y t h e aes th e t i c s o f t h e f ac i l i ti e s t h ey d es ig n . A cco rd in g t o

S t as io w sk i an d Bu r s t e in , ~ t h i s t r ad i t i o n a l d e f i n i t io n o f

q u a l i t y i s b ase d o n su ch i s su es as h o w wel l a b u i l d in g b l en d s

i n to i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s , a b u i l d i n g ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p a c t s o n

i t s i n h ab i t an t s , t h e ab i l i t y o f a l an d scap in g d es ig n t o m a tch

t h e t h e m e o f a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e s , a n d t h e u s e o f b o l d n e w

d e s i g n c o n c e p t s t h a t c a p tu r e p e o p l e ' s i m a g i n a t io n s . B e c a u s e

a e s t h e t ic d e f in i t io n s o f q u a l i t y a r e l a r g e l y s u b j e c t i v e , m a j o r

d i s a g r e e m e n t s a r i s e a s t o w h e t h e r q u a l i t y h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d

o r n o t . S in ce o b j ec t i v e d e f i n i ti o n s o f aes th e t i c q u a l i t y d o n o t

e x i s t, d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l s g e n e r a l ly t a k e i t u p o n t h e m s e l v e s

to d e f i n e t h e aes th e t i c q u a l i t y o f t h e i r d es ig n s .

Q u a l i t y c a n a l s o b e d e f i n e d f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f f u n c -

t i o n , b y h o w c l o s e l y t h e p r o j e c t c o n f o r m s t o i t s r e q u i r e -

m en t s . Us in g t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , a h ig h q u a l i t y p ro j ec t can b e

d e s c r i b e d b y s u c h t e r m s a s e a s e in u n d e r s t a n d in g d r a w i n g s ,

l e v e l o f c o n f li c t in d r a w i n g s a n d s p e c i f ic a t i o n s, e c o n o m i c s

2 3 5


2/9

Total quality management in construction: D Arditi and H M Gunaydin

o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , e a s e o f o p e r a t i o n , e a s e o f m a i n t e n a n c e ,

a n d e n e r g y e f f i c i e n c y .

I n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y , q u a l i t y c a n b e d e f i n e d a s

m e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e d e s i g n e r , c o n s t r u c t o r a n d

r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s a s w e l l a s t h e o w n e r . A c c o r d i n g t o a n

A S C E s t u d y , 2 q u a l i t y c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s f o l l o w s .

• M e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e o w n e r a s t o fu n c t i o n a l

a d e q u a c y ; c o m p l e t i o n o n t i m e a n d w i t h i n b u d g e t ; l i f e -

c y c l e c o s t s ; a n d o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e .

• M e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e d e si g n p r o f e s s io n a l a s

t o p r o v i s i o n o f w e l l - d e f i n e d s c o p e o f w o r k ; b u d g e t t o

a s s e m b l e a n d u s e a q u a l i f i e d , t r a i n e d a n d e x p e r i e n c e d

s ta f f; b u d g e t t o o b t a i n a d e q u a t e f i e ld i n f o r m a t i o n p r i o r t o

d e s i g n ; p r o v i s i o n s f o r t i m e l y d e c i s i o n s b y o w n e r a n d

d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l ; a n d c o n t r a c t t o p e r f o r m n e c e s s a r y

w o r k a t a f a i r f e e w i t h a d e q u a t e t i m e a l l o w a n c e .

• M e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t o r a s t o p r o v i -

s ion of con t rac t p lans , spec i f ica t ions, and o the r docum e nts

p r e p a r e d i n s u f f i c ie n t d e t a il t o p e r m i t t h e c o n s t r u c t o r t o

p r e p a r e p r i c e d p r o p o s a l o r c o m p e t i t i v e b i d ; t i m e l y

d e c i s i o n s b y t h e o w n e r a n d d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l o n

a u t h o r i z a t i o n a n d p r o c e s s i n g o f c h a n g e o r d e r s ; f a i r a n d

t i m e l y i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f c o n t r a c t r e q u i r e m e n t s f r o m f i el d

d e s i g n a n d i n s p e c t i o n s t a f f ; a n d c o n t r a c t f o r p e r f o r -

m a n c e o f w o r k o n a r e a s o n a b l e s c h e d u l e w h i c h p e r m i t s

a reasonab le p rof i t .

• M e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s ( t h e

p u b l i c ) a s t o p u b l i c s a f e t y a n d h e a l t h ; e n v i r o n m e n t a l

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ; p r o t e c t i o n o f p u b l i c p r o p e r t y i n c l u d in g

u t i li t ie s ; a n d c o n f o r m a n c e w i t h a p p l i c a b l e l a w s , r e g u l a -

t ions , codes and po l ic ie s .

I n a d d i t i o n , o n e s h o u l d d i f f e r e n ti a t e b e t w e e n ' q u a l i ty

i n f a c t ' a n d ' q u a l i t y i n p e r c e p t i o n ' . T h e p r o v i d e r s o f

se rv ices o r goo ds tha t m ee t spec i f i ca t ions ach ieve qua l i ty in

f a c t . A s e r v i c e o r p r o d u c t t h a t m e e t s t h e c u s t o m e r ' s e x p e c -

ta t ions ach iev es qua l i ty in pe rcep t ion . 3 In o the r w ords , a

p r o d u c t c a n b e o f h i g h q u a l i t y a n d y e t i t m a y n o t m e e t

c u s t o m e r ' s n e e d s a n d v i c e v e r s a . A n e x a m p l e o f n o t

m e e t i n g c u s t o m e r n e e d s i s t h e p r e f a b r i c a t e d h i g h - r i s e

apa r tm ent bu i ld ings tha t were bu i l t in the 1970s us ing

c u t t in g e d g e t e c h n o l o g y i n l o w - c o s t b u i l d in g p r o c e s s e s . T h e

bui ld ings had to be pu l l ed down in the l a te 1980s because

n o o n e w a n t e d t o l i v e i n t h e s e a p a r t m e n t s d e s p i t e t h e l o w

ren t s . The bu i ld ings fa i l ed to m ee t the t enan t s ' expec ta t ions

o f c o m f o r t , a e s t h e t i c s a n d f u n c t i o n .

O n e s h o u l d a l so d i f f e r e n t ia t e b e t w e e n ' p r o d u c t q u a l i t y ' ,

i . e . t h e q u a l i ty o f e l e m e n t s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p h y s i c a l

p r o d u c t i t se l f , a n d ' p r o c e s s q u a l i t y ' , i . e . t h e q u a l i ty o f t h e

p r o c e s s t h a t c a u s e s t h e p r o d u c t t o b e e i t h e r a c c e p t a b l e o r

n o t . 4 F o r e x a m p l e , ' p r o d u c t q u a l i t y ' i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

i n d u s t r y m a y r e f e r t o a c h i e v i n g q u a l i t y i n t h e m a t e r i a l s ,

e q u i p m e n t a n d t e c h n o l o g y t h a t g o i n t o t h e b u i l d i n g o f a

s t r u c t u r e , w h e r e a s ' p r o c e s s q u a l i t y ' m a y r e f e r t o a c h i e v in g

q u a l i t y i n t h e w a y t h e p r o j e c t is o r g a n i z e d a n d m a n a g e d i n

t h e t h r e e p h a s e s o f p l a n n in g a n d d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d

o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e .

Qual i ty assurance qual i ty control

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e Manual of Professional Practice or Quafity

in the Constructed Project 2

Q u a l i t y A s s u r a n c e ( Q A ) i s

a p r o g r a m c o v e r i n g a c t i v i t ie s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e q u a l i t y

i n t h e w o r k t o m e e t t h e p r o j e c t r e q u i r e m e n t s . Q A i n v o l v e s

es tab l i sh ing pro jec t re la ted po l i c ie s , p rocedures , s t anda rds ,

t r a i n i n g , g u i d e l i n e s , a n d s y s t e m n e c e s s a r y t o p r o d u c e

q u a l i t y . T h e d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d c o n s t r u c t o r a r e r e s -

p o n s i b l e f o r d e v e l o p i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e p r o g r a m f o r e a c h

p r o j e c t . Q A p r o v i d e s p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t q u a l i t y p r o b l e m s

t h r o u g h e a r l y w a r n i n g s o f t r o u b l e a h e a d . S u c h e a r l y

w a r n i n g s p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f b o t h

i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l p r o b l e m s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d Q u a l i t y

C o n t r o l ( Q C ) i s t h e s p e c i f i c i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e Q A

p r o g r a m a n d r e l a t e d a ct i v it i e s. E f f e c t i v e Q C r e d u c e s t h e

p o s s i b l i ty o f c h a n g e s , m i s t a k e s a n d o m i s s i o n s , w h i c h i n

tu rn re su l t in few er conf l i c t s and d i spu tes . 5

A s m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , q u a l i t y i n c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t o o

i m p o r t a n t t o b e l e f t to c h a n c e . A l o o k a t h i s to r y g i v e s s o m e

i n s i g h t i n t o t h e p r o b l e m . T h r o u g h t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h i s

c e n t u r y , e n g i n e e r s a n d a r c h i t e c t s w e r e i n t o t a l c o n t r o l

d u r i n g t h e d e s i g n p h a s e . D u r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a se t h e y

c a r r i e d o u t a r o l e d e s c r i b e d a s ' s u p e r v i s i o n ' , i n s u r in g t h a t

t h e o w n e r r e c e i v e d h i s m o n e y ' s w o r t h i n t e r m s o f q u a l i t y .

I n t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s, o w n e r s b e c a m e i n c r e a s in g l y c o n -

c e r n e d w i t h c o s t a n d s c h e d u l e , a r e a s w h e r e d e s i g n p r o f e s -

s i o n a ls w e r e n o t p r o v i d i n g g o o d c o n t r o l . 6 T h e e m p h a s i s

con t inued to b e o n qua l i ty and con t ro l o f ex posure to l iab il ity .

A t a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e w i d e s p r e a d u s e i n t h e p u b l i c

sec tor and , to a l a rge deg ree , in the p r iva te s ec to r , o f the

s e a le d c o m p e t i t i v e b i d g a v e t h e o w n e r t h e a d v a n t a g e o f c o m -

pe t i t ive p r ic ing , bu t a l so fo rce d the gene ra l con t rac to r to look

f o r e v e r y a d v a n t a g e d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n t o c o n t r o l c o s t an d

m ain ta in a p rof i t ab le s t ance . As m echanica l and e lec t r i ca l

sys tem s becam e m ore co m plex , the gene ra l con t rac to r tu rned

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s u c h w o r k o v e r t o s u b c o n t r a c t o r s , i n -

c l u d i n g q u a l i ty c o n t r o l o f t h e i r w o r k m a n s h i p . 6 T h r o u g h

c o n t r a c t , s u b c o n t r a c t a n d s u b - s u b c o n t r a c t , t h e g e n e r a l

c o n t r a c t o r e n d e d u p d e l e g a ti n g r e s p o n s i b i li t y f o r q u a l i t y .

I n t h e 1 9 80 s c a m e t h e a d v e n t o f t h e c o n s tr u c t i o n m a n -

a g e m e n t p r o j e c t d e l i v e r y s y s t e m w h e r e b y c o n s t r u c t i o n

m a n a g e m e n t f i r m s e m e r g e d a s e n t i t i e s n o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

d e s i g n a n d / o r c o n s t r u c t io n , b u t p e r f o r m i n g o n l y m a n a g e r i a l

f u n c t i o n s o n b e h a l f o f t h e o w n e r f r o m t h e i n c e p t i o n p h a s e

t o t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n p h a s e . I n s p e c t i o n a n d

q u a l i t y c o n t r o l t h a t h a d t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n p e r f o r m e d b y

a rch i t ec ts and eng inee rs wer e now p e r form ed by cons t ruc t ion

m a n a g e m e n t f i r m s .

A c c o r d i n g t o O ' B r i e n , 6 o n e w a y i n w h i c h m o r e a t t e n ti o n

w i l l b e g i v e n t o q u a l i ty c o n t r o l i s d e v e l o p m e n t o f a p r o j e c t

qua l i ty con t ro l p lan . P resen t ly , t e s t ing and inspec t ion

r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n t r a c t s p e c i -

f i ca t ions . To de ve lo p a f irm p lan , the t e s t ing and inspec t ion

r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n b e c o m b i n e d i n t o a n e w d i v i s i o n o f t h e

s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . T h i s w o u l d e m p h a s i z e q u a l i t y c o n t r o l a n d

p r o v i d e a n o r g a n i z e d l o c a t i o n i n w h i c h a l l q u a l i t y c o n t r o l

i s sues a re iden t i f i ed to the b idde rs . As a pa r t o f a qua l i ty

c o n t r o l p l a n , t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n m a n a g e r

w i l l a p p l y q u a l i t y c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e s s h o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d t o

t h e b i d d e r s . T h i s w i l l p e r m i t t h e m t o a s s i g n a p p r o p r i a t e

cos t s to the t e s t ing p rocedures .

T h e t e r m s q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e ( Q A ) a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l

( Q C ) a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y . S i n c e q u a l i t y

con t ro l i s a pa r t o f qua l i ty a s su rance , z m a in ta in ing a c lea r

d i s t inc t ion be twe en then i s d i ff i cu l t bu t im po r tan t . Q ua l i ty

as suran ce i s al l p lanned an d sys tem a t ic ac tions neces sa r y to

p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e c o n f i d e n c e t h a t a s tr u c t u r e , s y s t e m o r

c o m p o n e n t w i l l p e r f o r m s a t i s f a c t o r i l y a n d c o n f o r m w i t h

p r o j e c t r e q u i r e m e n t s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , q u a l i t y c o n t r o l

i s a s e t o f spec i f i c p rocedures invo lved in the qua l i ty -

a s s u r a n c e p r o c e s s . T h e s e p r o c e d u r e s i n c l u d e p l a n n i n g ,

c o o r d i n a t i n g , d e v e l o p i n g , c h e c k i n g , r e v i e w i n g , a n d s c h e d -

u l i n g t h e w o r k . T h e q u a l i ty c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n i s c l o s e s t t o t h e

2 3 6


3/9

Tota l qua l i t y management in cons t ruc t ion: D Ard i t i and H M Gunayd in

p r o d u c t i n t h a t v a r i o u s t e c h n i q u e s a n d a c t i v i t ie s a r e u s e d t o

m o n i t o r t h e p r o c e s s a n d t o p u r s u e t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f s o u r c e s

t h a t l e a d t o u n s a t i s f a c t o r y q u a l i t y p e r f o r m a n c e . 7 M o s t

des ign- re la ted qua l i ty a s surance and qu a l i ty con t ro l ac t iv i ti e s

a r e c o v e r e d b y a d e s i g n o r g a n i z a t i o n s s t a n d a r d o f f ic e p r o -

c e d u r e s . D e v e l o p i n g a n d m o n i t o r i n g t h e a c t i v i ti e s w i t h in t h e

q u a l i t y a s su r a n c e p r o g r a m i n t h e c o n s t r u c t io n p h a s e a r e t h e

r e s p o n s ib i l i ty o f e i t h e r t h e d e s i g n e r o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a n -

agem ent f i rm depending on the p ro jec t de l ive ry sys tem in use .

F a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t q u a l i t y

E s t a b l is h i n g t h e p r o j e c t r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r q u a l i ty b e g i n s a t

p r o j e c t i n c e p t i o n . A c a r e f u l b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e o w n e r s

r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e p r o j e c t c o s t s a n d s c h e d u l e , d e s i r e d

o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , m a t e r i a l s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , e t c .

a n d t h e d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l s n e e d f o r a d e q u a t e t i m e a n d

b u d g e t t o m e e t t h o s e r e q u i r e m e n t s d u r i n g t h e d e s i g n

p r o c e s s i s e s s e n t i a l . O w n e r s b a l a n c e t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s

a g a i n s t e c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d , i n s o m e c a s e s ,

a g a i n s t c h a n c e o f f a i l u r e . T h e d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l i s

o b l i g a t e d t o p r o t e c t p u b l i c h e a l t h a n d s a f e t y i n t h e c o n t e x t

of the f ina l com ple ted p ro jec t . T he cons t ru c tor i s re spons ib le

f o r th e m e a n s , m e t h o d s , t e c h n i q u e s , s e q u e n c e s , a n d

p r o c e d u r e s o f c o n s t r u c t io n , a s w e l l a s s a f e ty p r e c a u t i o n s

a n d p r o g r a m s d u r i n g t h e c o n st r u c ti o n p r o c e s s ]

P r o j e c t r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t h e k e y f a c t o r s t h a t d e f i n e q u a l it y

i n th e p r o c e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e p r o c e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n

c a n b e b r o k e n d o w n i n t o t h r e e m a i n p h a s e s , n a m e l y , ( 1 ) th e

p l a n n i n g a n d d e s i g n p h a s e , ( 2 ) th e c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a s e , a n d

( 3 ) t h e m a i n t e n a n c e a n d o p e r a t i o n p h a s e . F i g u r e s h o w s

g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d e l e m e n t s o f T Q M a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n

indus t ry -spec i f ic fac to rs tha t a f fec t qua l ity o f the p roces s o f a

bu i ld ing pro jec t . Th e fac to rs tha t a f fec t qua l i ty in each phase

o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d t h r o u g h a

l i t e ra tu re rev iew and a re d i s cus sed in the fo l lowing sec t ions .

M a n a g e m e n t c o m m i t m e n t a n d l e a d e r s h i p

T h e B u s i n e s s R o u n d t a b l e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y c o s t e f f e c -

t i v e n e s s s t u d y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e p r i m a r y c a u s e s f o r t h e

d e c l i n e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o d u c t i v i t y d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y

i n v o l v e d p o o r m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s . 8 S i n c e q u a l i t y i s p a r t

o f p r o d u c t i v i ty , t h e f i r st s t ep f o r m a n a g e m e n t i s t o r e c o g n i z e

tha t the re i s a p rob lem .

T h e s u c c e s s o f a T Q M p r o g r a m f i r s t o f a l l d e p e n d s o n

m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s . T Q M i s a c u l t u r e a n d p h i l o s o p h y

t h a t m u s t p e r m e a t e a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a s t h e m e t h o d o f m a n -

a g e m e n t . 9 I t c a n t h r i v e o n l y u n d e r a s e n i o r m a n a g e m e n t

t h a t e s t a b l i s h e s T Q M a s a t o p p r i o r i t y . T h i s c o m m i t m e n t

m u s t b e c o u p l e d w i t h a t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f T Q M .

O n l y i f s u p p o r t e d b y t h i s c o m m i t m e n t a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,

c a n s e n i o r m a n a g e m e n t l e a d t h e c o m p a n y t o w a r d t h e

rea l i za t ion o f h ighe r qua l i ty in i t s unde r tak ings .

T h e p r o m i n e n t m e t h o d o f m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c ed i n t h e

Uni ted S ta te s today , inc lud ing the cons t ruc t ion indus t ry , i s

m a n a g e m e n t b y c o n t r o l , n o t b y p a r t i c i p a t i o n . F o r c e d b y

i n t e r n a ti o n a l c o m p e t i t i v e p r e s s u r e s a n d i n c r e a s in g d e m a n d s

for qua l i ty p roduc t s and s e rv ices , indus t r i e s a re reeva lua t ing

t h e e f f e c ti v e n e s s o f m a n a g e m e n t b y c o n t r o l . A c c o r d i n g t o

Jo in e r an d S c hol te s , t ° in th i s s ty le o f m an agem ent , the

e m p h a s i s i s o n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t a n d t h e k e y c o n t r o l

po in t s wi th in the s t ruc ture . Al l m anagers , beg inn ing a t the

t o p , a r e g i v e n c e r t a i n g o a l s f o r t h e n e x t y e a r . T h e y , i n t u r n ,

s e t g o a l s a n d i m p o s e c o n t r o l s o n e a c h o f t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t es .

I n c o n s t r u c t i o n t e r m s , c o s t , s c h e d u l e , a n d p o s s i b l y q u a l i t y

g o a l s a r e e s t a b li s h e d f o r e a c h p r o j e c t . P r o j e c t m a n a g e r s a r e

r e w a r d e d o n t h e b a s is o f m e e t i n g t h e s e g o a l s. T h i s m e t h o d

has been som ewha t succes s fu l . I t i s s im ple , log ica l , and

c o n s i s t e n t . B u t t h e r e a r e p r o b l e m s w h e n t h e w o r k g e t s

d i s p l a c e d b y t h e c o n t r o l s t h e m s e l v e s . 9 A l s o , c o m p e t i t i o n

to m ee t sho r t - t e rm goa l s can l ead to in te rna l conf l i c t , adve r -

s a r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r e d u c e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a c c u s a t i o n s

T r a i n i n g

S ta t is t i ca l Method s

C u s t o m e r S e r v i c e

Management

Commitment and

Leadersh ip

ConstructionIndustry-

S pec i f i c F ac tors

Teamwork

S uppl ie r

Involvement

C o s t o f Q u a l i ty

Q u a l i ty o f C o d e s

and Standard

Drawings and S pec i f i ca t ions

Cons t ruc tab i l i ty Ana lyses

Figure 1 Elements of total quality managem ent in the construction process

2 3 7


4/9

Total quality management in construction D Arditi and H M Gunaydin

w h e n g o a l s a r e n o t a c h i e v e d , a n d e v e n f a b r i c a t e d r e p o r t s

o f c o n f o r m i t y . M a n a g e m e n t b y c o n tr o l e n c o u r a g e s an

o r g a n i z a t i o n t o l o o k i n w a r d r a t h e r t h a n o u t w a r d t o t h e

c u s t o m e r a n d t h e c u s t o m e r ' s n e e d s /

O n c e i t a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t th e r e i s a p r o b l e m , t h e s e c o n d

s t e p f o r m a n a g e m e n t i s to d e v e l o p a c l e a r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f

t h e u n d e rl y i ng p r i n c ip l e s a n d e l e m e n ts o f T Q M . M a n a g e m e n t

the n de mon s t ra t e s i t s c om mi tm e n t to qua l i ty t h rough a c t ion .

W i t h o u t t h is u n d e r s t a n d in g , m a n a g e m e n t ' s a c ti o n w i ll m o s t

l i k el y c o n t r a d ic t T Q M , c o n f i r m i n g t h e d o u b ts o f t h e l a b o r

fo rc e a nd doom ing the e f fo r t t o f a i l u re , i1 Th e f ind ings o f a

su rve y c on duc te d by G una yd in o f a t o t a l o f 143 c ons t ruc t ion

m a n a g e r s , d e s i g n e r s , c o n t r a c t o r s a n d f a c i l i t y m a n a g e r s t o

i n v e s t ig a t e T Q M i n th e d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d o p e r a t i o n

pha se s o f p ro j e c t s un de r t a ke n in t he U S A , ind ic a t e d tha t t he

l e v e l o f m a n a g e m e n t c o m m i t m e n t t o co n t i n u o u s q u a l it y

i m p r o v e m e n t w a s r a t e d a s o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s

tha t a ff ec t the qua l i ty of the co nst ru c ted fac i l i ty . ~2

Trai n i ng

T h e i m p o r t a n c e i s r e c o g n i z e d b y e v e r y q u a l i t y e x p e r t .

U n d e r T Q M , q u a l i t y b e c o m e s e v e r y o n e ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

a nd the t r a in ing mus t be t a rge t e d fo r e ve ry l e ve l o f t he

c om pa ny . 13 Th e re shou ld be c us tom iz e d t r a in ing p l a ns fo r

m a n a g e m e n t , e n g i n e e r s , t e c h n i c ia n s , h o m e a n d f i el d o ff i ce

s t a f f , supp o r t p e r sonn e l a nd f i e ld l a bo r . ~4

I t c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t th e t r a n s i en t c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k f o r c e

i s qu i t e d i f f e re n t f rom the r e l a t i ve ly s t a b l e ma nufa c tu r ing

w o r k f o r c e . T h i s t r a n s i e n t n a t u r e m a y m a k e i t m o r e d i f f ic u lt

t o t r a in w orke r s , pa r t i c u l a r ly c ra f t l a bo r , fo r t he c ons t ruc tion

i n d u s tr y 9. H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e m a n y a s p e c t s , s u c h a s t r a i n -

i n g a n d a w a r e n e s s , t h a t a r e s i m i l a r b e t w e e n t h e s a f e t y

c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n f i r m s a n d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n

o f T Q M c o n c e p t s . M a n y U S c o n s t r u c t io n c o m p a n i e s th a t

h a d s a f e t y f o r c e d u p o n t h e m w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t he

O c c u p a t i o n a l S a f e t y a n d H e a l t h A d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a v e

p r o v e n t h e c o s t e f fe c t i v en e s s o f t h e ir s a f e t y p r o g r a m s a n d

n o w u s e t h e i r s a f e t y r e c o r d s a s a m a r k e t i n g t o o l . ~ S o m e

of t he sa me t e c hn ique s u se d to i n s t il l a sa fe ty a w a re ne ss i n

c ra f t l a bo r ma y be a da p ta b le t o i n s t i l l a s imi l a r qua l i t y

a w a re ne ss . I t i s e a sy to e nv i s ion u s ing a good qua l i t y

p e r f o r m a n c e r e c o r d a s a s t r o n g m a r k e t i n g t o o l .

I f T Q M c o n c e p t s b e c o m e w i d e l y a c c e p t e d t h r o u g h o u t th e

c o n s t r u ct i o n i n d u s tr y , w o r k e r s s w i t ch i n g f r o m o n e c o m p a n y

to a no the r shou ld r e qu i re l e ss TQ M t ra in ing s inc e a l l

w o r k e r s w o u l d h a v e r e c e i v e d b a s i c q u a l i t y a w a r e n e s s i n

t h e i r p r e v i o u s e m p l o y m e n t . 9

The t r a in ing e f fo r t ma y inc lude in s t ruc t ion in t he ba s i c s

o f T Q M , c a u s e - a n d - e f fe c t a n a l y s is , t e a m p r o b l e m s o l v i n g ,

i n t e r p e rs o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d i n t e r a c ti o n , r u d i m e n t a r y

s t a ti s ti c al m e t h o d s a n d c o s t o f q u a l it y m e a s u r e m e n t . A

s t u d y o f T Q M i n m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 c o m p a n i e s f o u n d t h a t s k i ll s

in huma n in t e ra c t ion , l e a de r sh ip , a nd in i t i a t i ve a re i n s t ru -

me n ta l t o t he suc c e ss o f a ny qu a l i t y im pro ve m e n t e f fo r t . ~5

T h e d e m a n d s o n t h e s e i n t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l s i n c r e a s e a s t h e

c om ple x i ty a nd soph i s t i c a t ion o f t he t e c hn ic a l sy s t e m s

inc re a se . Th e t r a in ing e f fo r t fo l low s a spe c i f ic p l a n , a nd i t s

imp le me n ta t ion a nd e f fe c t ive ne ss a re c a re fu l ly t r a c ke d . I t i s

i n i t ia t e d in a l im i t e d num be r o f p i lo t t e a ms . Th e suc c e ss

s to r i e s o f t he p i lo t t e a ms a re t he n u se d to fue l t he r e ma in ing

t ra in ing e f fo r t . Fo l low -up t r a in ing i s e sse n t i a l , a nd i s pa r t

o f t h e o v e r a l l t ra i n i n g p l a n a n d a j o b r e q u i r e m e n t f o r e a c h

ind ivid ual. ~6

T h e t r a i n i n g o f e m p l o y e e s i n t h e d e s i g n p h a s e w a s

f o u n d t o b e n o t v e r y i m p o r t a n t , i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a s e

m o d e r a t e l y i m p o r t a n t , a n d i n t h e o p e r a t i o n p h a s e v e r y

i m p o r t a n t b y th e r e s p o n d e n t s in G u n a y d i n ' s s t u d y o f T Q M

in U S c ons t ruc t ion p ro j e c t s . 12 I t fo l low s tha t ope ra t ion a nd

ma in te na nc e c re w s w ork ing in c ons t ruc t e d f a c i l i t i e s shou ld

be the m a in r e c ip i e n t o f t r a in ing e f fo r t s . F ind ings a re pa ra l l e l

t o I S O 9 0 0 1 w h i c h e m p h a s i z e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t ra i n in g

a nd unde r l i ne s t ha t a c t iv i t i e s de ma nd ing a c qu i re d sk i l l s

shou ld be ide n t i f i e d a nd the ne c e ssa ry t r a in ing p rov ide d . 17

T e a m w o r k

Q u a l i t y t e a m s p r o v i d e c o m p a n i e s w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r e d e n -

v i r o n m e n t n e c e s s a r y f o r s u c c e s s f u l l y i m p l e m e n t i n g a n d

c o n t i n u o u s l y a p p l y i n g th e T Q M p r o c e s s . Q u a l i ty t r a i n in g i s

c onduc te d a nd the c on t inuous im prove me n t p roc e ss e xe c u te d

t h r o u g h a w e l l - p l a n n e d t e a m s t r u c t u r e . T h e u l t i m a t e g o a l o f

t h e t e a m a p p r o a c h i s to g e t e v e r y o n e , i n c lu d i n g c o n t r a c t o r s ,

d e s i g n e r s , v e n d o r s , s u b c o n t r a c t o r s , a n d o w n e r s i n v o l v e d

w i t h t h e T Q M p r o c e s s .

A t t h e i n d u s t ry l e v e l , ex t e n d i n g t h e T Q M c o n c e p t t o th e

p a r t i es m e n t i o n e d a b o v e i n t h e f o r m o f j o i n t t e a m s a c h i e v e s

h i g h e r c u s t o m e r s a t i sf a c ti o n . T h e s e jo i n t t e a m s a r e r e s p o n -

s ib l e fo r e s t a b l i sh ing jo in t goa l s , p l a ns , a nd c on t ro l s . T he

t e a m s p r o v i d e a m e c h a n i s m f o r l i s t e n i n g t o a n d c o m m u n i -

c a t i n g w i t h t h e o w n e r a n d f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e l e v e l o f

c us to me r sa t i s f a c t ion . T w o ob s t a c l e s t o e s t a b l i sh ing jo in t

t e a ms a re t he s t a t e o f l ega l i nde pe nde nc e be tw e e n c om pa n ie s

a n d t h e i r t r ad i t io n a l m e t h o d s o f w o r k i n g i n d i v i d u a l l y /

T h e s e o b s t a c l e s c a n b e o v e r c o m e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

indus t ry ho w e v e r , i f t he ow ne r i s de d ic a t e d to do ing so .

The re a re se ve ra l c a se s tud ie s o f suc c e ss fu l pa r tne r ing

a r r a n g e m e n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , o n a l a r g e r e fi n e r y p r o j e c t ,

T Q M w a s a p p l i e d o n a p r o j e c t t e a m b a s i s ; r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s

o f t h e o w n e r a n d t h e t w o m a j o r c o n t r a c t o r s o n t h e p r o j e c t

se rve d on the p ro j e c t qua l i t y s t e e r ing c ommi t t e e . W hi l e t h i s

i s a ne w c o nc e p t , e a r ly p rog re ss i s e nc ou r a g ing . 9

A t t h e c o m p a n y l e v e l , t e a m s c o m p o s e d o f d e p a r t m e n t

re p re se n ta t ive s a re ne c e ssa ry to imp le me n t TQ M th roughou t

t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e s a m e t e a m a p p r o a c h c a n b e u s e d a t

t he p ro j e c t l e ve l .

E x t e n t o f t e a m w o r k o f p a r t i e s p a rt i c i p at i n g i n t he

d e s i g n p h a s e w a s f o u n d t o b e th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c to r

t h a t a ff e c ts q u a li t y i n G u n a y d i n ' s s t u d y o f T Q M i n U S

c ons t ruc t ion p ro j e c t s . 12 In t he sa m e s tudy , c ons t ruc t ion

m a n a g e r s a n d d e s i g n e r s r a n k e d t h i s f a c t o r a s t h e m o s t

i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r . T h i s r e s u l t s h o w s t h a t t e a m w o r k a m o n g

pa r t i e s suc h a s s t ruc tu ra l , e l e c t r i c a l , e nv i ronme n ta l , c iv i l

e ng ine e r s , a rc h i t e c t s , a nd ow ne rs i s e sse n t i a l t o r e a c h the

qua l i t y goa l s fo r de s ign . In t he c ons t ruc t ion pha se , e x t e n t

o f t e a m w o r k o f p a r t i e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

p r o c e s s w a s f o u n d t o b e v e r y i m p o r t a n t a n d r a n k e d 2 n d b y

c ons t ruc to r s a nd 4 th by c ons t ruc t ion ma n a ge rs . 12 I t a ppe a r s

t h a t th e i m p o r t a n c e o f t e a m w o r k i n t h e d e s ig n p h a s e w a s

r e l a ti v e l y m o r e p r o n o u n c e d t h a n i n t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n p h a s e .

tat i s t ical methods

S t a ti s ti c al m e t h o d s p r o v i d e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g t o o l s t o t h e

T Q M p r o c e s s . A c c o r d i n g t o P e r i s c o , ~8 t h e y p r o v i d e t e a m s

w i th the t oo l s t o i de n t i fy t he c a use s o f qua l i t y p rob le ms , t o

c o m m u n i c a t e i n a p r e c i s e l a n g u a g e t h a t c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d

b y a l l t e a m m e m b e r s , t o v e r i f y , r e p e a t , a n d r e p r o d u c e

m e a s u r e m e n t s b a s e d o n d a t a , t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p a s t ,

p re se n t , a nd to a l e sse r de g re e , t he fu tu re s t a tu s o f a w ork

p r o c e s s , a n d t o m a k e d e c i s i o n s o n f a c t s t h a t a r e b a s e d o n

da ta r a the r t ha n the op in ions a nd p re fe re nc e s o f i nd iv idua l s

2 3 8


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Total quality management in construction: D Arditi and H M Gunaydin

o r g r o u p s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d s t a t i s t i c a l m e t h o d s i n

t h e T Q M p r o c e s s i n c l u d e h i s t o g r a m s , c a u s e a n d e f f e c t

d i a g r a m s , c h e c k s h e e t s , P a r e t o d i a g r a m s , g r a p h s , c o n t r o l

c ha r t s , a nd sc a t t e r d i a g ra ms . t9

S t a ti s ti c a l m e t h o d s a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g

i n d u s t ri e s i n o r d e r t o i m p r o v e q u a l i t y . 2° O b e r l e n d e r u n d e r -

l i ne s t he impor t a nc e o f s t a t i s t i c a l me thods in o rde r t o

p r o v i d e e s s e n t i a l p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g t o o l s t o t h e T Q M

p r o c e s s . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s t a t is t ic a l t e c h n iq u e s i s a ls o

u n d e r l i n e d b y I S O 9 0 0 1 . 21 H o w e v e r , c o n t r a r y t o T Q M

p h i l o s o p h y , t h e u s e o f s t a ti s ti c al m e t h o d s w a s f o u n d t o b e

i n G u n a y d i n ' s s u r v e y t h e l e a s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r t h a t a ff e c ts

q u a l i t y i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s a n d r a n k e d a t t h e v e r y

b o t t o m o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e l i s t s i n t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n -

s t ruc t ion pha se s by de s igne r s , c ons t ruc to r s , a nd c ons t ruc t ion

m a n a g e r s . I t c a n b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t a l l t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s

invo lve d in t h i s s tudy a g re e tha t t he u se o f s t a t i s t i c a l

me th ods ha s r e l a t i ve ly ve r y l i t t le e f fe c t on the qua l i t y o f t he

c ons t ruc t ion p ro j e c t . 12 Th i s f i nd ing su ppor t s H e l l a rd ' s 2t

c on te n t ion tha t i nd iv idua l c ons t ruc t ion a c t iv i t i e s a re

typ ic a l ly un ique a nd e l imina t e t he po te n t i a l fo r a ny k ind o f

s t a t i s t i c a l p roc e ss c on t ro l .

o s t o f q u a l i t y

T h e c o s t o f q u a l i t y i s c o n s i d e r e d b y b o t h C r o s b y 22 a n d

J u r a n 5 t o b e t h e p r i m a r y t o o l f o r m e a s u r i n g q u a l it y . I n

the i r a pp ro a c h , i t i s u se d to t r a c k the e f fe c t ive ne ss o f t he

T Q M p r o c e s s , s e l e c t q u a l it y i m p r o v e m e n t p r o j e c t s , a n d

p r o v i d e c o s t j u s t i fi c a t io n t o d o u b t e r s . B y b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r

t h e s e e a s i ly a s s e m b l e d c o s t s o f r e v i e w , i n s p e c t io n , t e s ti n g ,

s c r a p , a n d r e w o r k , o n e c a n c o n v i n c e m a n a g e m e n t a n d

o t h e r s o f t h e n e e d f o r q u a l it y i m p r o v e m e n t . C o s t o f

qua l i t y ha s r e c e ive d inc re a s ing a t t e n t ion in r e c e n t ye a r s . I t

i s e f f e c t ive i n i t s i n t e nde d pu rpose o f r a i s ing a w a re ne ss

a b o u t q u a l i t y a n d c o m m u n i c a t i n g t o m a n a g e m e n t t h e

b e n e f it s o f T Q M i n t e r m s o f d o l l a rs .

Q u a l i t y c o s t s c o n s i s t o f t h e c o s t o f p r e v e n t i o n , t h e c o s t

o f a p p r a i s a l , a n d t h e c o s t o f d e v ia t i o n . P r e v e n t i o n c o s t s a r e

those r e su l t i ng f rom a c t iv i t i e s u se d to a vo id de v ia t ions o r

e r r o r s , w h i l e a p p r a i s a l co s t s c o n s i st o f c o s ts i n c u r r e d f r o m

a c t iv i t ie s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a p r o d u c t , p r o c e s s , o r

s e r v i c e c o n f o r m s t o e s t a b l i s h e d r e q u i r e m e n t s . 23 T h e c o s t

o f d e s i g n o r c o n s t r u c t a b i l it y r e v i e w s , a s w e l l a s t h e c o s t o f

m o d i f y i n g w o r k p r o c e d u r e s t o a d h e r e t o q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s

m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d p r e v e n t i o n c o s t s , w h i l e i n s p e c t i o n i s

a n e x a m p l e o f a n a p p r a i s a l c o s t. A s u r v e y o f U S f i r m s

i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e m a j o r o b s t a c l e t o u s i n g t h e I S O 9 0 0 0

s t a n d a r d s i s t h e a d d i ti o n a l c o s t o f m o d i f y i n g w o r k p r o -

c e du re s a n d the a dd i t i ona l c os t o f r e v i s in g s t a nda rds f l 4

D e v i a t i o n c o s t s a r e t h o s e r e s u l t i n g f r o m n o t m e e t i n g t h e

r e q u i r e m e n t s . S o m e d e v i a t i o n c o s t s a r e i n c u r r e d o n t h e

p r o j e c t s i te d u e t o s c r a p , r e w o r k , f a i l u r e an a l y s i s , r e -

i n s p e c t i o n , s u p p l i e r e r r o r , o r p r i c e r e d u c t i o n d u e t o n o n -

c o n f o r m i t y . O t h e r d e v i a t i o n c o s t s a r e i n c u r r e d o n c e t h e

o w n e r t a k e s p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t e d f a c i li t y . T h e s e

i n c lu d e c o s t s f o r a d j u s t m e n t o f c o m p l a i n t s , r e p a i r c o s t s ,

c o s t s f o r h a n d l i n g a n d r e p l a c i n g r e j e c t e d m a t e r i a l , w o r k -

m a n s h i p o r e q u i p m e n t c o s t s f o r c o r r e c t i n g e r r o r s , a n d

l i t iga t ion c os t s f l 5

In the c ons t ruc t ion indus t ry , c on t ra c to r s a re se l e c t e d by

o w n e r s o n a c o m p e t i t i v e b a s i s. E v e n t h o u g h t h e b id i s

c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e m a j o r c r i t e r i o n o f s e l e c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y

p r i v a t e o w n e r s a l s o c o n s i d e r t h e c o n t r a c t o r s ' s a f e t y r e c o r d ,

t e c hn ic a l suppor t , e qu ipme n t c a pa b i l i t i e s , a nd e spe c i a l ly

r e p u t a ti o n r e g a r d i n g t h e q u a li t y o f th e w o r k p e r f o r m e d .

C o n t r a c t o r s w i t h a r e p u t a t i o n f o r p o o r q u a l i t y a r e n o t l i k e l y

t o b e a w a r d e d m a n y p r o j e c t s i n t h e e x i s t i n g c o m p e t i t i v e

m a r k e t p l a c e . I t t h e r e f o r e p a y s f o r c o n t r a c t o r s t o i n v e s t i n

m e a s u r e s t o a c h i e v e h i g h w o r k q u a l it y i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e

c h a n c e s o f w i n n i n g c o n t r a c t s .

S u p p l i e r i n v o l v e m e n t

T h e a b i l it y t o p r o d u c e a q u a l i t y p r o d u c t l a r g e l y d e p e n d s o n

t h e r e l a t io n s h i p a m o n g t h e p a r t i es i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o c e s s ;

t h e s u p p l i e r , t h e p r o c e s s o r , a n d t h e c u s t o m e r . T h e q u a l i t y

o f a n y s t a g e i n a p r o c e s s i s c o n t i n g e n t u p o n t h e q u a l i t y o f

the p re v iou s s t a ge s . T he qua l i t y o f t he p ro j e c t bu i l t by the

c ons t ruc to r i s d i r e c t ly r e l a t e d to t he qua l i ty o f t he p l a ns a nd

the spe c i f i c a t ions p re pa re d by the de s igne r , t he qua l i t y o f

t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d m a t e r i a l s s u p p l i e d b y t h e v e n d o r s , a n d

t h e q u a l it y o f w o r k p e r f o r m e d b y t h e s u b c o n t r a c to r s . C l o s e

a nd long - t e rm re l a t i onsh ips w i th t he se supp l i e r s t o t he

c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s a r e r e q u i r e d i f t h e c o n s t r u c t o r i s t o

a c h ie ve the be s t e c onomy a nd qua l i t y . l~

Tra d i t i ona l ly , i n t he c ons t ruc t ion indus t ry , c on t ra c to r s ,

subc on t ra c to r s , a nd ve ndors a re a l l p i t t e d a ga in s t one

a n o t h e r t o c o m p e t e o n t h e b a s i s o f l o w - b i d c o n t r a c ts . Y e t ,

t h e f o ur t h o f D e m i n g ' s 26 14 re c omme nda t ions fo r r e a c h ing

a h i g h l e v e l o f q u a l i ty s t r e s s e s t h a t c o m p a n i e s m u s t e n d t h e

p r a c t i c e o f a w a r d i n g b u s i n e s s o n t h e b a s i s o f p r i c e t a g

a lone . A c c o rd ing to Pe t e r s , 27 suc c e ss fu l p ro j e c t s i n t he

fu tu re a re l i ke ly t o be de c ide d ba se d on qua l i t y , l i f e -c yc l e

c os t s (no t i n i t i a l c o s t ) , a nd supp l i e r r e spons ive ne ss , w h ic h

c a n o n l y b e a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h p a r t n e r s h i p r e l a t i o n s h i p s ;

the se r e l a t i onsh ips w i l l i nvo lve f e w e r supp l i e r s , a nd the y

a r e e x p e c t e d t o b e b a s e d o n m u t u a l t r u s t . T h i s i s a l r e a d y

be ing p r ove n t rue in c e r t a in a re a s o f t he i ndus t ri a l c on -

s t r u c ti o n m a r k e t . L o n g - t e r m p a r t n e r i n g a g r e e m e n t s h a v e

b e e n f o r m e d b e t w e e n a n u m b e r o f o w n e r s a n d c o n t r a c t o rs .

S o m e o w n e r s a r e r e q u i r i n g t h e i r c o n t r a c t o rs t o h a v e f o r m a l

T Q M p r o g r a m s , a n d b o t h o w n e r s a n d c o n t r a c t o r s a r e

r e q u i r in g t h e i r v e n d o r s t o i m p l e m e n t T Q M i f t h e y w i s h t o

b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r f u t u r e w o r k . 9

u s t o m e r s e r v i c e

T Q M i s a p r o c e s s t h a t r e q u ir e s u n i v e r s a l i n v o l v e m e n t t o b e

s u c c e s s f u l . T h i s i n c l u d e s c u s t o m e r i n v o l v e m e n t . A s m o r e

a n d m o r e c o m p a n i e s b e c o m e i n v o lv e d i n th e T Q M p r o c e s s

a n d d e m a n d s f o r i m p r o v e d q u a l i t y i n c re a s e , t h i s c o n c e p t

b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t .

C u s t o m e r s m a y b e e i t h e r i n te r n a l o r e x t e r n a l. S a t i s fy i n g

t h e n e e d s o f t h e s e c u s t o m e r s i s a n e s s e n ti a l p a r t o f t h e

p r o c e s s o f s u p p l y i n g t h e f i n a l e x t e r n a l c u s t o m e r w i t h a

qua l i t y p rod uc t . Ju ra n 5 c l a ims tha t t he pa r t i e s i n a p ro c e ss

( s u p p l i er , p r o c e s s o r , a n d c u s t o m e r ) h a v e a t r i p l e r o l e .

Figure s h o w s J u r a n ' s t r i p l e r o l e c o n c e p t a p p l i ed t o

c ons t ruc t ion . 28 The de s igne r i s t he c us tom e r o f t he ow ne r

b e c a u s e t h e d e s i g n e r h a s t o r e c e i v e t h e p r o j e c t r e q u i r e -

m e n t s f r o m t h e o w n e r i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a f e a s i b l e d e s i g n .

The de s igne r supp l i e s p l a ns a nd spe c i f i c a t ions t o t he c on -

s t ruc to r ; i n t h i s c a se t he c ons t ruc to r i s t he de s igne r ' s

c u s t o m e r b e c a u s e t h e c o n s t r u c t o r u s e s t h e d e s i g n e r ' s p l a n s

a nd spe c i f i c a t ions , t he n c onduc t s t he c ons t ruc t ion p ro -

c e ss , a nd f ina l ly supp l i e s t he c omple t e d bu i ld ing to t he

o w n e r . T h e o w n e r i s n o w t h e c o n s t r u c t o r ' s c u s t o m e r .

Q ua l i t y i n e a c h pha se i s a f f e c t e d by the qua l i t y i n t he p re -

c e d i n g p h a s e s . T h e r e f o r e c u s t o m e r s e r v i c e i n e a c h p h a s e

i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e o v e r a l l q u a l i ty p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e

p r o c e s s .

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Total quality management in construction D Arditi and H M Gunaydin

O W N E R

R equirem ents D esign Plans nd

o fowner Phase Specifications

I Input

I Process

Output

A R C H I T E C T / E N G I N E E R

Figure

2 Construction process

C O N S T R U C T O R

I Process

I Output

Constructed

Facility

O p e r a t i o n ~

M ainta~dnance

Phase

I Process

Input

C o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y sp e c i f i c f a c t o r s

W h i le t he e vo lu t ion o f qua l i t y c on t ro l i n t he c ons t ruc t ion

indus t ry i s pa ra l l e l t o tha t o f t he ma n ufa c tu r in g indus t ry ,

ma ny d i ss imi l a r c ha ra c t e r i s t i c s d i s t i ngu i sh the tw o in -

dus t r i e s . T he fo l low ing d i f f e re nc e s , som e o f t he m s ign i f i -

c a n t , m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d w h e n a p p l y i n g a q ua l i ty p r o g r a m

to cons t ruc t io n . 29

• A l m o s t a ll co n s t r u c t i o n p r o je c t s a r e u n i q u e . T h e y a r e

s i n g l e - o r d e r , s i n g l e - p r o d u c ti o n p r o d u c t s .

• U n l ik e o the r i ndus t r i e s , w h ic h u sua l ly ha ve a f i xe d s i t e

w i th s imi l a r c ond i t i ons fo r p roduc t ion , e a c h c ons t ruc t ion

p roduc t ion s i t e a lw a ys d i sp l a ys d i f f e re n t c ond i t i ons .

• T h e l i f e - c y c l e o f a c o n s t r u c t io n p r o j e c t i s m u c h l o n g e r

t h a n t h e l i f e - c y c l e o f m o s t m a n u f a c t u r e d p r o d u c t s .

• T h e r e i s n o c l e a r an d u n i f o r m s t a n d a rd i n e v a l u at i n g

ove ra l l c ons t ruc t ion qua l i t y a s t he re i s i n ma nufa c tu re d

i t e ms a nd ma te r i a l s ; t hus , c ons t ruc t ion p ro j e c t s u sua l ly

a re e va lua t e d sub je c t ive ly .

• S inc e c ons t ruc t ion p ro j e c t s a re a s ing le -o rde r de s ign p ro -

j e c t , t he ow ne r u sua l ly d i r e c t ly i n f lue nc e s t he p roduc t ion .

• T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t - - o w n e r ,

d e s i g n e r , g e n e r a l c o n t r a c t o r , s u b c o n t r a c t o r , m a t e r i a l

s u p p l i e r , e t c . - - d i f f e r f o r e a c h p r o j e c t .

B e c a u se o f t he se d i s t i ngu i sh ing c ha ra c t e r i s t i c s , t he c on -

s t ruc t ion indus t ry ha s ge ne ra l ly be e n c ons ide re d to be qu i t e

d i f f e r e n t f r o m m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s . T h a t i s w h y ,

q u a l it y c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e s t h a t w o r k e f f e c ti v e l y i n a m a s s

p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r y h a v e n o t b e e n c o n s i d e r e d s u i t a b l e f o r

the c ons t ruc t ion indus t ry . C onse que n t ly , qua l i t y c on t ro l

t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n i n d u s t r y h a s n o t e v o l v e d t o t h e

l e ve l a t t a ine d in ma nufa c tu r ing indus t r i e s .

A c c o rd ing to A sa ka o ru , 3° p ro j e c t de s ign a nd c ons t ruc t ion

p l a n n i n g a r e c a r r i e d o u t b a s e d u p o n a s t a n d a r d d e r i v e d

f r o m r e l e v a n t c o d e s , o w n e r r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d d e s i g n c o m -

p a n y s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e . C o n s t r u c t i o n i s t h e n m a n a g e d t o

c o n f o r m t o t h i s c o m p o s i t e s t a n d a r d a s i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e

c o n s t r u c t o r . Q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e v i a o w n e r , d e s i g n e r , o r

b u i l d i n g a u t h o r i t y , o r a c o m b i n a t i o n , o c c u r s a f t e r c o m -

p l e t i o n , a n d i n s o m e c a s e s , a f t e r p a r t ia l c o m p e n s a t i o n . T h i s

p roc e ss r e su l t s i n t he fo l low ing t r e nds .

• Q ua l i t y i s de s igne d in to a nd e va lua t e d fo r e a c h ind iv idua l

p r o j e c t e a c h t im e . E x c e p t f o r s o m e s p e c i a l iz e d a r e a s o f

c ons t ruc t ion suc h a s nuc l e a r pow e r p l a n t s a nd in t e r s t a t e

r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e r e i s n o c o m p r e h e n s i v e q u a l i t y

po l i c y e mp loye d to e s t a b l i sh qua l i t y a ssu ra nc e fo r t he

e n t i r e i ndus t ry o r l a rge se gm e n t s o f the i ndus t ry .

• N o f e e d b a c k s y s t e m e x i s ts f o r r e e x a m i n i n g q u a l i ty

c o n t r o l w o r k . C o r r e c t i o n o n l y o c c u r s w h e n t h e o w n e r ,

de s igne r , o r bu i ld ing a u tho r i t y po in t s ou t de fe c t s i n t he

p ro j e c t . Th i s ma ke s qua l i t y e va lua t ion d i f f i c u l t .

• I t i s d i f f ic u l t t o e s t a b l i sh a da t a c o l l e c t ion sy s t e m to

bu i ld a n in fo rma t ion ba se t ha t c ou ld l e a d to e a r ly i de n -

t i f i c a t ion o f de fe c t s . S inc e pos t - c omple t ion c o r re c t ion

o f u n a c c ep t a b le w o r k i s d a m a g i n g t o a c o m p a n y ' s o r

a n ind iv idua l ' s r e pu ta t ion , o r bo th , t he de fe c t t ha t oc c u rs

du r ing c ons t ruc t ion i s u sua l ly c o r re c t e d o r c onc e a l e d

b e f o r e t o p l e v e l m a n a g e m e n t o r t h e o w n e r d i s c o v e r s

i t . T h u s , l a c k o f i n f o r m a t i o n m e a n s n o c h a n g e i n p r o -

c e du re s , a nd a l l ow s the de fe c t t o r e oc c u r du r ing the ne x t

p ro j e c t .

• N o m e c h a n i s m e x i s t s f o r p r ac t i c al i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f

s t a n d a rd s . T h i s i s n o t o n l y b e c a u s e t o o m a n y s t a n d ar d s

e x i s t , bu t a l so be c a use the re a re no e f f i c i e n t me a ns fo r

inpu t t i ng ne w in fo rma t ion a nd , t hus , ma in t a in ing

re l e va n t s t a nda rds .

• N o s y s t e m e x i s ts t o m a n a g e q u a l i ty t h r o u g h o u t t h e

d e s i g n / c o n s t r u c ti o n p r o c e s s . W h i l e a ' c o n s t r u c t io n m a n -

a g e m e n t ' b l o c k a p p e a r s i n

Figure 3

i t i s only the

e xe c u t ion o f t he c ons t ruc t ion p l a n , a nd doe s no t c on ta in

a q u a l i t y m a n a g e m e n t c o m p o n e n t .

A c c o r d i n g

t o K u b a l , 1

t he c onc e p t o f qua l i t y c on t ro l

s h o u l d b e c h a n g e d f r o m c o n t r o l l i n g q u a l i t y t o c o n t r o l -

l i ng m a n a g e m e n t f o r q u a l i t y . T h i s w o u l d r e s u l t in u s in g

a n in t e g ra t e d qua l i t y s t a nda rd , ba se d upon c u r re n t i ndus t ry -

w ide e xpe r i e nc e , t o de f ine po l i c i e s a nd o rga n iz a t ion to

ma na ge qua l i t y . Po l i c i e s a re de f ine d fo r t he qua l i t y , fo r t he

c o n t r o l o f q u a l i t y , a n d f o r m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e q u a li t y

c o n t r o l s y s t e m .

The o rga n iz a t ion c re a t e d to imp le me n t qua l i t y c on t ro l

pol ic ies mu st have w el l -def ined responsib i l i t ies and authori ty .

I n c o n s t r u c t io n , f a i l u re c a n r e s u l t f r o m m a l f u n c t i o n o n t h e

p a r t o f c o n s t ru c t o r , d e s i g n e r , o r e v e n o w n e r . I n m o s t c a s e s

h o w e v e r , i t is t h e r e s u l t o f a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c ti o n s b y

s e v e r a l o r a l l o f t h e s e p a r ti e s . T h e q u a l i t y m a n a g e m e n t

2 4 0


7/9

Total quality managem ent in construction: D Arditi and H M Gunaydin

FEEDBACK

_~ Quali ty

Standard

I Quality ]

~- Mana gement [

C o n s t r u c t io n M a n a g e m e n t

Planning Design

-~ Construct ion

Operat ion Maintenance

•

Evaluation

Evaluation ~-~

Evaluation I

I

Fig ure 3 Total quality control flow chart

o r g a n i z a t i o n m u s t , t h e r e f o r e , h a v e t h e a b i l i t y t o d e a l

e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h a l l p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d . A q u a l i ty f l o w c h a r t

Figure 3 ) d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r

a p r o p e r l y o r g a n i z e d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l p r o g r a m i n t h e c o n -

s t ruc t ion indus t ry .

• T h e q u a l i t y st a n d a r d is d e r i v e d f r o m a c u r r e n t d a t a b a s e

c r e a t e d t h r o u g h f e e d b a c k f r o m p r e v i o u s p r o j e c t s , p r o -

v i d i n g a m o r e u n i f o r m a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t a n d a r d .

• Q u a l i t y m a n a g e m e n t in th e p la n n i n g a n d d e s i g n , c o n -

s t r u c t i o n , a n d o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e p h a s e s i s

i n t e g r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a n a g e m e n t p r o j e c t

d e l i v e r y s y s t e m .

• D e f e c t s a r e i d en t i fi e d a n d c o r r e c t e d e a r l y .

• F e e d b a c k e x p a n d s t h e q u a l i t y d a t a b a s e to e l i m i n a t e

repe t i t ion o f the iden t i f i ed de fec t s .

Qual i ty o f codes and s tandards

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e A S C E m a n u a l , 2 t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f

c o d e s a n d s t a n d a r d s i s t o p r o t e c t t h e p u b l i c ' s h e a l t h a n d

s a f e t y . C o m p l i a n c e w i t h c o d e s a n d s t a n d a r d s s h o u l d b e a n

i s s u e a d d r e s s e d e a r l y i n t h e d e s i g n p h a s e . W i t h o u t e a r l y

i d e n t if i c a ti o n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o d e s a n d s t a n d a rd s , r e -

w o r k i n g p l a n s a n d s p e c i fi c a ti o n s c a n r e s u l t i n c o n s i d e r a b l e

c o s t a n d d e l a y . T h e d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l m u s t b e k n o w l -

e d g e a b l e a b o u t t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f c o d e s a n d s t a n d a r d s b e f o r e

s t a r t i n g t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s b e c a u s e t h e b u i l d i n g c o d e s

d i r e c t ly c o n t r o l th e m i n i m u m s t a nd a r d s o f m a n y c o m p o n e n t s

o f a b u i l d in g p r o j e c t , a n d a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m u c h o f t h e

f in i shed p rod uc t qua l i ty . Ku ba l 3~ c la im s tha t reg u la t ions

c o n t r o l l i n g th e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s a r e m u c h m o r e r e s t r i c -

t i v e t h a n i n m o s t m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s .

S t a s io w s k i a n d B u r s t e i n ~ u n d e r l i n e t h a t q u a l i ty d e s i g n

b e g i n s w i t h s o u n d e n g i n e e r i n g a n d s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s ,

m u s t s a t i sf y t h e c r i t e r i a o f a p p l i c a b l e c o d e s a n d s t a n d a rd s ,

b u t a l s o t h e o w n e r ' s p r o j e c t r e q u i r e m e n t s . C o d e s a n d

s t a n d a rd s r e f e r t o t h e m i n i m u m c r i t e r i a . O w n e r s , h o w e v e r ,

m a y h a v e p a r t i c u l a r r e q u i r e m e n t s . G u n a y d i n ' s s u r v e y o f

U S d e s i g n e r s a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n m a n a g e r s i n d i c at e s t h a t t h e

e f f e c t o f c o d e s a n d s t a n d a rd s o n t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e o p e r a t i o n

i s pe rce iv ed a s m in im a l . ~2

Quali ty o f drawings and speci f icat ions

D r a w i n g s a n d s p e c i fi c a ti o n s a r e t h e t w o s e ts o f d o c u m e n t s

g i v e n t o t h e c o n s t r u c t o r t h a t p r o v i d e t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n

o n m a t e r i a ls , p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e c o n s t r u c t e d f a c i li t y , a n d

q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s . D r a w i n g s a r e t h e o n l y d o c u m e n t s

g i v e n t o t h e c o n s t r u c t o r t h a t s h o w t h e d e s i g n c o n c e p t , s i z e

a n d s c o p e o f t h e j o b , n u m b e r a n d s i z e o f m a t e r i a ls o r

i t e m s , a n d h o w t h e y a r e a s s e m b l e d i n t o a f in a l p r o j e c t .

O b e r l e n d e r ~ a l s o u n d e r l i n e s t h a t t h e f i n a l p r o d u c t o f

d e s i g n w o r k i s a s e t o f c o n t r a c t d o c u m e n t s ( d r a w i n g s a n d

s p e c i f i c a t i o n s ) t o g u i d e t h e p h y s i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e

pro jec t . T he re a re o f ten incons i s tenc ie s be tween the d rawings

and spec i f i ca t ions . I Tha t i s w hy i t i s c r i t i ca l tha t d raw -

i n g s b e c l e a r , c o n c i s e , a n d u n i f o r m . 2 I n d e e d G u n a y d i n ' s

f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e d r a w i n g s a n d

s p e c i fi c a t io n s r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e d e s i g n e r a f f e c t t h e q u a l i t y

i n t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a s e s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e

qua l i ty o f the cons t ru c ted fac i l i ty . 12

Constructability o f desig n

C o n s t r u c t a b i l it y i s o n e o f t h e m a j o r f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t t h e

q u a l i t y o f d e s i g n . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e A S C E m a n u a l , 2 t h e

d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e

c o n s t r u c t o r . T h e p r o j e c t m u s t b e c o n s t r u c t i b l e b y t h o s e

r e t a i n e d t o b u i l d t h e p r o j e c t . L i k e c o d e s , c o n s t r u c t a b i l i t y

a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s v a r y i n d i f f e r e n t g e o g r a p h i c a l

a reas . Kub a l 3t ind ica te s f o r ex am p le tha t in ad d i t ion to

g e n e r a l r e v i e w s o f c o n s t r u c t a b i l it y , d e s i g n s m u s t a l s o b e

r e v i e w e d f o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h l o c a l

r e q u i r e m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g b o t h t h e i n i t i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d

p o s t c o n s t r u c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s . B o t h t h e i n i t i a l d e s i g n c o n -

s t r u c ta b i l i ty a n d t h e c o m p l e t e d o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n s h o u l d b e

r e v i e w e d i n t h e q u a l i ty c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m s i n s ti t u te d b y

t h e d e s i g n t e a m m e m b e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , d e s i g n p r o f e s s io n a l s

m u s t c l e a r l y a n d a d e q u a t e l y c o m m u n i c a t e t h e d e s i g n i n t en t

t o t h e c o n s t r u c t o r . T h i s i s d o n e i n i t i a l l y w i t h t h e c o n t r a c t

d o c u m e n t s , b o t h p l a n s a n d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . Q u a l i t y d e s i g n

e x t e n d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a s e o f t h e p r o j e c t . 2

Ob er len de r 11 ind ica te s tha t t rad i t iona l ly , eng in ee r ing

a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e d e a r l y i n t h e p r o j e c t .

T h e a d o p t i o n o f n e w t e c h n o l o g y s u c h a s t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l

c o m p u t e r - a i d e d d r a f t i n g a n d d e s i g n , r o b o t i c s , a n d a u t o -

m a t i o n i n c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s g e n e r a t e d i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n

t h e c o n s t r u c t a b i l it y o f t h e p r o j e c t . W i t h t h e s e n e w i n n o v a -

t i o n s , d e s i g n s c a n b e c o n f i g u r e d t o e n a b l e e f f i c i e n t c o n -

s t r u c t i o n , w h i c h p l a c e s m o r e e m p h a s i s o n m e r g i n g

e n g i n e e r i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o i n c l u d e c o n s t r u c t a b i l i t y ' s

inpu t in the des ign e f fo r t . The des i red re su l t i s to fac i l i t a t e

t h e e x c h a n g e o f i d e a s b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d d e s i g n

b e f o r e a n d d u r i n g d e s i g n , r a t h e r t h a n a f t e r d e s i g n .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e A S C E m a n u a l , 2 t h e p r o j e c t d e s i g n

t e a m s h o u l d i n c l u d e e n g i n e e r s w i t h f i e ld e x p e r i e n c e . M a n y

o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e t h e s e e n g i n e e r s o n s t a f f . H o w e v e r , i t

m a y b e n e c e s s a r y i n s o m e c a s e s t o r e t a i n e n g i n e e r s w i t h

t h e n e c e s s a r y e x p e r t i s e , o r f o r m a j o i n t v e n t u r e w i t h a n

a p p r o p r i a t e c o n c e r n .

I S O s t a n d a r d s

T h e G e n e v a - b a s e d I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r S t a n -

da rd iz a t ion f i r s t pub l i shed a s e r i e s o f s t anda rd s in 1987 . 32

241


8/9

T o t a l q u a l i t y m a n a g e m e n t i n c o n s t r u c t io n : D A r d i t i a n d H M G u n a y d i n

The term ISO describes the series o f international standards

dealing with product design, production, delivery, service

and testing. The ISO 9000 series comprises two basic types

of standard: those addressing quality assurance and those

addressing quality management. The quality assurance

standards are designed for contractual and assessment

purposes and are ISO 9001, ISO 9002, and ISO 9003. The

quality management standard is ISO 9004 and is designed

to provide guidance for companies developing and

implementing quality systems, t7 A company registered as

complying with ISO standards has demonstrated to an

accredited third party (an approved outside auditor) that its

processes have been documented and that the company is

systematically auditing and being audited that they are

following the policies and proce dures necessary to produce

high quality products.

ISO standards are directed towards improving a fir m s

production processes. A TQM system is the big picture and

is concerned with customer satisfaction and all activities

conducted by a firm. A good way o f viewing ISO is that the

emphasis in the ISO registration is on the management of

process quality. This is not meant to minimize the role of

ISO in a TQM system. The ISO standards provide an excel-

lent beginning point for a firm starting a TQM program.

on c l u s i o n s

There is great potential for quality improvement in the con-

struction industry. In today s competitive world, the term

quali ty and its concepts are vital for the construction

industry. There is not much time nor resources to waste.

Reworks and delays are not acceptable. As in the manufac-

turing industries, the construction industry should focus on

process quality. It is clear that TQM and its principles do

apply to the construction industry. TQM philosophy of

teamwork and co-operation not confrontation and conflict,

is long overdue for the construction industry.

This study indicates that future strategies and potential

developments should based on the following findings. Project

managers and company administrators should consider the

following points in developing their quality systems.

• Management commitment to quality and to continuous

quality improvement is very important in each phase of

the building process. Management must participate in

the implementation process and be fully committed to it

if TQM is to succeed.

• Construction industry professionals are aware of the

importance of quality training. Engineering, architecture

and construction management students who eventually

become the industry s future leaders must be instructed

in the basics of quality management. Education and

training in TQM theory and practice at all levels (man-

agement as well as operative levels) and in all phases

(design, construction, and operation phases) are essential

to enhance competitiveness.

• Teamwo rk is necessary to allow each person to get the

assistance required to be successful individually, and

collectively as a team. The whole construction industry

is project oriented; so improved quality performance

must be project-related and must include the whole

project team. Manufacturer, subcontractors, main con-

tractor, vendors, professional designers, project managers

and above all, the owner must be involved in the pro-

cess. Partnering arrangements between these parties will

enhance total quality.

• Statistical methods are essential prob lem solving tools

and are very important in monitoring quality in manu-

facturing industries. But they are not perceived as very

useful by construction professionals; yet, there appears

to be potential for a feedback system in the construction

process. As the project is being completed, feedback

loops originating at the end o f each phase could be used

to upgrade the original quality standards adopted at the

beginning of the project.

• Taking measures to achieve high quality cost money.

This cost should not be considered an expense but an

investment. Construction organizations that achieve repu-

tation for high quality can maximize their competitive-

ness and increase their business opportunities.

• The construction project should be considered as a

process where all customers must be satisfied. These

customers include internal customers (employees, units,

departments within an organization) and external

customers (owner, designer, contractor, etc.).

• The requirements of the owner must be clearly defined at

the beginning of the project and be agreed to by both the

owner and design finn. The more time and effort are spent

at the beginning in defining requirements, the more

smoothly the project will progress. Objective setting is

important because it provides a focus for scope definition,

guides the design process, controls the construction

process, and influences the motivation of the project team.

• Drawings and specifications received from the designer

affect the quality of the construction. Drawings are the

only documents given to the constructor that show the

design concept, size and scope of the job. It is critical

that drawings and specifications be clear, concise, and

uniform. The project must be constructible by those

retained to build the project. Design professionals must

be familiar with construction materials and techniques

that constructors will be using in the project.

Re f e r e n c e s

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J o u rn a l o f Ma n a g e m e n t i n En g i n e e r in g ,

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New York, 1989.

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Summ ary R eport o f the Construct ion Industry Cost Ef fec t iveness

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Construction. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993.

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Dr David Arditi is Professor of Civil

and Architectural Engineering at

Illinois Institute of Technology. He is

the founder and coordinator of the

Construction Engineering and Man-

agement Program. He is currently

the Chairman of the Department of

Civil and Architectural Engineering.

Dr Arditi has received his PhD degree

from Loughborough Universit y of

Technology in the UK. His area of

expertise covers aspects of construc-

tion management, engineering and

support such as using neural net-

works to predict the outcome of

litigation, scheduling for repetitive construction, incentive/disincentive

contract provisions, to name but a few. Dr Ardz ti is an active member

of several professional societies including ASCE, AACE, PMI, IABSE,

IPMA and CMAA.

H. Murat Gunaydin is a graduate

research assistant and PhD candi-

date at the department of Civil and

Architectural Engineering at Illinois

Institute of Technology. He received

his MSc degree from the same

department and BSc in Architecture

from Yildiz Technical University in

Istanbul, Turkey. He designed some

projects as an architect in Istanbul,

Turkey.

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Documents

factors affecting the quality like drawings,specifications.pdf