f, THE RoGER ToRY PETERSON INSTITUTE Y

Natural History Adas to the Chautauqua-Allegheny Region

A Community Resource to Promote Appreciation and Understanding of Our Natural Treasures

Principal author: Mark Baldwin Contributing writers: Jim Berry, Mike Lyons, and Solon Morse Illustrations: Mark Baldwin, Judith Swanson, and Solon Morse Maps: Ryan Butryn, Solon Morse, and Kevin Parkman

Copyright © 2001 by the Roger Tory Peterson Institute of Natural History

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means without prior writ­

ten permission of the publisher.

Edited by Mark Baldwin, Janice S. Johnson, and Solon Morse.

Book design by Solon Morse.

Cover design by Bergstue & Associates.

Cover artwork by Lee Steadman.

Back cover photographs by Mark Baldwin, David Hecei,

Barbara Kubiak, Andrea Magnuson, and Patricia Spicer.

Printed in the United States of America

by Falconer Printing & Design, Falconer, NY.

ISBN 0-9711189-1-4

Roger Tory Peterson Institute of Natural History 311 Curtis Street Jamestown, New York 14701-9620 800-758-6841 www.rrpi.org

This book is ded icated ro rhe memory of Roger Tory Peterson

( 1908- 1996), world-renowned reacher/naruralisr, orn ithologist, wildlife

arrisr and narure phorographer. He was born in Jamesrown, New York,

and spenr his formative years immersed in the naru ral history of rhe

places rhar rh is book is all abour. His pass ion for rhe narural worl d, estab­

lished in these woods and fields , resulted in a liferime showing orhers

how to love and understand it.

Peterson's h eld Guide to tbe Birds, firsr published in 1934, is one of rhe

mosr popu lar and inAuenrial books of our rime. lr created a narion of

birdwatchers and propelled rhe modern movemenr ro conserve ou r

nation's natural resources. lr is our hope rhar his infl uence will continue

through the work of rhe Roger Tory Peterson lnsrirure and rhrough proj­

ects like rhis one.

Contents

Introduction ............................................ I

Natural History of the Chautauqua-Allegheny Region

Atmosphere ............................................ II

Hydrosphere ........................................... 21

Lithosphere ........................................... 29

Biosphere ............................................. 39

Natural Sites in the Chautauqua-Allegheny Region

Lake Erie Plain ........................................ 49 Barcelona Harbor ..................................... 50

Canadaway Creek Preserve .............................. 52 Dunkirk Harbor ..................................... 54 Lake Erie State Park ................................... 56 Point Gratiot Park .................................... 58

Portage Escarpment ..................................... 61 Canadaway Creek WMA ............................... 62 Chautauqua Management Unit .......................... 64 College Lodge ....................................... 67 Hillside Acres Preserve ................................. 70 Howard Eaton Reservoir ............................... 72

Luensman Overview County Park ........................ 74

Conewango Creek Watershed ............................. 77 Akeley Swamp ....................................... 78 Erlandson Overview County Park ........................ 81 Hatch Run Conservation Demonstration Area ............... 83

Jamestown School Forest ............................... 85 Jamestown Audubon Nature Center ...................... 87 Rushing Stream Preserve ............................... 90

Cassadaga Creek Watershed ............................... 93 Bear Lake ........................................... 94 Boutwell Hill State Forests .............................. 97 Cassadaga Creek Preserve .............................. 100

Cassadaga Lakes and Leolyn Woods ...................... 103 Clay Pond/Hanson Swamp WMAs ...................... 105

Harris Hill Management Unit .......................... 108

Stockton State Forest I Kabob WMA ..................... 110

Chautauqua Lake Watershed .............................. 113

Bentley Sanctuary .................................... 114 Chautauqua Institution ................................ 117 Chautauqua Lake Outlet Wetland Preserve ................ 120

Cheney Road Marsh .................................. 122

Dobbins Woods Preserve .............................. 124 Elm Flats Werland Preserve ............................ 126 Long Point Stare Park ................................. 128 Norrh Harmony Managemenr Unit ...................... 130 Prendergast Creek Wedand Preserve ...................... 133

French Creek Watershed ................................. 13 5 Findley Lake Narure Cenrer ............................ 136 French Creek Preserve ................................. 138 Lowville Wedands Narural Area ......................... 140 Wansburg Fens Narural Area ........................... 142

Brokenstraw Creek Watershed ............................ 145 Tamarack Swamp .................................... 146 Watts Flats WMA and Hill Higher State Forest ............. 148

Chadakoin River Watershed .............................. 151 Allen Park .......................................... 152 Falconer Millrace Counry Park .......................... 154 Jamesrown Community College Preserve .................. 156 Lake View Cemetery .................................. 159 Roger Tory Peterson lnsrirure of Narural Hisrory ............ 161

Upper Allegheny River Watershed ......................... 165 Allegany Stare Park ................................... 166 Allegheny Reservoir .................................. 173 Allenberg Bog ....................................... 177 Deerfield Narure Cenrer ............................... 181 Jake's Rocks Overlook ................................. 183 Pfeiffer Nature Cenrer ................................ 186 Rimrock Overlook ................................... 189 Rock Ciry Srare Forest ................................ 192 James A. Zaepfel Narure Sancruary and Research Cenrer ...... 195

Middle Allegheny River Watershed ........................ 199 Anders Run Narural Area ............................. 200 Buckaloons Recreation Area ............................ 202 Chapman Stare Park .................................. 205 Cook Forest Stare Park ................................ 208 Hearts Conrenr Scenic Area ............................ 211

H .J. Crawford Reserve ................................ 213 Oil Creek Stare Park .................................. 216 Tionesta Scenic Area .................................. 219 Washingron Park I Poinr Park .......................... 222

Trails and Waterways of the Chautauqua-Allegheny Region ..... 225

Appendices

Regional Environmental Education Organizations ............. 233

References ............................................ 237

Species List ........................................... 239

Forew-ord

D ecently I had the privilege of visiting the Roger Tory Peterson Institute of

.1"-Natural History in Jamestown, a 27 -acre natural jewel a short walk from

where the esteemed ornithologist himself was born and raised. That day I was

pleased to announce the allocation of $3 million in State funds to help advance

the Institute's environmental education mission. And now, with the publica­

tion of this Natural History Atlas to the Chautauqua-Allegheny Region, I am even

more proud of the good work the Institute is doing and am fully confident that

our investment was money well spent.

During my tenure as Governor, I have visited many fascinating natural areas

in the Southern Tier and met a broad spectrum of groups who share my strong

commitment to environmental stewardship and enthusiasm for open space

protection. Thanks to the Atlas, residents and tourists alike will have a height­

ened awareness and appreciation for the rich natural heritage of this eco-region

that encompasses southwestern New York and northwestern Pennsylvania.

The Atlas features descriptions of dozens of publicly accessible sites, from the

incomparable Allegany State Park to less familiar areas such as Bentley

Sanctuary and the Hundred Acre Lot-places where a young Roger Tory

Peterson explored and where America's modern fascination with birds was

born. Commensurate with the Institute's environmental education mission,

the Atlas intends to encourage use, enjoyment and advocacy of these public

treasures, particularly among school and youth groups. The wide variety of

opportunities that this special region affords invites discovery but, more impor­

tantly, conveys a profound pride of place. It also reminds us of our fundamen­

tal obligation to do all we can to ensure the future of these exceptional open

space resources while promoting their considerable public access values.

Written in partnership with regional land conservancies, environmental edu­

cation organizations, colleges, and state and local governmental entities, the

Atlas is a model of cooperative scholarship which will undoubtedly be export­

ed to the many other magnificent "eco-regions" of our great state and country.

The remarkable grass roots effort which this atlas represents will not only

advance environmental education and advocacy but also contribute to com­

munity spirit, promote interest in the region and enhance the quality of life for

all who accept its invitation.

GEORGE E. PATAKI

Governor, Stare of New York

Acknowledgements

T he idea for this book grew out of a vision for place-based education made

possible by a grant from the Rural School and Community Trust. Work

supported by this grant has included professional development programs and

workshops for teachers, school and community-based habitat enhancement

programs, a special places map contest for students, a lesson plan book for

teachers, a photography exhibition featuring some of the photographs in this

book, conferences, and other activities to teach people to value this special part

of the world. Matching funders who have also made this work possible are the

Chautauqua Region Community Foundation, the Gebbie Foundation, the

Johnson Foundation, Norcross Wildlife Foundation, and the Sheldon

Foundation.

We wish to thank the dedicated educators, conservationists and scientists

who supported our efforts during the exciting and fascinating process oflearn­

ing about our natural treasures. These people include: Dan Anderson, Tim

Baird, Allen Benton, Bill Boria, Kent Bright, AI Brown, Grace Christy, Jean

Cunningham, Pam Dominsky, Steve Eaton, Thomas Erlandson, Jim Fincher,

Hal Francis, Sylvia Grisez, Ted Grisez, Wayne Grossman, Jack Gulvin, Dave

Gustafson, Glenn Hall, Bill Harris, Charlie Hodges, John Jablonski, Gene

Jankowski, Les Johnson, Bruce Kershner, Andy Kibler, Christine Kinn, Tom

LeBlanc, Lynn LeFeber, Rick LeFeber, Bruce Limberg, Ruth Lundin, Rick

Mader, Mike Myers, Becky Nystrom, Paul Puglia, Scott Reitz, Libby Rothra,

Jennifer Schlick, Bill Sevon, Chad Skudlarek, Steve Smith, Paul Steward,

Richard Stineman, Sam Stull, Bob Sundell, Glenn Wahl, Don Wary, Rick

White, Tracy Wilkin, Dave Wilson, Dennis Wilson, and Mike Wilson. Special

thanks to Dick Miga, Terry Mosher, and Jeff Reed for their generous sharing

of bird records and sightings at many of the sites.

Maps showing how to get to points of interest are an essential part of the

book. Mike Darr and John Gifford of Forecon, Inc., and also Dwight Landis,

were extremely helpful in our effort to create the best maps possible. Thanks to

AAA of Jamestown for providing us with regional maps.

Photographing the sites was a big undertaking that depended on the help of

community volunteers in addition to the staff of the Roger Tory Peterson

Institute. Some of them were photography students and their teachers, who

participated in a workshop to introduce them to this project conducted by

noted nature photographer Rick Zuegel. Our special thanks go to community

members who contributed photographs: Victor Anderson, Allen Benton, Kristi

Burch, Andrew Caruso, Anthony Cook, Paula Cooley, Dave Cooney, Kelley

Downey, David Hecei, Gary Jensen, Jr., Mark Kirsch, Barbara Kubiak, Nick

Mattiuzzo, Steve Paulson, Linda Pelc, Emily Porter, Patricia Spicer, and Bruce

Widen. Some of the photos were chosen to travel throughout our region in a

special exhibition. The people who selected those photos were Dan Anderson,

Matt Handley, Becky Nystrom, Andy Kibler, Butch Poole, and Carole

Sellstrom.

This book was created and published by the staff of the Roger Tory Peterson

Institute. They are Mark Baldwin, Jim Berry, Becky Butryn, Dea Denison,

Linda Eddy, Shandy Gardner, Jan Johnson, Mike Lyons, Andrea Magnuson,

Miley Miller, Solon Morse, Marlene Mudge, Carolyn Pasquale, Mary

Richardson, Anne Schettine, and interns Ryan Burryn and Kevin Parkman.

They were assisted by proofreaders Ardy Baldwin, Kathleen Crocker, and

Carol Nelson. Special thanks also to the Trustees of the Institute whose sup­

port and guidance are crucial to the advancement of our mission.

Introduction

T he purpose of this book is to familiarize you with the Chautauqua­

Allegheny Region, a land endowed with an abundance of remarkable­

and reachable-natural features. My home is in Jamestown, the urban center

of the region, but in just ten minutes I can have a canoe in the water to see

Beavers at work on a summer evening or walk to an old field in early spring to

see the ritual of American Woodcocks performing their display flights. A half­

hour drive can bring me and my family to an active Bald Eagle nest.

Individuals and organizations, from government agencies to grassroots citi­

zens' groups, are doing good work to preserve and enhance the natural and sce­

nic character of our home ground. This is coming at a time that compliments

the natural return of the Northern Hardwood Forest and the living things that

depend on it. River Otters and Fishers, fur-bearing predators that had been

formerly extirpated from our region, have been released successfully into our

watersheds and forests. Bald Eagles, Ospreys, and Common Ravens are

increasingly common sights. A program is underway to reintroduce the

Paddlefish to the waters of the Upper Allegheny River. Signs like these offer

hope that in this region people and nature can coexist.

This book points out some of the essential facts about the natural history of

this region and highlights places that exemplify these facts. It was a challeng­

ing and interesting process to identify these sites. We consulted extensively with

area naturalists, natural resource professionals, teachers, and others who know

about and use these places to teach others about natural history. Some places

were obvious choices while others needed more careful consideration. Some

areas we omitted because their owners or stewards deemed them too ecologi­

cally sensitive to publicize. Others, we discovered, allow entry only to residents

of a particular town or locality. Still others would have required more substan­

tial access, stable ownership, or some other factor that we felt was lacking.

Also, the conservation and land protection scene is constantly changing.

One site we had hoped would be purchased by a local land trust by the time

this book went to print, but such was not the case. Another property is under

negotiation to become a nature preserve as this is being written, but it is still

too early to publicize. No matter what, the reader who is familiar with the nat­

ural places of this region will probably say, "Why didn't they include such-and­

such?" That is just the kind of discussion we hope this book will generate.

The reader will also note that the book deals mainly with non-consumptive

ways to experience natural history, such as birding, botanizing (study and

enjoyment of ferns, wildflowers, and other plants), and interpreting the land­

scape through journal keeping, photography or videography. But there is no

information specifically for the sportsman, for instance, identifying the good

2

fishing spots in our lakes and streams. Our purpose, rather, is to promote the

joy of learning about the natural world, regardless of what gets you out there

in the first place. For instance, I have heard spring Wild Turkey hunters remark

that, although they did not kill a turkey, they certainly enjoyed the warblers

and other birds they saw in the woods.

The Europeans who first arrived here more than 300 years ago encountered

a land that had been inhabited for thousands of years. Native American culture

has always involved intimate contact with the natural world. Archaeology and

the cultural history of indigenous people are often included in the realm of nat­

ural history study. Certainly the history of the Erie Indians and the

Haudenosaunee, or the Seneca Nation of the Iroquois Confederacy, would

apply in this case. We acknowledge that fact, but the inclusion of the history and

geography of Native Americans in this region is outside the scope of this book.

You may already notice our choice to capitalize the common names of

species mentioned in this book. This is to emphasize a species name is actual­

ly being used. For instance, you may see reference to the generic terms "oak"

and "chickadee,'' and the specific terms "Northern Red Oak" and "Carolina

Chickadee." You will find a list of species mentioned in this book in the appen­

dices. Our purpose here is to point out that some life-forms have very specif­

ic habitat requirements that are hard to come by, either in this particular region

or elsewhere. Such species and places need special care to protect them.

Safety in the Field Most of the places featured in this book have trails, boardwalks, bicycle paths

and roads to make traveling through them safe and easy. A good rule of thumb

is to stay on trails wherever they are provided in order to prevent needless ero­

sion and damage to plants. However, some sites do not have established trails

so a few words of advice are necessary for off-trail travel.

First, know your route. Equip yourself with a good map and compass (ref­

erence for the correct USGS Quadrangle Map is given for each site) and know

how to use them. It is preferable to travel with a companion. If you are alone,

tell someone where you are going and when you expect to return.

Some places, notably the gorges and rock cities, have terrain that is steep and

slippery, which, of course, should be avoided or traversed with caution. Some

have sharp drop-offs that should be approached only by people who are sure­

footed and have no fear of heights. Be aware that when traveling below cliffs

rock ledges above could give way.

Off-trail travel in this region often entails crossing wetlands and streams. Never

attempt to cross a creek when water levels are high, especially during spring

runoff. Be careful crossing streams in summer, as bedrock and cobble creek bot­

toms can be very slippery. Swamps where trees are growing, shrub swamps and

bogs are generally passable, but use caution. Marshes are often impassable.

Poison Ivy is the main hazard to avoid when traveling through wooded areas.

It is a very common plant and is easily recognizable and avoidable in all sea-

sons. It usually grows as a creeping groundcover or climbing vine and has com­

pound leaves bearing three leaflets. The leaflets are sometimes glossy and have

smooth or coarsely notched edges. When leaves are not present it can be dis­

tinguished by the numerous threadlike "aerial rootlets" on its climbing stems.

In order to be infected with Poison Ivy, part of the plant must be broken or

crushed and the sap released. If you know you have contacted the virulent sap,

infection may be avoided or reduced by washing the area with soap and water.

Wearing long pants and socks is a good idea when traveling through country

where Poison Ivy is prevalent.

Poison Sumac is a close relative of Poison Ivy, but irs habitat is restricted to

open, swampy areas. Poison Oak does not grow anywhere in this region.

Probably the most potentially dangerous animals that back country travel­

ers may encounter in this region are Yellowjackets and Bald-faced Hornets.

Yellowjackets build their nests underground, and will usually not attack unless

their nest is stepped on. Bald-faced Hornets construct large jug-shaped wood

pulp (paper} nests on tree branches. Again, attack is unlikely unless their nest

is disturbed. If you know you are allergic to wasp and hornet venom be sure

to carry anti-allergenic medicine with you into the field.

Lyme disease and other infections caused by ticks have become important

health hazards to consider when traversing woods and fields in many areas of

the country. Ticks wait on brush, up to three feet above the ground, and hitch

a ride on a passing animal. When traveling in country where ticks are a prob­

lem, avoid unnecessary contact with brush by walking on the middle of a path.

Wear light colored clothing with long sleeves, long pants tucked into socks and

a safe but effective rick repellent. Visually inspect yourself for ricks at least every

3-4 hours. Tick bites are cause for concern. If you develop a rash at the site of

the bite that develops into a bull's-eye pattern (erythema migrans), consult a

doctor immediately.

Insects such as black flies and mosquitoes are thought of more as a nuisance

than a danger although concerns about mosquito-borne diseases are real and

legitimate, particularly in areas that are heavily infested. A good insect repel­

lent is sometimes an important part of the naturalist's "kir."

Deer and Wild Turkey hunting seasons are times to use extra caution in the

many public-access areas where hunting is allowed. Of course, the great major­

ity of hunters are careful and responsible, but accidents can happen. If you

travel in the woods at this time of year make yourself plainly visible by wear­

ing a cap, vest, or other blaze orange colored clothing.

Other Suggestions For Your Visit Whenever you enter any of the places listed in this book, respect the rights of

the landowners and stewards of those places. Some of the landowners request

that visitors contact them first or arrange a guided visit to the property. Please

honor that request. A few additional commonsense rules: Carry our all refuse

or garbage. Do not pick flowers or remove plants. Do not disturb nests or

INTRODUCTION 3

In gesture dmwing you II)' to record whnr the subjeCt is doing. wildlife. Do nor build fires except in designated areas.

Finally, make a difference: Many of the places fearured in this book arc ow1

cared fo r by small gr:tssroors organ izarions that would appreciate your feedb;

involvement. Please let them know how much you appreciate the rime and e1

rakes for the conservation and stewardship of th ese places you are allowed ro vi

find our how you can help!

Your Personal Field Journal: Key to Learning in the Outdoors

For many people, ro simply be outdoors and breathe fresh ai r, to feel rhe cool '

a brook on one's feet, and ro rake in rhe scenery is enjoymcnr enough. For orh

key ro enjoymenr of the outdoors is gcrring exercise by jogging, cross-counrry

paddling or sailing in beautiful surroundings. Still others go outside ro garber

edible mushrooms, or spring greens; or ro hunr, trap, or fish. All of these are gre

ro experience rhc natural world of the Chautauqua-Allegheny region.

Often, for me, the key ro enjoying the outdoors is ro learn from observing so1

ural object or event. Sometimes rhe observation and simple memory of ir is sui

But usually, 1 must record it ro make it meaningful. The camera and video can

good rools for doing th is, but the method 1 use most often is ro keep a log or jot

what 1 experience.

Some folks might be scared off by rhis method, thinking it rakes some specia

or artistry ro record with words and picrures what one sees. Do nor worry beca

goal here is simply robe still , ro focus your attention outside of yourself, and ro I

record what you see, nor ro make a beautiful picture or poetic verse.

The act of purring pencil ro p:tper in the outdoors forms a tangible, memoral

to what is being observed. Drawing is unique in irs abiliry ro develop the po

observation. You see more accurately through rhe acr of drawing. And, in cas<

thinking at rhis poi nr, "Forger ir. I can't draw a srraight line," that's OK,

for two reasons. First, there are almost no srraighr lines in nature. Second ,

the abili ty ro draw is surprisingly easy ro recover through traditional exer­

cises such as gesture drawing, conrour drawing, and drawing from mem­

ory. The process, nor the product, is emphasized in field sketching. The

point is nor ro make pretty pictu res. The point is to see more accurately

and try ro understand nature's complex ity, beauty, rhythms and patterns.

Getting Started What better rime ro start keeping your own fi eld journ al than right now?

Maybe you have a small , spiral-bound notebook on hand. Start wirh rhar.

Keep it simple. All you need is a blank book.

Lined or un lined paper? I prefer unlined paper because ir promotes

visual thinking and provides rhe option ro mix sketches with wri ting and

ro record with the book held sideways. \'(/hat ro wri te wi th? Your pencil

or pen should be comfortable and reliable. A mechanical pencil has the

advantage of nor having ro be sharpened. Experiment with the many

ballpoint and fine-ri pped pens available. A selection of colored pencils, a

kneadable eraser and a pencil sharpener round our rhe essen rial kir.

Other tools I have decided I need include a I 0-powcr folding hand lens

connected by a snap swivel ro a cord so I can wear ir around my neck, and

an empty slide frame to help compose a scene such as a landscape to

sketch. I also like ro wear flngerless gloves to make ir more comfortable

to record in cold weather.

Now, pencil and journal in hand , srep our inro the fresh air and rake

a deep breath. Jor roday's dare somewhere on rhe page, your loca tion , and

a nore about rhe weather: Whar is rhe approximate temperature? Is rherc

a breeze? Are there clouds?

Find a natural objecr rhar looks interesting: a leaf, pine co ne, or flower,

and pi ck it up. Place rhe point of your pencil on a journal page and focus

your arrcnrion on one point on rhe surface of rhe object. Pretend rhar

your pencil point is actually rouching rhe place yo u arc looking at. Once

you arc convinced of this, lcr your eye begin ro wander over rhc surface

of the object while your pencil poinr wanders in rhe same way across the

surface of the page. Try nor ro look ar rhe page ar all as you draw. Draw

slowly as your eye explores all rhe ins and ours and rry ro keep your pen­

cil in contact wirh rhe paper rhe entire rime. Be paricnr and do nor think

you need ro "finish" the drawing. When yo u have decided yo u are

through (or can no longer resist the remprarion ro peck!) look ar your

paper. T he resul ts will probably startle and amuse you. Good! This

process should be playful and fun . Take several moments ro nore dera ils

of form , angles and rexrures you have drawn and compare rhem ro rhe

real object. Ask yourself if you know more about rhe obj ect or if you have

a question about it as a result of drawing it this way. If your answer is yes

Contour dmwings of n pine cone: pure COI/lOIII; nbove, modified COl/lOur below.

I N T I( 0 D U C T I 0 N

I u.... .;_, 7 j .:> l

/. 't'"'d.{,_ tu..'~ av.., l'f'd~oJ' .#,

f-1< •1 IJ • .-. 1·~4-.ll..('i.J j~'t· ..:~:,-J.-..

.n...i/., ,

... ~:c.. !~!/..~ /:., .. 1~~ ~·~CitA. ,,.u,.-l\#<.1'·)( • .., • ..-.t.t\

.J'~P" ..G.a..t._ • ~1'1.': ~HV

/.hi- fi'-'j l.f. (',t..f "-{ ,6vA., (_ &Gtck.fr.<ll._.·..._ v..J4

·'"'"" ;,:.1 .. 1 .~~l .;t..... ca•y"' f<. .

Some obserllfllions are best recorded with pictures, others with wrinen notes.

6

w either question, you are thinking as a naturalist, and are on the natu­

ralist's path to deeper awareness and appreciation of the natural world.

Once you are confident about using this p rocess called "pure contour

sketching," begin w use it in a modified way to sketch objects and land­

scapes in to your journal. This technique, known as "modified contour

sketching," means spending most o f your rime looking at the object as

you draw, rather than your paper. For exa mple, spend 75% of your

sketching rime looking ar rhe mussel shell you are sketching and the orher

25% occasionally orienring yourself on rhe page, checking proportions,

and so on. The im portant thing is to practice seeing the object you are

sketching, so that your result is a represenrarion of what the object real ly

is, rather rhan your preconceptions abour it.

Practice sketching in this way and con1bine your visual impressions

with written notes about what you are seeing, hearing, smell ing, and

touching in the fi eld. Soo n you wi ll find your nature observation skills

im provi ng, your curiosity sharpened , and your enjoyment of all your rime

spent afi eld enhanced.

To record the characteristics of a n unfami liar plant, you m ight m ake

a quick line sketch combin ed wirh wri tten notes about size, colo r, and

habitat. When viewing a landscape, perhaps the best way ro interpret and

remember the scene is w make a careful study d rawing that ral<es half an

hou r o r more. You may find yourself witnessing a narural event rhar lends

itself to purely a word description. lr's up w yo u. The important thing is

w see as you record.

Keeping a field journal means purring up with groping pencil lines,

words, and measurements in an attempt w get at the truth about the nat­

ura l laws and systems at work all around us. It is educational in the broad­

est sense, and it is truly a d iscipline. O bserving, sketching, writing, meas­

uring, reading, identi fYing, analyzing, and researching flow wgerher as a

journal develops into a seamless progression of real-li fe learning experi ­

ences. r~or me ir is central to being a li fe-long learner.

The quest ions, observations, solutions and answers that fi ll my field

journal have enriched my li fe enormously. l feel a con nection ro the

C hautauqua watershed wirh irs glacier-scoured hills and fossil-laden

bed rock, irs fo rests of beech and hemlock, irs Beaver and Bald Eagle and

Blue Jay. This connection makes me feel that I inhabit this p lace as

opposed to merely residing in Chautauqua Cou nty or New York Stare.

You, roo, can make rhar co nnectio n when you keep a journal of your

own.

Using All Your Senses Listen-Focus your atten tion on what you're hearing by making a sound

map:

tJI,Pw.{ /Ptllh 4:..

/Ld'uC({A - A~

Hw;~as..­~.(/

\

I. Draw a ci rei e.

~ ~ 11 /)<U4~~ ~ .,;t'...c. /~% ~ ~- ~.,.,. ~ ~ 1(~/t.c~ . ~h ,v-;c~ ~-.....e.~

~ ,tt:. ~y

2. Place an X in the cem er to ind icate you r position, then sta rt to

listen carefully.

3 . Each rime you become aware of a sound , note irs direction , vol­ume and apparen t dista nce away, and represen t it graphically in some way.

4 . After listen in g and record ing for about I 0 m inutes, review what you have heard and su mma rize it in writ ing .

T hi nk of the way a car or a rabbi t ro tates irs o urer ears in response to a sou nd.

Enhance your own ears' abi lity to catch sound waves by cupping your hands

beh ind them, and bending your outer cars fo rward with rhumb and forefinger.

Listen for a w hile like this, and note how your perception of sound changes.

Sm ell- Smell your surroundings. Take a bir of forest duff or a few bruised

evergreen need les and cup them in your hands. Breathe in rhe scents. Of what

do they rem ind you? How would you describe them? Reco rd the range of odors

rhar yo u experience ro rhe limits of your perception, bo th the strong and the

sub tle. I magine how rhe landscape must appear roan an im al w ith a hypersen­

si rive nose, such as a fox or bear!

Taste- T he outdoo rs is also filled w ith rasrcs. W ild grapes and apples,

Wi ntergreen berries and leaves, and rhc rwigs o f Yellow Birch a rc just a few of

rhe edible and f1avorfu l things you can find in rhe woods. Use knowledge and

caut ion here-never pur something in your mouth you can not posit ively iden­

tifY. Some things such as raw wild mushrooms sho uld never be eaten. H owever,

judiciously tasting your surrou ndings g ives you another way to perceive and

more fully experience them . Describe anythi ng you taste in your journal.

See- Use you r eyes actively as you visually explo re yo ur surroundings. The

I NT R O D UC TI ON 7

most effective way to do this is to draw in your journal as you see,

using a contour sketching technique. Even if you do not have a

journal with you, look around you as if you were sketching.

Try to view your surroundings as if you were looking through a

wide-angle lens. This involves expanding your attention to include

your entire field of vision, as opposed to normal vision, in which

you pay attention to only a small part of it. In this way, you notice

motion in the landscape more readily and can better understand

how everything fits together.

In contrast, deliberately narrow your field of vision so that your

attention is drawn exclusively to the object at hand. Scan the land­

scape through the ring formed by thumb and forefinger in front of

one eye or look through an empty slide frame, and watch derails

pop into view that eluded you before.

Binoculars are usually thought of as the essential optical device

of the naturalist. They are extremely useful, bur before buying,

carefully consider their purpose and then buy the very best you can

afford. On the other hand a perfectly good Ioupe, or hand lens, can

be had quite reasonably ($10-$20) and opens up a whole new

world. It is always surprising what a difference 5 X or I 0 X magni­

fication makes when viewing seemingly commonplace objects. As

Rachel Carson pur it in The Sense ofWonder, "A lens-aided view

into a patch of moss reveals a dense tropical jungle, in which insects

large as tigers prowl amid strangely formed, luxuriant trees." If

you're suddenly drawn to the brilliant green of a clump of moss

growing at the base of a tree, flop down and really study it. If you

hesitate because of your clothing, remember as you prepare for your

next outing that you will probably never discover anything new

about moss by looking down at it from five feet up! Once you've

tried loupe-looking you'll always want to have one with you.

Touch-Note textures in your journal. Choose several parts of the

landscape to touch using knowledge and caution. Know poison ivy

and stinging nettles before you start handling things.

I hope that with the aid of this book you will find the world of

nature nearby as compelling and satisfying as my family and I have.

Keep your journal close at hand and let nature be your teacher too,

here in the beautiful Chautauqua-Allegheny region.

MARK BALDWIN

8

A sound map gives you a way to record what you are hearing.

Natural History of the Chautauqua-Allegheny Region

T he chapters that follow focus on four broad categories of natural history:

the atmosphere (the skies, weather, and climate); the hydrosphere (the

water at the surface and underground); the lithosphere (the rocks and soil that

make up the landscape); and the biosphere (the living things).

We spend every moment of our lives immersed in these spheres. Think about

your body, for instance. You carry part of the atmosphere within it. Every liv­

ing cell needs the oxygen found in air to release the energy in food which all

comes from the biosphere. Your exhaled breath contains an "exhaust" of car­

bon dioxide and water vapor which are added to the atmosphere. The hydros­

phere? Your brain is composed of 85o/o pure water, your body 70o/o water over­

all. You borrow from the lithosphere the calcium, phosphorus, potassium, iron,

zinc, and other elements that compose working bone, muscle, blood, and other

tissues. And, in case you need to be reminded, your body is a veritable zoo,

including dozens of species of bacteria that make their home in your intestines.

Look beyond yourself now and see how all of the spheres themselves are

deeply intertwined. Every drop of water in our lakes, streams, and underground

once fell from the sky as precipitation. Our groundwater is typically "hard" as

a result of minerals from the lithosphere that become dissolved in it. The lower

part of the atmosphere, where our weather happens, contains enormous

amounts of water that has evaporated from the surt'lce. The atmosphere pene­

trates the water and soil near the surface, supplying nitrogen, oxygen, and car­

bon dioxide for the life processes of organisms. Living things take in and give

off a variety of substances, including water, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon diox­

ide, making them entirely immersed in, and dependent on the other three

spheres. Dust particles eroded from the land by wind provide nuclei for the

condensation of water in the atmosphere, making possible the formation of

clouds, rain, and snow.

It is impossible to discuss any of these spheres in isolation from the others.

When you think of the world this way you have a framework for building on

your observations of nature, a way to see patterns emerge over time that will

help you make sense out of what you experience.

9

Atmosphere

Hardly a day goes by without a chat about the weather. Anyone who has

spent time in this area has their own stories-of incredible temperature

swings, violent winds, and relentless lake effect snow; of snow on Mother's Day

and snow on Columbus Day; of70 degree days in February and frost in August.

This part of the world has seen it all, sometimes in the same 24-hour period!

A number of factors combine to create our constantly changing weather.

First, here are some weather basics.

The sun radiates energy in all directions. Only about 0.000000002 of the

sun's total output reaches the earth but that is plenty to keep the earth's

weather engine churning constantly and often unpredictably. We live at the

bottom of an ocean-an ocean of air. This ocean of air-the atmosphere-is

held against the earth's surface by the force of gravity. Solar radiation that hits

earth's atmosphere does any of three things: it is reflected back into outer space,

it is absorbed by the atmosphere before reaching the earth, or it reaches all the

way to the surface. Much of what reaches the surface is re-radiated back into

the air in the form of heat. The earth's surface heats unevenly, and this uneven

heating causes the air to move as warmer, less dense air rises and cooler, denser

air rushes in to take its place. Moving air is wind, which is one important cause

of weather.

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mostly nitrogen (78o/o) and oxygen

(21 o/o), with other gases including carbon dioxide and water vapor in small

amounts. Water vapor is the most variable and influential of these trace gases.

This is because water is the only part of air that can change its state (solid to

liquid to gas and vice versa) within the atmosphere's temperature range. Think

of the effect of water on weather this way: The sun is the energy source that

drives weather, while water in its various forms controls its behavior.

Air also holds aloft a variety of dust, salt and other particles, which have a

very important role to play in the dynamics of the atmosphere. It is upon such

particles that water condenses to form clouds and precipitation.

Weather Characteristics The atmosphere has a number of characteristics that can be readily observed or

measured. Noting these characteristics can help forecast the weather. They

include:

Air temperature-Air is made up of a mixture of gases, the particles (mole­

cules) of which are in constant motion. The faster these molecules are moving,

the higher the temperature, and the warmer the air feels.

II

12

Barometric pressure-Gravity holds air down and causes it to exert pressure

against everything it touches, nearly 15 pounds per square inch at sea level.

That means the page you are reading has about 640 pounds of air pushing on

either side of it. Barometric pressure decreases as you go higher in elevation.

That's why your ears "pop" when driving up or down a hill.

For purposes of weather forecasting, it is important to note two things: 1)

warm air is lighter than cold air; and 2) moist air is lighter than drier air at the

same temperature. The first fact stands to reason. As air heats up, its molecules

move faster and push each other away, causing the air to expand. As air expands

the molecules become more and more spread out and there are fewer molecules

in the same amount of space, which causes the air to weigh less and exert less

pressure. But the second fact doesn't seem right, does it? How could humid air

be lighter than dry air when it has more water in it? The answer is, when water

molecules enter air they displace an equal number of molecules of other gases

(mostly nitrogen and oxygen) that are, in fact, heavier. Water has a molecular

weight of 10, compared to nitrogen (14) and oxygen (16). Therefore, cold, dry

air produces a higher barometric pressure reading than warm, moist air.

A low, or dropping, barometric pressure reading indicates the arrival of

humid and/or warm air, which usually means precipitation is on the way.

Conversely, a high, or rising, barometric pressure reading indicates the arrival

of dry and/ or cool air, which usually means fair weather.

Relative humidity-The amount of water vapor in the air is expressed as a per­

centage of the maximum amount of water vapor that the air could hold at a

given temperature. A relative humidity reading of 75°/o, therefore, means that

the air is holding three-quarters of the water vapor that it could hold at that

temperature. When 1 OOo/o relative humidity is reached, the air is saturated,

that is, it cannot hold any more water vapor, and some of it must condense to

become a liquid or solid. That's when a cloud forms in the air, or dew forms

on the ground. In fact, a measurement related to relative humidity is dew

point, which is the temperature that a mass of air would have to attain in order

for condensation to occur. Warmer air will hold more water vapor than cool­

er air, so dew often forms at night when the temperature goes down and sur­

faces cool.

Wind direction and speed-When an air mass is on the move we feel it as

wind. Wind is caused by variations in the air pressure of adjacent air masses.

Air moves from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. The greater

the pressure difference and the closer together they are, the greater the wind

speed. As wind blows air along near the surface of the earth, it rubs against

trees, hills, and other objects that slow it down due to friction. Of course, wind

blowing over water encounters much less friction.

Air pressure and friction would explain everything about wind if the earth

were not rotating. Winds would blow straight from high to low pressure areas,

Beaufort Scale ofWind Speed.

Beaufort Number

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Wind Speed Force (mph) Effects

Calm <1 Smoke rises vertically; no perceptible movement of anything.

Light air 1-3 Smoke drift shows wind direction; barely moves tree leaves.

Light breeze 4-7 Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; small twigs move.

Gentle 8-12 leaves and small twigs in constant motion.

Moderate 13-18 Moves small branches; raises dust and paper and drives them along.

Fresh breeze 19-24 large branches and small trees in leaf begin to sway; crested wavelets form on inland water.

Strong 25-31 large branches in continuous motion.

Moderate 32-38 Whole trees in motion; inconvenience in walking.

Fresh gale 39-46 Breaks twigs and small branches; difficult to walk.

Strong gale 47-54 loosens bricks on chimneys; blows roofing slates off; litters ground with broken branches.

Whole gale 55-63 Trees uprooted; considerable structural damage.

Storm 64-75 Widespread damage.

Hurricane >75 Severe and extensive damage.

and die down when the pressure equalized, aided by friction. But the earth is spinning,

which causes winds to curve as they blow. In the northern hemisphere winds act as

though they are pushed to the right. Winds go clockwise and down around high pres­

sure. Winds go counterclockwise and up around low pressure.

Cloud cover and cloud type-When air becomes so laden with moisture that it can

hold no more water in the form of vapor (that is, when lOOo/o relative humidity or the

dew point is reached) some of the vapor condenses onto dust particles or other tiny

solid nuclei, into tiny droplets or ice crystals, causing the formation of a cloud. It is important to understand that clouds are visible because of the liquid water or ice they

contain; water vapor is a colorless, invisible gas, just like nitrogen or oxygen. Clouds

take on a wide variety of forms, depending on the conditions that form them and

their elevation.

Precipitation-When the water droplets or ice crystals that make up a cloud become

too heavy to remain aloft, they fall out as precipitation. Precipitation takes on a wide

variety of forms, depending on temperature and other weather factors. Most common­

ly, precipitation occurs as snow or rain, but there are many other variations, including

sleet (raindrops that freeze into solid pellets as they fall through colder air on the way

down), freezing rain (raindrops that land as water that freezes instantly on a very cold

surface), and hail (ice pellets that form in very turbulent air that repeatedly falls and rises inside a cloud, creating "stones" oflayered ice that eventually are too heavy to stay aloft).

Weather Patterns Every place on earth has a unique weather pattern. This is because every place has a

unique combination of factors that influence weather. These include latitude and lon-

AT M 0 s p H E R E 13

gitude, elevation, and topography. The Chautauqua-Allegheny Region, at

about 42° north latitude, is 180 nautical miles south of the midway point

between the North Pole and the Equator. It is just southeast of the Great Lakes,

the world's largest concentration of fresh water. Its elevation varies from 572

feet to over 2300 feet above sea level. The land rises abruptly from the Lake

Erie plain to the Allegheny Plateau with its series of rolling valleys and water­

ways. Factors like these "preset, this region for the wide range of weather we

expenence.

Air masses- Our mid-latitude geographic position is part of the reason for

our fast-paced weather, as air masses are driven upon us by winds known as the

prevailing westerlies. An air mass is a huge volume of air that has about the

same temperature and humidity throughout. Air masses are roughly dome­

shaped and may be many hundreds of miles across. They take on the charac­

teristics of the land and water over which they form over a period of days or

weeks. The air masses to which we are regularly exposed include warm air

masses sweeping up from the southwest, carrying moisture from the subtrop­

ical Gulf of Mexico; and cold air masses sweeping down from the northwest,

carrying dry air from the interior and subarctic regions of North America.

Either of these kinds of air masses can spell cloudiness and precipitation,

depending on the time of year and the kinds of air masses they are moving in

to replace.

Highs, lows, and fronts- Air masses usually have high pressure systems at

their centers. Low pressure systems form along the boundaries, or fronts,

between air masses. Knowing what kind of air mass is currently blanketing the

area and what kind of air mass is moving in our direction is very useful for fore­

casting weather. Huge waves of air high in the atmosphere steer air masses and

push them along. Where two air masses of different temperature and/or

humidity meet, a weather front forms.

Where a cold air mass pushes into a warm air mass, a cold front is formed.

The cold, heavy air of a cold air mass digs under the lighter air of the warm air

mass. As cold air slips beneath the warm air, it pushes the warm air up, caus­

ing it to cool. If the warm air is humid, clouds may form and rain or snow may

fall. Violent weather, such as heavy snow storms, thunderstorms, and torna­

does, can occur along a cold front, but it is usually short-lived.

Where a warm air mass pushes into a cold air mass, a warm front is formed.

The warm, lighter air climbs up the sloping sides of a retreating colder air. The

warm air cools as it rises, often forming clouds that produce rain or snow,

sometimes for extended periods.

Lake Effect Lake Erie has a constant and pronounced effect on the Chautauqua-Allegheny

region's weather. Lake Erie is one of the smaller, and the shallowest, of the

Shape

r"~ .. -..._ ~··· .._.......-~---=-..;.~-------.,.,-.. ./\, t::--.... -::-' -----~

--v=.t .. t j·r:! r r:r , ~ : / /; . :

" -

~::!- )~

~~) ~ : :{ =~;tv~~;.i=! t~:f·1fftirtYfiJ:::·

Cloud Identification

Name

Cirrus

Altostratus

Stratus

Cumulus

Cumulonimbus

Nimbostratus

Altitude Description

Above 20,000' Thin, wispy, made of ice crystals.

20,000-6,000' Thin, layered veil. Sun seen as bright spot.

Below 6,000'

Below 6,000'

Very low

Very low

Low, uniform, gray layers. Usually form drizzle.

Dense, white, and billowy with flat base.

Large, towering, dark gray, usually form thunderstorm or heavy rain.

Densely layered, dark gray. Usually form overcast sky or dense steady rain.

AT M 0 s pH ERE 15

16

You can tell whether a cold or warm front is approaching by tracking the sequence of cloud types and atmospheric conditions that occur.

Cold Front

I. Haziness, light fog, or low clouds appear as the warmer, moist air near the ground is chilled.

2. White, puffy, cumulus clouds begin to gather and the wind picks up.

3. Dark cumulonimbus thunder­clouds rise quickly. Heavy rains and strong winds begin. In winter, a cold front brings snow or sleet.

4. As the cold front passes, the num­ber of cumulus clouds decreases, the wind diminishes, and the tem­perature drops.

Warm Front

I. Feathery bands of cirrus clouds appear high in the sky. These clouds are made of ice crystals that form when the warm air mass is chilled.

2. Thin sheets of altostratus clouds appear.

3. A thin blanker of nimbostratus clouds appear and rain falls steadi­ly. The clouds seem to descend as the front moves on, possibly even touching the ground as fog.

4. As the front passes, the sky clears and the air becomes warm and damp.

Cold Front ' ' ' ' ' ' \

cool air

' \ ' \

\ \

\ \ \ \ \ \ \

\ \ \ \ I \ \

d d i -· .I

WannFront

....

W ind Chill Factor.

Wind Speed

5 2 Calm 40 35

kph mph

2 -1 8 5 35 30

-1 -6 17 10 30 20

-3 -5 25 15 25 15

-6 - 12 33 20 20 10

25 -9 -12 42 15 10

50 30 - 12 - 15 10 5

58 35 - 12 - 15 10 5

67 40 -12 -18 10 0

Winds above Little Danger 40 mph have little additional effect

Ambient Air Temperature (top number is celsius; bottom number is fahrenheit)

-1 -3 -6 -9 -1 2 - 15 -18 - 21 - 23 - 26 - 29 - 32 - 34 - 37 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 - 10 -15 - 20 -25 -30 -35

Equivalent Chill Temperature

-3 -6 -9 - 12 -15 - 18 -21 -23 -26 -29 -32 -34 -38 -40 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 - 15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40

-9 -12 - 15 -18 -23 - 26 -29 -32 -38 -40 -43 -46 -51 -54 15 10 5 0 -10 - 15 -20 -25 -35 -40 -45 -50 -60 -65

- 12 - 18 - 21 -23 - 25 -32 - 34 -40 -43 -46 -51 -54 -56 - 62 10 0 -5 - 10 -20 -25 -30 -40 -45 -50 -60 -65 -70 -60

- 15 - 18 -23 -26 -32 -34 -38 -43 -46 -51 -54 -59 -62 -65 5 0 - 10 -15 - 25 -30 -35 -45 -50 -60 - 65 -75 -60 -65

-18 - 21 -26 -29 -34 -38 -43 -46 -51 -54 -59 -62 -68 -71 0 -5 - 15 -20 -30 -35 -45 -50 -50 -65 -75 -60 -90 -95

- 18 -23 -29 -32 -34 -40 -46 -48 - 54 -56 -62 -65 -71 -73 0 -10 -20 -25 -30 -40 -50 -55 - 65 -70 -60 -85 -95 -100

-21 -23 - 29 - 34- -38 -40 -46 -51 - 54 -56 -62 - 68 -7 -76 -5 -10 - 20 30 -35 -40 -50 -60 -65 -75 -80 -90 -100 -105

- 21 - 26 -29 -34 -38 -43 -48 -51 - 56 -59 - 65 -71 -73 -79 -5 -15 -20 -30 -35 -45 -55 -60 -70 -75 -65 -95 -100 -110

Increasing Danger (flesh may freeze within one minute)

Great Danger (flesh may freeze within 30 seconds)

G reat Lakes. During many winrers ir freezes over. Bur as long as rhcrc is a significant

amount of open water on rhe lake, winds passing over rhe lake's surface can create rhe

righr conditions for "lake effect" snow. As air moves across irs surface ir picks up a lor of

water vapor, which condenses ro form clouds and snow. When the clouds reach land and

climb higher up onro rhe Allegheny Plateau rhey release their burden of snow along nar­

row bands rhar stretch downwind of rhe lake. Depending on rcmperarure and wind con­

ditions, this "lake effect" can dum p a lor of snow, more rha n rhree feer in a single event!

Wind Chill Factor

W ind chill factor is ofren a wintertime topic of conversation. Wind chill factor is a cal­

culation of rhe combined cffccrs of air temperature and wind on exposed human skin.

Ir simply refers to rhe facr rhar hear is carried away from rhe surface of rhe skin fasrer

when ai r is movi ng aga inst ir rhan when iris standing sri II. When hear is removed from

rhc body faster rhan ir can be produced, eventually :1lowering of core body temperature

results. This is called hyporhcrmi:1, and ir can result in death if not treated. Hypothermia

can occur even when rhe air temperature is well above freezing.

\XIhcn hear is losr from a parr of rhe body rhar is exposed or not properly insulated

fro m temperatures below freezing, the Aesh may freeze. T his is known as frostbite, and

causes damage ro rhc rissues rh:u have been affected . T he combi ned effect of wind and

temperature, of co urse, only affects things that arc producing hear of their own- warm

blooded animals, homes wirh furnaces running, and so on. If a cold car engine is exposed

to air ar 15"F, fo r instance, ir makes no difference whether rhc air is ca lm or blowing 40

mph, it is still 15"F.

AT M 0 S P II E R E 17

18

Hurricanes and Tornadoes This region is comparatively insulated from the most severe and dangerous

weather events, hurricanes and tornadoes. Hurricanes in this part of the world,

of course, wreak havoc along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts bur usually weaken

considerably once they are away from the ocean's water rhar powers them. The

most notable recent exception was Tropical Storm Agnes. Agnes swept across

Florida as a 1 00-mile-per-hour hurricane on June 19, 1972, and reached New

Jersey on June 22. By that rime the storm's winds had diminished bur moist,

warm Atlantic air was flung inland where it mer cool air stalled over the Ohio­

Pennsylvania border. Over the next three days Agnes dumped up to 11 inch­

es of rain on parts of the Allegheny watershed, causing extensive flooding in

many communities. The water climbed to within three feet of the top of the

six-year-old Kinzua Dam. The dam, built at a cost of $108 million, was esti­

mated by the Army Corps of Engineers to have saved people living down­

stream about $247 million in damages.

Tornadoes are localized, violent storms with circular winds. A tornado may

result when a warm, moist southerly flow of air is topped by a cool, dry west­

erly flow of air, which converge along a line that forms cumulonimbus clouds,

the same kind of clouds that can produce high winds, heavy downpours, and

hail. When water vapor along the boundary of these air masses condenses, hear

is transferred to the surrounding air, which becomes less dense and rises. This

process, known as convection, may produce the violent, circular movement of

air that can spawn a tornado. Tornadoes usually, bur nor always, move in a

southwest to northeast direction. The vortex dips down from cloud to ground

and becomes visible as moist surrounding air moves into the region of sharply

lowered air pressure and condenses, and as the tornado pulls in dust and debris.

Though tornadoes have been spotted throughout the world, they are more

common in North America than anywhere else on earth. About two tornadoes

are reported in our region each year, typically during the months of May, June

and July. Visitors to some of the places featured in this book may see tornado

damage to forests, still evident many years after the tornadoes occurred. They

include parts of Allegheny National Forest and Oil Creek Stare Park, Cook

Forest, and Allegany State Parks.

Climate Climate is the long-term composite character of weather. The terrain and near­

by Lake Erie have a marked influence on the climate of the Chautauqua­

Allegheny region, which is characterized by warm summers, cold winters, and

plenty of precipitation. During fall the lake gives off hear, extending the frost­

free period along the Lake Erie Plain, and at the end of winter, it keeps the sur­

rounding area cool, delaying plant growth until the danger of frost is past.

Regardless of the great variability of weather in the Chautauqua-Allegheny

Region, we enjoy a consistent four-season climate. There is, indeed, a depend­

able pattern of spring from mid-March to mid-June, summer from mid-June

to mid-September, autumn from mid-September to mid-December, and

winter from mid-December to mid-March. The reason that the seasons

change has to do with the annual trip, or revolution, the earth rakes around

the sun once each year. As the earth moves through space, it spins on its

north-south axis once each day. This axis is nor, however, completely verti­

cal; if it were, each spot on the globe would be bathed with the same angle

and duration of sunlight every day of the year, and there would be no sea­

sonal changes. Instead, earth's rotational axis tilts by 23.5 degrees. During

spring and summer in the northern hemisphere, the northern half of the

earth leans toward the sun. During fall and winter in the northern hemi­

sphere, the northern halfleans away from the sun. It is the angle of the sun's

rays striking the earth and hearing the atmosphere, not the actual distance

from earth to the sun, that causes the seasons. In fact, earth is closest to the

sun each year on January 3!

In addition to the astronomical fact of the earth's tilt, other factors affect

weather trends during different times of the year. One factor is that some

materials absorb solar energy, converting it to hear, more readily than oth­

ers. For example, during winter in our region two factors dominate land and

sky, snow cover and clouds. A review of weather records kept at the

Chautauqua County Airport for the year 1999 revealed rhar a total of74o/o

of hourly observations recorded an overcast sky, confirming our suspicion

that during winter it is oftentimes cloudy in this part of the country. Thick

clouds reflect 75-95o/o of incoming sunlight back into space. Even on the

few days that were clear that year (9o/o ofhourly observations during January

1999) 75-95°/o of sunlight that strikes snow-covered ground is reflected

back into space. So, there is not much opportunity for the sun to warm this

region directly during the winter.

Again, without reading too much into the one-year "snap shot," during

July of that year, overcast skies were recorded during 29o/o of hourly obser­

vations, which is still a lor for the middle of summer. Most of this region is

forested, a factor that must be taken into account when considering our

weather and climate. Trees have a tremendous air conditioning effect, espe­

cially when multiplied by the millions of trees that make up the great north­

ern hardwood and Appalachian oak forests that dominate the region. The

effect is caused by a process called transpiration, which is the giving off of

water vapor by leaves as they perform photosynthesis. Eighty gallons of

water may be given off by a single tree in this way on a hot summer day.

Evaporation is a cooling process, that is, hear from the surroundings is

absorbed as water changes from a liquid to a gas. The effeq of all this tran­

spiration is to cool the surroundings, as well as to increase humidity and the

possibility of cloud formation and precipitation. Living with cloudiness is,

in part, a result of living in a place where surface water and trees are in

healthy abundance-nor a bad trade-off, considering the alternative.

New York State's all-time record for low temperature for the month of July was set in 1963 in Allegany State Park: 25 degrees Fahrenheit.

Pennsylvania's all-time record for low temperature for the month of September was set in 1957 in Kane: 17 degrees Fahrenheit.

AT M 0 S P H ERE 19

Climatological Summaries at Three Locations in the Chautauqua-Allegheny Region.

Allegany State Park, NY Climatological Summary Cattaraugus County

Temperature ("F) Precipitation (Inches) Snowfall (Inches)

I Normals I Extremes Normal Number of Days I Extremes I Number of Days I Extremes INum of Davs

INonn>J -1~:-! Rooot<lll goo~ 32"~~32"~,) oo~ ~ ~!~~~~ ILA&sll la~ll. o~·~o,;:: ~~ -~'!~~~ ~~-~! I ~ ~ Mon1h Max Mn Aov Max I y.., loin. Yur -. -~'-'1- ,.._ _,..,.,., y .. , :~1 y.., uuv Yur -. -. -. SnoM.oJ,_.....,' Y•r uay Year -. -.

~~-2,!1.9_.l~_; __ !_2~ -25 11957 ~o. 1 18 , 30 1 6 2.551 6.27 1979:0.88:19671 1.98 1~~a. 16 l 8 ___ o •••• j 32.5 119871 11.0 19491 •• I ••

I'm :32.7 11.9l22.3!__!!j1997 ·2511979 Ott14' 27; 6 2.4815.20 1990 0.47 198711.50 1961 13 i 7 0 ••••+35.0j1972 13.0 1961 •• ••

M&A I 42.7 21.01 31.9 __ !QJ~.Q.i __ ·18 11950 ---o 6 _ ~j1 .. ~- 1 _ -~!!1_~ .!~-5-~6 _o.97 1 J§I~til- ~._a.4. "'T ,,r • T.L ~-,..o 1 "" 1 "o em. ·· ·· N'fl 55.2 31.0143.1 89 T19so! 7 11964 o __ 1 ~~ __ ,_o_ -~~~_!!161 ~.J.9Jl_7] 2.15 1999 13 Is ' o 1.1 • 17.5J1957l 7.5 1957 9 o

~6-,1!_ -~l 90 119961 ' 1,,9, 1974 =nf=o a I 0 3.95 r a.11 19~19_1!_6 ~.-~~- 13 i' 9 1 0.0 I o.ol2ilii01 0.0 12000 0--r-o-,•-= »--~'-+-!.:...; 775::..:..3=--, 4a.9 1 62.1! 94 . 1952 24 19881 _o o __ 1 __ o_ 4.91 9.43: 1994' o.5a 1991 · 4.oo '1984 12 : 9 1 o.o ' o.o :2000 · ~~-.o ~~Q __ !cJ_1

___Q__ .lJl. I 79.0 I 53.0' 66.0 97 : 1 __ 98_8 _26 .. 19631 1 0 L,_<! __ ; __ _f!_ 4.26_ ~L.!..91!_:~..u!~.!L~-()1!._~9481- 1~- 1_1_QJ!__ 0.0 ! 2000 0.0 20001 0 0 AUGI77.1~52.1164.6' 9411953 31 i19!!!i6 1 to:()~ 4.07 9.051197711.25195113.34 1977 11 1 a 1 o.o o.o 12ooo o.o 2ooo o I o ~9-ll ~s.oJ ~~-Q ~~'?:__~.!J~3. -~o _(_!_959. __ -~--- _l!__j i ___ u_ 4.17-1o~i19s8i-1-:U' -,-964T~:65"1961-11-- a· 1 __ _Q,_Q_ _ _().()_!_g()QQ_._o_.()_ 2oool _o_~

ocrl59.o 36.2!47.6 87 •1951 1311952 o o · 11J_Q___ 3.73 9.24 195910.221963 2.55 1980 13 9 1 1 o.o 6.sl196o 4.o 1960 o o teN. 46.3 2s.9i 37.6 ~_1_9_5..Q.i~1 1_o ___ 3 __ -~ 21 1-o- 4.13. 9.4o • 195o· 1.61 1998 2.5o -~994i_.!!:i ___ ii_i_o_ ~-~ 31.4 11955~ 16_c~.: 1963 •• ••

..f!C_J34.4 1_87!~. 10 i19821~8 __ o_~~~J...5_~-3~. 19_90 1ao_~ 145,19.1!Q. 18 11T o .... 37211951111011992 •• ..

~j_ng_~~e· 90-j - ~_!8+-~ i __ 0 --·7=53_! _!._ .!~~---· 09it--=- 2.60 I ---4o+ 26_1 __ 11 36E 130' 0

5unm_!_l7.1 5131642 97 24 I f 2 o 1 f-o _ _13.2411.42 o.sa·r-- ~L __ 3_4j_25 -~-J!:.!l___O()__I __ j oo o i o Fa! 584 370 47_2_, 97' ·4 I 'o 3 341o 120310.!!:_ ,0221 _ ,3.t;§ _____ !LL_~~~r-Q.:Il._+-~.!...!.( __ :~16_o) _

1_

0o-=li

0o

Winter 32.3 14.0 I 23.2 72 I ! ·25 , 46 a6 I 14 a.7a 6.31 I I 0.471 j 1.9a . ' 47 I 26 0 0.0 37.2_[ 17.0 ' Annual 55.7 1 33.31 44.5; 97 I ·25 I i ss 174 I 15 44.46 11.42 • 0.22 · 4.oo 1 I 160 i 104-~ 6 1.1 --=3-'-7.=2-JI---~ -1-'-7"".=-o"t'i--tl---=o'--:1---''----i

Period of Record: MAY, 19481hrough DEC, 2000. Normals are a 30 year average from 1961 through 1990.

Fredonia, NY Climatological Summary Chautauqua County

Temperature ("Fl Preclpltatlon (Inches) Snowfall (Inches} I Normals I Extremes I Normal Number of Days I Extremes I Number of Davs I Extremes Numof Davs

I ; 1

: I I Max , Max I Mon ~I Mon I I ., I I ,. 001' : 010" 1 00" I I I 0.1• I 3.0' Normllll Notmall ~~~ Record j Roc,O<d go• and 132• and j32' and 0" and ~~ Groatost I ~~ 1 Grootftt and I and and Nom-al Gro111011 G~~ost and and Mon'.h Max Min . A.,. Max Yoar Min Yoa• -. Below Below Below P......, Monthl Yo11 Mon....,, Year Do~v Yoar NxNo NxNo NxNo Snow!aa Mon!Ny Year onoirt Yoar -. A1»to

~~~1JI_;___' 17.9 I ~j_I_3 l. 1950 r-:!?~:--~ l 28 : ...£___ _g~2!_1 5.8811~7_:0.94 I 19921 1.90 119981 15 I .. ?.-!_()__ 24.21 55.0 119991 13.0 1975 11 I 3 RB I 33.5. 17.5. 25.5 I 73T200o ·26 I 1943 0 . 14 I 26 i 2 2.08 5.18 1981' 0.42 19871 2.04 I 1930: 11 I 6 0 16.0 I 36.0 ! 19791 17.0 19791 7 I 2

_MPR! 44.1:26.51 35.3~ 82 11998.-10 I1980i o~; 6 _ij_2.LTI_o_ ~6~--~~!.!i.),Q,!~~- _1:90 11956_·~·1_2 .- 1__ _ o__ 9.4 '24.5 l19a41 13.5119361 51~-1 · N'fl ' 55.7 I 36.51 46.1 91 11990 10 I 1972 0 : 0 11 0 3.13 7.10 19371 0.82 1975 3.32 T 1977 11 8 0 2.8 ' 12.8 11982' 10.0 1982 2 0 ~v 167.6 ~~l_s1.2 1! 90 •. 1 "''!"[ ,,.1-o T "-1. 1 1-o- _3.1;J.·f-~~.8l_l __ L(_).:!i~_!__9~4 .;!,~al_1,!11Hi __ 1,- l-7 -o o.3 Ls.o ~1 1~o -,-999 -o--. ·a »--~ 76.a 5s.21 66.4 9a 119a9 3s 1972 ----;--1 o o o 3.a5 9.os 1928! o.6s r 1988 2 74 11937 10 , 1 1 . o.o : o.o 12ooo 1 o.o 2ooo o 1 o .lJl. l8o.7. 61.1 · 70.9 1 98 :1936 43 ~-1-t-o- i -o--1 -o- 3.6o 1 -~.i!!il o~1955 441iliii3--9-1 6---,---- o~-·--o.o-i 2ooo1 o.o 2ooo o : o

AUG I ~5_L61!:_0_,_6U; 9.8u! 1951 r 37 i'-1982; 1 -T 0 1 0 j 0 3.97 ·-9.01 1979 io:521iJ29 '6.8a 11942 .--10-=-7- 1 _Q_,_Q__,_ 0-~- .£QQ()J 0 0 2000 L Qlo e:o l12.6 1 53.8:63.21 97 I 1953j 32 11965) o L. o i o J__o_ 4.65111.84 19771 1.28,1959 58.1 l1979f 10 .·-a--t-,. o.o ! o.o 2oooj. o.o 2ooo1 o -~ ocr I 61.8 i 43.91 52.9] 91 ! 19.£7.1-.~~~t~~;~o- ·r _2~. -~ _:!._91,.1_9"_g~:!ii_5.-J~_,46 ~~~i !!.3o11996 --12- :--g -,-- ll.21-2o.a 193ol·1-o:·;-- 193o]_o ____ J--.::L-_-o~ NOVI~~~L.3~_(j2T1950j 7 !19291 o --i.-1___12_ !_o_ -~~ .!.!!!!.!~~~ 2.78J~I!?_j 15 L _ _!()__. o 1.2 I 40.6 1947\ 16.0 1970! 3 _.L__1__ ~~7-'-'-j~11~--~~_L!982j ·9 -+1943 o 1 11 25 : o 3.40 1 7.06 1977: 115 · 1960 22al1979:. 1~ 1_!1_ o 22.1' 55.0 1977i 21.0. 1943: 1_0_~

I ' I I ' I • ' ' . l ' =+' ' ' ISpringl55.8 36'.6.46.2l 91: 1·1.Q..l__, 0 I-~35!___Q__ 8.89.~ ~---l-332·1- :34 I 22 0 12.5;24-S -- 135i _ ___J_i-j__,--Summri 78.6 5,9.1 ! 6. a.9! 9a ~--.. l .. 3li~L- ~-.[.-. .:.~1 0 1.- 0 .. ;_ .L ~.-1 .. ,2 .. ~j.J~,Q5 ~ ... _l o.52[_~--I-I!:!!!Llj'- 2·-9 ;_[jo .. - ... 3- 0.0 lJl.O- . --- ... o.oj 0 L 0 . _Fllll __ [6u 44.3 __ 5_2._8 97 f 1 __ L__ .. Q._L 1 !!_~' _o _ _12.88112.,!! __ :~~- ~~- .. ~ ~9-6 16.0 3 11 Winter 34.2 20.0 I 27.1 I 74 I ·26 I 0 I 41 79 4 7.73 r 7.06 . 0.42. ! 228 I 42 ' 23 0 62.9 55.0 I 210 I • 28 8 Annual. 57.4 4o.o 48.7 1 98 1 -26 1 ,._3-~r 128 4 40.70 12.111 • o.42 - i s.aaT ---· 1.42--92 ~-5- 82.8~55.0' --121.or--"~~

Period of Record: JAN, 1926 through NOV, 2000. Normals are a 30 year average from 1961 through 1990.

Warren, PA Climatological Summary Warren County

Temperature (•F) Precipitation (Inches) Snowfall (Inches)

I Normals I Extremes Normal Number of Days !--...,.....--.:::E::::xt::.;rem=es~--...,.--+-.:.:N~um=be::!r...!:o::...f ~Da~lys~_ I Extremes INum of Davs

• I I ,. Max Max Mn II Mon 1 J I 0 01' ! 0 10" I I 00" II I I I 0 I" 3 0'

I

Nom-al i Normal Notma1' Rococd Rococd: goo one~: J:Z• and 32" and 0" and - Gteiii0$!1 Loast -Groates1 •~-~ •~-1' -~- ~ .. ':!!..~I Y··· ~~ Year , .~-1

1 -~-Mon11> Max I Mn A¥11 ! Max Yoar: Mn 'i Y- -. i BelOw Below Beiow Prlldp Mcrit_iiY. Year I~ Yom I Daily YDar ~ ~ ~ ''"'"" ~•nv' - ...... ~ ~ -!_AN_!3t_J~~15.1 23.5! 74/19501-2311948 o 1 1~ 291 4 2.58 7.25 1937 1.1_!__!!13:li.!!..:.~!...~____12__l8 o 17.9j46.8J1978 1_70~1~~--14 j L FEB I 35.4 15.6 25.5 I 7311997 L.:.~ __ 0~'-1 !. 26 I 4 2.40 5.27 1926 j ~---~ ..!.1!1!7_; 3.20 1926 14 ! 7 I 0 ~36 4 11960 16 0 1961 I 10 I ....!.._ MPR 145.6! 24.2 34.9 83! 19461 ·18 11980 0 I 5 2~ I 1 3.19 6.11 t 1942~ 1.26 1960! 1.96 19451 15 I 8 l o-- a.3 I 29911942.14.0 11993) 6- r 1 N'fl'58.413:l:.?..46.o §1_~_,1976T·1-oi1982-o~.-~-o- 15l__Jl~~-jJs8_.~!.2..1!!1o31948 240 1937

1

_1_5_LL •. ..!__...£:!117.7.1957 651196712 1_o_

MAY 70.2! 43.7 56.9 ~!1=121 1947. 1 1 0 4 ' 0 3 97 9~~1Jl..!?__ 1934t:2.:..~.!li=! 13_ I_ 9 1 1 0.1 I 1.6 11963 .. 1.~j~ __ O __!)__ ....... 78.6 I 52.6 T 65.8 9~2 29 1980 ~ ___Q_ 0 .I___Q__ 4.88 I 9.24 I 1972 1.14 1991 4.29 I 1982 ..!li 9 1 0.0 I 0.0 [2000 0.0 !2000 I 0 _,____Q__ -~_B2.3_j57.4_~9-11_!19 __ L_tl_laa 37 ~3-_4 o -O-f--ll.--~4.13 11!:_!1_2:1992 110 _19_30 367~64l~1~-j-Jl_J_1 ___ o.:..o_l o._o-f200o o.o l2oool o o

AUG 8o.o l 56.sl 68.3 100 :t98al 36 1982, 2 o o I o 4 26 9 80, 1977 o 93 193()_j 310 1 1994 12 a 1 o.o o.o 12ooo 1 o o 12000 I o o _e> 72ai5o1l615 100 19531-2611957. __ o _o~_j__o -~ o 4.12183011977 o.s71195oj_281 !1975:12-i ~~o.o I o.o_l2ooo[_~_o~i200oTil--o-ocr 61 4 1 39.7 1 50 6 \ 90 '19491 14~ 1965 o o .L.?. 1 o 3.44~~-37. t 1954~·~50 19~631 4 66 '1954 u ' 8 1 1 f 19621 4 5 119621 o o

_teN -~l}:I_.L~ i 40.;! ~ !!15ol2 "" ;_· _, t~U.i.r o §.!> '"~'- o,.;· -..20 "iii" "'~. " [ !' ~-.-- ·' I"" "o I ""I • ' ~~~-5j_g.!_J_Ii!l_t_:~1..98_2l~l!.l._O_ 11:21 1 3!19 1 7~ 1~o_1 123 1958 197

11930 19+_!()_ o_ 2!1977 14011944112! 2

~ __!;8~1 ___ ~9_1 92 l j ·18 j 1 ~-!_ . 43 • 1 1069'""9.93i- -lo ~7+ • 2 40 ~-: 43125 2 11.1 29 9_1 -h_4 0 :~ ~--~~_!}_~ 1 ~o 3 ss s 67 911oo_j__ I 29~ l 8-~- o 1 o 1 o 13 21 1_1_()._11!

1

o 93 , 1 4 29 I 37 • 25 3 o.o · o o T , o o o r o Fall a1-074o.STso.81ool ~ 2 ~-- ·-o 11-Y24_1_o_1148 944- o5o_L__j~_ I 42! 2.1_ £-""7.2·3-7.1) 1101 i 4 1

~~:6117.5126 0 74 I - j ·34 I 0 38 I 82 J 9 8 67 7.43 o3s] . i~--~ 50-; 25 0 50.1 I 46 aJ 17.0 I I 36 __ 5_ Annual585 369 477 1001 1·341 9 I 44 '1491 10 44.111082 0351 14661 172' 102 7 68414661 1110 4a 7

Period of Record: JAN, 1926 through DEC, 2000. Normals are a 30 year average from 1961 through 1990.

20

Hydrosphere

Water influences every aspect of our lives. It covers most of the earth's sur­

face. Humans and most orher living things are composed mainly of

water. Water, in all rhree of irs states, penetrates and interacts with rhe air above

us and rhe soil and rock beneath us. It pools inro lakes and streams across the

land.

Water, rhe "universal solvent," can dissolve many solids and gases, allowing

these substances to permeate and influence rhe environment. Water's high heat

capacity (ability ro absorb a lor of hear and release it slowly) and other physi­

cal properties make ira suitable environment for an incredible diversity of liv­

ing things, from phyroplankron and zooplankton (aquatic planr-like and ani­

mal-like microorganisms, respectively) ro four-foor Muskellunge. Water's abil­

ity ro dissolve oxygen from air and aquatic plants makes life possible for fish

and other aquatic life. Its ability ro dissolve chemical lawn fertilizers and carry

them inro a lake causes population explosions of algae and water weeds. Water

can dissolve pesticides and other poisons and carry rhem far from their source,

causing harm when rhey come inro contact with living things. Airborne poilu­

rants, including those thar dissolve ro form acids during the formation of

clouds, rain down in rhe form of acid precipitation, creating stresses on living

communities.

Water is different from every other substance we are familiar with in rhat it

is actually lighter as a solid rhan as a liquid. The fact thar ice floats makes life

possible for all organisms rhar inhabit aquatic environments, from mussels to

Beavers. When Lake Erie freezes over, it affects our weather by "sealing off" the

warmer lake water from the colder air above, purring a stop ro lake effect snow­

storms.

The Chautauqua-Allegheny Region's character is defined by the presence of

water, and always has been. Our very geology is waterborne in the sense that

we live arop thousands of feer of compacted and cemented mud, silt and sand

brought here through the action of water erosion and streams, and deposited

across an ancient seafloor some 350 million years ago. Subsequent uplift creat­

ed the Allegheny Plateau, which was immediately acted upon by water that cut

valleys on irs way ro the ocean. Across much of our region is a glaciated land­

scape, where two million years of action by stupendous volumes of flowing ice

and meltwater have left signs everywhere you look.

Two great watersheds converge in this region, creating a divide as significant

ro the eastern United States as rhe Continental Divide is ro the west. A water­

shed is a catch basin for water flowing to a particular lake or stream. Watersheds

almost always eventually lead ro rhe oceans, the ultimate sink for the world's

water supply. So, when rain or snow falls in the Chautauqua-Allegheny region,

21

22

•. 1

I I I_ ~ --1

' '

l ---.L-

' ' ,,

---, l

where does it go evemually? Some of the region's srreams generally run north and west and flow imo

Lake Erie. T hese srreams incl ude the Cattaraugus, Canadaway, and Chautauqua C reeks. Water that

flows imo these st reams eventually flows over N iagara Falls, into Lake Ontario and into the Arlamic

Ocea n via rhe Sr. Lawrence River. To ou r cast, strea ms flow in to the Genesee River, which flows north

in to Lake Ontario. All of these st reams co ntribute to one of the world 's great sou rces of fresh water, the

Grear Lakes.

Other srreams in the regio n generally run south and flow into the Allegheny River. These incl ude the

G rear Valley, Conewango, French and Oi l C reeks. Water that flows in to these screams helps form the

Ohio R.iver at Pittsburgh, and eventually reaches the Gulf of Mexico via the M iss issippi River.

The Chautauqua Watershed The watersheds of rhis region are the northernmost contributors to the O hio River, one of the great

waterways of North America. Consider the hyd rology of o ne of these watersheds, C hautauqua Lake.

T he watershed covers an area of over 176 square miles, including the lake itself, which covers over 20

square miles. Areas to the no rth drain to Lake Erie; some vantage points on the height of land along

the border of these two watersheds (alo ng Burdick Road, e.g.) offer a grand view of both C hautauqua

Lake and Lake Erie. To the west of the Chautauqua Lake watershed lies the

French Creek watershed, and to the east is the Cassadaga Creek watershed.

Both of these also feed the Allegheny-Ohio River system.

Hydrologists study where water comes from, where it goes, and how it

behaves under various conditions. Recently an extensive study of Chautauqua

Lake was conducted by a team of researchers led by Dr. Michael Wilson of

SUNY Fredonia. In the course of determining Chautauqua Lake's water budg­

et, scientists examined a number of characteristics that influence the inflow

and outflow of the lake system, including climate, geology, topography, vege­

tation and land use. A water budget estimates water gains, subtracts water loss­

es, and compares the results to changes in lake level. A derailed account of this

can be found in the Chautauqua Lake-Entering the 21st Century: State of the

Lake Report, Chapter 3, written by William Boria, Michael Wilson, and

Victoria Boria. Results of their water budget report and the many other parts

of the study are being used to determine how best to manage the watershed to

promote long-term lake water quality.

Chautauqua Lake originated during the latter stages of the last glaciation

some 16,000 years ago. Its unique shape, with a deep northern basin and a

shallow southern basin, make it almost two separate lakes, from hydrological,

geological, and ecological perspectives.

Four factors account for Chautauqua Lake's water input: stream flow into

the lake, runoff from land surrounding the lake, rain and snow falling on the

lake itself, and ground water from the surrounding watershed. Of course, all

of these inputs are traced back to precipitation, but the highest volume of input

directly to the lake comes from tributary streams. Water from 11 streams adds

about seven billion cubic feet of water to the lake each year. They are-listed

in order of the size of their sub-basins-Goose Creek, Prendergast Creek,

Dewittville Creek, Bemus Creek, Big Inlet, Ball Creek, Dutch Hollow, Mud

Creek, Maple Springs, Lighthouse Creek, and Little Inlet. Overland flow that

does not enter a stream bur flows directly into the lake accounts each year for

one billion cubic feet of water to the north basin and two billion cubic feet of

water to the south basin.

Precipitation varies across the watershed, depending mainly on topograph­

ic relief and on the northern part being closer to Lake Erie and irs lake-effect

snowstorms. Average snowfall for Mayville, at the northern end of the lake, is

204 inches, while the average for Jamestown, at the southern end, is 101 inch­

es. Average annual precipitation for this area is about 44 inches. Rain and snow

falling directly onto the surface of the 13,000 acre lake adds two billion cubic

feet of water to the lake's volume annually.

Another, smaller, contributor to lake inflow is groundwater from the sur­

rounding watershed. A relatively small portion of precipitation soaks into the

ground to become groundwater. Ground water accumulates within the hills

and flows toward the valleys. Water can actually flow upward into stream beds

and the sides of the lake due to ground water pressure from the surrounding

H y D R 0 s p H ERE 23

hills. Most of the groundwater enters streams before going into the lake; rela­

tively little groundwater seeps into the lake directly, except where permeable

sand and gravel deposits next to the lake allow it.

Outflow from Chautauqua Lake is mainly through the Chadakoin River,

the lake's only outlet. The Chadakoin carries off about 12 billion cubic feet of

water per year from the lake. The only other major route for lake outflow is

evaporation from the surface-about one billion cubic feet per year.

How long does water stay in Chautauqua Lake? Scientists compared data

from their 1993-94 study to average Chadakoin River flows from 1935 to

1994, and also compared them to a 1975 study. The data show that the north­

ern basin takes about a year and a half, and the southern basin about three and

a half months, to "flush."

The Chadakoin River is a short stream that flows into Cassadaga Creek

briefly before joining Conewango Creek. Conewango Creek flows to Warren,

Pennsylvania, where it joins the Allegheny River.

The Allegheny Watershed The watershed of the Allegheny River encompasses almost twelve thousand

square miles. The upper half of the river's length, the part considered in this

atlas, is the endpoint of numerous smaller creeks that wind through valleys cut

into the Allegheny Plateau. Several miles east-northeast of Coudersport, in

Potter County, Pennsylvania, stands a hill at an elevation of2,520 feet above sea

level. This hill, known to geologists as the "Triple Divide," marks the bound­

ary between waters that flow west into the Allegheny River, north into the

Genesee River, and east down Pine Creek to the Susquehanna River. Depending

on precisely where rain falls at this remarkable place, it may eventually reach

either the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, or Chesapeake Bay.

From this humble source the Allegheny flows southwest, through

Coudersport, before trending northwest toward Olean and Salamanca, New

York. From a point west of Salamanca the river bends southward to re-enter

Pennsylvania where it is dammed to form the Allegheny Reservoir. This area,

known as the Salamanca Reentrant to geologists, is the only place in New York

that was not covered by glaciers during the Ice Age. Originally, the preglacial

upper Allegheny River continued northwest and emptied into the ancestral

Lake Erie basin. As the glaciers advanced, these upper Allegheny River waters

ponded in front of the glacier and its load of rock debris, flooded the valley

presently occupied by the reservoir, eroded through a drainage divide where

the Kinzua Dam now stands, and joined the waters below - the part of the

river referred to in this atlas as the "middle Allegheny."

Kinzua Dam and the Allegheny Reservoir are part of a flood control system

operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The project controls 2,180

square miles of the Allegheny River headwaters, 80 percent of which is forest­

ed. Some of its tributaries in this headwaters region, such as the Kinzua and

Tunungwant Creeks, flow out of steep, well-defined valleys cut into the

plateau. These valleys were beyond the direct influence of the Wisconsin ice

sheet. Other headwater tributaries, such as Little Valley and Great Valley

Creeks, flow south, meandering through broad, flat valleys containing hun­

dreds of feet of glacial debris.

Kinzua Dam's main purposes are flood control and adding water when nec­

essary to the Allegheny's flow, the latter particularly to dilute acid mine runoff

carried by the Kiskimineras River, an Allegheny tributary about 30 miles

upstream from Pittsburgh. Other purposes of the dam are fish and wildlife

enhancement, hydropower (by means of a pumped storage electric power gen­

erator at the dam), and recreation. The flood control and stream flow priori­

ties dictate how much water is released from the dam, and, therefore the level

of water in the reservoir.

The Allegheny Reservoir's pool elevation is generally maintained around

1300 to 1305 feet above sea level during the winter. Beginning early in March,

the pool elevation rises through May until the summer pool elevation of 1328

to 1330 feet is reached. If rainfall amounts allow, this elevation is maintained

until the end of August, when it starts being lowered to its winter elevation of

1300 to 1305 feet by the beginning of November.

Below the Kinzua Dam, at Warren, the Allegheny River is joined by the

Conewango Creek. Conewango Creek has irs source in the glacial moraines

that formed as the Wisconsin glacier retreated, in eastern Chautauqua and

western Cattaraugus Counties. Here a group of streams named West Branch,

North Branch, Slab City Creek, and Mud Creek converge like a hand with fin­

gers outstretched, to add water to the Conewango as it winds south through a

very broad glacial debris-filled valley. It was rhis valley rhar held the pre-glacial

Allegheny River in irs ancient north-westward course through the plateau and

into the river that occupied the present-day Lake Erie basin. Part of the

Conewango is straightened by a man-made ditch known as "the Dredge,"

which was created during the 19•h century to help drain agricultural land. The

Conewango is joined by the Cassadaga Creek, which, in turn, carries the out­

flow of Chautauqua Lake via the Chadakoin River.

A few miles below Warren, at Irvine and the ancient Indian village of

Buckaloons, the Brokenstraw Creek joins the Allegheny River. The

Brokenstraw and its tributaries are associated with some of the most signifi­

cant wetlands in the region, including Watts Flats Wildlife Management Area

and Tamarack Swamp.

The Tidioute Overlook, reached from US 62 on the opposite side of rhe

river from Tidioute, is a good place to see the river with its islands and the steep

valley it has cur into the plateau.

The next major tributary of the Allegheny is Tionesta Creek, which drains

much of the Allegheny National Forest. The creek's West Branch first flows

north, through an impoundment at Chapman State Park, then east and south

toward Sheffield. The South and East Branches start in the high country west

of Kane, and converge with the West Branch to form Tionesta Creek south of

H y DR 0 spHERE 25

Sheffield. From there the creek flows southwest, where it is eventually dammed

to form Tionesta Lake. The creek empties into the Allegheny River at nearby

Tionesta.

The petroleum industry started along the banks of Oil Creek. During the

1860's the valley filled with thousands of people seeking their fortunes. In the

process the creek was dreadfully abused with oil pollution from surrounding

hills and sewage from boomtowns along irs banks. The oil and gas industry

there still exists, as it does throughout the region. However there is little evi­

dence, as one walks or bikes the trails at Oil Creek State Park, that such a fren­

zy for resource extraction took place there fourteen decades ago. Oil Creek

flows into the Allegheny at Oil City.

French Creek starts in a forested ravine near Sherman, New York. By the

time irs flow connects with the Allegheny at Franklinville, Pennsylvania, its

watershed drains 1270 square miles, or II o/o of the total landmass of the

Allegheny watershed. Like the Chautauqua, Cassadaga and Conewango water­

sheds, French Creek flows through a glaciated landscape of flattened hills with

steep walls and wide, buried valleys. Some evidence suggests that the pre-gla­

cial French Creek watershed drained northwest toward the Lake Erie basin, as

did the upper Allegheny River. Today, irs main stem extends over 117 miles

with a drop in elevation of only 732 feet, less of a change than most other

streams that feed the Allegheny. French Creek is noted for its high water qual­

ity and the diversity of its aquatic life. It is also noted for irs wetlands, which

cover 45 square miles and include rare habitats such as bogs and fens.

The last Allegheny tributary considered here is the Clarion River. The main

stem of the river starts 120 miles from the Allegheny, in heavily forested val­

leys and uplands. Along irs route are remnant tracts of old growth hemlock and

white pine, preserved at Cook Forest State Park. 52 miles of the river's length

are designated National Wild and Scenic River. Prior to the 2000-foot uplift

that created the Allegheny Plateau, the river occupied a gentler valley. Today

the river drops an impressive 1335 feet from irs source to irs confluence with

the Allegheny at Foxburg.

Groundwater An adequate supply of quality water is crucial to any ecosystem, whether it is

one engineered for human habitation, such as a city, or a natural one, such as

a cattail marsh. In either case the topography, soils and bedrock combine with

the amount of rain and snow that falls to create conditions that are either suit­

able or unsuitable for living communities. A look at places where people live

always entails the question, "Where does the water come from?" And, "Where

does it go?" Some communities in our region get their water supply from a sur­

face water source. An example is Chautauqua Institution, which uses water

from Chautauqua Lake. The same water quality that creates an environment

suitable for the lake's mussels and Walleye makes for tap water suitable for peo­

ple to drink. Other communities use groundwater sources. Much of the six

million gallons that Jamestown and surrounding communities use each day

comes from wells that extract groundwater beneath the Cassadaga Valley.

Groundwater is something of a mystery to some, since it is hidden from the

eye. Is there some sort of subterranean lake down there? How does such cold,

clear water come out of the dirty ground? Following is an explanation of what

it is and where it comes from, in the case of the lower Cassadaga Valley.

Groundwater begins with rain and snowmelt that seeps into the ground.

The amount of water that seeps into the ground can vary from about 5°/o to

20°/o of the total amount that falls, depending on whether the land is made of

a water resistant material such as rock or clay, or a porous material, such as sand

or gravel. The time of year also affects ground seepage. More water evaporates

from the surface of the ground or from the leaves of plants (transpiration) dur­

ing warmer months, leaving less water to seep in. During winter the ground

may be frozen, also hindering seepage.

Water seeping into the ground eventually reaches a place called the saturat­

ed zone where water fills all the pores (tiny openings) in the soil or rock. The

top of the saturated zone is called the water table. The water table rises or falls

depending on the time of year and the amount of rain or snow that has fallen.

It is typically higher in early spring and lower in late summer.

An aquifer is a water-bearing soil or rock formation that can yield a usable

amount of water. The aquifer beneath the Cassadaga Valley north of Falconer,

where the City of Jamestown's wells are located, is composed of a rather thin

(15-20 feet deep) layer of gravel beneath a thick (120 feet deep) layer of fine

silt and clay. The gravel yields usable water, but the clay, though it may be sat­

urated, has such tiny pores that, due to friction, water cannot move through

it. This condition, where groundwater is trapped under an impermeable layer

of clay, produces a confined or artesian aquifer. Water pressure is exerted on

the aquifer by gravity pushing on groundwater in surrounding hills above the

level of the water table beneath the valley. Pressure in the confined aquifer will

cause water in a well to rise above the aquifer level, perhaps even causing the

well to overflow.

The conditions that created an artesian aquifer beneath the Cassadaga Valley

are the result of the Ice Age glaciers that filled the valley and overrode the adja­

cent hills as recently as 14,000 years ago. When the Wisconsin glacier receded

some 13,000 years ago it left the valley filled with 15-20 feet of coarse gravel,

apparently deposited by a swift-flowing stream. This is the material in which

the aquifer is contained. A subsequent minor re-advance of ice into the north­

ern part of the region caused a lake to form ahead of the glacier which filled

the Cassadaga Valley, much as Chautauqua Lake fills the next valley to the west

today. The lake filled in quickly with sediment and disappeared after only a

couple thousand years, leaving the valley filled with a 100-120 foot thickness

of silt and clay.

Water seeping into an aquifer is called recharge. Most of the recharge of the

Jamestown aquifer comes from streams flowing from the uplands that sur-

H Y DR 0 SPHERE 27

round the valley. Folsom Creek and Hatch Creek are two of these streams,

which flow over beds of glacial till and bedrock, down to the valley floor, where

their flow spreads out across thick deposits of sand and gravel called deltas.

When abundant water is flowing off the uplands, the streams are tributaries of

Cassadaga Creek, which meanders across the broad valley. At drier times of the

year, these tributary streams lose water as they approach the valley. This hap­

pens when the surrounding water table drops below the stream level. During

dry times of the year their streambeds may become completely dry.

Underground, however, the delta deposits of sand and gravel connect to the

aquifer and act as reservoirs. In fact most of the water in the Jamestown aquifer

is stored in these deltas. The aquifer itself, the 15-20 feet thickness of gravel

beneath the valley, is more of a pipeline that connects these stream delta reser­

voirs. Cassadaga Creek itself, ironically, contributes nothing to the aquifer. Its

creek bed is separated from the aquifer by 120 feet of clay.

"That 'rock city' we explored last weekend must have been deposited there by glaciers. "

"The fossil shells I found in that streambed are 375 million years old. That's five times older than the dinosaurs!"

Lithosphere

0 ne of these statements is true, the other, false. What lies under our feet is

the subject of old misconceptions as well as well-documented but seem­

ingly incredible facts. What does the evidence tell us? First, here are some geol­

ogy basics.

Geologists describe rocks as belonging to one of three broad categories:

• Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and crystallizing of hot,

molten rock that comes near or actually to the surface. An example of

an igneous rock is granite.

• Sedimentary rocks are formed when rock erodes into small particles

which are then redeposited by water or wind and turned back into

rock when irs particles are cemented together under pressure. An example of a sedimentary rock is sandstone.

• Metamorphic rocks are formed when rock is squeezed and heated

deep beneath the surface, causing it to change irs structure. When this

happens to granite, it changes into gneiss.

In fact, gneiss forms the basement of this region, the rock upon which the

deepest, oldest layers of sedimentary rock lie. Here in the Chautauqua­

Allegheny Region the basement lies about one to two miles down, deeper than

we can ever observe. Bur if you travel north, say 50 miles north of Toronto,

Ontario, you suddenly see this very ancient bedrock actually lying at the sur­

face, where it is known as the Canadian Shield.

Although most of this region is covered with a thick layer of soil, gravel and

other loose material, beneath it lies solid rock, known as bedrock. All of the

bedrock in this region is sedimentary, meaning that it was originally created

when gravity carried particles of clay, silt and sand from some higher place to

where they are now. When you see an outcrop of this bedrock that has the

appearance of flat, stacked-up layers along a roadway, stream or lake, it means

that some force such as water or earth-moving equipment has cut down

through the rock and carried it away.

How did those layered rocks end up here in the first place? The geologic evi­

dence points to a high mountain range to the east, which once soared into the

sky perhaps as the Alps or the Rockies do today. Over a period of millions of

years these mountains eroded, the pieces carried down by rivers into a great

shallow sea that covered this area as well as much of North America. Layers of

clay particles deposited on the floor of this sea became shale. Layers of silt

became siltstone. Layers of sand became sandstone. Layers of sand mixed with

29

The CIHtutrwqua-11/leghelly Regio11 is farge()' rt pfaterlu ofsedimemmy rock that has bem eroded by the actio11 ofwarer a11d tee.

30

pebbles became co nglo m erate. Layers o f the disin tegrated or dissolved shells

o r skelerons of an imals such as corals and snails rhar lived in the warer became

li mestone. As rhe h ig hlands to the east wo re down, the bedrock of this regio n

bui lt up. All o f this mo un ta in bu ilding, e rosion and layeri ng o f sed iments

occurred d uring the Paleozo ic Era, a ti me in geo logic h isto ry lasting from 570

m illio n to 225 m ill io n yea rs ago. With in this vast and incredib ly ancien t e ra

was the Devonian Period , fro m 405 mi llio n to 345 millio n years ago, during

w hich most of the rocks in the C hautauqu a-Allegheny Region (main ly shale

and siltsto ne) were laid clown.

W hat forces created rhe mountains rhat were wo rn clown to deposit all these

sed iments? Scientists bel ieve that the earth's crust is made up o f abo ut twelve

brit tle pla tes that float atop a layer o f rock that can ac tually fl ow clue to ext reme

heat and pressu re. E no rmo us, slowly moving cu rrents deep inside the earth,

similar to the way water circu la tes in a pot o f boil ing water, cause rhese p la tes

to scrape, co ll ide and rea r apart. The p lates generally move slowly, o n ly an inch

or so a year, bu r over rhe course o f a mi ll io n years rhar can amoun t ro miles. The

C hautauqua-Allegheny regio n "rides" o n the eas tern part o f the No rth

American Pla te, which consists of N orth America and half o f the fl oor of the

North Atlan tic O cean.

O ur sedi mentary bed rock is the resul t o f the wearing away o f a mo untain

range that was th rust up d uring a collision between "our" plate and its neigh­

bors to the east, the African and Euras ian p la tes. Th is collisio n is ca lled the

Acad ian mo untain-building event, which too k p lace d uring the Devonian

Period . T he Acad ian mountain-buildi ng evenr happened between two o ther

mountain-building events, rhe T.1conic and rhe

AJ leghenian , respectively. Together, they produced rhe

chain of highlands rhar stretches from Newfoundland ro

Alabama, the mountains that we call the Appalachians.

During rhe Carboniferous Period this region was slowly

raised above rhe sea, which of course stopped rhe deposi­

tion of sediments across our region. The resulting geo­

graphic feature, known as the Allegheny Plateau, has

remained above sea level ever since.

The Allegheny Plateau is a vast region ofhighlands cov­

ering mosr of New York south of 1-90 and west of the

Hudson River, northern and western Pennsylvania, \XIest

Virginia, and eastern O hio. It constitutes the northern

half of rhe Appalach ian Plateau. The south ern half,

known as the Cumberland Pl ateau , stretches from sou th­

ern West Virginia to northern Alabama. Anyon e fam iliar

with the ropography of this region may rhin k ir much too

hi lly ro be a "plareau ," a term that calls to mind a fl at

tableland . Bur climb a high hill and look our ar the hori­

zon and you will see that it appears flat, showi ng that

rather than "rolling hills," it would be more accurate to

describe this as a region of"rol li ng valleys" rhar have been

cur in ro rhe plateau by erosion.

When a stream-cut o r earth-moving equipment expos­

es layers of our sedimentary bedrock, it ofren reveals rocks

that contain fossils. Many of these fossils were formed

fro m the hard bodies or shells of an imals that lived dur­

ing rhe Devonian Period , some 370 million years ago.

Their imprints (borh the mold and casr of their bod ies)

can ofren by found by separati ng the flat layers of shale

rhat formed from rhe muddy sea bottom in which they

lived. Common Devon ian fossils of our region include

mol lusks known as brachiopods, and the "stem" sections

of animals similar to roday's sea lilies, known as crinoids.

To our north, roward Buffalo, outcrops contain rrilobires,

ancient relatives of crabs and other crustacea ns; and, occa­

sionally, 1 ew York's official stare foss il , rhe Euryprerid , or

giant sea scorpion. Lucky foss il hunters along the Lake

Erie shore have fou nd remains of giant armored fish and

rhe ancesto rs of rhe chambered nautilus.

Some of our bed rock holds fossil evidence of other

kinds: coal, o il , and natu ral gas. Foss il fuels are an impor­

tant part of rhe story of what brought people ro this

region in the first place, going back ro before rhe d:~ys of

Rock L:~yers of the Chautauqua-Allegheny Region.

Information provided by Tbomns Erlandson

Series Group Formation Member

Lower Pennsylvanian Olean

Lower Mississippian

Upper Devonian

Middle Devonian

Lower Devonian

Upper Silurian

Middle Silurian

Rhincstrccc Cashaqua M1ddlcso•

Genesee Hamilton Onondaga

Oriskany

Bertie Camillus Syracuse Vernon

Oak Orchard Eramosa Goat Island Gaspon Depew

Rochester Irondequoit

Lower Silurian Thorold Grimsby Power Glen Whi rlpool

Upper Ordovician Queenston

Middle Ordovician Oswego Lorraine Utica Trenton Black River Tribes Hill

Cambrian Little Falls Theresa Potsdam?

Precambrian

(feet)

80

80

150

350

150

100

470

30

150

30

100+

70

40 90

220 170 65 10

25 270 100

0·20?

75 80

100 200

200

30 35

Types of Rock

Conglomerate

Sandstone. Shale, Cong.

Sandy Shales

Sandstones, Siltstones

Shale ond Siltstones

Siltstone and Shale

Shale and Siltstones

Siltstones

Shale and Siltstones

Siltstones

Shale and Siltstones

Shale

Slack Shale Shale Shale Black Shale Shale Black Shale

Shale Shale, some limestone Limestone w ith chert nodules Reef known at base

Sandstone

Dolomite Shale Shale, salt, gypsum Shale

Dolom1t0 Reefs

Shale Limestone

20 Sandstone 110 Red sandstone

25 Shale 15 Sandstone

950• Siltstone, red shale

80 Sandstone 450 Sandstone and shale 250 Black shale

700 Limestones

120

Gneiss

L I T 1-1 0 s p tl 1-' R E 31

NORTHEAST ~~~~

---- -- -----

Figure adapted from Geology of Chautauqua County, New York by Irving H. Tesmer

ANGOLA

The fossils that ca n be found in the Devon ian shales of the region are 5 times older than fossils from the Cretaceous Period, (the age of dinosaurs) and 20,000 times older than the fossils of Ice Age mastodons.

32

HANOVER

European serrlemcnr. The commercial oil industry has irs roots in the valley of

Oil Creek. Coal , roo, has played a role in the Allegheny Plateau's economy for

decades. Natural gas wells dor rhe landscape across our region. Fossil fuels are

narurally exposed at rhe surface in some places. O ne such place is along the

shore of Lake Eric, in rhe black shale of Point G ratiot in Dunkirk. This shale

is actually petroleum-bearing. When one breaks a piece of rhe thin, brirrle rock

and rakes a whiff, rhe kerosene odor is unmistakable.

One very interesting result of rhe millions of years of erosion rhar have

shaped rh e surf:lCc is the presence of bedrock formations called rock cities.

Toward the end of rhe Devonian Period, while rhis region was sti ll part of rhe

floor of an ancient continental sea, streams reaching irs sho res formed deltas,

depositing loads of coarse sa nd mixed with pebbles. T his gravel formed beach­

es rhat were shaped by wave action and storms into layers of rounded pebbles

distributed over a smooth, sandy fl oor.

When these pebbly, sandy sed iments were buri ed, their particles became

cemented together by mineral matter such as hematite, calcite or quarTZ that

precipitated our of ground water, much like the material that coats the inside

of water pipes. In this way thick beds of conglomerate were formed. Nor long

after (in geologic rerms) the entire region was lifted up above sea level. The

deposit of sediments sropped. The plateau rhus formed began ro erode as

streams coursed over irs surface, cutting valleys and carrying away sediments.

The rock cities we sec roday are generally locared on high ridges, since rhe

sediments rhar formed rhese rocks were among rhe las t ro be deposited before

rhe land was li fted up. Rock ciries are always co mposed of bedrock that has

eroded in place. They were not, as is sometimes bel ieved , bro ught here from a

distance by glaciers, nor were they selectively thrown up into their present posi­

tions by some natural force. Rock cities occur because the conglomerate rock

of which they are made rests on softer beds of shale rhar have eroded away,

causing the conglomerate to break in to house-sized blocks that "creep" down­

hill. These eventually form "buildings" wirh tunnels and narrow "srreers" in

between. T he results, though fantastic, came about by the slow, observable

0 2 3 4

SCALE IN MILES VERTICAL EXAGERATION 20X

5

processes of freezing, rhawing, and gravity.

The conglomerate outcrops rhar form rock ciries are known by geologists as

outliers, rhe last remaining pieces of more conrinuous rock layers of rhe sa me

age rhar lie ro rhe sourh. lr is possible rhar rhese hard, erosion-resisranr con­

glomerate layers once extended more widely over rhe high Plateau. lr has even

been suggested rhar ridges capped by rhese hard rocks prevenred rhe furrher

sourhward advance of glaciers rhar spread over much of this region during rhe

Ice Age.

T here is no fossil evidence of whar tra nspired during mosr of rhe quarter­

billion years since rhe rime when rhe lasr underwater and lowland sedimenrs

were laid clown ro form rhe bedrock of our region. A long succession of rer­

resrrial ecosystems came and wenr, bur rhere is no hard evidence ro show whar

acrually lived here.

And rhen, 2 million years ago, something happened rhar cooled ea rth's eli­

mare, resulting in profound changes ro rhe landscape. T he period is known as

rhe Q uaternary, more commonly called rhe Ice Age. Ir was marked by ar leasr

four major advances and ren·ears of icc sheers rhar covered much of North

America, including mosr of New York and part of Pennsylvani a. Each glacial

advance was marked by a decrease in average rem perarures rhar resulred in such

heavy snow accumulation rhar summer was nor sufficient to melr ir all away.

Year afrcr year snow piled up unri l rhc mass compacted into ice, forming a gla­

cier. Because of irs tremendous wcighr, rhe mass began to flow outwa rd and

plow across rhe landscape.

1 ow, ir may be hard ro believe rhar rhis area was once parr of a shallow sea

floo r, wirh long exrincr animals such as rrilobires scurrling rhrough rhe mud.

Bur rhis happened, afrer all , in rhe rcmore pasr, hundreds of milli ons of years

ago. Whar may be even harder to farhom is rhe facr rhar much of rh is area was

covered by a veritable ocean of ice, hundreds and even thousands of feet deep,

as recently as 15,000 years ago- a mere cycblink in geologic time. lr is the

effect of rhe laresr glacial surge, known as the W isco nsin, rhar is most cvidenr

here. The signature of rhis mosr recenr icc sheer is written everywhere upon

L I T I I 0 S P H E R E 33

Huge blocks ofsandstone conglomemte break loose tmd "creep" down­slope to form rock cities. Photo by l'vfark Baldwin.

the landscape that we experience roday.

Most of these changes were caused by I) the sheer

grinding load of the ice itself as it advanced across the

landscape like a titan ic bulldozer; 2) enormous loads of

sed iment rhar rhe glacier picked up and carried, later to

be deposited when the ice melted; and 3) the rorrents of

meltwater that gushed across the land as the glacier melt­

ed. Among the local la ndscape features the glaciers left in

their wake arc Chautauqua Lake and the Allegheny River

as we know them.

The trough that holds Chautauqua Lake, wi th irs

southeast-flowing orientation, existed prior to the

Wisconsin glaciation . A succession of glaciers overrode

the Portage Escarpment, and flowed our across the

plateau, fi lling vJ IIeys and covering uplands across most

of the region . The last of these, rhe W isconsin , began to

retreat about 18,000 years ago and uncovered the

Chautauqua va lley by about I 6,000 years ago. The glacier

paused around present-day Jamesrown, dumping loads of

rill , chaotic pi les of debris ranging from clay particles to

boulders. Added ro the ri ll were loads of sand and gravel

washed and so rted by meltwater pouring off rhe glacier.

Th is Clymer moraine, bolstered by shale bedrock ncar the

surface, dammed up meltwater, forming a lake JS the gla­

cier continued ro recede up the Chautauqua va lley. At the

site of Bemus Point and Stow, rhe glacier stabilized long

enough to deposi t another load of debris, fo rm ing the

Findley moraine. It is this moraine that divides

Chautauqua Lake inro two basins. During th is time rhe

melting glacier dumped about 80 feet of sil t and cb y

across the botrom of a lake formed between the glacier

and the Clymer moraine, what we know as the South

Basin of Chautauqua Lake.

Another period of glacial recession formed rhc No rth

Basin of the lake. T he Lavery moraine at the north end of

Chautauqua Lake is associated with wetlands and melt­

water chan nels that suggest that fine sed iments were

trapped and prevented from entering the No rth Basin of

the lake. T his explains the contrast between the deeper,

comparatively sed iment free borrom of the No rrh Basin

and the shallower, sedim ent filled South Basin. T he

North Basin also has several depressions, as mu ch as 40

feet deeper than the surrounding lake floor, that are

thought ro be glacial kettles formed by blocks of icc left

in place and partially buried as the glacier retreated. These mammoth ice

blocks would have lain scattered across the basin, preventing lake sediments

from being deposited in those places.

The Allegheny River takes an interesting course, beginning in Pennsylvania,

entering New York to flow through Olean and Salamanca before dipping south

again to re-enter Pennsylvania to flow through Warren as it continues south to

Pittsburgh. The Wisconsin Glacier was responsible for the southward flow of

this major river. Before the Wisconsin Glacier covered much of our region, the

upper Allegheny River flowed northwest through the present-day Conewango

and Cattaraugus Creek Valleys, and emptied into Lake Erie's ancestor. Then

the glacier plowed down the Conewango Valley from the north, carrying with

it immense loads of sediment that washed out ahead of the glacier to form a

moraine at Steamburg, blocking the river's flow toward the northwest. Another

moraine at Gowanda, the Valley Heads moraine, further prevented the

Allegheny from reaching its old route to Lake Erie. Finally, the meltwater­

swollen Allegheny wore down and breached a drainage divide that once stood

where the Kinzua Dam now stands. Heaping-up and wearing-down events like

these created the streams and drainage patterns that we know today.

The spectacular gorges that flow northwest into Lake Erie, such as those

along Chautauqua and Cattaraugus Creeks, were formed since the glaciers

melted, as water eroded down through moraine and bedrock that form the

"wall" or escarpment of the Allegheny Plateau that rises steeply off of the Lake

Erie Plain.

Flat-bottomed, steep-walled valleys characterize the landscape of the north­

ern half of the region. A good example is the Cassadaga Valley, occupying the

watershed to the northeast of Chautauqua Lake. NY Route 60 traverses most

of this valley from the start of Cassadaga Creek at Bear Lake and Cassadaga

Lakes to its end where Cassadaga Creek joins Conewango Creek. The valley is

broad and flat throughout, its walls are steep, and the surrounding hilltops are

flattened as a result of the overriding ice. The valley is filled with till and gla­

cial outwash to a depth of hundreds of feet. A number of streams flowing off

of the surrounding hills actually disappear in summer months below the sur­

face where they reach the valley floor, their water soaking into porous deltas of

glacially derived gravel. These deep deposits of gravel hold enormous amounts

of water, enough to supply the City of Jamestown and surrounding commu­

nities with millions of gallons a day.

Other local landscape features caused by the glaciers include:

Kames-Mounds of layered sand and gravel left along the glacier's edge by

meltwater streams flowing across the ice. Erlandson Overview County Park

is a good place to view kame topography.

Drumlins-Hills that are molded into streamlined shapes by some combina­

tion of erosion and deposition as a glacier advances across the landscape. Such

L I T H 0 s I' H E R E 35

Formation of an esker.

Glacier

Streambed inside glacier

Stream inside glacier

---~·-··~-,,~···r· ~~~ Bedrock

Ground Moraine

Esker

! ~-,----------~-----------~-----------

Ground Moraine Bedrock

elongated hills occur on both sides of the Chautauqua

Lake watershed and can be seen depicted on topographic

maps of the area.

Eskers-Long, snake-like ridges formed when the gravel

beds of streams that tunneled through the glacier melted

through the ice and contacted the ground. There is at least

one esker in Chautauqua County, on private property in

the Town of Portland.

Terminal Moraine-A ridge made up of glacial till,

chaotic piles of debris, left at the glacier's front edge. At

times when the glacier was neither advancing nor retreat­

ing, it acted like a conveyor belt, carrying till and deposit­

ing it on the same ridge year after year. The City of

Jamestown is built on a terminal moraine.

Ground Moraine-Deposits of till that mark where the

glacier was. Morainal deposits sometimes hundreds of

feet deep, coupled with steep hillsides, characterize valleys

that were in the glacier's path. Conewango Valley is a

good example.

Erratics-Boulders, cobbles, or pebbles that are not from

local bedrock, i.e. not sedimentary rock such as shale.

These were transported by the glacier from some distance

away, perhaps hundreds of miles north in Canada. These

can be found almost anywhere.

Outwash-Silt, sand, or gravel deposits formed when

meltwater flowing through till sorted it into these more

uniform-sized particles. The location of outwash indi­

cates the paths of the glacier's meltwater streams. Many of

the region's commercial sand and gravel pits are located in

outwash.

Kettles-Lakes or ponds formed when blocks of ice left by the retreating glacier became partly or completely

buried in outwash. Later, when the ice melted, it left a

depression in the ground that became filled with water.

Cassadaga Lakes were formed in this way. Many of the

wetlands - marshes, swamps, bogs, and fens - that dot

our region were formed as kettles that have since largely

filled in with organic material.

Hanging beaches-Beach ridges of sand or gravel that are Formation of a kettle lake.

now high and dry, bur were once the shore of ancestral

Lake Erie. These were formed when the retreating glacier

backed off the lake basin, exposing successively lower

"drains" that emptied the lake to that level. In

Chautauqua Counry, US Route 20 lies atop the wave­

built shelf of "Lake Warren," while slightly higher up,

Webster Road follows the shoreline of"Lake Whittlesey,"

the names given to these ancestral lakes.

The furthest extent of the Wisconsin glacier is marked

by the Kent terminal moraine. Named for the ciry of

Kent, Ohio, the moraine trends northeast through north­

western Pennsylvania, across northern Warren Counry,

the southeastern corner of Chautauqua Counry, and into

the middle of Cattaraugus Counry. The resulting sharp

contrast between the glaciated and nonglaciated land­

scape is one of the unique features of the Chautauqua­

Allegheny Region. Nowhere is the contrast more evident

than at the Salamanca Re-entrant. The Salamanca Re­

entrant is a roughly triangular region that includes the

Allegheny River Valley where it loops into New York

State, including the cities of Olean and Salamanca, and

Allegany State Park. It is the only part of New York Stare

that was not reached by the Wisconsin glacier. It is also

the northernmost nonglaciated landscape in eastern

North America. The nonglaciared areas are characterized

by V-shaped valleys, sharp ridge-tops, and sometimes, by

the presence of rock cities, those unique bedrock features

of higher slopes.

Bear Lake Outlet

Bedrock

Shorelines of Ancestral Lake Erie

Lake Whittlesey

Glacier

Top of Portage

Escarpment

LQ::---_-_-_-_-_-:;L ----=- ___-/

L I T H 0 S P H E R E 37

I

1 ? __ r . ..J <\. ~ ..---;--- -~_

~./" I -Northern Appalachian

.) fl~te~u Great Lakes Plain//. , 1•

/ .• \

~ l. • " ~-

---

l:.coregions of r!Je C!Jflllttlll(jutr·AIIeghell)' Regio11.

Biosphere

T he Chautauqua-Allegheny region is located in a broad transition zone

between coniferous boreal forests to our north and deciduous hardwood

forests to our south. As a transitional zone, the dominant forest types found

here reflect those typical of both boreal and southerly regions, including decid­

uous hardwood forests in the south (primarily oak-hickory forest) and along

Lake Erie (beech-maple-basswood forest), with broad expanses of mixed hem­

lock-northern hardwood forests in between. Retreating glaciers left behind a

scarred landscape and a complex of wetland habitats, including swamps, bogs,

and fens. This wide variety of plant communities support a diverse fauna.

The distribution and abundance of vertebrates in the Chautauqua­

Allegheny region is closely tied to the distribution of vegetation communities,

which is in turn associated with a complex interplay of temperature, precipita­

tion, soils, drainage, and the contours of the land. Nearly two hundred distinct

vegetation associations have been described for New York-mostly based on

gradients in the physical environment-and a large number of these associa­

tions are present in the Chautauqua-Allegheny region. While vegetation asso­

ciations are powerful tools for organizing the bewildering array of biological

communities found in this region, they are often based primarily on the dom­

inant canopy tree species present. This may be a particularly useful approach

for understanding botanical communities, but keep in mind that this scheme

may be too "fine-grained" for analyzing the distribution of larger animals

whose individual home ranges often include a number of distinct plant com­

munities. For these organisms, overall forest structure may be more important

than specific forest composition. Many vertebrates in this region are broadly

associated with mature upland forest-regardless of the particular mix of for­

est trees-as long as the proper mix of habitat features are present.

For example, Hooded Warblers are widely distributed and can be found in

both deciduous oak-hickory forest and mixed hemlock-northern hardwood

forest as long as canopy gaps and associated dense shrublayer are present -the

"microhabitat" where these birds prefer to nest. Louisiana Waterthrushes can

be found in almost any large forest tract where permanent or semi-permanent

forest streams occur. Cerulean Warblers nest in wet floodplain forests charac­

terized by Sycamores and Cottonwood or on high, dry ridge tops where oaks

and hickories dominate as long as some big canopy trees are present. On the

other hand, in the Chautauqua-Allegheny Region Golden-crowned Kinglets

and Black-throated Green Warblers are found almost exclusively in hemlock­

northern hardwood forest where hemlock is an important element of the flo­

ral community. Elsewhere in New York these birds are associated with a broad

array of forest types characterized by the presence of other coniferous tree

species.

39

While relatively few rept iles and amph ibians are true forest an imals-many

are habi tat generalists o r are fo und in open aquatic hab itats such as marshes,

bogs and swam ps-some are found primarily in forested landscapes. Many of

these are closely t ied to local microhabitats such as forested streams, seeps, o r

vernal (seasonal) pools, and can be fou nd in a broad range of fo rest types as

long as those microhabitats are present. Reptiles and amphibians that are com­

mon and widespread on forested hillsides include Spotted, Allegheny Dusky,

Northern Redback (Redback and Dusky salamanders rank among the most

abundant vertebrates in the regio n), and Northern Slimy Salamanders, Wood

Frogs, and Northern Redbelly and Northern Ringneck Snakes; locally on

forested uplands of the Allegheny Plateau o ne can also find Wehrle's

Salamanders, Northern Coa l Skinks, and Eastern Box Turtles. W idespread

species that are closely tied ro fo rested springs, streams, and seepages include

Northern D usky, Northern Spring, and Northern Two-lined Salamanders; on

the Allegheny Pl ateau this group includes Northern Red and Longtai l

Salamanders. Widespread species that are typ ically fo und in large rivers and

lakes-even shallow inshore areas of Lake Erie-include Common

Mudpu ppies and Snapping Turrles. C lear, high-gradient rivers and larger

streams of the Allegheny Plateau may also contain two odd ities, the rare

Eastern Hellbender-North America's largest salamander-and the Eastern _

Spiny Softshell , among the most aquatic of our tu rrles. ~~~~:~~ Of the species typically associated with forested habitats, forest tract size and

"edginess"-the ratio of fores t edge ro forest interio r- may be of overrid ing

concern fo r so-called "forest interio r" species. Some salamanders and, during

the summer breed ing season, many migrarory songbirds are common res idents

of large fo rest tracts, grad ually becom ing less common wi th decreasing tract

size, and are decidedly rare o r absent from small patches of forest surrounded

by agricultural land . T his phenomenon may be due ro a host of interrelated

facro rs, e.g., small forest tracts are susceptible to the drying effects of wind.

Wind penetration may reduce the availab il ity of moist habitat necessary for

amphibians and invertebrates-the food base of most migratory birds-to

thrive. Many small predators, including Opossums, Raccoons, Striped Skunks

and a variety of weasels are abundant along forest edges, and are significant

predators on birds' nests. Small tracts afforest m ay, by chance, sim ply lack the

necessary microhabitats such as streams or vernal pools.

Fish species d istr ibution in western New York is primarily a reflection of the

intersectio n between the "co nnectedness" of drainages, stream o rder, and local

habi tats that are ava il able within the stream or river. Although fish occasion­

ally d isperse between unconnected waterways-as a result of stream captu re,

d ispersal during floods or as human-caused introductions, for example-more

commo nly fish disperse through connected waterways. While many fish

species are shared between rivers that fl ow into Lake Erie to the northwest and

those that drain into the Allegheny River ro the south , several species are

unique tO each drainage. In New York there are several species that are entire-

-fO

From 10p: Blue-sported Snlnmr111det; Northern Redbnck Snlnmnnde1; Allegheny Dusky Snlnmnndet; and Eflsrem Spiny Sofishe/1.

ly confined ro rhe Allegheny River a nd French C reek d rain ages and are more

commonly distributed in Pennsylvania , Ohio, and orher parts south and west.

Mosr notably rh is group includes Mounrain Brook La mprey, Blackchin

Shiner, Silverjaw Minnow, and Sported D arter in French C reek; American

Brook Lamprey, G ravel and Streamlin e Chubs, Ri ver Redhorse, and

Bluebreasr Darter in Allegheny River and its tributaries; and S ilver Shin er,

Variegate, Banded and Lo nghead Darters in both drainages . T here arc several

species present in rivers draining into Lake Eric (and Lake Erie itself) that are

absent fro m the Allegheny River and French C reek (bu r may be present in

drainages outside rhe scope of this arias) . T hese in cl ude Lake Swrgeo n,

Mooneye, Tadpo le Madrom , Black Bullhead , Sourhern Redbclly Dace, Silver

C hub (possibly extinct in New York), G reater Red horsc, Lake C hubsucker

(also possibly extinct in New York), Deepwater Sculp in, T hrcespine

Stickleback, Longear Su nfish , Eas tern Sand Darter, and Freshwater Drum.

Streams can contain a variety ofhabirars, including riffl es, runs, pools, sub­

merged sand or gravel bars, and floa ting, submerged o r em ergent aq uatic veg­

etation, ro name a few. Ri ffles are shallow, swift sections, generally runn ing

over exposed rocks or gravel, and are well aerated. They are inhabited by species

adapted ro live in fas t , turbulent waters, incl uding darters , sculpins, and som e

minnows. Runs are typified by fast currents, bur are generally deeper rhan rif­

fl es and rhe water's surface is generally unbro ken by currenr o r emergent sub­

strate. Runs are inhabited by suckers and var io us minnows. Pools are deep,

slowly moving sections, and are typ ically inhabited by vario us species of m in­

nows and panfish.

Stream o rder is a means of classify ing stream s based on rheir pattern of

branching. H ead waters are first o rder streams which unite ro form second

order srreams, which, in rurn , unire ro form rhird o rder strea ms and so o n until

rhe main river channel is reached. In mosr drainage systems headwaters are typ­

ically sm all ro medium-sized rocky streams exhibiting pools and riffl es bur li t­

tle rooted aquatic vegeta tion. They are o f the highest g rad ient, contain rhe

coldest water, and are o ften com pletely shaded by a closed cano py overhead .

Headwaters are rhe most nutrient-defic ienr as well- primary productivity is

low, and rhe chief inpu t of energy is in rhe fo rm of leaf liner and other o rga n­

ic m atter. Consequently, they con rain rhe fewest species o ffish. Typica l inhab­

itants of headwater creeks include species rhat feed o n o rganic detritus or ter­

restria l insects, such as Blacknose Dace, C reek C hub and o th er minn ows,

G reen Sunfish , Fanta il and Rainbow Darters, and Mottled Sculpins. Some

high gradient creeks co ntain populations of Brook Tro ur.

As stream o rder increases, so does stream size, habi tat di versity, turbidi ty,

water temperature, vegetat io n, and fi sh species d iversity, while g radient gener­

ally decreases. Species adapted w live in cold water, such as Brook Trout and

Mottled Sculpins, or species that thrive under diffi cult cnvi ro nmenral condi­

tions where communi ty d iversi ty and resource competitio n is low, such as

G reen Sunfish , gradually drop our. In higher o rder strea ms, the impo rtance of

Top to Bottom: 1-rnnail Dartel; fomale and male Rainbow Darter; female and male Cremside Dartel~ fomale and male Variegate Darter; female and male Bluebreast Darrer; female t111tlmale Sponed Darre1: \'(/atercolor by Solon Morse.

B 1 o s r H E R E 41

From top: Red Bats, Clmtllllt-sided Warblers, mul!ndigo 81111tings live along forest edges. Great Crested Flycrucbers are widely distrib-11/ed, breeding in a variety ojllflbirats.

detritivores and predators on terrestrial insects is overshadowed by rhe impor­

tance of predators o n aquatic insects and other fish, and herbivores. Typical

denizens of midreach (second and th ird-order) streams include Creek C hub,

Com mon Shiner and o ther minnows, Trout-perch, and various sunfishes in

pools; Rosyfacc Shiners in rhe heads of pools; Greenside Darters, Longnose

Dace, and Stonecars in riffics; and various suckers and Blu nrnose Min nows in

runs. Main channel rivers are characterized by deep-bod ied species such as

Shortn ose Sturgeon, Mooneye, G izzard Shad, and various suckers, and include

warmwarer fis hes such as Grass Pickerel, Northern Pike, various catfishes,

many species of minnow, and Largemouth and Smallmourh Basses.

Ecoregions

The Great Lakes Plain bordering Lake Erie is essentially a Aar plain composed

of glacial rill wi rh lirrlc relief. lr is a mosaic of interspersed farm lands, orchards,

and wood lands, and is approximately 15% forested. The predo minant forest

associatio ns are Beech-maple, Maple-Basswood, and Hemlock-northern hard­

woods.

The Appalachian Plateau extends north through Pen nsylvania into rhe

southern half of New York and nearly crosses rhe srare from east to west. The

plateau consists primarily of Aar-topped hills and deeply dissected valleys,

formed pri marily by water erosion and, except for the North Central

Appalach ians (rhe Allegany H ills in New York), modified by the action of gla­

ciers. Escarpments are locally evident. T his plateau has been d ivided into sev­

eral subzones. In the C hautauqua-Allegheny Region these include the Erie

Drift Plains, the North Central Appalachians and the Northern Appalachian

Plateau. T he Erie Drift Plains subzone ranges in elevation fro m 1000-1800

feet, and is composed of deeply d issected, Aat-topped hills. Th is area is approx­

imately 30% forested , wi th hemlock-no rthern hardwood associatio ns pre­

dominating, bur oak- hickory fo rests ca n be fou nd on south-facing slopes. T he

Northern Appa lachian Plateau lies above 1500 feet and extends up to 2300 in

some places. lr is approximately 40% fo rested. The dominant forest types

include Hemlock-northern hardwood on east and north-facing slopes, and

oak-hickory associat ions on south and west-facing slopes. T he North Central

Appalachians subzone rep resents one of the few areas in New York that was nor

glaciated . T his subzone ranges in elevation from 1500- 2400 feet and remains

nearly 70% forested. Dominant fo rest associations include H em lock-northern

hardwood, Appalachian oak-hickory, and Allegheny oak. Oak associations are

more common in this subzone than they are in areas further to the north.

Vegetation Associations

T he following descriptions are based on a classification scheme com piled by

Carol Reschke of the the New York Natural H eritage Program.

Upland Forests

Beech-maple mesic forests are broadly defined hardwood forests occu rrin g on

moist, well-d rained acid ic soils, and are typified by Sugar Maple and Beech co­

dominant in the canopy. Tree species also include Basswood, Ameri ca n El m,

Wh ite Ash, Yellow Birch, Eastern Hop Hornbeam, and Red Maple. T he

ground layer is often sparse, and includes Ameri ca n Hornbeam, Sniped

Maple, Witch Hazel , Hobblebush, and Alternate-leaved Dogwood, with

Maple and Beech saplings commonly th e dom inant subcanopy clemems.

Hemlock may also be present at low densities. Small parches of Hemlock­

northern hardwoods fo rest type may be foun d locally in steep ravines. In ou r

area, this association is primari ly restricted to rhe Grear Lakes Plain ecoregion ,

bur may be found at lower eleva tions in broad river valleys in the North­

Central Appalachians subzone of rhe Appalachian Plateau.

Maple-Basswood rich mesic forests are fou nd primarily in the Great Lakes

Plain ecoregion on lower elevations and on gentle north or east-facing slopes

on rich, well-drained moist soils with a neutral pH. These forests are domi­

nated by Sugar Maple, Basswood and W hite Ash. Dominants are typ ically

accompanied by Bitternut Hickory, Tu li p Tree, and American Horn beam. In

the sparse understory one ca n find Alternate-leaved Dogwood and Witch

Hazel. T he groundlayer is characterized by abu ndant spring ephemerals,

including False Solomon's Seal, Sp ring Beauty, Dutchman's Breeches, Trourlily,

and Red Trillium. As in the Beech-Maple Mes ic Forest, Hemlocks may be pres-. .

em 111 steep rav1 nes.

Characteristic birds of beech-maple-basswood associat ions include Hairy

Woodpecker, Least Flycatcher, Red-eyed Vireo, American Redstart, and

O venbird.

Hemlock-northern hardwood forest is a widespread, mixed forest type char­

acteristic of cool, middle to lower slopes and around the margins of swamps in

the Appalach ian Plateau. Hemlock occurs with Beech, Sugar Maple, Red

Maple, Black C herry, White Pine, Yel low and Black Birch, Red Oak, and

Basswood. The importance of Hemlock in this communi ty can vary widely,

from compos ing only 20% of the ca nopy to form ing nea rly pure stands in

deep, shady ravines. In the subcanopy and shrub layer one can expect Striped

Maple, Hobblebush, Maple-leaved Viburnum, and raspberries. Where the

canopy is dense light reaching the fo rest floor is weak, and the groundlayer is

correspondingly sparse. Several species offerns and club mosses arc common­

Common and Moumain Wood Ferns, Christmas Fern , and Shining Club moss

are typical represemarives.

Characteristic birds of northern hardwood associations include Yell ow-bel­

lied Sapsucker, Least Flycatcher, Golden-crowned Kinglet, Brown Creeper,

Red-breasted Nuthatch, Black-capped C hickadee, Swainso n's Thrush, Hermit

Thrush, Blue-headed Vireo, Black-throated G reen Warbler, Black-throated

Fmm top: Red-eyed Vireos and Amaican

Redstrms are crmtmon breeding birds in beech-maple forests. Brown Creepers and Black-throated Green \'0n-blers breed in bem­

lock-nortbem harclwoocl forests.

13 I 0 S I' II E It E 43

Blue Warbler, M agnolia Warbler, Yellow-rum ped Warbler, Blackburnian

Warbler, Nonhern \XIaren hrush, W hite-throated Sparrow, Dark-eyed Junco,

and Purple Finch.

Appalachian oak-h ickory forests occur on well-drained sires, most often on

ridgero ps and upper slopes, usually those with a southern or western exposure.

In our area, this association is primarily restricted to the unglacia ted Nonh

Central Appalachians, but can be found locally in the Eric Drift Plain. Oak­

hickory fores ts grade into rich mesic fo rest on east o r no rth-facing slopes, at

lower eleva tions, and in protected ho llows. Soils arc typically loa m or sandy

loam. These fo rests are variable in composition, bur are characterized by sev­

eral species of southern affi ni ty, including Red , Black and W hi re Oak, and sev­

eral species of hi ckory, including Pignut, Shagbark, and Sweet Pignut. Orher

tree species include W hire Ash, Red Maple, and Eastern Hop Horn beam. The

subcanopy typically contains a variety of saplings, small rrees and shrubs,

including Floweri ng and G ray Dogwoods, Maple-leafViburnum, Blueberries,

Red Raspberries, Beaked Hazelnur, Wirch Hazel, Shadbush, and C hoke

C herry. T he g round layer is composed of W ild Sarsaparilla, False Solomon's

Seal, Tick-trefo il , Black Cohosh, Rattlesnake Root, Wh ite Goldenrod, and

hepatica.

O n rhe unglaciated Appalach ian Plateau, oak-hickory forests g rade in to a

richer co mm uni ry, the Allegheny oal< foresc. This co mmunity is characterized

by a more d iverse flo ra in both rhe canopy and rhe groundlayer, and includes

several Appalachian species reaching their northern range li mit. Like rhe

Appalachian oak-hickory fores t, rhe oak forest canopy is dominated by Red,

Black, and White oak, bur includes C hestnut Oak as well . America n C hestnut

was an impo rtant member of this com munity prio r ro the C hestnut blighc.

C hestnut sprouts can st ill be found occasio nally in rhe undcrsrory. Other com­

mon tree species include W hite Ash, Red Maple, Pignut Hickory, Black Birch,

and Bigtooth Aspen. In the undersrory o ne can fi nd blueberries, Pinxter, Black

H uckleberry, Maple-leafViburnum, and Moun tain Laurel. Common ground

layer herbs include Black Cohosh, W intergreen, Bracken, Pennsylvania Sedge,

Barren Strawberry, W hite C lintonia, Three-lobed Violet, and Rattlesnake

Weed.

Typical birds of these oak associations incl ude Wi ld Turkey, Yellow-billed

C uckoo, H airy Woodpecker, Eastern Wood-pewee, Blue Jay, Cerulean

Warbler, Black and W hi te Warbler, H ooded Warbler, and Scarlet Tanager.

Rich mesophytic forest , found on ly in the Northern Appa lachian Plateau

and the Nonh Central Appalachians, is similar to rhe mixed mesophyric forests

characteristic of the Appalachians south of the C hautauqua-Allegheny

Regio n, but has relatively lower species d iversity. This fo rest is typ ical of moist,

wel l-drained soils o n north and east-facing slopes, and at middle elevations sit­

uated ben-veen Allegheny oak forest on rhe upper slopes and ridgetops and

Hem lock-northern hardwoods on the lower slopes and in ravines. This forest

type is do minated by a wide variety of canopy species, includ ing Red Oak,

44

From top: 8/nck nnd \'{/IJite \'{/nrblers nnd Hooded l'<lnrblers nre found on onk-hickory billsides, wbi/e Louisinnn \'<lnterthrusbes nest nlong strenms. Fie!tl Sparrows nre fount! in successional o!tlfields.

Beech, Red Maple, Black Bi rch, W hite Ash, Black C herry, C ucumber Tree,

and White Oak. Less commonly one ca n find Tulip Tree, White Pine,

Basswood , Bit ternut Hickory, Sugar Maple, Eastern Hop Hornbea m, a nd

Striped Maple.

A variety of successional habi tats are widespread throughout rhe

Chautauqua-Al legheny regio n. Successional o ldfields are meadows dominat­

ed by grasses and forbs g rowing on abandoned farmlands. Field sparrows are

typical birds of oldflelds. As succession proceeds, woody vegetation- in itially

in the form of shrubs-becomes more prevalent and the o ldfield succeeds ro

a successional shrubland, dominated by dogwoods, cedars, hawthorns a nd

o thers. C haracteristic inhabitants of shrublands include Blue-winged Warblers

and Indigo Buntings.

Open Wetlands Emergent Marshes are wetland associations that are seasonally o r permanent­

ly flooded. Water levels in deep emergent marshes may fluctuate, bur the sub­

strate is rarely dry and there is usually standing water present in the fa ll.

Shallow emergent marshes are better drained and the substrate is typically

exposed in late summer and fall.

Amphibians and reptiles are abundant, including Bull frog, Green Frog,

Northern Leopard Frog, and Painted Turtle. C haracteristic birds include Pied­

billed G rebe, American and Least Bitterns, Virginia Rail, Marsh Wren, Swamp

Sparrow, and Red-winged Blackbird.

Fens are complex associa tio ns growi ng on pear (decomposed plant mater i­

al) with little mineral soil , and a re fed by mineral-enriched groundwater. T hey

are finely characterized by botanists based on presence o r absence of marl (cal­

cium carbo nate deposits), the degree of mineraliza tion and pH of the water

feeding the fen, and the the saturation of the so il , among o ther th ings. Sedges,

grasses, and rushes dominate. Sphagn um may be present. C haracteristic

species include various sedges and mosses, Cattail , Spike Muhly, Spikerush,

common H orsetail, Marsh Fern, C rested Wood Fern , Roya l Fern , Ci nnamon

Fern, Black-eyed Susan, Spread ing Goldenrod, Golden Ragworr, Marsh­

marigold, Bog-candle, Round-leaved Sundew, Pitcher-plant, W ild l ris,

C ranberry, Rose Pagonia, Skunk Cabbage, Shovry Lady's Sli pper, and Swam p

Goldenrod. Trees and shrubs, if present, include Red Maple, H emlock,

Tamarack, White Pine, Red O sier and Gray Dogwoods, Bog Laurel ,

Leatherleaf, Bog Rosema ry, Sh rubby C inquefoil, Hoary Wi llow, Bayberry,

Alder-leaved Buckthorn , Speckled Alder, Poison Sumac, Swamp Birch,

Highbush Blueberry, Smooth Shadbush, and Black C hokeberry.

Bogs, like fens, g row on pear bur are typically fed by rainfall wi th little o r

no input from groundwater. Water is usually nutrient-poor and highly acid ic.

Conseq uently, bog commun ities are composed of relatively few species. Bogs

often form a floating mar of vegeta tion-primarily composed of sphagnum­

around a bog lake o r alo ng the banks of a strea m. This mar may eventually fi ll

Above, fimn top: Blue-winged \'(/arblers and Nashville \'(farblers are found in successional shrub/antis.

Below: Blue-grrt)' Gnatcatchers and Yellow­throated \lireos are typical breeding birds of floodplain forests.

B I OS PJ J E RE 45

in the depression in which it formed. Bogs may exhibit

more than 50o/o cover in low-growing shrubs and stunted

trees. Species include Leatherleaf, Swamp Azalea,

Winterberry, Sheep Laurel, Bog Laurel, Black

Huckleberry, Highbush Blueberry, Small Cranberry,

Cinnamon Fern, Round-leaf Sundew, Pitcher Plant, Bog

Rosemary, Red Maple, Tamarack, and various sedges.

Characteristics birds include Common Yellowthroat

and Swamp and Song Sparrows. Masked Shrew, Meadow

Jumping Mouse, Southern Red-backed Vole, and

Southern Bog Lemming may be present.

Forested Wetlands Floodplain forest is a broadly defined hardwood forest

type that occurs within the flood regime of larger rivers

and deltas. Low areas are flooded annually in the spring

while higher areas are flooded irregularly. Some floodplain

forests are dry in late summer, others flood again in late

summer and early autumn. Plant species composition is

both variable and diverse. Typical canopy species include

Silver Maple, Red Maple, Sycamore, Cottonwood,

Butternut, Black Willow, Bitternut Hickory, Swamp

White Oak, White Ash, Black Ash, and Basswood. Vines

can be found in the understory, including Virginia

Creeper and Poison Ivy. In the groundlayer one can expect

to find Sensitive Fern, White Snakeroot, Jewelweed,

Jumpseed, and Spicebush.

Typical amphibians include Jefferson's and Blue-spot­

ted Salamanders and their hybrids. Red-shouldered

Hawk, Barred Owl, Hairy and Pileated Woodpeckers,

Tufted Titmouse, White-breasted Nuthatch, Blue-gray

Gnatcatcher, Warbling and Yellow-throated Vireos,

Cerulean Warbler, American Redstart, and Northern

Oriole are typical breeding birds.

Red maple-hardwood swamp is a loosely-defined asso­

ciation that occurs in poorly-drained depressions, typical­

ly on inorganic soils. Red maple is dominant, and may

occur with Black Ash, American Elm, Swamp White Oak,

Butternut, and Bitternut Hickory. The shrub layer is usu­

ally well-developed and quite dense, and includes

Spicebush, Winterberry, Black Chokeberry, Red Osier

Dogwood, Arrowwood, and Highbush Blueberry. The

ground layer is dominated by ferns, including Cinnamon,

Royal, and Sensitive Ferns, and Crested and Spinulose

Wood Ferns. Skunk cabbage, Jewelweed, and various

sedges are prominent.

Silver maple-ash swamps are common in permanently

wet soils along rivers, lakeshores, and depressions. These

forests are dominated by Silver Maple, with lower densi­

ties of Green, White and Black Ash. Virginia Creeper,

Poison Ivy, Spicebush, Skunk Cabbage, and Wood-nettle

are common in the understory.

Red maple-tamarack swamps occur in wet depressions

on organic soils, and are often fed by springs or seeps

which permanently saturate the soil. The canopy is dom­

inated by Red Maple and Tamarack and is often open,

allowing a dense shrub layer to develop. Shrubs include

Poison Sumac, Red Osier Dogwood, Highbush

Blueberry, several species of alder, Shrubby Cinquefoil,

Meadowsweet, Black Chokeberry, and Swamp Birch.

Herbs include various sedges, Cattail, Crested Wood

Fern, Royal and Marsh Fern, Spreading Goldenrod,

Marsh Marigold, and Skunk Cabbage.

Hemlock-hardwood swamps grow in seasonally wet

depressions. This is a common and widespread associa­

tion, often covering very small areas. The canopy is dom­

inated by Hemlock, Red Maple, and Yellow Birch, and is

typically dense. Consequently, the vegetation forming the

subcanopy and ground layer is often sparse. Highbush

Blueberry is the most common shrub. Groundcover typ­

ically consists of Cinnamon and Sensitive Fern.

Typical birds found in swamp forest include Winter

Wren and Northern Waterthrush.

Vernal Pools are small, shallow, seasonally flooded

depressions in upland forests. They are typically flooded

in the spring, sometimes in the fall. There is little distinct

vegetation associated with vernal pools-the floral com­

munity is primarily that of the surrounding forest. Vernal

pools are an important component of the life histories of

a wide variety of invertebrates and amphibians that

depend on fishless ponds for reproduction. Fish are pred­

ators on amphibian eggs and invertebrate larvae, and any

aquatic habitat where fish cannot become established pro­

vides a refuge from predation. Typical seasonal inhabi­

tants of vernal pools includes American Toad, Wood,

Green, and Northern Leopard Frogs, and Spotted

Salamander and other mole salamanders (genus

Ambystoma).