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European Journal of Mental Health 7 2012/2

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The European Journal of Mental Health is a professional forum, a meeting place as well as a sounding board for experts on the theory and practice of human services professions.

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Page 1: European Journal of Mental Health 7 2012/2

Volume 7 Number 2 December

WW

W.EJM

H.EU

Page 2: European Journal of Mental Health 7 2012/2

Published biannually in June and Decemberby the Institute of Mental Health, Faculty of Health and Public Services,

Semmelweis University, Budapest

This interdisciplinary periodical represents the view that mental health promotion must not belimited to the protection and improvement of the individual’s mental health but must be extended

to include the community, and through the cooperation of all human services it mustcontribute to the emergence of a mentally healthy society. The journal publishes theoretical

and research-oriented articles as well as work-in-progress papers, short communications and the descriptions of efficient practices with original approaches.

Its further aim is to provide a ground of dialogue for experts in all parts of Europe. For further details, please, visit our website at www.ejmh.eu.

Abstracted/indexed in EMBASE, Index Copernicus, Google Scholar, PsycINFO, and Scopus.

Editorial correspondence should be addressed toDr. Gábor Ittzés

Secretary of the Editorial BoardInstitute of Mental Health, Faculty of Health and Public Services,

Semmelweis UniversityPOBox 91, H-1450 Budapest, Hungary

Phone: (+36 1) 459 1500 x 56 551 or 56 545 · (+36 1) 266 1022Fax: (+36 1) 214 5685

E-mail: [email protected]: www.ejmh.eu · www.mental.usn.hu

Subscription pricefor Volume 7 (2012) in 2 issues HUF 8.000 or EUR 30 excl. VAT (+ international postage)

Please send your order toBinwin Bt.

Barlang u. 7.H-2083 Solymár, HungaryPhone: (+ 36 20) 770 0252

Fax: (+ 36 1) 246 4111E-mail: [email protected]

© Semmelweis University Institute of Mental Health, Budapest, 2012ISSN 1788-4934

Printed in Hungary

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European Journal of Mental HealthIndividual, Family, Community and Society

VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2, DECEMBER 2012

Editors-in-Chief / Leitende Herausgeber

Prof. NORBERT METTE, Universität Dortmund (Germany)Prof. TEODÓRA TOMCSÁNYI, Semmelweis Egyetem, Budapest (Hungary)

Editorial Board / Beratende Herausgeber

Prof. JERZY ALEKSANDROWICZ, Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego w Krakowie (Poland)Prof. JACOB A. BELZEN, Universiteit van Amsterdam (Netherlands)Prof. JOZEF CORVELEYN, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium)

Prof. VALERIE DEMARINIS, Uppsala universitet (Sweden)Dr. RITA FÓRIS-FERENCZI, Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca (Rumania)

Prof. SKAIDRĪTE GŪTMANE, Latvijas Kristīgā akadēmija, Jūrmala (Latvia)Prof. KATALIN HORVÁTH-SZABÓ, Semmelweis Egyetem, Budapest (Hungary)

Dr. GÁBOR ITTZÉS, Semmelweis Egyetem, Budapest (Hungary)Dr. habil. PAVLÍNA JANOŠOVÁ, Akademie věd ČR, Praha (Czech Republic)

Prof. MARTIN JÄGGLE, Universität Wien (Austria)Prof. PAAVO KETTUNEN, Joensuun yliopisto (Finland)

Dir. Em. MICHAEL MANDERSCHEID, Fortbildungs-Akademie des DCV, Freiburg i.Br. (Germany)Dr. habil. ILONA PATAKY, Pázmány Péter Katolikus Egyetem, Piliscsaba (Hungary)

Dr. REGINA POLAK, Universität Wien (Austria)Dr. habil. IGOR ŠKODÁČEK, Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave (Slovakia)

Prof. LÁSZLÓ TAMÁS SZABÓ, Debreceni Egyetem (Hungary)Dr. habil. PÉTER TÖRÖK, Semmelweis Egyetem, Budapest (Hungary)

Prof. ANDRÁS VARGHA, Károli Gáspár Református Egyetem, Budapest (Hungary)Prof. ANDREAS WITTRAHM, Caritasverband für das Bistum Aachen (Germany)

Prof. SINIŠA ZRINŠČAK, Sveučilište u Zagrebu (Croatia)

INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTHFaculty of Health and Public Services

Semmelweis University, Budapest

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Advisory Board / Wissenschaftlicher Beirat

Dr. LÁSZLÓ BOKOR, Mentalport, Budapest (Hungary)CATHERINE ESTAS, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium)

Dr. JÁNOS HARMATTA, Semmelweis Egyetem, Budapest (Hungary)Prof. CHRISTOPH JACOBS, Theologische Fakultät Paderborn (Germany)

Dr. SÁRA JEGES, Pécsi Tudományegyetem (Hungary)Dr. MIKLÓS KOCSEV, Pápai Református Teológiai Akadémia (Hungary)

Dr. HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF, Protestantse Theologische Universiteit, Amsterdam (Netherlands)Prof. Em. CHRISTOPH MORGENTHALER, Universität Bern (Switzerland)

KATALIN N. KOLLÁR, Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem, Budapest (Hungary)Dr. WIM NOORLANDER, Institut Pro, BH Amstelveen (Netherlands)

Prof. ANTTI RÄSÄNEN, Joensuun Yliopisto (Finland)Dr. EDIT RÉVAY, Sapientia Szerzetesi Hittudományi Főiskola, Budapest (Hungary)Dr. AURORA SZENTAGOTAI, Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca (Rumania)

Dr. MIHÁLY SZENTMÁRTONI, Pontifi cia Università Gregoriana, Rome (Italy)Dr. JAKAB VÁRNAI, Sapientia Szerzetesi Hittudományi Főiskola, Budapest (Hungary)

Manuscript preparation and logistics Binwin Bt.

Barlang u. 7.H-2083 Solymár

HungaryPhone: (+ 36 20) 770 0252

Fax: (+ 36 1) 246 4111E-mail: [email protected]

Printing and bindingKapitális Kft.

Balmazújvárosi út 14.H-4002 Debrecen

HungaryPhone: (+36 52) 452 099Fax: (+36 52) 531 098

E-mail: [email protected]

Frontcover: The view of Delphoi (sanctuary, theater, and stadium)Titelblatt: Sicht auf Delphoi (Tempel, Theater und Stadion)

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CONTENTS / INHALT

STUDIES / STUDIEN

Research Papers / Wissenschaftliche Arbeiten

HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF & WIM NOORLANDER: Resourcing Trustin a Fragmenting World: The Social-Economic Dimension and Relational Ethicsin the Track of Boszormenyi-Nagy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

ROBERT BIEL: Die Seelsorge in Polen vor und nach der Wende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184DINA GUGLIELMI, CHIARA PANARI & SILVIA SIMBULA: The Determinants of Teachers’

Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Mental Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Common Past / Gemeinsame Vergangenheit

CĂTĂLINA TUDOSE & FLORIN TUDOSE: The History of Psychotherapyin Rumania during the Socialist Dictatorship of Nicolae Ceauşescu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

BOOK REVIEWS / REZENSIONEN

ANDREA MESTERHÁZY: Up and Down: Finding Balance with Cognitive BehaviouralTherapy (LAM, D.H., S.H. JONES & P. HAYWARD (2010) Cognitive Therapyfor Bipolar Disorder) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

GERGELY ROSTA: Säkularisierung – Ein Begriff der Vergangenheit? (TOMKA, M. (2011)A vallás a modern világban: A szekularizáció értelmezése a szociológiában) . . . . . . . . . 245

ZSUZSA MARLOK: Salutogenese in der Schule: Ein effektives Trainigsprogrammfür pädagogische Fachkräfte (KRAUSE, C. & C.-H. MAYER (2012)Gesundheitsressourcen erkennen und fördern) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

ABSTRACTS / ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN(Croatian, Czech, English, German, Hungarian, Polish,

Rumanian, Russian, and Slovakian Abstracts / Kroatische, Tschechische, Englische, Deutsche, Ungarische, Polnische,

Rumänische, Russische und Slowakische Zusammenfassungen)

Apstrakti (257), Abstrakty (260), Abstracts (263), Zusammenfassungen (266), Összefoglalók (269), Abstrakty (272), Abstracte (275), Резюме (278), Abstrakty (282)

Contributors to This Issue / Autoren dieses Heftes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

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STUDIES / STUDIEN

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European Journal of Mental Health 7 (2012) 157–183DOI: 10.5708/EJMH.7.2012.2.1

ISSN 1788-4934 © 2012 Semmelweis University Institute of Mental Health, Budapest

HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF* & WIM NOORLANDER

RESOURCING TRUST IN A FRAGMENTING WORLD

The Social-Economic Dimension and Relational Ethicsin the Track of Boszormenyi-Nagy1

(Received: 30 August 2011; accepted: 5 October 2011)

‘One who understands the essence of man in terms of thedialogical relation between men must walk a narrow ridge

between the individualistic psychology which places allreality within the isolated individual and the social psychology

which places all reality in the organic groupand in the interaction of social forces.’

FRIEDMAN (1960, 184)

‘Fair giving benefi ts not only the one who receives but also the one who gives.’ Boszormenyi-Nagy, personal remark

In this essay, we combine literature on economics and social sciences, inducing practical experi-ences and philosophically and theologically inspired praxis. We give our perceptions of the recent fi nancial-economic crisis and the ‘free market’-economy and of some consequences in the private domain. As therapists we have to refl ect on contemporary issues of interrelatedness of social-economic facts and narratives with (inter)personal dimensions. How about the conditions for re-lational responsibility in the midst of social injustice and instability, hidden behind ideologies of autonomy and equality? Against this background as ‘heuristics of fear’, we search for a realistic perspective of hope. The strength of relational ethics can be seen as an illusion, when we would assume that being responsible is dependent on the extent of freedom which nature and culture give us. Although this assumption is familiar, relational ethics still are the motivational layer in which

1 The original spelling of his name in his native Hungarian would be Böszörményi-Nagy, but since he is widely known as ‘Boszormenyi-Nagy’, we follow that spelling here.

* Corresponding author: Hanneke Meulink-Korf, Protestant Theological University, Plantage Kerklaan 199, NL-1018 CX, Amsterdam, Netherlands, [email protected].

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hope resides for repairing the hurt human justice. Reading Levinas helps us to understand how this is possible. The appeal of another person motivates me. His/her ‘command without force’ makes me free. In the contextual approach of Boszormenyi-Nagy, there still are valuable stepping stones to be found for resourcing the sense of responsible relational caring.

Keywords: economic crisis, relational ethics, resources for trust and trustworthiness, contextual therapy, reciprocity

Vertrauensressourcen in einer auseinanderbrechenden Welt: Die gesellschaftlich-wirtschaftliche Dimension und die Beziehungsethik nach Boszormenyi-Nagy: In diesem Artikel werden auf der Grundlage einer Verknüpfung von wirtschaftswissenschaftlicher und sozialwissenschaftlicher Fachliteratur auf einer philosophischen und theologischen Basis beruhende praktische Erfahrungen und Anwendungen hergeleitet. Die jüngste Finanz- und Wirtschaftskrise, die freie Marktwirtschaft und mögliche Konsequenzen für die Privatsphäre werden erörtert. Als Therapeuten haben wir die Aufgabe, aktuelle Zusammenhänge zwischen den gesellschaftlich-wirtschaftlichen Fakten und Berichten mit (inter)personalen Dimensionen zu untersuchen. Wie sieht es in einer Situation gesellschaftlicher Ungerechtigkeit und Unsicherheit – getarnt durch eine Ideologie von Autonomie und Gleichheit – mit den Voraussetzungen für eine Verantwortung in Beziehungen aus? In dieser Situation, verstanden als „Heuristik der Angst“, wird die reale Perspektive der Hoffnung erforscht. Die Kraft der Beziehungsethik scheint vielleicht eine Illusion zu sein, wenn man davon ausgeht, dass das Übernehmen von Verantwortung abhängt von dem Maß an von Natur und Kultur zugestandener Freiheit. Diese Annahme mag uns bekannt vorkommen, doch die Beziehungsethik stellt die Art Motivation dar, die in uns eine gewisse Hoffnung auf Wiederherstellung der verletzten menschlichen Gerechtigkeit weckt. Beim Lesen von Levinas beginnt man zu verstehen, wie dies möglich ist. Die Anziehungskraft der anderen Person schenkt mir Motivation. Ihr „pressionsfreier Befehl“ macht mich frei. Der kontextuelle Ansatz von Boszormenyi-Nagy bietet wertvolle Möglichkeiten zur Gestaltung einer verantwortungsvollen Beziehung.

Schlüsselbegriffe: Wirtschaftskrise, Beziehungsethik, Ressourcen von Vertrauen und Zuverläs-sigkeit, kontextuelle Therapie, Gegenseitigkeit

For some time we (the authors of this article) wanted to believe that the problems related to the fi nancial-economic crisis since 2008 are not so very urgent in our part of the world. We wanted more or less to ignore the problems; their complexity was too much of a burden. But we heard the voices of others (often less privileged), we read papers with general and with more specialised knowledge, and could not main-tain that these worrisome developments and stagnations were not serious. They are happening around us too, and are relevant for social work and therapeutic help, for community and family mental health care, for solidarity with several generations. We know that the issues which are central to this article are related to the energy crisis and the climate change as well (cf. RIFKIN 2009). We nevertheless have to limit ourselves and so we focus on aspects of the socio-economic crisis and some of the effects as we perceive them in our practice.2

2 We thank our colleague Marianne Thans, contextual therapist and pastor, for her comments on parts of this article.

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1. Worldwide crises: the systemic ‘language’ and the mandate of therapy3

Recently one of us participated in a seminar called, in Dutch, ‘Het nieuwe onbe-hagen in de cultuur’, i.e. ‘the new uneasiness in culture’. This allusion to Freud refers to feelings of discomfort and scepticism about the contemporary social reality and those supposedly in charge. In accordance with the statements of this seminar, we perceive that nowadays many people, also when they are not threatened in their economic and social safety, seem to be affected in their sense of well-being.

How we refl ect upon the world we experience is to a huge degree a matter of perception and defi nition. An immediate cause for the subject of this article is our perception of the consequences of the worldwide fi nancial-economic crisis that started in 2008. This crisis, and the dominant economy behind it, leaves big debts for the generations to come. It is no wonder that there seems to be much, but vague, con-cern about ‘the future’. Many people are worried about the claims of their work; will they be able to function well when they get older? For youth, existence may become a matter of competition where they are constantly afraid of failure. ‘Scapegoating’ seems to be a release, to rid ourselves of our problems. In the short run, this seems effective (for the scapegoaters, not for the scapegoats). In the long run, this creates injustice and often violent revenge.

We approach this ‘uneasiness’ as a trust-related problem of accountability and responsibility, under big pressure in a fragmenting world, a world in which the per-sonal subject seems to be rather isolated. In a more or less generally shared per-ception, this crisis is viewed as a systemic dysfunctional occurrence, which could happen because of certain insuffi cient mechanisms of control and supervision of either banks or governmental organisations. In systemic language these elements are interwoven in a web of circular interconnected relationships. No element in particu-lar can be seen as the origin of the well- or malfunctioning of the system. We agree with this view as concerning the serious consequences of the absence of adequate supervision. But the reductive effect of a systemic view can easily be overlooked. This systemic frame of reference is per se without emphasis on individuals but for their being elements of the system, part of a homeostasis. From a macro-economic point of view, in the description of the crisis an absence of persons, or in other words, the anonymity of power may be legitimate. And legitimately from an ethical point of view, the system’s thinking dispels the ‘us versus them’ mentality, an innocent party versus a guilty one, and as such this is an ‘adult’ call for taking responsibilities to all sides. Nevertheless, not only the crisis itself, but also this systemic defi nition of the crisis has great consequences for the perception of this problem by individuals

3 The terms ‘therapy’ and ‘therapist’ are used here in their broad generic connotation, including all interventions that aim to help people in their needless (‘useless’) mental or psychic or relational sufferings, and to support them and society in constructive relating. It does not include psychological manipulation of relational suffer-ings such as guilt and compassion, nor any manipulation of a human being in the selfi sh interests of another person, a political party, an army, or a business enterprise, etc. See also BOSZORMENYI-NAGY 1987, 294. We write about ‘therapy’ as including prevention; so this means mental health care too.

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who are not in charge. Many people who trusted their banks and their savings, their superannuation and their leaders, feel deceived and helpless. Traditional buffers and moderator mechanisms for living standards often turned out to be weak and there is no real address for protest. This moves us not only as persons and citizens but also as therapists, social workers, and pastoral counsellors.

As many others, we perceive a destruction of trust and trust ability, not only in fi nancial markets and political institutions, but also in more or less personal relation-ships. We see in our practice many signals of anxiety about the future, exhaustion, distrust, lack of trust, and in what we see as a result of this: an attitude of indif-ference or ‘seeming’ commitment. How to protect the frameworks for living, such as personal and relational integrity, parenthood and child rearing, the pair-bond and long-standing friendship? How to help parents in their needs without overburdening or even exploiting their offspring? Where security in adults’ lives diminishes, ‘par-ents will increasingly turn to their children for the fulfi lment of their adult emotional dependency needs . . . Therapy’s mandate includes the task to inform society at large about the implications of preventable transgenerational consequences’ (BOSZORME-NYI-NAGY 1987, 286). How to resource trust in a fragmenting world? We mean: in a world in which there is a globalisation of the interdependence of people. And in which this globalisation is accompanied by a crumbling of ‘totalities’ (strong groups, defi ned by cultural, ethnic, political, religious bonds and traditions). One of the prob-lems of globalisation is the disconnectedness among people who should be allies by fate but aren’t connected in actual solidarity. As stated by JÄGGLE (2006, 75), the process of globalisation is an ambivalent phenomenon, which needs a critical refl ec-tion on the positive as well as the negative sides. By using the concept ‘fragmenting world’, we focus somewhat more on the negativum, but we keep in mind as the posi-tive side a growing awareness of global destiny, and no less importantly, the possibil-ity of increasing moral consciousness: that the meaning of no person is reducible to any totality (BAUMAN 1995) including context (RHIJN & MEULINK-KORF 1997, 460).

Even in families and marriages there seems to be an increasing dominance of a narrow pragmatic attitude, an increasing moral indifference towards the other ones, resignation and decline of respect. We often hear this remark: ‘There is no more gain for me in this relationship/marriage/family’, in other words, we perceive many times a seemingly non-dialogical and non-dialectical attitude. We hear this remark as hid-ing a cry for help of one person for himself and the other ones, at least the signifi cant others of the primary client.

When we fail to appreciate this rather hidden concern, we do a disservice to our clients. Focusing only on individual psychological freedom or removal of dis-tressing symptoms is not fair. The ethics of therapy are at stake. The social context and its consequences in the life of our clients obviously concern us as social workers, psychotherapists and pastors, and also any professional involved in the essence of therapy, prevention and social work: ‘ethics of caring’ (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY 1987, 319). So we have to approach the current social-economic dynamics.

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2. A revolving slate: blaming without appropriate address

The problems of the social-economic spheres of infl uence are pervasive and so there is much insecurity and dissatisfaction in the private domain. What about people’s reactions? There is a strong tendency to blame economic and political leaders. Eco-nomic leaders for their greed, political leaders for their weakness. From a viewpoint of the individual citizen, this blame is an appropriate, justifi able reproach because of the nearly unlimited economic power in ‘the free market’, based on an irrespon-sible greed for power, money and standing of many of the leaders, and, in connec-tion, the increased dissolution of governmental power. An economic change on this side of the world, ‘here’, sometimes fractures the living standards of people ‘there’, vice versa. Nation-states proved to be fragile towards the captains of multi-national corporations, even though – or just because – their seemingly soft, yet imperative paternalistic attitude towards their citizens and their personal freedom is obvious. But as stated above, although this blaming is understandable and even legitimate, the reality viewed as a systemic occurrence does not give a real possibility to (suc-cessfully) address the leaders as accountable persons. Then something even more dangerous happens: a growth of cynicism regarding the importance of commercial top-managers and captains of industry and political leaders. So there is not only blaming of the leaders, but also an absence of apparent blaming of the leaders. There might be another reason for this absence than only a systemic perception or cynical indifference: the idea that our leaders really are irresponsible persons is threatening. Just as if our parents would be without apparent responsibility. Therefore the blam-ing often remains subconscious.

As a consequence of this, we look for others to blame. The blaming of victims, unjustifi able, seems to be widespread. Such as the blaming of economic-driven im-migrants, displaced persons, refugees, coloured people and others. They are blamed for a lot of problems, which they cannot infl uence at all. We see here a process of displacement of aggression once termed ‘a revolving slate’ (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY & SPARK 1973, 65–67). Ivan Boszormenyi-Nagy constructed this term especially but not exclusively for a process in which a person unjustly lays blame on another in order to protect his parents and tends to be immune to guilt towards the innocent vic-tim of these dynamics. This revolving slate only tends to stop (temporarily) with the most vulnerable persons, often children. After all, their capacity for actively taking it out on others, or taking revenge, is very limited. This limitation is temporary only, be-cause later on the transmission of unfairness can go on. In many ways victims become victimisers.4 Applied to the ‘relationship’ of persons with their leaders, we can see how retribution is aimed not at the leaders but at others, often vulnerable outsiders.

This displacement seems to be subconscious. However, many other people are conscious and aware that there is no such thing as an appropriate address. But they

4 The former victim sometimes ‘only’ victimises herself/himself. But in this, there is harm to the nearest and dearest, and also to ‘the human order’.

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are also worried and concerned for themselves, their children, and others. ‘It seems I am rather helpless . . . Is there anyone, a person or an institution as a moderator, a helping resource?’

Laura: I was very attached to my work and still like to be committed. But the people who should be trustworthy and reliable proved to be weak and sometimes very irresponsible . . . Perhaps it is not their fault, perhaps it is a matter of rivalries between institutions . . . Or perhaps I am too old now to understand networking dynamics. In my view, society has changed, is very hard. How could this happen? I always hoped my children would be strong and independent, but now I am not sure they are . . . At the same time I want them to remain sensitive to others. And what about the children in our care, most of them very vulnerable, and some of them prone to violence, what will be their future?

Laura, 48 years old, is a medical doctor who is in charge of a department of a child-welfare service, which recently was made part of a much bigger institution. According to Laura this umbrella values ‘sound fi nancial tactics’ above all other targets including the mandate of providing safety and therapeutic help.5

3. Economic policies: a not-tempered power

Many welfare institutions such as the one where Laura is enlisted are nowadays dom-inated by narrow economic values, much more than in the past. How could this hap-pen? For a possible answer let us have a look at a specifi c socio-economic analysis. As more and more leading sociologists and economists explain, for some decades a totally free market proved to be an illusion or even a lie. The Korean-British econo-mist H.-J. CHANG (2008) substantiated the limits of Neo-Capitalism. He attacked a main belief of his own profession: the belief that global free trade raises living standards everywhere. He sees this belief as created and confi rmed by complicated economic and mathematic models. Chang argues in favour of good economic policy based more on ‘simple’ common sense than on the models of high-valued econo-mists. The guiding principle of the free market, a not inherently bad model, needs transparency and assistance and tempering by a solid and strong governmental power and by very infl uential institutions in the social midfi eld or civil society. Other wise this model leads to an increasingly unfair distribution of wealth and power. Alas, this tempering function did not really work. On the contrary, vital connected social groups (including the anchorage of employees in companies, religious institutions, extended families with strong ties) have weakened. Governments forfeited much of their power in the struggles with multinational corporations and did not succeed in taking a fi rm line with the banks. There is more poverty, unemployment and exploit-ation than ever. Especially, but not only, in the non-Western part of the world, there

5 Each of our case-examples or vignettes is somewhat disguised to protect the privacy of people involved.

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are large, ever increasing gaps between the poor people and the wealthy. Fundamen-tally and all over the world these gaps are neither caused by lack of intelligence or willpower or discipline of the poor nor by immigrations. So says Ha-Joon Chang, whose analysis is rightfully receiving growing attention.

Right-wing populism, the big winner of the June 2010 elections in the Neth-erlands, takes another point of view. This movement is characterised by a mix of conservative values, xenophobia (esp. concerning Islamic people), disgust with the left, and liberal values such as a strong emphasis on freedom of speech and the protection of gay marriage and women’s rights. In other countries in Western Eur-o pe (such as Denmark, Belgium, Germany) one sees comparable populism. Many traditional working class or lower middle class voters have been turning away from social democracy, and many lower middle class workers have left Christian democracy. Many voters perceive democracy parties, Christian or socialist, as im-proper establishments. We do not think that these voters for populist parties are egoistic per se. They are longing for a ‘we’ but apparently, their ‘desire for com-munity is defensive’ (SENNET 1998, 138). The attitude is not exactly and certainly not everywhere ‘every man for himself’, but many are drawn on their reserves. So this attitude often does not meet many reservations. The more one is unjustly overburdened, the more one runs the risk of becoming immune to guilt, like the guilt of excluding other people.

4. The myth of meritocracy

One of our clients in psychotherapy said:Peter: I have thought for a long time that I could make it, that I would succeed

in being a success-man, in business, in relationships, in my fatherhood. I was raised by parents who taught me to be responsible and to work hard, and we all believed that this would be very rewarding. But now it works out totally differently. I do not know what to do. Maybe I am simply not good at competitions. I am constantly afraid of failure. I don’t think that my parents were wrong at the time, but the world has changed and is very unfair. I am never in the driver’s seat.

This man, Peter (35) works as a consultant on a project-base, every year for another fi rm. He experiences burnout, exploited and deceived, by society, by girl-friends. His parents were rather devoted Christian democrats, both of them busy as volunteers for what they saw as the public interest. He himself tends to have an explicitly cynical attitude towards society.

‘The political domain leaves me cold . . . I cannot contribute anymore, no-body really needs me there. On the contrary, for there is only jealousy among those who are active in politics, professionals or volunteers’, Peter says. His pri-vate life is rather uncertain, and shows a lack of awareness of relational responsi-bility. ‘Maybe my next [sic!] partner-relationship, when I am feeling better, will

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give my life more stability . . . ?’ Sometimes it looks as if he is determined to behave indifferently.

Many do feel that they are deceived, sometimes by specifi c persons, mostly as an overall feeling. Many others are struggling with themselves in order to escape the feelings of disappointment and frustration. The so-called myth of freedom and meritocracy has proven to be a strong one, and not only for our client Peter in Hol-land. ‘We all believed this would be rewarding . . . ’ We think these words of Peter somehow reveal a strong meta-narrative. But how can this exist, in the 21st century? It is untrue that the grand narratives are over (as J.-F. Lyotard postulated). We think there is a romantic myth about rewards, a ‘great narrative’, from which many people are suffering. They believe that they are doing something very wrong, because ‘why am I not as successful as expected . . . ?’ In Dutch we have the concept ‘maakbaar’ (makeable); it was coined by liberal and socialist politicians for society as a whole, but over the years it has been also applied to individuals: if only you perform well, your personal life to a large degree would be ‘makeable’.

The deceiving neo-liberal meta-narrative of the free market is still strong and reinforced by the power structure of a meritocracy (VERHAEGHE 2010). This is not only about the fi nancial side: such as in the American Dream, the Self-Made Man, but also about the strong belief that, at least in Europe, we have or nearly have equal chances in education for everyone who gives his/her best, and so equality in the ‘makeability’ of our life. But more or less we all know that in reality there is no such person as a free individual with unlimited options, equal to others. Indeed ‘some . . . are more equal than others’ (ORWELL 1966, 114), and for them, the ones who are already very privileged, this narrative has great compensations. But for most people, all over the world, the ideas of meritocracy are misleading.

5. An old meta-narrative and contemporary populism combined

As P. VERHAEGHE (2010, 4–6) rightly said, this narrative has a strong affi nity with the hybris called Social Darwinism that fl ourished at the beginning of the twentieth cen-tury. Both aim at a ‘survival of the fi ttest’. The ideas about a presupposed super iority of the whites tried to justify colonialism and in some degree succeeded. In order to behold this supremacy, the weaker elements within the race or group itself had to be eliminated, in accordance with this ideology. Around 1900 there were eugenic meas-ures, which were brought to perfection by the Nazis. Verhaeghe points out that this Social Darwinism moved on from groups towards individuals and even selfi sh genes, as in Dawkins’ 1976 book The Selfi sh Gene. So both narratives (Meritocracy and this seemingly purely descriptive Social Darwinism) are claiming to benefi t the fi ttest ones in nature and to favour these above the others. Such is the way the foundations were constructed, seemingly scientifi c foundations, for the supremacy of men above women, of whites above blacks, of WASPs above others. Of winners above losers. These pretensions are unfair and a strong injustice.

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We generally think this supremacy-thinking is behind us now. But this is not true. The social reality in which we live, with major discrepancies in social chances for persons and groups, is hidden by a strong ideology of meritocracy. It is this hid-den character of social reality, by collusion, that causes much confusion and self-protection at the expense of others. Or in other words: the meritocracy itself consists of false but nearly self-evident notions: that all human beings are competitive indi-vidual beings out to make a profi t, and the richest people are simply the best, and poor people do not deserve better. These notions or beliefs are mostly subconscious and therefore are exactly driving the frames of mind on a large scale (SWAAN 2010, 2). Populism uses and avails itself of lies that can grow on these notions. Awareness of the ideologies of the past can help to reveal the true character of these contempo-rary notions. In the fi rst part of the twentieth century many scholars of various dis-ciplines adopted and formalised racial theories. Not until Hitler turned up as a strong champion of these ideas did most of the theories vanish (alas, not everywhere). But the attractiveness of formalised models and the presupposed scientifi c importance of a mathematical orientation survived. (We can see this fascination, maybe a ‘phys-ics envy’, fl ourish in the free market theories even though this is not always self-evidently appropriate for economy as a social science.)

Two empires crumbled in the twentieth century (that of Nazism, and that of Stalinism). Now the free market economy or ‘fl exible capitalism’ (SENNET 1998, 46 and further on) is the dominating regime, and more than ever this functions as an autonomous self-justifying process.

We wrote about a perception of social reality as a neutral system, or an autono-mous process that is driven by a survival of the fi ttest or the best adapters. We see this perception regarding relational reality too. Even where nobody thinks about him- or herself and the signifi cant others in terms of ‘anything goes’ or as only elements in a biological system. Some knowledge and awareness of history and the (past?) ideol-ogies are necessary when one wants to go beyond being people as playthings of for-tune or only entities without connectedness and fragments without continuity. This goes for individual self-refl ection, too. This self-refl ecting and maybe soul-searching process needs contemporary embedding, because without any social support, an his-torical self-refl ection that means a sense of connectedness and continuity is nearly out of the question.

6. ‘No man is an island’

At this point we reach, explicitly, the private domain. Preliminary remark: the do-main we actually have as individuals is not so very private at all. For, as we men-tioned above, there is much encroachment on the personal freedom by authoritarian structures sanctioned by local or national governments. This encroachment meshes with needs for safeguarding and defence. In order to gain a feeling of security, people sometimes nearly surrender their freedom (TROJANOW & ZEH 2009). This concerns

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not only the fear of terrorism, but also the fear of being untreatably ill. For example: the Electronic Patient Records in the Netherlands include a lot of very private infor-mation that will be available not only to medical doctors but for many goals (and of-fi cials). The ethically imperative guarantee that this private information will be used only under very specifi c conditions falls short.

Ethically, no individual is a private domain, like an island. With Boszormenyi-Nagy, Martin Buber and many others, we think about people as connected in ‘a human order’ (= community as qualifi ed by humanity). As John DONNE (1572–1631) wrote:

No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main. If a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less, as well as if a promontory were, as well as if a manor of thy friend’s or of thine own were: any man’s death diminishes me, be-cause I am involved in mankind, and therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee. (2008, 97)6

These words do not prove anything but have a wisdom in a class of their own.This remark made, we will briefl y focus on some phenomena which we met in

stories of our clients concerning the private domain: the often neglected historical dimension, the (danger of) self-protection and selfi shness at the expense of others (defensiveness, rivalry, exclusion of strangers), and the threatened responsibility for the youngest ones and the generations to come.

7. Time’s arrow

We already underlined the importance of ‘history’ for mental health. But a socially supported narrative of a continuity of the self is often a serious case of neglect. The ‘fl exibility’ that is required of many persons in their labour and employment and elsewhere does not match their abilities and their needs. Especially not when some-one is older than circa 35 years. Living without a continuity that is acknowledged by others means living with only superfi cial certainty. This causes vague anxiety and relational detachment. ‘Time’s arrow is broken; it has no trajectory in a continually reengineered, routine-hating, short-term political economy. People feel the lack of sustained human relations and durable purposes’ (SENNETT 1998, 98).

Karel: When I came to work at the local Mental Health Service they had 65 people employed. After a few years I became department head of the section for psychotherapy for adults. The director knew me, because all the department heads were part of the management team. After about ten years, a merger enlarged the or-

6 These well-known lines are prefaced by some which are known to a lesser degree. They reveal human beings as creation: ‘all mankind is of one author, and is one volume; when one man dies, one chapter is not torn out of the book, but translated into a better language; and every chapter must be so trans lated . . . As therefore the bell that rings to a sermon calls not upon the preacher only, but upon the congregation to come, so this bell calls us all; but how much more me, who am brought so near the door by this sickness.’

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ganisation to 350 employees. After an even larger merger, to 1500 employees, I lost my job because all middle-management was eliminated. The people above me didn’t know what my efforts had been in the previous years. I was without history in the organisation with which I had identifi ed myself for many years. I received €150 – for a farewell celebration.

Karel is 57 years old. This experience had negative consequences for his self-esteem and self-respect. Fortunately there were relational resources around him: the support of his family and some friends. He now works as a psychotherapist in a private practice.

Of course for relational continuity and for the ‘continuity of the self’ there are also other conditions than the support of a socially acknowledged job, such as the one in which Karel initially developed his skills and capacities, and in which he gave more than he was obliged by contract. There are conditions of fate, of family life, of values, of dealing with guilt and guilt feelings, etcetera. A nearly paradox-ically constant factor is that the problem is not that times are changing. After all, the search for permanence in a world of change has a long history; see Heraclitus, ca. 500 B.C., who teaches about time as a constant fl ux. ‘You cannot step twice into the same river; for fresh waters are ever fl owing in upon you’ (ALMOND 2006, 24). There are not many biographies without a certain discontinuity. Times are chang-ing, are running fast, or sometimes slow, and people are changing too. As such, this is not the problem. The problem is when in the present of the institution there is no attention or even awareness of the past. We meet several people who experi-ence this as a traumatic or nearly traumatic event. Surely, in many companies some attention is given to the past of the fi rm, but only as a matter of self-celebration for the current board. The past of older employees is ‘valued’ as an expensive and tricky case, instead of a source of experiences, personal achievements and sometimes even wisdom. Times are changing, but there is a continuing need for reciprocity, for coherence, for a sense of sameness. (Maybe this is one of the rea-sons that literal and academic biographies have become very popular. At the State University Groningen, the Netherlands, an academic chair for ‘History and Theory of the Biography’ has been established.)

Please note: the striking lack of attention to the past in companies and also in many social corporations is not the indication of a bad character of individual managers, although there can be some ‘corrosion of character’ (SENNETT 1998). An absence of remembrance often became inherent in the culture of many companies in their mutual struggles. The whole atmosphere consists of short-term memory. Now-adays routine is seen as an evil of old capitalism (SENNETT 1998, 32–45). You can wonder how this infl uences the perception and validation of the long-term purposes and routine ‘jobs’ of child rearing and housekeeping.

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8. Flexibility: a risk

It is clear that in (contemporary) ‘free-market’ capitalism there is a constant com-petition between corporations. This struggle or inter-group rivalry is the main-stay of the business. More hidden, behind a screen of ‘meritocratic’ thinking, sometimes of a seemingly romantic character, is the intra-group competition of colleagues. One is encouraged to achieve more or higher targets than the others. This is the situation of many aging middle management employees: my colleague has become my rival. It is no longer a relationship in which I assume a certain responsibility for the other and in which I trust his or her responsibility for me. For the younger ones, this situation is often the norm. They seldom or never met another atmosphere on the shop fl oor. This rivalry and more or less vague distrust means a short-term attitude of being alert. To be in rivalry means that you have to watch your neighbour continually as your rival. It also means having to behave very business-oriented and accommodating in connection with working hours and being very fl exible in connection with place of residence. This fl exibility7 based on (expectations of) rivalry may be a productive condition for the economic growth of a company. But it obviously is not a good one for the interpersonal building of trust and making friends (more than superfi cially), nor a helping re-source for maintaining fairness in family life. ‘Transposed to the family realm, “no long term” means keep moving, don’t commit yourself and don’t sacrifi ce’ (SENNETT 1998, 25). This lack of valuing continuity is a serious risk especially for teenagers whose friends-peers may move (or rather, be moved) in other direc-tions, with their respective parents. Attachment and connectedness not only with family members but also with friends-peers are a main factor in the Bildung of an adolescent growing to mature adulthood. Appropriate attention for both past and future is among the obligations of a current generation of parents. But, as already alleged, this generation is often occupied with burdening struggles.

9. Mimesis, violence, and the loss of energy

Competitiveness, as presumed and requested nowadays among many social institu-tions and especially in companies and among their employees, can be understood in a Darwinist framework. But there are more ways of thinking about the problems of interpersonal confl icting interests and even violence. The work of René Girard gives fruitful insights, mainly based on anthropological-philosophical studies and literary historical criticism. As such, competitiveness is not unnatural, because as human beings we are always living in mimesis (imitatio). This is not simply imitation of behaviour. Mimesis means not merely representation. It refers to a mechanism which generates patterns of action and interaction, ‘getting our desires from one another’

7 Sennett took this concept from John Stuart Mill.

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(KAPTEIN 1993, 17). Girard’s emphasising of mimesis may seem outdated in our authenticity-oriented ideology and culture, but it is remarkable how Girard’s hypoth-esis matches with neuroscience’s empirical research of so-called Mirror Neurons.8

When two persons desire the same thing or the same person, there will be ri-valry between them. Ultimately this can only lead to a clash: violence. But how is violent behaviour, physically or verbally, understandable concerning people who used to be well-loved colleagues, friends or at least companions of one another? The answer lies in the triangular structure of desiring. Our desires do not arise spontan-eously within us. They arise in me because I am involved with another who already desires this ‘object’ (a specifi c job, or a specifi c person, or a specifi c capacity, style, etc.). This other functioned for me as a model, for whatever reason. It could be one of my parents, or a teacher, my psychiatrist, the woman next door, or another peer who is admired by me. Maybe the colleague who functioned more or less as a mentor for me, when I entered my job in the company. When the social distance between the other and myself is a big one, we are not at risk of becoming rivals. Between me and the Dutch queen, for instance, there is not much danger of rivalry, although indeed she may be my model. My teacher can also be a safe model, when he knows to limit his model function to his specifi c assignment. Social differentiation is a buffer. The same is true for the dimension of time. The more the other one is near to me, in space (social group) and time, the greater the risk that I will try to be better and wiser than the other, more attractive, and try to get more targets. My efforts invite the other to perform harder; my fascination stimulates and infects the other. Usually the result is an exciting but bitter fi ght. Consciousness about these dynamics is important. It will be obvious that in our egalitarian cultures, there are a lot of chances for bitter rivalries. Only when people resign from being rivals of each other, and from assign-ing themselves as rivalling models, can there be freedom from this kind of desire. Only a model who does not assign him- or herself as such is really ‘safe’. According to Girard, Jesus Christ is the complete model who is not a potential rival or obstacle. ‘Jesus is the man outside desire’ (KAPTEIN 1993, 90), and as such model on the way to peace and justice.

According to the theory of Girard, besides the constructive way of conscious-ness and growing freedom of the mimesis of desire, there is another way of trying to rid ourselves of these problems of rivalry. This is not a real solution, for it is a destructive one. One can make ‘sacrifi cial peace’ with another at the expense of a third party. This is victimization: placing the blame for our troubles on a scape-goat. When I feel threatened by my colleague, I can try to suggest to him that our boss is a friendly person but rather incompetent for his job: ‘such a pity that Mr. Supervisor is a weak fellow’. There is a big chance that, by this, I can re-establish peace between me and my colleague, temporarily. The threatening tension between the two of us is diverted. This movement resembles the ‘revolving slate’ concept

8 Findings in developmental psychology (GARRELS 2006, 1, 4 and passim) and the principles of person-centred therapy, esp. empathy, also seem to be positively related to neuroscientifi c research results (LUX 2010, 279).

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(see above) but it is not the same, because here there is a tension of rivalry between the two involved, and not an original injustice without appropriate address. In both dynamics there is a lack of awareness. We usually do not perceive that we are ‘scapegoating’ others. When we see people blaming and turning others into their scapegoats, we despise them. But to see that and how we ourselves are victimising is a diffi cult matter. Nevertheless, deep inside all of us there is a longing for peace (KAPTEIN 1993, 87) not by sacrifi cing others, but for real peace. This longing is a constructive and contagious ‘power’.

Alas, this rivalry is contagious, too. It certainly has gains, for a short period. It also has big costs: lost energy, lost self-refl ection, lost friendship, lost solidarity. When someone is used to rivalry in his job, he will not leave this attitude on his desk, but takes it with him. Not surprisingly, this is often at the expense of family life. As written above, this mentality is not unnatural and even infectious. So family life is burdened not only by the pervasive required fl exibility, but also in this direct way of living-as-rivals. And by the guilt and feelings of guilt, which often are the results. For, while most dynamics in rivalry may be subconscious, the loss of energy is per-ceived. How to have energy, time and attention at one’s disposal, outside the offi ce? According to literature (SENNETT 1998, 21–31; ALMOND 2006) there is among many people the awareness of failing to offer attention to friends, spouse, and attention and guidance to offspring. In some case studies we observed similar feelings of guilt in adults, in connection with elderly parents (MOS & MEULINK-KORF 2009). The fact remains unimpeded that contacts between adults and their elderly parents still seem to be frequent, with mutual commitment. We assume that this is a helping resource for both parties. Nevertheless, the burdening feeling that one’s attention is demanded by many different others with different interests is a serious one. Sometimes even the feeling of being torn.

10. Being a parent: a responsibility under pressure

Being torn by many not always compatible obligations and confl icting interests – this sounds (too) tragic. For many persons – and certainly many a young par-ent – it really is. We turn, shortly, to parenthood and the vulnerability of the youngest and the generations to come. Especially the situation of poor families, and in particular, single parents (most often mothers), seemingly without any extended family or reliable adult friend, is alarming even in the rather prosperous Netherlands. Among single parents, we heard this anxious concern several times: ‘When I drop out [due to illness or exhaustion], who will take care of me and my child?’ Here we perceive a strong need for practical, material support but also mental health care and counselling about issues of reengagement with family, neighbours, friends-to-be. This third topic is partly interrelated with the previ-ous ones. Because of the fragmentation and distrust in society there is a strong burden on the trust in extended and nuclear families. People bring their frustra-

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tions with society and labour or unemployment into their homes. As a matter of fact, this is not because parents would value their children less than they value their jobs. There is no indication of such a devaluation of parenthood. Parents usually have an awareness of responsibility (PAS 2003, 40–47) and feel the vul-nerability of the youngest as their parental responsibility. This is also their own vulnerability: a vulnerability stemming in the vulnerability of their own children. How to raise children and guide them in their coming of age, in various aspects, ultimately toward being responsible mature people themselves? For their part, in their time, people with ethical and moral awareness. And not only with a sense of having, for their own sake, to be obedient in contractual obligations. Another important question is how the overburdened situation of many parents infl uences the trust, trustworthiness, and carreer of their children. The stress from outside results in pain and psychological stagnation for the individual. And regarding partner relationships? While close relationships are resilient, they certainly are not indestructible. The outcome of a divorce has many aspects: among them the relational costs of the fragmenting of the family and an increased potential of loyalty confl icts and even ‘splitting of loyalty’. By this ‘loyalty’ we mean a spe-cial character of the parent-child relationship, certainly not the same as attach-ment. We mean the existentially basic triadic confi guration, with inevitably the preferring one, the preferred one and the one not preferred. When parents trust and respect each other (if not as partners, as parents as a minimum), the child is allowed and able to prefer sometimes one parent and sometimes the other, with-out being captured by guilt. The splitting of loyalty occurs when a child is forced to choose one parent’s love at the cost of betraying the other parent, or to choose between his single mother and his grandmother (or another signifi cant adult per-son). Then ‘trusting one ipso facto cancels out the option of trusting the other’ (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY & KRASNER 1986, 421). In this situation it is very diffi cult to attain an attitude of basic trust toward the adult world, which the child (every child) needs for balancing experiences of mistrust. And the lack of this is a dif-fi cult predicament in becoming a trustworthy and reliable participant in society. This is only one example how there is not only an impact of current exploiting situations in society on the personal relational level, but that it works equally the other way around: the personal relational level affecting society.

We addressed some impact of contemporary social contexts on personal life and relationships. After pointing out the absence of a policing agency, the needs for an acknowledgement of continuity especially in the labour domain, and for lessening the burden of fl exibility and threatening rivalry, we focused shortly on parenting and the vulnerability of the youngest ones and the generations to come. Where does all this impact leave the conditions for relational ethics, and especially the ethics of re-sponsibility for consequences? With BOSZORMENYI-NAGY (1987, 287) we propose that interpersonal and transpersonal consequence is the most important aspect of close relating, including parenting. The question if individuals are able to disengage themselves from the social-economic crisis and the impact of distrust and uncer-

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tainty is an important issue. We already mentioned the analysis by Richard SENNETT of a corrosion of mentality as a possible result of the ever-changing working condi-tions, which he signalled in the so-called New Economy:

What’s peculiar about uncertainty today is that it exists without any looming historical dis-aster; instead it is woven into the everyday practices of a vigorous capitalism. Instability is meant to be normal . . . Perhaps the corroding of character is an inevitable consequence. ‘No long term’ disorients action over the long term, loosens bonds and commitment, and divorces will from behaviour. (1998, 31)

Let us hope that in the long run Sennett’s work itself will help to make this picture too bleak.

11. Ethics without illusions

In the second part of this essay we search to (re-)formulate a helpful approach of fair relating in close relationships (‘micro-level’), against the background of much un-easiness and unfairness on macro- and meso-level in contemporary society. We pro-pose that relational resources ‘provide the fuel by which fairness may be actualised’ (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY & KRASNER 1986, 420–21). First on the micro-level. ‘They are major avenues through which people can move towards healing the “disconti-nuity of the self” . . . or strengthening the ego’s mastery in the classical Freudian sense’ (1986, 420–21). As therapists and social workers it is our obligation to support people in constructive (honest, reliable) relating now and in consideration of the future. But it should not be done either by moralising via our own values nor by idealising ‘therapeutic’ ideas or utopian dreams.

The philosopher Hans JONAS introduced the notion ‘heuristics of fear’, con-nected with a ‘Futurologie der Warnung’. According to him fears can be necessary as correctives. Fear on behalf of future generations is a warning (Warnung) against unwarranted optimism, against illusions and utopianism (1992, 128). For Jonas the most important issue was human survival as threatened by modern technology and its ‘progress’. His call for an ethics of responsibility as solidarity with generations to come is still very important (for ‘transgenerational solidarity’ see also BOSZORME-NYI-NAGY 1987, 286–318).

There may not seem to be many reasons for optimism, but is there hope, and where? Panicking about the situation of the human world is not sensible, and most of our colleagues do not do that. And although many of our clients are exhausted by experiences of powerlessness and uncertainty and lack of recognition, most of them are not without longing for signals of hope and encouragement. People are not fools, and, in the long run, are not encouraged by illusions. We have to search for resources that really are trust-building.

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12. Weakness of moral attitudes

But (how) is resourcing of trust a realistic possibility for adults who are deeply ‘un-easy’ and sometimes depleted by experiences in society? Instead of only wishful thinking about what we would like to happen?9

Is it possible for a human being to be or to become free from the entropic forces that do not differentiate and make us indifferent? Free from contagion? These are not only environmental conditions but also parts of ourselves. How can a human being, amidst an ideology of equality, be free from mimetic desires, free to be responsible and to behave non-indifferent and trustworthy? We have no reason to overrate our ethical strength or resistance to evil. The horrors of the wars in the twentieth century were partly executed by ‘ordinary people’ who accepted (their subordination to) the rules of their state as normal. We have long known that nearly everyone, under big pressure, can be driven to betray other, or to confess to whatever accus ations are thrown at them. Stanley MILGRAM’s famous experiment from the sixties showed moral attitudes as very weak in relation with authority (1974). We had the same disillusioning experience reading about the experiment of Philip ZIMBARDO in 1971, with roles of prisoners and guards, and seeing the fi lm on this Stanford Prison Ex-periment. ZIMBARDO now pleads for personal decisions for heroic conduct, ‘every-day heroism’ (2007). According to him we have to begin with this, by becoming aware that our idea of the strength of our own moral resistance may be an illusion. Let us be conscious about the potential for evil in ourselves, the dark corners of our own souls, our own dependency. As a rule I am just as dependent on the approval of my peers and leaders as all others, says Zimbardo. Reading about heroism may have a certain potential to strengthen our souls. But overall we think heroism is an idealistic concept, perhaps even harmful because of its exclusiveness. Apparently there is not much evidence of freedom in most individuals and groups regarding ethical behaviour.

9 Concerning this question, we, the authors of this article, in our dialogue regarding the near future, do not totally agree with each other. One of us (WN) is more sceptical than the other, especially about the willing-ness of ‘the meritocrat’ (see above) regarding social ethics. As long as the well-earning (Western) European citizen keeps his capital and income, (s)he is often not motivated to act for better social politics. And even when the situation turns, and now that the fi nancial Euro-valuation expresses a decline (summer 2011), most of them seem to show more cynicism than social responsibility. Cynicism means stagnation of possible in-volvement and solidarity. Recently, two quotes were featured rather prominently in some Dutch newspapers. Alan Greenspan, who was chairman of the Federal Reserve of the USA, said, ‘I guess I should warn you, if I turn out to be particularly clear, you’ve probably misunderstood what I’ve said.’ The other often-cited quote came from Simon Cameron, American banker and politician in the nineteenth century: ‘An honest politician is one who, when he is bought, will stay bought.’ This quoting by journalists is not merely joking, it under-lines the paradoxical character of the cynicism among citizens and their leaders. So much for the stagnation of social engagement. Another aspect of the so-called meritocracy is the neglected underdog position of many young people who are not able to move up or feel respected in society. This can result in ‘destructive entitled’ behaviour which makes their chances even worse: resulting in a blindness for injustice to others but also for their own resources. For ‘destructive entitlement’ see BOSZORMENYI-NAGY & KRASNER 1986, 66, and further on in this article.

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13. Being responsible as a prerequisite to freedom

But an important issue not yet mentioned is this: is ‘freedom’ to be considered a primary condition for responsibility? As we saw, the idea of a person who in his at-titudes and willpower is independent of his environment or totally free from mimetic desire is an illusion. On top of that, the whole idea of personal freedom is under pres-sure, from materialistic and deterministic views in the natural sciences (does some-thing like ‘freedom’ exist at all?). Also increasing criticism on liberal socio-political views casts strong doubts (does a view on the human person as an autonomous being striving for maximal personal freedom offer a suffi cient basis for moral conduct and social involvement in society?) (see EBBERS-van AALST 2010). We consider a view on the human person as an autonomous being not the foundation for relational-eth-ical commitment. The same goes for the idea of a mercantile social order as a basis. ‘Do ut des’ (I give to you in order that you give to me) is not primary.

Ethics are primary, pre-contractual. In the tracks of Emmanuel Levinas, Zyg-munt Bauman, Boszormenyi-Nagy and other thinkers from different disciplines, we believe that responsibility neither comes from nature nor, originally, from values in society or the contractual rule of ‘do ut des’. A certain moral behaviour can be the result of a consensus about give and take between members of a group. And this con-sensus (is not the origin but) can be inspired by primary ethics: original experiences of trust and trustability or even, in an irretrievable past, an ‘a priori experience’ of receiving the entitlement10 to live as a human being and as such with responsibility. Somewhat summarised, with words from Paul Ricoeur: ‘Do quia mihi datum est’ (I give to others because once there has been given to me) (MEULINK-KORF & RHIJN 2009, 31). We like to call this a very special reciprocity.

So where do ethics come from, if not from nature, contracts, values agreed on, or a freedom of choice, autonomy? We consider the truest answer to be: from ethical entanglements themselves. In other words: from being with and for others, ‘the other’ or ‘the Other’. The philosopher Emmanuel LEVINAS (1906–1995) argued that man is invested with responsibility even when he does not want to be, and even when there is no contract: ‘une responsabilité irrécusable, précédant tout consente-ment libre, tout pacte, tout contrat’ (1978, 141). There seems to be a sensibility in the Self for the Other, a space or maybe an awareness that is, prior to freedom, rather a fate. Levinas published not only philosophical texts but also religious11 studies. In one of these he underlines that the Hebrew concept rachamim, ‘mercy’, is linked with rèchèm, ‘womb’, ‘uterus’ (1977, 158). Of course this does not prove anything, nor do we intend to fi nd the secrets of life in etymologies. But Hebrew words from the same root also share a certain kind of meaning. We think it is also worth men-tioning that ‘responsibility’ in Hebrew, ahariout, is linked with aher, ‘other’. And ‘responsibility’ is linked to ‘time’ and ‘faithfulness’ too, since the Hebrew word for

10 Below we will come back to the concept of ‘entitlement’ in the approach of Boszormenyi-Nagy.11 These studies of the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud are as such oriented on the Jewish religion, but according

to Levinas this is not a case of particularism, because the Torah was given to Israel for the whole of humanity.

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‘after’, aharei, shares the same root as well. In this tradition ‘freedom’ is seen as an answer to a calling. Man has the ‘passive ability’ to be moved by what happens to his neighbour (CHALIER 1995, 7–8) and to actively answer. Responsibility presupposes response. A human being becomes really human, with freedom in this ethical sense, when he is ready to answer ‘Here I am’ to the call of the other, and as such to the Other who asks: ‘Where is your brother?’ (Gen 4:9). This call is a command, but not the command of someone who terrorises me; it is only valid, ethically spoken, as a command without force. ‘The face of the other’, not the terrorising other, gives the basic command, the prohibition: ‘Thou shalt not murder.’ And the link with time and faithfulness? To be prepared means to have time to hear the voice of the other and to postpone betraying (or otherwise killing) the other (RHIJN & MEULINK-KORF 1997, 191–230). So this is about a very specifi c, diffi cult freedom, a ‘diffi cile liberté’.

We made this short philosophical-anthropological excursion on our way to elicit resources of trust. ‘Contextual therapy aims at the goal of eliciting the trust resources of close relationships’ (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY 1987, 191). We carry on with our con-cern, following in the tracks of others, with our comments and re-interpretation.

14. A search for good therapy: a multi-dimensional perspective

In the 1950s and 1960s many social workers, psychotherapists and psychiatrists perceived their familiar professional approach as inadequate, individualising and object ifying. What was considered intra-psychic, pathological or abnormal in the trad itional paradigms of linear causality, they, in their new circular thinking, con-sidered interpersonal and relational.

Boszormenyi-Nagy (1920–2007), working since 1950 in the USA, was one of the pioneers of this new approach. Earlier in his career as a psychiatrist in Budapest, searching for the nature and treatability of behavioural-emotional disorders, and after medical clinical and partly psychoanalytical education, he had turned to biochemical studies. In Chicago he continued this work (about the effect of insulin upon schizo-phrenia), but these investigations led him nowhere. Inspired by Kalman Gyarfas, also from Budapest, he already had a long-standing curiosity about the signifi cance of relationships with regards to psychotherapy. This interest formed his career ever since 1957 (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY 1987, xiii-xiv). Boszormenyi-Nagy was looking for ‘good therapy’12 and ‘what makes therapy work’. During a period of concentration on intensive individual therapy with residential patients, he focused on the connection be-tween depth psychology and close relationships. He was supported by the writings of Ronald FAIRBAIRN, one of the Neo-Freudian founders of the British ‘object relations’ school of psychoanalysis. Fairbairn theorised about the psycho logical conceptualisa-tion of the mind as relational. He described mature dependency as ‘a capacity on the part of the differentiated individual for cooperative relationships with differentiated

12 See note 3.

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objects’ (1952, 145). His view remained within the limitations of an ego-centred model (‘subject-object’). For Boszormenyi-Nagy, though, this contribution of Fairbairn was a step further into a relational redefi nition of Freud and a psychological conceptualisa-tion of relationship. As one of the fi rst systemic family therapists, Boszormenyi-Nagy went to meet his clients with a dialectical view. ‘The martyr who doesn’t let other family members “work off” their guilt is a far more powerfully controlling force than the loud, demanding “bully” ’ (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY & SPARK 1973, xiii). Dialectics pushed him forward to look for reciprocity as a motivational power in relationships and to explore the meaning of contradictions, absurdities, and splitting within interper-sonal communications over a longer period. A dialectical approach withholds people from dividing each other into good and bad guys. It prevents ‘scapegoating’ in relation-ships.13 Boszormenyi-Nagy was even more encouraged to continue his thinking and practising of therapy in this direction after reading Martin Buber’s Ich und Du (I and Thou). Interdependence is a conditio sine qua non of humanity, and of each individual. In many circumstances seemingly invisible, this ‘relational reality’ is always present.

He no longer chased a single concept of truth but started to refl ect in a multi-dimensional way, in order to approach this human reality in an integrative framework. Boszormenyi-Nagy formulated ‘four dimensions of relational reality’ (1987, 191–212). The fi rst three dimensions are described as the dimension of facts (history, phys-ical, social and economic quasi-objective facts: sex, where one is born, what handicaps one has, parental social status, siblings, work, housing, prosperity, etc.); the dimen-sion of needs and affects, and the dimension of interactions and transactions (poweralignments). This formula enabled Boszormenyi-Nagy to integrate insights from psych ology, sociology and systems theory. The fourth dimension is about the ethics of relating and especially of close relationships (fairness, entitlement and indebtedness, merits, earned trust). This ‘dimension four’ can be seen as ‘an umbrella under which the contextual therapist subsumes the various, mutually untranslatable dimensions of relational ontology and epistemology’ (1987, xviii). Each dimension has its own im-portance, but ‘when an intervention is made with one particular dimension in mind . . . it works across the dimensions in effect’ (HARGRAVE & PFITZER 2003, 95).

Boszormenyi-Nagy cum suis developed a therapeutic approach ‘based on the em-pirical knowledge that a person’s fair consideration of his or her relational obligations can result in personal freedom to participate in life’s activities, satisfactions and enjoy-ment’ (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY & KRASNER 1986, 414). They started to question their clients from the viewpoint of an ethical dimension in relationships, which cannot be ignored in therapy without injuring clients and their relationships and freezing the pro-cess of healing. The defi nition of relational ethics is defi nitely an unromantic and non-moralising one. ‘People use each other, are used by each other, and accept or fi ght against particular usages of each other. This is the essence of close relationships. Relationships can be trustworthy as long as the partner’s use of each other is multilateral and equitable’

13 See for a Girardian approach: KAPTEIN 1993. Also above in this article. Nagy used the term mostly in an aside manner, not as a central concept, because it is impossible for us to condemn the scapegoaters without becoming scapegoaters ourselves (Boszormenyi-Nagy, personal remark).

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(1986, 420). Cornerstones of contextual therapy are commitment and trustworthiness rather than focusing on affects and/or values. Its major goal is helping people to rely on earned entitlement, ‘i.e. on the ethical process of self-validation that is linked to due consideration of signifi cant others’ (1986, 415). Preceding in the lifecycle the earning of entitlement by consideration of others, contextual theory postulates an inherent entitle-ment or ‘right’ of the newborn to be cared for by others. This entitlement to be cared for includes for the child to receive consideration for the need and even the right of this child to give to others. ‘The right to give to others’ – this concept takes seriously the indebted-ness to parents, other care givers and to the human world. Maybe this assumption of an intrinsic entitlement to earn entitlement sounds a little odd. It is a complex concept, but at the same time, familiar and recognizable in life experiences. ‘Constructive entitlement’, earned entitlement, means a certain ability or responsible freedom to enjoy life and to engage with others, without being captured by guilt about unpaid indebtedness.

When this basic entitlement is denied de facto to a child, when there is insuf-fi cient or no caring, or the child had to deal with another serious handicap of some sort, then – paradoxically – his entitlement grows but develops, as ‘overentitlement’, a destructive character. Some people have accrued so much of ‘destructive entitle-ment’ that they become blind to the impact of their actions on others. Overentitled children or adults can become the actors of new injustice. Their own pain makes them unable to see the pain of the other, even the pain and injustice infl icted on others by themselves. Their own experiences of injustice and injury make them al-most unable to feel the primary calling into responsibility and to recognise the admit-tance to their own possible resources.

In working with their clients, Boszormenyi-Nagy and his co-workers concen-trate on the family context, the importance and infl uence of the special qualities of family ties as ‘loyalties’. His main thesis is the conceptualization of an intergener-ational connectedness, in which every person is a contributing subject, with indebt-edness and merits linked both to the past and the future generations. A dialogue with signifi cant others, not only persons to whom we are emotionally strongly attached, but primarily with persons with whom we are existentially connected, is considered a main resource for restoring hurt human justice and eventually for constructive entitlement. This reward can be seen in the freedom for the individual to go beyond the family into a greater society in which the person can contribute to what Boszor-menyi-Nagy calls (with Martin Buber) ‘the justice of the human order’.

Many actions are ultimately motivated by loyalty to signifi cant others. Often these are hidden dynamics. Here is an example:

Simon, the chairman of a church-council in a big city in Holland, was deeply entangled in a confl ict about which of the two churches under jurisdiction of this coun-cil had, for fi nancial reasons, to be abandoned. He strongly pleaded for keeping the church which was, in the opinion of most members of the council, far less conveni-ent for the meetings of the congregation than the other building. Normally known as a peacemaking person, a good democratic leader, and a mediator himself, he was now almost primitively excited, without attention to the meanings and needs of other

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participants. There was a quarrel at every board meeting. The original atmosphere of trust disappeared; the council became divided and a real splitting of the community was near. One of us met Simon in supervision and asked him: ‘To whom would you be disloyal when you should help to end this confl ict and really would go for a solution?’ This question became the beginning of a dialogue between Simon and some other involved church leaders. Simon told them about the efforts of his parents for this old, ‘ugly but lovable’ church. Others talked about their motivations. Simon also addressed his two living siblings. He spoke with his brothers about their upbringing by their long-deceased parents, about the commitment of their parents, especially their father to the church (that same old ‘unsuitable’ building), about his (Simon’s) longing for his father’ attention and for real contact. He and his brothers dared to address each other and, even more importantly, to acknowledge each other’s pains. Later, when the issue of the church was already settled in peace, Simon said: ‘This confl ict turned out to be a blessing for me, and for others, I hope. I now enjoy having more time and attention to my family at home. Linda [his wife] said that I have altered my priorities at the very last [Simon emphasised these words]. And I see Harry [one of his brothers, the other is living abroad] more often. Until now we had a joking relationship, now there is contact between us. I feel trusted by him.’ The old inconvenient church has been torn down, but before this there was a ritual in which Simon participated without resentment. However, this story does not have a happy end forever, for inevitably relational reality means intermittent relational diffi culties: ongoing challenges for dialogue.

This approach focuses not on pathology, although accurate diagnosis can be necessary and even a resource for adequate coping. The focus is on intrinsic ac-countability and responsibility, on loyalty that might be hidden, denied and working destructively now, but that nevertheless is still there. Family members are encour-aged and supported to enter into a dialogue about how they shaped or neglected re-sponsibility towards each other, and how they tried to redress or deny the merit that each family member has accrued from his/her offers of care and consideration. There are always others involved: a third, fourth, fi fth, etc. party. Even when there has been no (or nearly no) care at all, the contextual therapist keeps on looking for earned entitlement, a dynamic balance of fairness and a ledger of merits. The same applies in case of factual abuse by family members. This fairness and justice can only be measured in dialogue. There is no other gauge than dialogue and this relational reli-ability practiced and lived ‘as the dynamic foundation of viable, continuing, close relationships . . . ongoing striving for a never fully attainable goal . . . not a posses-sion, not a thing to be owned . . . an ongoing challenge’ (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY & KRASNER 1986, 417). Human injustice can be rebalanced in the process of genuine address, ‘direct address’. In contextual therapy this is the most important relational resource by which people can improve and help themselves and others.

From the side of the therapist (supervisor, etc.) ‘multidirected partiality’ is the contextual therapy’s chief method and attitude.

It consists of a set of principles and technical guidelines that require the therapist to be ac-countable to everybody who is potentially affected by his or her interventions. In the prac-

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tice of contextual therapy, this principle of inclusiveness has to be linked to the therapist’s determination to discover the humanity of each participant – even of the family’s monster-member. (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY & KRASNER 1986, 418)

15. More than retributive justice: reciprocity

We focused on contemporary socio-economic issues and their distrust-seeding as-pects. Concerning the micro-level, we know that many problems of individuals, couples and families are not directly related to these issues. Nevertheless, especially the ‘free autonomy’, egalitarian and mercantile ideologies mentioned above are a strong power in contemporary society, and this seems to be pervasive in close rela-tionships. Originally there may have been some good in these ideas, but nowadays they legit imate much injustice and unfairness. Concerning relating in close relation-ships, these principles result in trust-demolishing confusion and uncertainty instead of orientation. We perceive in our own surroundings, including our clients, much uncertainty about the reciprocity of commitments.

Boszormenyi-Nagy, by thinking about dialectics, was pushed forward to look for reciprocity as a motivational power in relationships. What is the meaning of this reciprocity? Does it simply refer to the retribution of ‘do ut des’, ‘tit for tat’, the com-plementary character of duties and rights? At least between closely related persons there must be, beyond this, a longer-term ledger of merits and obligations, with more complexity. How do people themselves in their relational entanglements perceive this? We mention an example from our practice, in fact a composite of a few nearly similar cases. It illustrates a relational situation which we met more than once.

A couple comes to us for counselling: Dirk (58), a divorced man with 3 adult children, for some years remarried with Mandy (39, for her a fi rst marriage). Mandy longs to be mothering a child of her own. Dirk says: ‘I am sorry but enough is enough. I am very happy with the two of us . . . Children, trust me, are precious but a heavy burden . . . I am too old for children now, but young enough to enjoy being with you . . . and our lifestyle now . . . You do not know the impact of a child . . . ’ Mandy feels misunderstood: Dirk does not take a responsible stance concerning her longing and needs. ‘I was always committed to your interests’, she says. This discus-sion is going on for some time and grows in bitterness. They stalemate each other. After some sessions with attention of the therapist to the pain of each of them, and to the histories of pain in their life, they somehow feel their own (emotional, verbal) violence against the other as their own pain. Despite their frustrations this couple is able to acknowledge the other for commitment in their shared past. They are also considering the interests of others involved, fi rst of all the possible child-to-be. Man-dy is hearing Dirk’s doubts including the consequences for Dirk’s older children, and she herself talks about the needs of her parents who are without grandchildren until now. They stop using these other interests as weapons against the other. They dare ‘to place their future in the hands of the other’, as Dirk said (with reference to

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a popular poem that was part of their wedding ceremony). ‘He places his life in my hands, and now I know and feel what I can give him’ (Mandy).

And the outcome of their process; will there be a child? We think the answer is irrelevant for our topic now, about reciprocity. The point is not who the winner will be, he or she. The point is, there is only ‘winning’ by not letting the other down. Of course the consequences for a third party (a child) are always very important. A deci-sion which would be founded on acknowledgement of each other’s efforts and needs, on ‘not letting the other down and trusting the trust of the other’, is not a guarantee for good parenting by this couple in the future; nevertheless, it is a condition of re-sponsible consideration. Another couple, alas, took a decision which seemed to be determined by their respective needs for power.

It was the sociologist Gouldner who, in a famous article about reciprocity, wrote ‘The norm of reciprocity is a concrete and special mechanism involved in the main-tenance of any social system’ (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY 1973, 56). This can be seen as only a structural principle, but we agree with Boszormenyi-Nagy and others that it has above all to do with justice, fairness, solidarity. Indeed, a generalised norm of reci-procity becomes internalised in the members of a social system, including family and marriage, but ‘we want to focus on a multiperson . . . ledger of justice which resides in the interpersonal fabric of human order or “realm of the between” ’, writes Boszor-menyi-Nagy with reference to Martin BUBER (1973). This interpretation of reciprocity is not to be disposed as a prescriptive. It is founded on empirical facts. Giving and receiving are not settled without delay by a contractual rule. Otherwise the gift does not ‘work’. There is giving through receiving (without immediate return of the gift), and receiving through giving. And there is ‘something for nothing’, but not as altruism, which would deny the other of his/her entitlement to give, and of acknowledgment for what (s)he did. So this is not simply a mutually contingent exchange of gratifi cations. The growth of confi dence of a rough balancing out, in the long run, can be a solid base.

But as said, we hear people saying this: ‘Now there is no longer any gain for me in my marriage . . . What is there for me to win in this family?’ We hear this as a demand for listening to history, to pain, disappointment, exhaustion, and to more or less invisible loyalties. Sometimes ‘each person’s reliance on their destructive entitle-ment is so intense that they are locked into a familiar pattern of mutual recriminations’ (GOLDENTHAL 1996, 105). The concept ‘destructive entitlement’ is often helpful for providing some specifi c therapeutic guidelines as the importance of multidirected par-tiality, acknowledgement for credits, efforts and wounds, holding the client account-able for his actions, coaching the client into dialogue with signifi cant others. These are concerning the ongoing dynamic balance of giving and receiving sources of therapeut-ic leverage specifi c for contextual therapy. They are as such not suffi cient but, as parts of a multidimensional framework (see above), have to be interwoven with concepts and techniques about communication and intra-personal concerns.

A last remark: reciprocity can be seen as mutuality of exchanging services, but this is not the full connotation of the concept ‘commitment’ (in English): it means ‘engagement’ including ‘taken under custody’, even ‘arrest’. Commitment is never

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free of obligations. Again we quote the words of Ricoeur: ‘Do quia mihi datum est’. The affective reciprocity experienced in kinship is an important condition for social responsibility (PESSERS 1999, 247).

16. Similarities with Biblical notions, again

Boszormenyi-Nagy almost never refers to Biblical principles, but one cannot suppress the feeling that contextual therapy breathes the same air as some central ethical notions of the Jewish Torah and also the law of forgiveness14 in the New Testament. Explicitly in the Torah there is a place for retribution and repairing, through three or four genera-tions, but not infi nitely: this retribution is limited (Ex 34:7). Here only one other Bib-lical reference: in the fi fth command of the Sinai revelation (Ex 20:12) we can hear a summary of a way of thinking – as a creed – which looks upon God as an eternal trace, and upon mankind as invited to follow in the tracks of God (vestigia Dei), which we discern in the mere existence of our parents (see for this paragraph, more elaborated, MOS & MEULINK-KORF 2009). Contextual therapy explicitly focuses on the ongoing pattern of transgenerational justice in families. For instance: the notion of legacy as the inherited endowments of the current generation to its obligation to posterity. The special attention to parentifi cation, ‘an adult manoeuvre to turn a child (or adult) into a functional elder . . . a transactional shift of role boundaries’ (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY & KRASNER 1986, 419). The metaphor of a revolving slate, a relational consequence in which a person’s substitutive revenge against one person eventually creates a new vic-tim. Last but not least we mention the special attention given to the vulnerability of the youngest living generation, because their lives and the lives of the generations to come are shaped by the consequences of the present. Offering due consideration to children is seen as ‘the present generation’s primary way to repay the inherent generosity of its generative past’ (1986, 420). Many other quotations could be given. Boszormenyi-Nagy’s approach converges remarkably with Biblical concepts and Biblical narratives about kinship and the strife for justice as the constitution of relational ethics. These statements assume the irrefutable bonds of loyalty between parents, grandparents and their offspring as ethical entanglements, making a plea for understanding justice with-in the family context as the womb of humanity.

As we mentioned already about Hebrew words, of course this correspondence is not seen as evidence, nor do we preach here for the Christian or the Jewish reli-gion. We try to think about relational ethics as what is valid independently of reli-gion. But we have to be open to religious sources and religious experience. We think the Bible and other books of traditional thinking from different cultures are full of practical-based wisdom about relating with kinship, neighbours and strangers.

14 Boszormenyi-Nagy sometimes criticised the concept of forgiveness, but partly he misunderstood the Biblical notion, we think (See RHIJN & MEULINK-KORF 1997, 307–08).

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17. Conclusion

There is a deep need for ethics that revitalise the hope and motivation to repair the hurt human justice, for trust and trustworthiness. Above all, we assume, for primary ethics, which means not the same as context-bound morals and values. Value systems are im-portant indeed, and in therapy we try to clarify them as possible re sources. But preced-ing this is the ‘irretrievable’ calling of every man by his/her neighbour. In the words of the philosopher F.H. Heinemann, ‘Respondeo ergo sum’ (I respond, therefore I am) (BOSZORMENYI-NAGY 1987, 95). Sometimes this calling is not heard because the ears are closed by pains and experienced injustice. Many times the calling is heard but the person is too burdened by confl icting inner and/or external voices including loyalties.

At the beginning of this text we wrote about great pressures on individuals. It is unrealistic to expect trust-resourcing exclusively of individuals. As a society we cannot draw heavily, boundlessly, almost infi nitely, on the reserves of the individual. This is not fair to persons and their relationships. Nevertheless, the process of deconstructing false ideologies and constructing trustable and trustworthy sociality and new meaning-ful social space happens on different levels, one of them the personal. So whoever can has to be alert and active against unfair ideologies and practices in society. As thera-pists, knowing about these pressures, we have a mandate to support our clients to save and resource their sense of the long-term consequences of responsible caring in close relationships.

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Judice 3, retrieved 13 May 2011 from http://www.mejudice.nl/artikel/525/het-fi nancieel-regime-over-de-gevolgen-van-een-moderne-dwaalleer.

TROJANOW, I. & J. ZEH (2009) Angriff auf die Freiheit: Sicherheitswahn, Überwachungsstaat und der Abbau bürgerlicher Rechte (Munich: Hanser).

VERHAEGHE, P. (2010) De effecten van een neoliberale meritocratie op identiteit en interper-soonlijke verhoudingen, retrieved 15 April 2011 from http://www.psychoanalysis.ugent.be/pages/nl/artikels/artikels%20Paul%20Verhaeghe/De%20effecten%20van.pdf.

ZIMBARDO, PH.G. (2007) The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil (New York: Random House).

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ROBERT BIEL*

DIE SEELSORGE IN POLEN VOR UND NACHDER WENDE

(Erhalten: 21. August 2011; angenommen: 6. Oktober 2011)

Die Seelsorge gehört zu jenen pastoraltheologischen Grundbegriffen, die sich einer langen Ge-schichte und einer andauernden Akzeptanz erfreuen. Sie gehört neben Caritas und Verkündigung zu den Wesensaufgaben der Kirche. Die Seelsorge gewann besonders zur Zeit der totalitären Un-terdrückung der Kirche an Gewicht. So war es auch in Polen nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die kommunistischen Behörden waren der Kirche gegenüber feindlich eingestellt. Aus diesem Grund wurde sowohl die Tätigkeit der Kirche in Polen als auch die Seelsorge von der Machtübernahme durch die Kommunisten stark beeinträchtigt. Infolgedessen war die Kirche im kommunistischen Polen gedrängt, sich mit ihrer Seelsorge sozusagen „in die Sakristei“ zurückzuziehen. Die Ein-engung des kirchlichen Lebens auf die „Sakristeikirche“, die von den Kommunisten als einzige „Befriedigung der religiösen Bedürfnisse“ der gläubigen Bürger geduldet wurde, führte vielerorts zu einem minimalistischen Verständnis von Seelsorge. Die Seelsorge im Schatten des Kommu-nismus, besonders die Militär- und Gefängnisseelsorge, musste vielen Schwierigkeiten trotzen. Dies zwang die Kirche, neue Formen der pastoralen Arbeit im totalitären System zu entwickeln. Die wieder gewonnene Freiheit stellt die Kirche vor neue Herausforderungen, die nicht einfach zu bewältigen sind. Die heutige Zeit zwingt also die Kirche in Polen zu einem gewissen Paradig-mawechsel und zum Übergang von der im Kommunismus existierenden „Ecclesia militans“ zur auf dem Boden der freien Gesellschaft lebenden „Ecclesia serviens“. Die Kirche muss also ihre Sendung neu überdenken und eine Art von „aggiornamento“ vollziehen. Die neue Lage zwingt die Kirche zum Wandel der kirchlichen Pastoral. Dieser Wandel und die Pastoral in den postkommu-nistischen Gesellschaften ist treffend als „Nachfolge Christi – postsozialistisch“ zu bezeichnen. Die Lage der Kirche in Polen nach der Wende setzt also den kirchlichen Erneuerungsprozess voraus, den Johannes Paul II. als Neu-Evangelisierung bezeichnet. So ist die Kirche angesichts der veränderten gesellschaftlichen Ordnung zu einem neuen Stil der pastoralen Arbeit herausge-fordert. Damit die Seelsorge nicht zum Steinbruch wird, in dem nur viele private Pastoralkonzepte entstehen, muss sie aufs Engste mit der Theologie verbunden sein. Die Hinwendung der Pastoral zu modernen Human- und Sozialwissenschaften und der kritische Dialog mit ihnen ist somit ein Merkmal einer verantwortlichen seelsorgerischen Arbeit der Kirche. Gerade in der Pastoraltheo-logie Polens besteht diesbezüglich großer Nachholbedarf. Der atheistische Staat blockierte alle

European Journal of Mental Health 7 (2012) 184–203DOI: 10.5708/EJMH.7.2012.2.2

ISSN 1788-4934 © 2012 Semmelweis University Institute of Mental Health, Budapest

* Robert Biel, 33–100 Tarnów, ul. Urszulańska 9/8., [email protected].

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Versuche der Kirche, für Laien theologische Ausbildungsmöglichkeiten zu schaffen. Die Kirche im kommunistischen Polen durfte nur über eine katholische Universität (KUL) verfügen – es war gleichzeitig die einzige katholische Universität im ganzen Ostblock. Inzwischen hat sich die theologische Landschaft verändert. Nach der Wende konnte die Kirche die Gunst der Stunde nut-zen und bessere theologische Bildungsmöglichkeiten auch für Laien schaffen. Es ist der Kirche gelungen, eine Universität in Warschau (UKSW) zu übernehmen und etliche staatlich anerkannte theologische Fakultäten zu gründen. Eine Schwachstelle der heutigen polnischen Theologie bil-det sicherlich das wissenschaftliche Personal, das zu 90% aus Geistlichen besteht, die oft auch in der Seelsorge tätig sind. Die Professoren sind zwar in der Lage, die bestehenden Fakultäten und Institute zu betreuen, sie sind aber meistens gleichzeitig an mehreren Einrichtungen tätig. Jetzt ist auch in Polen interdisziplinäre Zusammenarbeit in der Theologie möglich, deshalb werden den Studierenden neue Studienrichtungen angeboten, wie z.B. Ethik, Journalistik, gesellschaftliche Kommunikation und Familienwissenschaften. An polnischen kirchlichen Universitäten studieren heute schätzungsweise 16.000 Theologiestudenten, sowohl Priesteramtskandidaten als auch Lai-entheologen. Dies scheint enorm wichtig für die Zukunft der Kirche in Polen zu sein.

Schlüsselbegriffe: Polen, Seelsorge, Kommunismus, Geschichte, Rückblick, Wendezeit, Theo-logie, Universitäten

Pastoral Counselling in Poland before and after the Political Change: Pastoral counselling has long been widely acknowledged as a basic notion in pastoral theology. Besides caritas and revelation, it is also one of the essential issues in Church. Pastoral counselling became especially relevant during the oppression of Churches in totalitarian regimes, as in Poland after World War II. Communist authorities showed hostility towards the Church; therefore, the establishment of the Communist rule severely affected both the activity of the Polish Church and pastoral coun-selling. As a result, the pastoral counselling activity of the Church in Communist Poland was confi ned to the sacristies, so to say. This mode of Church existence was the only tolerated way of answering the spiritual needs of religious citizens but it led to a minimalistic interpretation of pastoral counselling in many places. Communism cast its shadow over the counselling activity, which struggled with a lot of diffi culties especially when it was carried out in the army or prisons. This situation forced the Church to develop new forms of pastoral work in the totalitarian regime. Since freedom was regained, the Church has been facing new challenges, which are not easy to overcome. The present era calls for a paradigmatic change in the Church and the transformation of the Communist-time ‘ecclesia militans’ into an ‘ecclesia serviens’ rooted in a free society. The Church has to reconsider its mission and carry out a kind of ‘aggiornamento’. In this new situ-ation, pastoration has to go through a reform as well. In post-Communist societies this transforma-tion and pastoration could felicitously be called the ‘post-socialist imitation of Christ’. The situ-ation in which the Polish Catholic Church has been living after the political change presumes the renewal process termed ‘new evangelisation’ by Pope John Paul II. With regard to the change in social order, the Church is facing the challenge of establishing a new working style of pastoration. In order to avoid the fragmentation of pastoral work into several individual concepts of spiritual counselling, it has to be closely linked to theology. This is why pastoration has turned to modern humanities and social sciences and has been involved in critical dialogue with these disciplines as part of the responsible counselling work of the Church. Pastoral theology in Poland has a lot to catch up with in this respect. The atheist state thwarted all Church attempts to provide theological education to lay persons. In Communist times the Polish Catholic Church was allowed to run one university only (KUL), which was also the only Catholic university in the whole Eastern bloc.

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In the meantime, the theological landscape has been transformed. After the political change the Church could take the opportunity to create better theological education for laymen as well. It suc-ceeded in taking over one of the universities in Warsaw (UKSW) and founding several theological faculties that have also been recognised by the state. The weakness of present-day Polish theology is defi nitely the academic staff, 90 percent of which consists of ordained people also active in pas-toral counselling. Professors are capable of covering the existing faculties and institutes but they usually fulfi l duties in a number of institutions. Interdisciplinary cooperation has become possible in Poland, too; therefore, students of theology can choose from new specialisation courses such as ethics, journalism, social communication and family studies. The number of students in Church-run Polish universities is estimated to amount to 16,000. The fact that this number includes both candidates for priesthood and lay theologians seems to be extremely important with view of the future of the Church in Poland.

Keywords: Poland, pastoral counselling, Communism, history, retrospection, political change, theology, universities

1. Hausarrestpastoral

Eines der wichtigsten Ziele der kommunistischen Diktatur war die Ausrottung der Religion und die Vernichtung der Kirche durch politischen Druck, Machteingrif-fe wie Erpressungen und sogar physische Liquidationen, durch gesetzliche Maß-nahmen, Lügen und Diffamierung. Der totalitäre Staat versuchte, alle kirchlichen Aufgaben zu übernehmen und die Kirche durch dieses Staatsmonopol zu ersetzen, um – aus der Sicht der kommunistischen Machthaber – durch die Befreiung von der angeblichen Dunkelheit der Religion einen neuen Menschen und eine neue Ge-sellschaft zu schaffen (MIKLUŠČAK & ARAČIĆ 2001, 43). Das atheistische Regime duldete die Religion höchstens als Privatsache Einzelner. Der Religion und jedweder religiöser Institution wurde ein genau festgelegter Raum ohne Öffentlichkeitsrecht zugeteilt. Die im kirchenfeindlichen Sinne verstandene Trennung der Kirche vom Staat bedeutete, dass die Kirche in Polen aus der Politik, aus dem öffentlichen Leben und aus der Erziehung ausgeschlossen blieb. Deshalb mussten sich das kirchliche Gemeindeleben und die Seelsorge vor allem auf die Gottesdienste und Spendung der Sakramente beschränken. Infolge dessen war die Kirche im kommunistischen Polen dazu gedrängt, sich sozusagen „in die Sakristei“ zurückzuziehen (MIKLUŠČAK & ARAČIĆ 2001, 45–46). Außerhalb der kirchlichen Räume fand die Seelsorge nur einen äußerst begrenzten Wirkungsraum. Alle Arten seelsorgerischer Aktivität wur-den politisch eingestuft, beurteilt und demzufolge von der Polizei und der für die Kontrolle der Kirche eingesetzten Staatsorgane streng beobachtet, verboten und im Fall der Nichtbefolgung staatlicher Anordnungen mit Strafmaßnahmen belegt (MIKLUŠČAK & ARAČIĆ 2001, 46).

Was das öffentliche Leben in Polen anging, waren Christen und die katholi-sche Kirche eher an den Rand des gesellschaftlichen Lebens gedrängt. In diesem Zusammenhang stimmt, was A. Wollbold mit dem Begriff „Hausarrest der Pas-toral“ umschreibt (WOLLBOLD 2003, 85). Die Einengung des kirchlichen Lebens

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auf die „Sakristeikirche“, die von den Kommunisten als einzige „Befriedigung der religiösen Bedürfnisse“ der gläubigen Bürger geduldet wurde, führte vielerorts zu einem minimalistischen Verständnis von Seelsorge, das nur auf die Erfüllung re-ligiöser Pfl ichten begrenzt war (ZULEHNER & TOMKA 2000, 135). Dies zwang die Kirche, mögliche Auswege zu suchen und neue Formen der Tätigkeit und der Seel-sorge im totalitären System zu entwickeln. Die kirchliche Tätigkeit musste aus die-sem Grund auf der privaten Lebensebene der Priester und Laien vollzogen werden. Die Seelsorge – besonders die Kategorial- oder Standesseelsorge – musste „illegal“ und oft heimlich durchgeführt werden. In den Augen des ersten Parteisekretärs der Polnischen Vereinigten Arbeiterpartei – W. Gomułka – war die Berufsseelsorge nur als Versuch der Kirche zu betrachten, „unter dem Vorwand von Pilgerfahrten, Ex-erzitien, Einkehr- und Gebetstagen ins Berufsleben der Bürger einzugreifen sowie gesetzwidrige und gegen die Staatsordnung verstoßende Anweisungen zu geben“ (GOMUŁKA 1959, 721). Aus diesem Grund wurden die verschiedenen Formen der Berufsseelsorge als antisozialistische kirchliche Agitation bekämpft. In diesem Sin-ne wurde der Kirche vorgeworfen, die Juristen zur Abschaffung der sozialistischen Gesetzes- und Staatsordnung zu drängen, die Lehrer gegen das Erziehungsmonopol des sozialistischen Staates aufzuhetzen und den Ärzten Abtreibungen zu verbieten (GOMUŁKA 1959, 721). Obwohl die Kirche immer wieder ihre Bereitschaft betonte, jedem Menschen – unabhängig von seiner Weltanschauung – zu dienen (Episkopat Polski 1953, 391), musste die Seelsorge im Schatten des Kommunismus vielen rein ideologischen Schwierigkeiten trotzen.

2. Seelsorge im Schatten des Kommunismus

Träger dieses ideologischen antikirchlichen Programms war die kommunistische Partei, Vollzieher der Anordnungen der kommunistischen Partei wiederum war der Staat, welcher der Eigenmächtigkeit der Kommunisten gänzlich ausgeliefert war. Die Organe der Selbstverwaltung handelten dabei willkürlich auf der Grundlage von allgemeinen Richtlinien der Parteiorgane oder von Anweisungen der Geheimpolizei. Vieles war offi ziell zwar nicht kategorisch verboten, musste aber von den Staatsbe-hörden genehmigt werden und hing daher vom guten (oder bösen) Willen der Staats-beamten ab, die aus Angst vor Repressionen der Machthaber meistens antikirchliche Entscheidungen getroffen haben (MIKLUŠČAK & ARAČIĆ 2001, 43–44).

Im kommunistischen Polen stand alles unter der Kontrolle des Staates. Deshalb beanspruchten die Kommunisten auch das Recht, die kirchliche Tätigkeit und die Seelsorge zu kontrollieren. Eine besondere Rolle bei der Bekämpfung der Kirche spielte das Amt für Glaubensangelegenheiten, das – offi ziell gesehen – an sich von Amts wegen die Tätigkeit der Kirche unterstützen sollte. In Wirklichkeit war das Gegenteil der Fall. Das Amt für Glaubensangelegenheiten war für die Behörden zum Zentrum des staatlich programmierten Atheismus und der antikirchlichen Tätigkeit geworden. Dieses Amt hatte unbegrenzte Macht über die Kirche und konnte sogar

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gesetzes- und verfassungswidrige, antikirchliche Entscheidungen treffen und deren Vollzug den Beamten befehlen (CHOROMAŃSKI 1967, 457–58).

Dieses Amt galt im kommunistischen Polen als eine Art von Superministeri-um, das über alle anderen Ministerien bestimmen konnte. Alle Entscheidungen be-züglich der Kirche mussten im oben genannten Amt getroffen werden. So wurde beispielsweise für die anderen Ministerien entschieden, welche Priesteramtskandi-daten aus welcher Diözese zum Militär einberufen werden sollten, welche Bischöfe ins Ausland ausreisen und welche kirchlichen Würdenträger aus dem Ausland in Polen einreisen können, in welcher Ortschaft eine Kirche gebaut werden darf und welche Steuern die Priester zahlen sollen (WYSZYŃSKI 1963, 225). Das Amt für Glaubensangelegenheiten erwies sich im Laufe der Zeit als wichtigstes Instrument der kommunistischen Partei im Kampf gegen die Kirche. Dies wird auch daraus ersichtlich, dass die Leitung dieses Amts einerseits überzeugten Atheisten oblag (CHOROMAŃSKI 1968, 485), andererseits Priestern, die ihr Amt niederlegten oder Priesteramtskandidaten, die aus disziplinären Gründen vom Priesterseminar entlas-senen wurden (WYSZYŃSKI 1962, 209).

Das Amt für Glaubensangelegenheiten versuchte durch administrative Ver-ordnungen, die Kirche zu schwächen und ihre Tätigkeit lahmzulegen. Auf diesem Wege wurden viele kirchliche Einrichtungen wie Knabenseminare, Noviziatshäuser (WYSZYŃSKI 1952, 352–54), Pfarr- und Ordenshäuser (WYSZYŃSKI 1953, 260) auf-gelöst und dann auch beschlagnahmt. Im Auftrag der staatlichen Behörden mussten auch manche Filialkirchen (ŁOJEK 1948, 125) und Krankenhauskapellen (Episkopat Polski 1964, 280) geschlossen werden. Um die Kirche zu schwächen, wurde das kirchliche Bauwesen fast vollständig verboten. Erst aufgrund der Krise der Partei in den Jahren 1956 und 1960 sowie aus Angst vor dem Ausbruch gesellschaftlicher Proteste konnten Baugenehmigungen für Kirchen erzwungen werden, die jedoch oft im Laufe der Bauarbeiten wieder entzogen wurden (Episkopat Polski 1967, 471–72). Ohne Baugenehmigung gebaute Kirchen wurden von den Behörden beschlagnahmt und manchmal sogar erbarmungslos zerstört (Episkopat Polski 1959, 699).

Besonders betroffen von dieser restriktiven Politik war die Diözese des späteren Papstes Johannes Paul II., Krakau, die im Jahre 1973 70 Gesuche einreichte und kei-ne Baugenehmigung von den kommunistischen Behörden erhielt (Episkopat Polski 1974a, 641). Zur Legende wurde der Kampf des Kardinals Wojtyła und seines Volkes in Nowa Huta bei Krakau, die als atheistische „Stadt ohne Gott“ geplant war. Obwohl die 85.000 Einwohner von Nowa Huta keine Kirche hatten, war – nach Einschät-zung des Amts für Glaubensangelegenheiten – der Bedarf der Gläubigen gedeckt und der Bau einer Kirche überfl üssig (CHOROMAŃSKI 1956, 545). Das Bauverbot für die Kirche führte dazu, dass in den 1970er Jahren in Polen – nach kirchlichen Einschät-zungen – 500 neue Kirchen und 300 Kapellen notwendig waren (Episkopat Polski 1971, 569). Ungeachtet dessen wurde 1974 ein neues Baugesetz verabschiedet, das die Lage der Kirche zusätzlich erschwerte (Episkopat Polski 1974c, 664–66).

Die Seelsorge im Schatten des Kommunismus musste noch vielen anderen Schwierigkeiten trotzen. Es war z.B. ohne die Genehmigung der staatlichen Be-

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hörden verboten, im Freien Lautsprecherboxen zu installieren (Episkopat Polski 1960, 23). Diese Entscheidung des Ministeriums wurde angeblich aus Besorgnis „um die gesellschaftliche Ruhe“ getroffen (KOZŁOWSKI 1960, 35). Die Kommu-nisten versuchten, die Verbreitung der Botschaft der Kirche auch durch die Zensur der Predigten zu verhindern (Episkopat Polski 1955, 493–94). Eine andere Form der Diskriminierung der Kirche war die Verweigerung der Anmeldung der Priester (CHOROMAŃSKI 1965, 327): Um die Seelsorge zu erschweren, wurde den Geistli-chen in Großstädten verweigert, sich anzumelden (Episkopat Polski 1961, 78). Die Behörden versuchten zu bestimmen, wer Exerzitien halten und die Beichte abneh-men darf (CHOROMAŃSKI 1954, 460–61). Kirchliche Prozessionen konnten nur mit besonderer Genehmigung der Behörden durchgeführt werden (CHOROMAŃSKI 1951, 297). Um die Kirche aus dem öffentlichen Leben zu verbannen, war es verboten, Wallfahrten zu organisieren (KLEPACZ 1954, 465). Die Machthaber boten all ihre Kräfte auf, um die pastorale Tätigkeit der Kirche zu behindern. Beispielsweise wur-den während des Rosenkranzkongresses in Gniezno (Gnesen) zahlreiche Alternativ-veranstaltungen durch die Kommunisten vorbereitet (WYSZYŃSKI 1949, 196).1

Auch andere Bereiche der kirchlichen Tätigkeit wurden wesentlich behindert. Zu nennen sind hier besonders zwei Formen der Seelsorge: die Militär- und die Straf-anstaltsseelsorge. Die vom atheistischen Staat geduldete Seelsorge konnte nur als fragwürdiger Ersatz angesehen werden und war gleichzeitig eine Zufl uchtsstätte für regierungstreue, in Konfl ikt mit der kirchlichen Instanz stehende Priester geworden. Militärseelsorge war in den polnischen Streitkräften nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg zwar möglich, aber sie war sehr begrenzt. Ihre Form, ihre Ziele und ihre Durchführung so-wie die dabei beteiligten Personen durften nicht von der Kirche, sondern nur vom athe-istisch und ideologisch geprägten Staat bestimmt werden. So wurde in Polen ein Sur-rogat für die echte Militärseelsorge geschaffen, das nur für Propagandaziele gedacht war. Die Hauptaufgabe der wenigen Militärseelsorger bestand nicht in der religiösen Betreuung der Soldaten, sondern galt nur als Beweis für die angebliche Religionsfrei-heit. Diese vermeintliche Seelsorge diente auf der einen Seite der Regierung als Recht-fertigung dafür, die Proteste der Kirche abzuweisen und die kirchlichen Bemühungen um wahre Militärseelsorge zu verhindern. Auf der anderen Seite wurden die Soldaten im Geiste der gebotenen „Religion“ – im Atheismus – erzogen. Kirchenbesuche, Ge-bete oder religiöse Gegenstände waren verboten und wurden bekämpft.

Das Verhältnis zwischen Kirche und Staat bestimmte auch die Seelsorge in Er-ziehungs- und Strafanstalten. Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg waren die Gefängnisse

1 Zuerst wurde die Rosenkranzprozession verboten. Die Priester aus den nahe liegenden Dekanaten wurden in amtlichen Angelegenheiten vorgeladen. Auch die Kongresswallfahrten aus den Nachbarpfarreien nach Gniezno wurden verboten. Den Priestern wurde verboten, die kirchlichen und marianischen Fahnen aufzuhängen. Die Schuljugend wurde gezwungen, an einem Sportwettbewerb teilzunehmen, Schulkinder wurden ins Kino ge-schickt, und es gab noch einige andere Konkurrenzveranstaltungen für die Jugend. Mit einem Flugzeugwettbe-werb versuchte man, die kirchlichen Feierlichkeiten zu übertönen, und den Autobesitzern aus der Nachbarschaft wurde verboten, die eigene Gemeinde zu verlassen. Es wurden Versammlungen der Gemeinderäte und für die Bauern tierärztliche Pferde- und Viehschauen angeordnet (WYSZYŃSKI 1949, 196).

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in Polen ein Schauplatz des Krieges der Kommunisten gegen das Volk. In dieser Zeit wurden nicht nur Verbrecher, sondern auch die ideologischen Gegner verhaftet und hingerichtet. Die sogenannte „Volksmacht“ wollte keine Zeugen ihrer Ungerechtig-keit und ihrer Verbrechen haben, sodass die Seelsorge in den Strafanstalten syste-matisch zunichtegemacht wurde. Die Kirche musste nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg ständig darum kämpfen, seelsorgerische Arbeit auch in den polnischen Gefängnissen ausüben zu können. Mutig erinnerten die Bischöfe die Regierenden daran, dass auch Häftlinge das Recht auf normale Seelsorge haben. In einem Memorial an den Mi-nisterpräsidenten B. Bierut setzten sie sich für die Rechte der Gefangenen ein; sie schrieben, die Entziehung des religiösen Trostes sei ein gewaltsamer Entzug der ele-mentaren Voraussetzungen der Freiheit (Episkopat Polski 1946, 38–39). In seinem Geheimbericht an das Staatssekretariat des Heiligen Stuhls schrieb Primas Kard. A. Hlond, dass in den kommunistischen Gefängnissen und Arbeitslagern im Jahre 1946 etwa 100.000 Gegner des Regimes ohne seelsorgliche Betreuung leiden und sterben mussten. Die ununterbrochene Klage der Kirche im Namen der oft wegen ihrer Welt-anschauung verfolgten Menschen konnte die Ausrottungspolitik der Kommunisten gegen die Andersdenkenden nicht verhindern. Sie bestärkte jedoch die Treue der Kirche zu den Inhaftierten und ermutigte die Menschen in ihrer Standhaftigkeit.

Viele Geistliche mussten auch persönlich das Schicksal mit den politischen Häftlingen teilen. Die Bischöfe beklagten, dass sich eine große Anzahl von Priestern unter Aufsicht befand und dass viele von ihnen ohne Gerichtsverfahren gefangen gehalten oder zu langer Gefängnisstrafe verurteilt wurden (Episkopat Polski 1950, 259). Als Häftlinge mussten sie ihre geistlichen Pfl ichten heimlich erfüllen. Es war ihnen verboten, im Gefängnis die heilige Messe zu feiern oder das Brevier zu beten.

All die geschilderten Bemühungen der Kommunisten weisen darauf hin, dass normale Seelsorge in Polen während der totalitären Epoche unmöglich war. Nach Ansicht der Kommunisten verhinderte die Seelsorge, Menschen für die Ideen des Sozialismus zu gewinnen (MORAWSKI 1963, 235). Deshalb wurde diese mit allen erdenklichen Mitteln bekämpft.

3. Seelsorge postsozialistisch

Nach dem Fall des kommunistischen Regimes hofften viele Seelsorger, die religiöse Freiheit werde volle Kirchen und mehr Engagement der Gläubigen bewirken. So standen quantitative Indexe des Glaubenslebens bei den Seelsorgern im Vordergrund des Interesses, was letztlich Täuschungen verursachte und zu Enttäuschungen führte. Als viele, die im Kommunismus entweder zur Kirche auf Distanz gegangen waren oder die gar als Kollaborateure des kommunistischen Regimes bekannt waren, ihre Kinder taufen ließen und am Sonntag die Kirche besuchten, kam es zu Unstimmig-keiten. Die Vermutung lag nahe, dass diese Bekehrung zur Kirche mit dem Wunsch verbunden war, sich der neuen gesellschaftlichen Situation anzupassen (MIKLUŠČAK & ARAČIĆ 2001, 55).

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Nach vielen Jahren des Kommunismus waren die Menschen in Polen mehr und mehr davon überzeugt, dass alles nur mit der Zustimmung der Machthaber funktio-niert. Allmählich glaubte man, dass es nur mit der Genehmigung der Partei möglich sein, dass Bäume wachsen, Wasser fl ießt, Fabriken arbeiten, Schriftsteller schreiben, Sänger singen und die frommen Christen Gott preisen (TISCHNER 1993, 115). Dies führte zur Passivität der Gesellschaft, zu einer für den Totalitarismus typischen Un-terbrechung der demokratischen Tradition.

Die wieder gewonnene Freiheit stellt die Kirche vor neue Herausforderungen, die nicht einfach zu bewältigen sind. Es hat sich bestätigt, was Bischof J. Życiński einmal sagte: Es sei manchmal einfacher, für die Freiheit zu sterben als im Geiste der Freiheit zu leben (ŻYCIŃSKI 1996a, 16). Diese Befürchtungen der Kirche bringt J. Wanke treffend auf den Punkt, indem er sagt: „Freiheit bringt immer auch ‚Zug-luft‘ mit sich, in der man sich tüchtig erkälten kann“ (WANKE 1994, 14). In diesem Zusammenhang behauptet Bischof J. Życiński, dass es den Polen heute schwerfällt, ihre Opferbereitschaft in die Sprache der alltäglichen Wirklichkeit zu übersetzen. Die Polen wären durchaus bereit, in einer Nacht alles Wasser aus der Weichsel zu trinken. Viel schwieriger wäre es dagegen für sie, jeden Tag nach dem Frühstück ein Glas Wasser zu trinken. Ihre Bereitschaft für Heldentaten ist unvergleichbar größer als für langweilige Regelmäßigkeit und Konsequenz (ŻYCIŃSKI 1996b, 159).

Nach der Wende haben sich viele die Frage gestellt, was auf Dauer bleiben werde, wenn die Nebel der Euphorie sich verzogen hätten und der Blick auf die veränderte Wirklichkeit frei werde, wenn eine Menge von Hoffnungen von einer ebenso großen Menge von Befürchtungen begleitet werde (SEEBER 1990, 2). M. Spieker bringt diese großen Schwierigkeiten und Sorgen der Wendezeit wie folgt zum Ausdruck:

Die Transformationsprozesse . . . haben den Menschen von Magdeburg bis Wladiwostok die Freiheit gebracht. Sie haben den Weg von der sozialistischen Einparteiherrschaft zum demokratischen Rechtsstaat und von der zentral geplanten Kommandowirtschaft zur Markt-wirtschaft gebahnt. [Sie] erwiesen sich jedoch in allen Ländern als schwieriger als dies . . . erwartet wurde. (WANKE 1994, 7)

Zwar ist das „trotz Militärmacht mühsam auf ideologischen Krücken dahin schleppende Zwangssystem nicht von selbst [gestorben], aber so morsch war es durch und durch geworden, dass es beim ersten Zäune niederreißenden Sturmwind zusammenbrach“ (SEEBER 1991, 1). Die Macht der alten Garden zerfällt zwar, aber sie haben nicht so schnell überall und nicht jeden Rückhalt verloren. „Jedes totalitäre Regime schafft – in Parteidiktaturen in besonderer Breite – Privilegierte. Privilegien bewirken Loyalitäten. Solche vom Eigeninteresse bestimmten Loyalitäten lösen sich nicht über Nacht auf“ (SEEBER 1990, 2).

Im Laufe der Zeit bestätigte sich auch die ernüchternde Bestandsaufnahme, dass das Verschwinden des Kommunismus eine Weltlage hinterlassen hat, die un-gleich labiler ist als selbst die gefährlichen Zeiten des Kalten Krieges und des Ei-sernen Vorhangs. Diese Ernüchterung war mehr und mehr auch in der Kirche zu spüren. Viele von denen, die den „religiösen Strahlungsradius der Kirchen realistisch

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einschätzten, haben sich diesbezüglich keine Illusionen gemacht und auch nicht über die Schäden, die ein lang andauerndes, zur Unfreiheit erziehendes Zwangsregime mit seinem Spitzelwesen in den Hirnen und Herzen der Menschen angerichtet hat“ (SEEBER 1990a, 49). Durch den politischen und gesellschaftlichen Umbruch ist „die Situation der Kirchen nicht einfacher geworden, freier wohl, aber zugleich kompli-zierter und unübersichtlicher . . . nach dem Taumel der Veränderungen gab es ein nüchternes Erwachen” (SEEBER 1990, 49). Nachdem die sozialen und psychologi-schen Sicherheiten, die das alte System (oft unter ideologischen Vorzeichen) geboten hatte, gefallen waren, lernten die Menschen nur schwer, sich in der neuen Situati-on zurechtzufi nden. Alle diese negativen Nebenerscheinungen begleiteten auch den Wendeprozess in Polen, obwohl „dessen Bevölkerung . . . mit der stolzen Verbissen-heit jener durchhält, die ihre Freiheit und damit ihre moralische Integrität höher als alles andere schätzen“ (LOBKOWICZ 1993, 144).

Die vergangenen Jahrzehnte haben an mehreren Generationen ihre Spuren hin-terlassen. Und es ist gut verständlich, wenn viele vergessen möchten. Andere schil-dern das Geschehene in rosigen Farben. Wieder andere stehen der Vergangenheit unbeholfen gegenüber (TOMKA & ZULEHNER 1999, 47). Die Beobachtungen und Analysen der gesellschaftlichen Landschaft nach der Wende führen jedoch zu der deprimierenden Erkenntnis, dass „das alte System von der Substanz des Landes ge-lebt hat und in vielen Bereichen – ökonomisch, ökologisch, aber auch in mancher Hinsicht bildungspolitisch und im Blick auf die politische Kultur der Gesellschaft – eine Wüste hinterlassen ha t“ (LOBKOWICZ 1993, 8). Was nach dem Sturz des Kom-munismus zutage kam, bestätigt diese Diagnose. Die erwachten Geister der befreiten Völker sprechen von einer „ungeheuren seelischen Verwahrlosung, die in den Jahren der geistigen Verbildung eingetreten sei; von einer Abstumpfung des moralischen Sinns, die als Verlust und Gefahr schwerer wiege als die wirtschaftlichen Schäden, die eingetreten sind“ (RATZINGER 1993, 38).

Die politisch-gesellschaftliche Wende hat das Umfeld der kirchlichen Tätigkeit in Polen vollständig umgestaltet. Aus einer weithin kommunistisch verordneten Po-sitionierung der Kirche wird das nicht einfache Projekt der Repositionierung in einer freien Gesellschaft (TOMKA 1999, 11). Die neuen Voraussetzungen der kirchlichen Existenz haben die Kirche in Polen in eine seltsame Lage versetzt, die man kurz und treffend mit H. Hild so beschreiben kann:

Der Weg der Kirche führt heute über einen schmalen Grat, auf dem ein Sturz in den Ab-grund einer sterilen Orthodoxie ohne Bezug zu den brennenden Problemen der Gegenwart ebenso droht, wie der Sturz in den Abgrund einer puren Anpassung unter Aufgabe der Substanz. (HILD 1971, 161)

Die heutige Zeit zwingt also die Kirche in Polen zu einem gewissen Paradigma-wechsel und zum Übergang von der im Kommunismus existierenden „Ecclesia mili-tans“ zu einer auf dem Boden der freien Gesellschaft lebenden „Ecclesia serviens“. Die Kirche muss also ihre Sendung neu überdenken und eine Art von „aggiorna-mento“ vollziehen. Diese neue Lage zwingt die Kirche zum Wandel der kirchlichen

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Pastoral. Bischof J. Wanke bezeichnet diesen Wandel und die Pastoral in den post-kommunistischen Gesellschaften treffend als „Nachfolge Christi – postsozialistisch“ (WANKE 1994, 8). Die größte Aufgabe der Kirche scheint heute darin zu bestehen, die von der Dürre des Kommunismus geprägte Wüstenlandschaft zu „bewässern“ und so dem im gesellschaftlichen Boden verwurzelten Baum der Kirche zum Blühen und Gedeihen zu verhelfen. Und diese Aufgabe scheint wichtiger zu sein, als über die chemische Struktur der Sandkörner nachzudenken (ŻYCIŃSKI 1996b, 27).

4. Seelsorge im Wandel

Die Aufbauzeit nach der Wende prägen seltsame Erfahrungen, die J. Wanke mit den bekannten „Ja, aber…!“ Worten beschreibt: „Ja, wir haben die Wende ge-wollt, und wir stehen zu ihr – aber wir haben nicht alles gewollt, was mit dem Umschwung nun . . . die Menschen überrollt“ (WANKE 1994, 9). Der Niedergang des Kommunismus hat ohne Zweifel einen Nachholbedarf hinterlassen, der in der Gesellschaft Verbitterung erzeugte. Und deshalb scheint es fehl am Platz, eine rein defensive Reaktion der Pastoral auf die gesellschaftlichen Herausforderungen zu zeigen. Dieses ängstliche kirchliche Verhalten vergleicht M. Fürst mit einem ver-schlossenen Sack Weizen. Stellen wir uns vor: Ein oben verschlossener Sack Wei-zen wird unten mehrfach aufgeschnitten, sein Inhalt entleert sich, strömt auf den Boden. Die Körner verlieren sich im Sand, ohne Wurzeln zu schlagen. Und es hilft nicht viel, wenn man diesem Vorgang etwa dadurch entgegenwirken will, dass man versucht, den Sack immer fester zuzubinden, ihn immer kürzer zu fassen. Deshalb kann die Aufgabe der heutigen Pastoral nicht darin bestehen, den aufgeschnittenen Sack zuzubinden, sondern nur darin, den Boden für die Körner des Evangeliums fruchtbar zu machen (FÜRST 1993, 128).

Mit Recht behauptet in diesem Zusammenhang W. Fürst, dass „gesellschaftli-cher Wandel und religiös-kirchlicher Wandel in Wechselwirkung stehen und gesell-schaftlicher Wertewandel eine Pastoral im Wandel erfordert“ (FÜRST 1993, 125). Der Wandel der Pastoral muss gefördert werden, weil die pastorale Praxis der Kirche ständig gesellschaftlichen und geschichtlichen Wandlungen unterworfen ist. „Pasto-ral vollzieht sich nicht im luftleeren Raum, sondern im Bedingungsfeld des Hier und Heute . . . [und deshalb kann es keine] Pastoral perennis, eine ewig gültige Pastoral“ (FÜRST 1993, 125) geben. Dieser durch den gesellschaftlichen Modernisierungspro-zess erzwungene Wandel „ist für die Pastoral . . . nicht in erster Linie als Gefahr zu fürchten, sondern sollte als Herausforderung, von der die Kirche letztlich profi tieren kann, begriffen werden“ (WITTRAHM 1993, 190).

Die Notwendigkeit der Erneuerung und der Vertiefung der Seelsorge betonte der polnische Papst Johannes Paul II. immer wieder auf besondere Weise bezüglich seiner Heimat. Die Polen waren es immer gewohnt, sich in schwierigen Situationen, die klare Entscheidungen erforderten, an einem weisen Fingerzeig Johannes Paul II. orientieren zu können. Wie Z. Nosowski zu Recht behauptet, war Johannes Paul II.

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zweifellos der bedeutendste Pole in der Geschichte und er genoss in seiner Heimat eine außergewöhnliche Autorität. Für viele seiner Landsleute war er wie Abraham – der Vater des Glaubens. Er war wie Moses – er befreite sein Volk aus dem Sklaven-haus und führte es durch das „Rote Meer“ des Kommunismus. Er war ein Prophet – er wies Wege, belehrte, warnte, tröstete. Er war wie ein Hirte – er führte, sorgte sich, entschied, wo es nötig war. Er war für die Polen ein wenig wie ein König – die höchste und unbestrittene Autorität (NOSOWSKI 2005, 460).

Die Lage der Kirche in Polen nach dem Zusammenbruch des Kommunismus setzt also den kirchlichen Erneuerungsprozess voraus, den Johannes Paul II. als Neu-Evangelisierung bezeichnete. Die Forderung nach der Neu-Evangelisierung soll aber nicht eine Infragestellung der bisherigen pastoralen Arbeit der Kirche bedeuten. Die Adressaten der Neu-Evangelisierung sind heute jene Christen, denen die Bezeich-nung „getaufte Heiden“ gilt. Von daher richtet sich der Neu-Evangelisierungsprozess „nicht nur an die Noch-nicht-Christen und an die Noch-nicht-Glaubenden, sondern an die Nicht-mehr-Christen und Nicht-mehr-Glaubenden“ (ZAUNER 1990, 52).

Angesichts der veränderten gesellschaftlichen Ordnung ist die Kirche heraus-gefordert zu einem neuen Stil der pastoralen Arbeit. Man muss die Menschen dort abholen, wo sie wirklich stehen. Daher darf die Kirche nicht mehr der glorreichen Vergangenheit nachtrauern, sondern sie muss eine neue Fähigkeit entwickeln, den Namen Gottes zu buchstabieren, den Er unter heutigen Verhältnissen angenommen hat. Es geht also um eine Evangelisierung in der heutigen Sprache mit ihrer neuen Grammatik. Dies bedeutet keineswegs, dass „man die alte Sprache und ihre Symbole verbietet; doch wenn man diese nicht in der neuen Grammatik und mit neuen Zei-chen erläutert, so werden sie nicht mehr verstanden“ (EDER 1990, 57).

Die Kirche darf sich dabei nicht einschränken lassen und sich nicht mit den ihr zugewiesenen Funktionen in der heutigen Gesellschaft zufriedengeben. Die moder-ne Gesellschaft hat „durchaus ein vitales Interesse daran, dass der Mensch im religi-ösen Bereich, vornehmlich am Sonntag, ein wenig festlichen Glanz auftanken kann, um die lange und oft genug monotone Fahrt durch die Banalität der bevorstehenden Arbeitswoche zu überstehen“ (KOCH 1995, 94). Es geht darum, dass die Kirche in der modernen Gesellschaft nicht nur die Rolle von geistlichen „Notfallstationen“, „Rettungswagen“ oder „Sinnapotheken“ spielt.

Für die Kirche und ihre pastorale Arbeit bedeutet diese Sachlage eine enorme Herausforderung. Die Kirche kann sich nicht nur darauf beschränken, die Gesell-schaft vor den Versuchungen des Reichtums zu warnen. Sie muss die Gläubigen da-rauf hinweisen, dass sowohl im gesellschaftlichen Leben als auch in der Wirtschaft das christliche Zeugnis maßgebend ist. In diesem Zusammenhang ist die Frage be-rechtigt, die M. Spieker stellt:

Woher sollen nach 45 Jahren kommunistischer Diskreditierung, ja Bestrafung der indivi-duellen Initiative und staatlicher Rundumbetreuung die Menschen kommen, die bereit und fähig sind, Initiativen zu ergreifen, Risiken einzugehen, Unternehmen zu gründen, Märkte zu erobern und den bequemen staatlichen Betreuungseifer zurückzuweisen?

(SPIEKER 1996, 10)

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Die Pastoral der Kirche erfüllt eine bedeutsame Aufgabe, wenn sie in der neuen Lage der Kirche in der sich veränderten Gesellschaft versucht, für neuen Wein neue Schläuche vorzubereiten (MÁTÉ-TÓTH & MIKLUŠČAK 2000, 175).

Der Weg der Kirche in Polen in die Zukunft verläuft heute zwischen dem der Konservativen und dem der Progressiven. Alle, die sich als pilgerndes Kirchenvolk bezeichnen, sollten diesen Weg suchen und ihn auch gehen. Es muss also eine dritte Gestalt der Kirche geben, die sich zwischen dem Gettochristentum und dem Identi-tätsverlust behaupten kann. Dieser dritte Weg muss also zwischen der Tradition und der Moderne verlaufen und beide Strömungen im friedlichen Dialog verbinden. Die Vertreter dieser Option schämen sich nicht der volkskirchlichen Elemente, und sie haben auch keine Angst vor dem gesellschaftlichen Wandel. Die Katholiken des drit-ten Weges kritisieren an der Traditionskirche die Oberfl ächlichkeit der Massenseel-sorge, die Vernachlässigung der Gruppenseelsorge und der kirchlichen Communio, die mangelnde Bereitschaft zur Vertiefung des Glaubens und der intellektuellen Er-neuerung der Konzilslehre. Sie lehnen auch die „Festungsmentalität“ und die Angst der Volkskirche vor einer Auseinandersetzung mit der Moderne ab.

5. Theologische Quellen und Perspektiven der Seelsorge

Damit die Seelsorge nicht zum Steinbruch wird, in dem nur viele private Pasto-ralkonzepte entstehen, muss sie aufs Engste mit der Theologie verbunden sein. Zu den Aufgaben der Universitäten gehören also nicht nur, Wissen und Erkenntnisse zu vermitteln und Forschung zu betreiben, sondern auch jene, bei allen am Lehr- und Forschungsbetrieb der Universitäten Beteiligten eine Refl exion zu den ethischen und politischen Voraussetzungen, Problemen und Konsequenzen des Erforschten und Gelehrten zu fördern. Dieses Angebot verleiht den katholischen Universitäten in Po-len ein Profi l, mit dem sie an ihr katholisches Erbe anknüpfen, dieses in zeitgemäßer Form präsentieren und auf aktuelle Herausforderungen reagieren können.

Glaube und Kirche müssen in der heutigen Gesellschaft Sorge tragen, dass der Mensch als vielschichtiges Wesen betrachtet wird, das keineswegs nur auf einzelne partikuläre Aspekte verkürzt werden darf. Die moderne Gesellschaft neigt aufgrund der Pluralisierung der Lebensbereiche dazu, den Menschen immer mehr als Kon-glomerat verschiedener Funktionen und Rollen zu anzusehen. Die Kirche aber ist Anwalt der unverkürzten Ganzheit der menschlichen Person. Es ist Aufgabe von Glauben und Kirche – und die theologischen Fakultäten können sich dem nicht ent-ziehen – das menschliche Bewusstsein auf die gemeinsame Sinnmitte hin offen zu halten. Sie haben darum die Pfl icht, allen Verabsolutierungen endlicher Bedürfnisse und einzelner Standpunkte kritisch zu begegnen. Glaube und Kirche sind zwar nicht völlig frei von der Verfl echtung in die Produktionsgesellschaft, aber von ihrer trans-zendentalen Verwurzelung her können sie, gerade durch die religiösen Grundvoll-züge, die Unverlierbarkeit menschlicher Freiheit und Unabhängigkeit in Erinnerung halten und zur Erfahrung bringen (RAUBER 2000, 221).

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Deshalb ist es für die Pastoral der Kirche von Bedeutung, die Lebenssituation des sogenannten Kirchenvolkes möglichst umfassend kennenzulernen. Es ist ein Unter-schied, ob der Glaube in einem Milieu gelebt wir, in dem er, wie z.B. in Polen, durch Jahrhunderte die Garantie für die Bewahrung und den Zusammenhalt der Nation be-deutete und dadurch den Menschen ein großes Selbstbewusstsein gegenüber den Herr-schenden vermittelte, oder ob er in der Diaspora gelebt wird. Deshalb ist die theologi-sche Relevanz der historischen, soziologischen und psychologischen Fragestellungen für die Pastoraltheologie und Seelsorge in diesen Zusammenhängen so unverkennbar. Die Hinwendung der Pastoral zu modernen Human- und Sozialwissenschaften und der kritische Dialog mit ihnen ist somit ein Merkmal einer verantwortlichen seelsorge-rischen Arbeit der Kirche. Gerade in der Pastoraltheologie der postkommunistischen Länder Europas und Polens besteht diesbezüglich großer Nachholbedarf.

Dieser Dialog wird in den osteuropäischen Kirchen durch zwei Umstände we-sentlich beeinträchtigt. Einerseits ist die Theologie, nachdem sie unter dem kommu-nistischen Regime nicht nur von den Theologien in anderen Teilen der Weltkirche, sondern auch von den Wissenschaften im eigenen Land isoliert war, nicht daran gewöhnt, einen Dialog mit anderen Wissenschaften zu führen und interdisziplinär zu arbeiten. In diesem Zusammenhang ist wichtig zu erwähnen, was J. Tischner treffend behauptet: Der polnische Katholizismus hat in der Zeitspanne des Kommu-nismus eine schwierige Probe des Glaubens überstanden. Der Glaube widersetzte sich den Verfolgungen. Aber der polnische Katholizismus musste nie direkt gegen die große rationalistische Kritik der Religion kämpfen und sich mit der protestan-tischen Kritik an der Kirche auseinandersetzen (TISCHNER 1993, 24). Andererseits – auch als Folge der kommunistischen Ideologie – besteht bis heute ein bestimmtes Misstrauen seitens der Wissenschaften gegenüber der Theologie, die als Wissen-schaft nicht immer ernst genug genommen wird. Der einzige Weg, die Vorurteile und Einschränkungen zu überwinden, führt über die Erfahrung interdisziplinärer Zusammenarbeit und ernsthafter sachlicher Forschung (MÁTÉ-TÓTH & MIKLUŠČAK 2000, 178). Gefährlich für diese interdisziplinäre Erfahrung scheint heutzutage die zu starke Akzentuierung der Aussagen des kirchlichen Lehramtes zu sein, die nicht nur das Gleichgewicht der theologischen Quellen gefährdet, sondern auch die dyna-mische Entwicklung der Theologie in Polen sowie ihre Offenheit für die Probleme und Herausforderungen der Kirche behindert (ADAMIAK & MAJEWSKI 2004, 298).

Bis zum Zusammenbruch des Kommunismus war diese interdisziplinäre Zu-sammenarbeit in Polen unmöglich. Der atheistisch geprägte Staat blockierte in der kommunistischen Ära alle Versuche der Kirche, für Laien theologische Ausbildungs-möglichkeiten zu schaffen. In diesem Zusammenhang ist es wichtig zu erwähnen, dass die Kirche im kommunistischen Polen nur über eine katholische Universität verfügen durfte – es war gleichzeitig die einzige katholische Universität im ganzen Ostblock. Die Katholische Universität Lublin (KUL) wurde zu hundert Prozent durch Spenden der Gläubigen unterstützt und konnte keinesfalls den Bedarf an Studienplätzen decken. Die Kommunisten versuchten auf verschiedene Weise, die wissenschaftliche Arbeit an der Universität zu behindern. Im Jahre 1949 wurde die Sonntagskollekte zugunsten der

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Katholischen Universität Lublin verboten. Gleichzeitig verordnete der Bildungsminis-ter ein Aufnahmeverbot für die KUL (EPISKOPAT POLSKI 1949, 161).

Die Wende im Jahre 1989 bildet in zweifacher Hinsicht eine organisatorische Zäsur. Zum einen werden die akademischen Grade aller kirchlichen theologischen Einrichtungen bei Erfüllung sämtlicher Anforderungen vom Staat anerkannt. Zum anderen verändert die Integration der Fakultäten in die staatlichen Universitäten ih-ren Finanzierungsmodus, sodass ein Teil ihrer Aufwendungen aus dem Staatshaus-halt bestritten wird. (ADAMIAK & MAJEWSKI 2004, 297).

Inzwischen hat sich die theologische Landschaft wesentlich verändert. Deshalb ist jetzt auch in Polen interdisziplinäre Zusammenarbeit in der Theologie möglich. Nach der Wende konnte die Kirche die Gunst der Stunde nutzen und bessere theologi-sche Bildungsmöglichkeiten für Laien schaffen. Es ist der Kirche gelungen, eine Uni-versität in Warschau (UKSW) zu übernehmen und einige staatlich anerkannte theolo-gische Fakultäten zu gründen, wie z.B. in Opole/Oppeln (1994), Poznań/Posen (1998), Olsztyn/Allenstein (1999), Tarnów (1999), Katowice/Kattowitz (2000), Toruń/Thorn (2001) und Szczecin/Stettin (2004). In kirchlicher Trägerschaft befi ndet sich auch die Päpstliche Universität in Kraków/Krakau, in Wrocław/Breslau und in Warszawa/War-schau. Heute gibt es in Polen 14 theologische Fakultäten. Zusätzlich bestehen in vielen polnischen Diözesen theologische und katechetische Institute für Laien. Außerdem gibt es 38 diözesane Priesterseminare sowie ungefähr 50 Seminare und Institute von Ordensgemeinschaften, die zumeist den Theologischen Fakultäten zugeordnet sind oder mit ihnen zusammenarbeiten (ADAMIAK & MAJEWSKI 2004, 296–97).

Eine Schwachstelle der heutigen polnischen Theologie bildet sicherlich das wissenschaftliche Personal. Die Professoren und Lehrbeauftragten sind zwar in der Lage, die bestehenden Fakultäten und Institute zu betreuen, sie sind aber meistens gleichzeitig an mehreren Einrichtungen tätig, was leider zu Überbeanspruchung führt. So widmen sie sich vor allem der Lehrtätigkeit und haben zu wenig Zeit für die wissenschaftliche Forschung. In diesem Zusammenhang muss auch darauf hin-gewiesen werden, dass das wissenschaftliche Personal in der polnischen Theologie zu 90 % aus Geistlichen besteht, die oft auch in der Seelsorge tätig sind. Aus diesem Grund ist die Tätigkeit eines polnischen Theologen folgendermaßen zu beschrei-ben: Unterricht, zusätzliche Belastung durch Einsatz in verschiedenen kirchlichen Einrichtungen in der Pfarrei oder Diözese. Abgesehen von diesen und anderen hier nicht erwähnten Schwächen braucht sich die polnische Theologie keine großen Sor-gen um ihre Zukunft zu machen. Ein Grund zur Hoffnung ist auch die Bereitschaft zum kritischen Nachdenken über den Zustand ihres Faches, die in den letzten Jahren unter den polnischen Theologen anzutreffen ist (ADAMIAK & MAJEWSKI 2004, 302).

Die katholischen Fakultäten in Polen sind heute stets um eine intellektuelle Aus-einandersetzung mit den Errungenschaften und Krisenerscheinungen der Moderne im Dienste der Versöhnung zwischen Kirche und Kultur unter besonderer Berücksich-tigung der sozialen Frage bemüht. Damit wird Katholizität als Profi l in einem ganz umfassenden Sinne skizziert, und die Ausbildung an den katholischen Universitäten schließt immer auch eine soziale Dimension mit ein. Für die Kirche heißt dies, Theolo-

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gie nicht nur im Eigeninteresse zur Ausbildung von qualifi ziertem Nachwuchs und zur Sicherung von konfessionellem Spezialwissen zuzulassen. Sie soll auch praktischen Lebensfragen im offenen Diskurs mit anderen Fakultäten Raum geben.

Für die Gesellschaft bedeutet dies, im Wissenschaftsdiskurs der Universität ei-ner Stimme Gewicht zu geben – der der Theologie – um eine wissenschaftlich objek-tivere Weltsicht selbst noch einmal kritisch zu refl ektieren. Außerdem erweist sich die Theologie als heilsam kritische Instanz, die dem Scheitern menschlicher Existenz nicht nur auf dem Wege eines unaufhaltsamen Wissenszuwachses abzuhelfen be-strebt ist. Die seelsorgerische Arbeit der Kirche richtet sich daher nicht nach abstrak-ten Prinzipien, die aus einer zeitlosen und damit fl eischlosen Sphäre in die konkrete Welt zu übertragen sind. Es bedarf einer Übersetzung in den konkreten Kontext des Lebens. Für die Universität heißt dies, dass grundsätzliche ethische Fragestellungen erst einmal in den einzelnen Fachwissenschaften durchbuchstabiert werden müs-sen, um sie dann sachgerecht in einen interdisziplinär verantworteten Fokus auf die leitenden Grundwerte des christlichen Menschenbildes und der Familie zu stellen (FELDER 2010, 789–790). In dieser Hinsicht wird an neun polnischen katholischen Fakultäten den Studierenden ein familienwissenschaftliches Studium angeboten. Im Rahmen des Studiums der Familienwissenschaften setzt man sich mit dem Thema Familie auseinander, welches unter philosophisch-anthropologischen, theologi-schen, psychologischen, pädagogischen, juristischen und soziologischen Aspekten untersucht wird. Die Absolventen/innen dieses Studiums können in verschiedenen staatlichen, kommunalen, sozialen, karitativen und kirchlichen Beratungs- und Er-ziehungsinstitutionen für Familien und Jugendliche, als Sozialpädagogen/innen in der Betreuung kranker und älterer Menschen sowie im Schulwesen arbeiten.

Im Studienangebot der theologischen Fakultäten in Polen ist auch das Fach Ethik zu fi nden. Diese Studienrichtung ist im Zusammenhang mit der wachsenden Kritik am Religionsunterricht in der Schule zu sehen, der immer größerem Legitimationsdruck ausgesetzt ist. Immer öfter und lauter wird in Polen die Frage nach dem Platz des Re-ligionsunterrichts in den öffentlichen Schulen gestellt. Der konfessionelle Religions-unterricht in Polen ist auf eine gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit hin konzipiert worden, in der die überwiegende Mehrzahl der schulpfl ichtigen Kinder der Kirche angehört. Wer sich heute vom konfessionellen Religionsunterricht abmeldet, sollte verpfl ichtet werden, den Ethikunterricht zu besuchen. Schülerinnen und Schüler gewinnen durch die Abmeldung dann keine freien Schulstunden. Der Ethikunterricht als ergänzender Unterricht bringt für die Stellung des Religionsunterrichtes in der Schule so lange kei-ne Probleme mit sich, wie er lediglich eine ergänzende Funktion gegenüber dem Re-ligionsunterricht innehat. Dieser Ersatzfunktion scheint der Ethikunterricht jedoch zu entwachsen. Er entwickelt gegenüber dem Religionsunterricht besonders in einigen Großstädten zunehmend Eigengewicht. Aus diesem Grund wollen die kirchlichen Fa-kultäten den Katecheten, die vielleicht aus demografi schen oder religionskritischen Gründen ihre Arbeit verlieren würden, neue Ausbildungsmöglichkeiten anbieten und Berufsperspektiven sichern. Auf diesem Wege wäre es möglich, dass die Katecheten

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als ausgebildete Ethiker weiterhin in der Schule tätig sind. So will die Kirche gewissen gesellschaftlichen Problemen entgegen treten.

Eine andere Studienrichtung, die an den theologischen Fakultäten in Polen an-geboten wird, steht im Zusammenhang mit der starken Entwicklung der kirchlichen Medien. Der Kirche ist es nach der Wende gelungen, kirchliche – vom Staat und von kommerziellen Medien unabhängige – Radio- und Fernsehkanäle einzurichten. Deshalb bieten einige theologische Fakultäten den Studierenden die Möglichkeit an, ihre Kenntnisse im Fach Journalistik zu vertiefen. Heute haben viele Diözesen ei-gene Rundfunksender. Es gibt auch Städte, in denen mehrere kirchliche Sender zu empfangen sind. Landesweit oder digital auch weltweit sind zwei christliche, pol-nischsprachige Fernsehkanäle zu empfangen: TV Trwam (von Pater Rydzyk) und als Alternative TVN Religion.

Die kirchlichen Sender sind in Bezug auf die Finanzierungsquellen in zwei Gruppen aufzuteilen. Die erste Gruppe – Radio Maryja und TV Trwam – deckt ihre Kosten ausschließlich aus Spenden und verzichtet auf Werbeeinnahmen. Die ande-ren versuchen dagegen auf dem Medienmarkt mit den anderen kommerziellen Medi-en um Werbeaufträge und um Einnahmen zu kämpfen. Aufgrund dieser Entwicklung im Medienbereich ist ein großer Bedarf an gut ausgebildeten Fachkräften entstanden, die eine Tätigkeit in den katholischen Medien ausüben können. Besonders wichtig ist diese Studienrichtung für Pater Rydzyk, der Radio Maryja und TV Trwam lei-tet. Deshalb hat er selbst eine Hochschule für mediale und gesellschaftliche Kultur (WSKMiS) gegründet, die die Fachkräfte für den eigenen Medienkonzern ausbildet. Selbstverständlich können die Absolventen nicht nur den Bedarf der katholischen Medien decken, sondern arbeiten auch in anderen kommerziellen Medien und tragen so zur Christianisierung der polnischen Medienlandschaft bei.

Katholische Universitäten müssen den Studenten auch die Fähigkeit zum Dia-log über kirchliche Belange vermitteln. Schließlich benötigt man in den pastoralen Berufen die Fähigkeit, die Relevanz christlicher Wahrheiten und Werte auch jenseits des kirchlichen Bereiches in gesellschaftliche Diskussionen einzubringen, sowohl im kulturellen als auch im ethischen wie im politischen Bereich. Dies muss in der Ausbildung durch die ständige Verknüpfung theologischer Inhalte mit zeitgenössi-schem Denken vorbereitet werden. Zudem ist das Bewusstsein dafür zu wecken, dass auch die Welt der christlichen und kirchlichen Lebensgestaltung keine Spiel-wiese ist. Die Stellungnahmen zu gesellschaftlichen Problemen müssen kompetent erfolgen. Es ist manchmal bedauerlich, wie leichtfertig mit komplexen theologi-schen und kirchlichen Fragen umgegangen wird, als bedürfte es in dieser Hinsicht nicht einer Sachkompetenz, wie sie für wirtschaftliche, politische und medizinische Bereiche als selbstverständlich eingefordert würde (FABER 2008, 418). Durch das Konzil hat die Kirche gelernt, über sich selbst nachzudenken. Dabei hat sich ge-zeigt, dass die unübersichtliche Komplexität und überfordernde Kompliziertheit der Wirklichkeit nicht vor den Kirchentüren Halt macht, sondern auch in die Kirche hereingebrochen ist. Eine hochdifferenzierte und individualisierte Gesellschaft mit ihrer Macht und ihren Normen, aber auch mit ihrer Brüchigkeit und mit ihrer Bru-

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talität sowie mit ihrer medialen Öffentlichkeit ist zur maßgeblichen Quartiermeis-terin auch für die Kirche geworden (KARRER 2009, 5). Aufgrund dieser Tendenzen werden an polnischen katholischen Fakultäten auch Studienrichtungen angeboten, die sich auf gesellschaftliche Kommunikation und Dialog konzentrieren. Katholi-sche Soziallehre ist nämlich mit ihren Fragen und mit ihren Problemen auch ein Stachel für die Theologie, der sie ständig daran erinnert, sich nicht in Binnenfragen zurückzuziehen, sondern immer wieder neu – im Blick auf unsere Zeit und ihre He-rausforderungen – die Rede und das Nachdenken über Gott wach zu halten und zu entsprechendem Handeln einzuladen.

In diesem Zusammenhang muss schließlich darauf hingewiesen werden, dass das Interesse von Laien am Theologiestudium in entscheidender Weise mit den Arbeits-möglichkeiten zusammenhängt. Dieser Faktor war auch im Kommunismus entschei-dend. Diejenigen, die die Katholische Universität in Lublin absolviert hatten, konnten beim kirchenfeindlich eingestellten Staat – damals der einzige Arbeitgeber – keine Arbeit fi nden (Episkopat Polski 1974b, 635). Aber auch heute nach der Wende ist es schwierig, nach dem Theologiestudium Arbeit zu fi nden, weil es in Polen keine Kirchensteuer gibt und die Kirche keine Arbeitgeberin im eigentlichen Sinne ist. Vor dem Zusammenbruch des Kommunismus im Jahre 1989 besaßen ca. 3000 Laien einen akademischen Grad in Theologie. Die Zahl der Absolventen der theologischen Aus-bildung ist zwar in den letzten zehn Jahren enorm gestiegen (bis 2000 pro Jahr), viele betrachten aber dieses Studium als intellektuelles Hobby und wissen, dass sie ihr Brot außerhalb der kirchlichen Strukturen verdienen müssen. Angesichts der Art, in der die Kirche in Polen mit dem Problem der Beschäftigung von Laientheologen umgeht, ent-steht heute der Eindruck, es gebe zwei Kategorien von Theologen: die Priester, die eine sichere Laufbahn vor sich haben, und die Laientheologen, die meist sich selbst überlassen bleiben, was zu entsprechenden Frustrationen führt. In diesem Sinne hat sich die Wende in der polnischen Geschichte noch nicht voll und ganz als Wende in der Theologie bemerkbar gemacht (ADAMIAK & MAJEWSKI 2004, 300).

Hervorzuheben ist, dass – berücksichtigt man demografi sche und Arbeitsmarkt-faktoren – immer noch relativ viele junge Männer in die polnischen Priesterseminare eintreten. An polnischen kirchlichen Universitäten und theologischen Fakultäten stu-dieren heute schätzungsweise 16.000 Theologiestudenten, sowohl Priesteramtskandi-daten als auch Laientheologen und -theologinnen. Dies scheint enorm wichtig für die Zukunft der Kirche in Polen zu sein; nie zuvor in der polnischen Geschichte gab es so viele Theologiestudenten. Diese Tatsache ist ausgesprochen erfreulich und bildet auch eines der wichtigsten Hoffnungszeichen für eine gedeihliche Zukunft der Theologie und dadurch der katholischen Kirche in Polen (ADAMIAK & MAJEWSKI 2004, 297).

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DINA GUGLIELMI*, CHIARA PANARI & SILVIA SIMBULA

THE DETERMINANTS OF TEACHERS’ WELL-BEING

The Mediating Role of Mental Fatigue

(Received: 1 August 2011; accepted: 22 February 2012)

In recent years, many studies have focused on the determinants and consequences of teacher stress. One of the most recent theoretical models concerning stress is the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model. This study examines one process – namely the energetic process – which supposes that high job demands exhaust employees’ mental and physical resources and therefore cause ill health. Particularly, this study examines the mediating role of mental fatigue between three job demands of teachers (workload, inequity and work/family confl ict) and three consequences of stress: psychological and physical symptoms and work satisfaction. An Italian version of the self-report Questionnaire for Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress (PWSQ) was administered to 697 teachers belonging to a random sample of 17 school organizations. The results showed that mental fatigue has a mediating role in the relationship between work/family confl ict and the three outcomes considered, namely psychological and physical symptoms, and work satisfaction. This study has an important implication for intervention strategy because mental fatigue is a pre-strain condition which arises before more intense outcomes, such as stress-related diseases occur. Iden-tifi cation of this condition allows prevention of the consequences of stress.

Keywords: teachers, stress, mental fatigue, Job Demands-Resources model, health

Faktoren des Wohlbefi ndens von Lehrern: Die Vermittlerrolle mentaler Erschöpfung: In den vergangenen Jahren haben sich zahlreiche Studien damit befasst, welche Faktoren Stress bei Lehrern bedingen und welche Folgen dieser haben kann. Eines der neuesten theoretischen Mo-delle im Zusammenhang mit Stress stellt das Modell Anforderungen und Ressourcen am Arbeits-platz (JD-R, Job Demands-Resources) dar. Dieser Artikel untersucht einen bestimmten Prozess – den Energie-Prozess –, ausgehend von der Annahme, dass durch die hohen Anforderungen am Arbeitsplatz alle mentalen und körperlichen Ressourcen von Angestellten ausgeschöpft werden, was negative Auswirkungen auf ihre Gesundheit hat. Die Studie untersucht insbesondere die Rol-le, die mentale Erschöpfung als Mittlerin zwischen drei verschiedenen Anforderungen an Leh-rer am Arbeitsplatz einerseits (Arbeitsbelastung, Ungleichheiten, Konfl ikt zwischen Arbeit und

European Journal of Mental Health 7 (2012) 204–220DOI: 10.5708/EJMH.7.2012.2.3

ISSN 1788-4934 © 2012 Semmelweis University Institute of Mental Health, Budapest

* Corresponding author: Dina Guglielmi, Department of Education Sciences ‘Giovanni Maria Bertin’, Faculty of Psychology, University of Bologna, Via Filippo Re 6, I-40126 Bologna, Italy; [email protected].

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Familie) und drei unterschiedlichen Folgen von Stress (psychische und körperliche Symptome sowie Zufriedenheit am Arbeitsplatz) andererseits spielt. Die italienische Version des selbstän-dig auszufüllenden Fragebogens PWSQ (Questionnaire for Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress) wurde von 697 zufällig ausgewählten Lehrern an 17 verschiedenen Bildungsinstitutionen beantwortet. Wie die Ergebnisse zeigen, spielt mentale Erschöpfung eine Vermittlerrolle zwischen dem Konfl ikt Arbeit/Familie und den drei untersuchten Folgen, d.h. den psychischen und kör-perlichen Symptomen sowie der Zufriedenheit am Arbeitsplatz. In der Studie wird eine wichtige Folgerung hinsichtlich einer Interventionsstrategie gezogen, da mentale Erschöpfung ein Zustand der Überreizung ist, der früher als alle anderen ausgeprägteren Erscheinungsformen (z.B. auf Stress zurückzuführende Krankheiten) auftritt. Eine Früherkennung dieses Zustands ermöglicht eine Prävention von Stressfolgen.

Schlüsselbegriffe: Lehrer, Stress, mentale Erschöpfung, Modell Anforderungen und Ressourcen am Arbeitsplatz, Gesundheit

1. Introduction

The study of teacher stress has a long history, and it has become a research topic with worldwide interest (KYRIACOU 2001; ZURLO et al. 2007). In comparison with other occupations, teaching has been consistently ranked as a high-stress job (JOHNSON et al. 2005; TRAVERS & COOPER 1996), with 33–37% of teachers frequently reporting being very or extremely stressed as a result of factors intrinsic to their work (BOYLE et al. 1995; CHAN & HUI 1995; KYRIACOU 2001). Many studies in several countries have focused on the determinants and consequences of teacher stress (BENMANSOUR 1998; BYRNE 1999; CHAN & HUI 1995; DUNHAM & VARMA 1998) and also in Italy (CAVALLI 2000) teaching has been confi rmed as a ‘high-stress occupation’.

Stress is believed to contribute to physical illness, absence, and early retirement from the profession (CHAPLAIN 2008). Consequently, it may have a huge impact on an individuals’ well-being and on the school organization as a whole (JEPSON & FORREST 2006). High levels of occupational stress, when experienced in the long term, can lead to a state of burnout (MASLACH et al. 2001), exhaustion, psycho-somatic complaints, and lack of work engagement (BÜLTMANN et al. 2002).

One of the most recent theoretical models concerning stress and burnout is the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model (DEMEROUTI et al. 2001; BAKKER et al. 2000, 2003a, 2003c). This assumes that whereas every occupation may have its own specifi c risk factors associated with job stress, these factors can be classifi ed into two general categories: job demands and job resources. Job demands are those physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job that require physical and/or psychological effort, and are therefore related to physiological and/or psychologic al costs. Job resources are those physical, psychological, social, or organizational as-pects of the job that are functional in achieving work goals, reduce job demands and the related physiological and psychological costs, and stimulate personal growth and development (BAKKER & DEMEROUTI 2007). Job demands and job resources trigger two different processes: on the one hand there is an energetic process, where high

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job demands exhaust employees’ mental and physical resources and therefore lead to the depletion of energy (i.e. a state of exhaustion) and to health problems (health impairment process); on the other hand, there is a motivational process where job resources foster engagement, which has a positive effect on well-being and work outcomes (SCHAUFELI & BAKKER 2004). Job stress and burnout develop, regard-less of the type of job or occupation, when certain job demands are high and certain job resources are limited (DEMEROUTI et al. 2001). The JD-R model has stimulated much research and its main assumptions have been confi rmed by cross-sectional and also by longitudinal studies (for a review see BAKKER & DEMEROUTI 2007). This research, using data from a large sample of school teachers, adapted the JD-R framework to this occupation.

The present study analyzes the concept of mental fatigue from within the frame-work of the JD-R model (DEMEROUTI et al. 2001). Other researchers have supported the validity of the JD-R model by replacing its components with other constructs, such as exhaustion and repetitive strain injury (e.g. KNUDSEN et al. 2009; BAKKER et al. 2003b) and bullying (e.g. MUNOZ et al. 2006).

In fact, one possible link between job demands and stress-related symptoms is mental fatigue due to high demands and lack of resources (AKERSTEDT et al. 2004). The long-term effect of greater activation and effort at work may be a draining of an individual’s energy, eventually resulting in a breakdown and onset of psychological and physical symptoms.

Fatigue has been a recurrent topic in medicine and psychology and has recently attracted much attention as the central component of the chronic fatigue syndrome and of the burnout syndrome (WEBER & JAEKEL-REINHARD 2000; MASLACH et al. 2001; AKERSTEDT et al. 2004). The concept of mental fatigue will be illustrated in the following section.

2. Mental fatigue

Mental fatigue is a complex multi-faceted state diffi cult to defi ne but which is a common phenomenon in daily life, for example as a syndrome due to a ‘hard day’s work’, which involves several changes in mood, information processing, behaviour and psycho-physiological state (LINDEN et al. 2003; LINDEN & ELING 2006).

Prolonged fatigue is associated with impairments comparable to chronic med-ical conditions, and may affect the individual’s performance and functioning in the occupational as well as home setting (BÜLTMANN et al. 2002; BÜLTMANN et al. 2003; JONG et al. 2003; HULST et al. 2006; JANSSEN et al. 2003). Mental fatigue is defi ned and operationalised in various ways, for example in terms of increased sleepiness, reduced alertness, reduction in motivation, reduction in activity, and reduction in concentration (JANSSEN et al. 2003; TARIS et al. 2006).

According to the theoretical background of the Effort-Recovery (E-R) model (MEIJMAN & MULDER 1998), fatigue is the change in the psycho-physiological con-

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trol mechanism that regulates task behaviour resulting from preceding mental and/or physical efforts which have become burdensome to such an extent that the indi-vidual is not able to adequately meet the demands the job requires; or the individual is able to meet these demands only at the cost of increasing mental effort and mental resistance. This defi nition principally implies that fatigue in itself is not an adverse effect but rather a physiological adaptation or safety mechanism of the individual confronted with the risk of overstrain or exhaustion. The E-R model assumes that effort expenditure at work is associated with physiological and psychological costs, which are reversible: after a break, the psycho-biological system will return to a baseline level (recovery).

Repeated insuffi cient recovery from work-related fatigue gives rise to an un-favourable vicious circle in which extra effort must be made at the beginning of every new working period in order to rebalance the suboptimal psycho-physiological state, and prevent performance breakdown. The consequence is cumulated fatigue, which may be expressed as greater needs for recovery after working time. Subse-quently, these greater needs for recovery are seen as precursors of ill health in the longer term (SLUITER et al. 2003).

On the one hand fatigue has been regarded as an antecedent of sickness, absen-teeism, work disability, bad performance, stress, and depression (LINDEN & ELING 2006; LINDEN et al. 2003). On the other hand, fatigue may be a consequence of job demands and lack of resources (AKERSTEDT et al. 2004). This is supported by studies that reveal an indirect relationship between psychosocial work factors and psychological and musculoskeletal symptoms (LIM & CARAYON 1993; BYSTRÖM et al. 2004) through the dimensions of mental fatigue.

In this study we assume that mental fatigue has a mediating role in the energy-depleting process of the Job Demands-Resources model (JD-R), in which high job demands exhaust mental resources and therefore lead to the mental fatigue that has a negative impact on teachers’ well-being and work satisfaction.

3. The energetic process

In this research we focused on the energetic process that concerns job demands and their impact on health problems (DEMEROUTI et al. 2001). Specifi cally, we included three job demands that have been identifi ed as important causes of psychological stress among teachers: 1) workload (KYRIACOU 2001); 2) inequity (HORN et al. 1999); and 3) work-family confl ict (CINAMON & RICH 2005).

A review of the literature (KYRIACOU 2001) shows that one of the sources of stress most frequently reported by teachers is work overload concerning the management of student behaviour. Teachers themselves report that factors such as workload, initiative overload, a target-driven culture, and students’ behaviour and discipline relate signifi cantly to their desire to leave the profession (BROWN et al. 2002). Other research has highlighted how certain factors intrinsic to the teaching

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profession can facilitate high levels of stress. For example, heavy workloads and long working hours (TRAVERS & COOPER 1996), overload of competing roles, in-consistent workloads over the academic year (KINNUNEN & LESKINEN 1989), the need for classroom management (LEWIS 1999; MORTON et al. 1997), and evaluation apprehension (CAPEL 1997; MORTON et al. 1997).

With regard to inequity, according to equity theory (ADAMS 1965) people pur-sue reciprocity in their interpersonal and organizational relationships. When they per-ceive relationships to be inequitable, they feel distressed and are motivated to restore equity (WALSTER et al. 1978; BUUNK & SCHAUFELI 1999; SCHAUFELI 2006). ELO-VAINIO, KIVIMAKI and VAHTERA (2002) showed that the odds rates of poor self-re-lated health, minor psychiatric disorders and absence due to sickness were associated with low levels of perceived justice, demonstrating that unfair procedures and treat-ment are risks to the health of workers, particularly for depression (YLIPAAVALNIEMI et al. 2005). If this lack of reciprocity turns into a chronic condition, it may foster the development of the burnout syndrome (e.g. FARBER 1991). Teachers who invest more in relationships (e.g. with students or colleagues) than they receive may suffer depletion of their emotional resources. In this regard, JARVIS (2002) reported that teaching is seen as hard, poorly paid, and held in low public esteem. Furthermore, the lack of chances for promotion, the low salary and the few opportunities for advance-ment are associated with dissatisfaction and maladjustment (KYRIACOU 2001). Also MOLINER, MARTÌNEZ-TUR, PEIRÒ and CROPANZANO (2005) found that the justice climate moderates the predictability of the level of burnout. Another aspect that may have serious negative consequences for well-being, such as burnout and depression, is the confl ict between the work and family domains (ALLEN et al. 2000).

Many people believe that teaching is a profession that enables teachers to meet their work obligations without major interruptions from the family while maintain-ing a home that functions smoothly without signifi cant disruptions by job demands (CINAMON & RICH 2005). However, some studies that have examined the assump-tion regarding the ease with which teachers blend family and professional roles have reported unexpected results (BIKLEN 1995). In fact, managing these multiple respon-sibilities is demanding and complicated, and research has demonstrated that many teachers are incapable of separating their professional and family roles effectively (ELBAZ-LUBISCH 2002).

Although the three job demands considered (workload or overload, inequity, and work/family confl ict) are not necessarily negative and related to stress-related diseases, they may turn into job stressors when meeting those demands requires great effort from which the employee has not adequately recovered (MEIJMAN & MULDER 1998). In fact, when job demands increase, compensatory effort must be mobilised in order to face the increased demand and maintain the performance level (HAKANEN et al. 2006). The constant mobilization of compensatory effort exhausts teachers’ energy, producing a state of mental fatigue that may have negative outcome in terms of health.

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4. Aims

This study aims to gain insight in the energy-depleting process of the Job Demands-Resources model (JD-R) by examining whether job demands (workload, inequity and work/family confl ict) predict work satisfaction and psychosomatic symptoms through mental fatigue.

In an attempt to explore this psychological mechanism that underlies the rela-tionship between job demands and negative psychological and physical outcomes, the present study focuses on mental fatigue, considering it to be a result of diffi -culties in recovering after a day’s work, and of the lack of coping strategies, meaning a lack of capacity to cope successfully with stressful situations at work (AGERVOLD & MIKKELSEN 2004).

The research model resulting from this theoretical framework is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1Theoretical model of the mediating role of mental fatigue

In sum, this study seeks to test the following three hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): The effect of job demands (workload, inequity and work/family confl ict) on psychological symptoms is mediated by mental fatigue.Hypothesis 2 (H2): Mental fatigue mediates the relation between job demands(workload, inequity and work-family confl ict) and physical symptoms.Hypothesis 3 (H3): The effect of job demands (workload, inequity and work/family confl ict) on work satisfaction is mediated by mental fatigue.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: JOB DEMANDS

WorkloadInequityWork/family confl ict

DEPENDENT VARIABLE:

Psychological symptomsPhysical symptomsWork satisfaction

MEDIATOR VARIABLE:MENTAL FATIGUE

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5. Method

5.1. Sample

The study was carried out among a random sample of 17 public schools of Bologna, Italy. 697 teachers, who participated voluntarily, completed a paper-and-pencil ques-tionnaire. The questionnaire was accompanied by a letter in which the goal of the re-search was briefl y introduced, and the confi dentiality and anonymity of the answers were guaranteed. Most respondents were women (80.9%); and were middle-aged; only 4.9% of the teachers were aged 30 and under; 20.4% were aged between 31 and 40; 37.6% between 41 and 50; and 37.1% were aged over 50. Most respondents had considerable length of service, and 49.6% of them had over 20 years of teaching experience. Only 18.7% had some type of fi xed-term contract.

5.2. Measures

Workload was assessed with one subscale of an adjusted and validated version of the Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress Questionnaire (PWSQ) (AGERVOLD & MIKKELSEN 2004; GUGLIELMI et al. 2011). The scale included 5 items referring to the perception of the workload and job pressure (e.g. ‘I am often full of work’). All items were scored on a four-point frequency rating scale ranging from 1 (‘never’) to 4 (‘always’). The scale’s reliability was 0.72.

Inequity was measured with the scale developed by YPEREN, HAGENDOORN and GEURTZ (1996) and referred to the perception of fairness concerning payment and personal treatment (e.g. ‘I invest more in my work than I get back from it’). The scale included 5 items scored on a four-point frequency rating scale ranging from 1 (‘never’) to 4 (‘often’). The scale’s reliability was 0.85.

Work/family confl ict was measured with a three-item scale (GUGLIELMI et al. 2011) that referred to the imbalance between work and family life (e.g. ‘The anx-ieties and the working worries interfere with my possibility to satisfy the needs of my family’). The respondents were asked to rate the frequency on a 4-point scale (from 1 = ‘never’ to 4 = ‘often’). The scale’s reliability was 0.80.

Job satisfaction was assessed with a single item (WANOUS et al. 1997). The statement was ‘Overall, how satisfi ed are you with your job?’, which was scored on a 5-point scale ranged from 1 (‘totally unsatisfi ed’) to 5 (‘totally satisfi ed’).

Psychosomatic symptoms. Two subscales of the Psychosocial Work Environ-ment and Stress Questionnaire (PWSQ) (AGERVOLD 1998a,b) were used to assess psychological symptoms related to health such as nervousness, irritability, depres-sion, and physical symptoms referred to stomach-aches, palpitation, absent-minded-ness and restlessness. The 9 items were measured with a dichotomous scale (1 = no, 2 = yes). The scale items were added together to yield a sum score. A high score on this scale indicated the presence of health-related physical and psycho logical prob-

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lems. The scale’s reliability on physical and psychological symptoms was 0.73 and 0.71, respectively.

Mental fatigue. Five items concerning psychological fatigue, work reluctance and mental preoccupation with work were used to assess mental fatigue (AGERVOLD & MIKKELSEN 2004). Mental fatigue was measured with a four-point frequency rat-ing scale ranging from 1 (‘never’) to 4 (‘always’). The scale’s reliability was 0.67.

6. Results

Table 1 sets out the means, standard deviations and correlations among study variables.

Note: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

As shown in Table 1, all the correlations were in the expected direction. In par-ticular, the three job demands (workload, inequity and work/family confl ict) were closely related to mental fatigue. Furthermore, work/family confl ict showed a strong association with all the outcomes considered: work satisfaction, psychological and physical symptoms.

The three hypotheses formulated stated that mental fatigue performed a medi-ating role between job demands (workload, inequity and work/family confl ict) and three outcomes: psychological symptoms (H1), physical symptoms (H2) and work satisfaction (H3).

Following BARON and KENNY (1986), we examined the conditions required for mediation: (a) the predictor should be related to the outcome (regression 1); (b) the predictor should be related to the mediator (regression 2); (c) the mediator should

Table 1Descriptive statistics and correlations among the variables studied (N = 697)

N item Range M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6

Workload 5 1–4 3.19 0.50

Inequity 5 1–4 2.85 0.72 0.43**

Work/family confl ict 3 1–4 1.98 0.70 0.28** 0.32**

Mentalfatigue 5 1–4 2.62 0.60 0.40** 0.31** 0.63**

Satisfaction 1 1–5 3.62 0.81 –0.07 –0.24** –0.22** –0.23**

Physical symptoms 4 4–8 4.96 1.05 0.15** 0.15** 0.34** 0.30** –0.09*

Psychological symptoms 5 5–10 6.92 1.60 0.27** 0.27** 0.46** 0.46** –0.37** 0.31**

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be related to the outcome (regression 3); and (d) the predictor–outcome relationship becomes non-signifi cant (full mediation), or becomes signifi cantly weaker (partial mediation) after the inclusion of the mediator (regression 4). To examine the signifi -cance of the mediating effects, we applied the Sobel z-test. We tested all the condi-tions for each of the three outcomes considered separately.

The fi rst hypothesis (H1) stated that the effect of job demands (workload, in-equity and work/family confl ict) on psychological symptoms was mediated by men-tal fatigue.

As shown in Table 2, workload, inequity and work/family confl ict were posi-tively associated with psychological symptoms, explaining 23% of the variance. Thus the fi rst condition for the mediation is verifi ed.

In order to test the second condition, a regression analysis (regression 2) was conducted. The results showed that condition 2 is met for all the independent vari-ables. In fact, workload (β = 0.40, p < 0.001), inequity (β = 0.31, p < 0.001) and work/family confl ict (β = 0.63, p < 0.001) are signifi cantly associated with mental fatigue.

A third regression was carried out to test if the mediator was associated with psychological symptoms. The analysis showed that mental fatigue predicts psycho-logical symptoms (β = 0.46, p < 0.001), so that the third condition is met.

Table 2 summarises the results of the mediation model for psychological symp-toms when mental fatigue is included in the multiple regression analysis (regression 4), compared with regression 1.

Table 2Mediation analysis of mental fatigue for psychological symptoms (N = 697)

Psychological symptoms

B SE β Total R2

Regression 1Workload 0.27 0.13 0.08*

Inequity 0.48 0.09 0.11**

Work/family confl ict 0.89 0.08 0.40***

0.23***

Regression 4Workload 0.08 0.13 0.02Inequity 0.24 0.09 0.11**

Work/family confl ict 0.57 0.11 0.25***

0.26***

Mediator Mental fatigue 0.66 0.13 0.25***

Note: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

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As shown in Table 2, after the inclusion of the mediator in regression 4, the beta coeffi cient of workload turned into not signifi cant. According to the above results, and on the basis of BARON and KENNY’s (1986) criteria, one may conclude that a sig-nifi cant full mediation of mental fatigue exists in the relationship between workload and psychological symptoms. However, scholars have argued that it is not enough to show that the relationship between the predictor and the outcome is smaller or no longer signifi cant after the inclusion of the mediator, but it is also necessary to pro-vide evidence for the signifi cance of the mediated effect (MACKINNON et al. 2002). The Sobel test result was not signifi cant (z = 1.55, p = 0.12), meaning that the de-tected effect is not signifi cant. Furthermore, mental fatigue partially mediates the re-lationship between work/family confl ict and psychological symptoms. The decrease in the beta coeffi cient, measured using Sobel’s test, is statistically signifi cant for work/family confl ict (z = 5.38; p < 0.001). Finally, mental fatigue does not perform a mediating role between inequity and psychological symptoms.

Hypothesis 1 was confi rmed only for the work/family confl ict. The second hy-pothesis (H2) stated that the effect of job demands (workload, inequity and work/family confl ict) on physical symptoms was mediated by mental fatigue. In order to test the fi rst condition (regression 1), a regression analysis was carried out. As shown in Table 3, only work/family confl ict was positively associated with physical symptoms, explaining 12% of the variance. Thus the fi rst condition for the medi-ation is verifi ed for one of the three job demands considered. The second condition (predictor-mediator relation) was tested and met in the previous analysis presented above. A third regression analysis was carried out to test if the mediator was as-sociated with physical symptoms. The analysis showed that mental fatigue predicts physical symptoms (β = 0.30, p < 0.001), so the third condition is met.

Table 3 presents the results of the mediation model for physical symptoms when mental fatigue is included in the multiple regression analysis (regression 4), compared with regression 1. As shown in Table 3, mental fatigue is a partial medi ator between work/family confl ict and physical symptoms. In fact, the decrease in the beta coeffi cient, measured using Sobel’s test, is statistically signifi cant (z = 5.21; p < 0.001). Hypothesis 2 was confi rmed for only the work/family confl ict.

Hypothesis 3 stated that mental fatigue mediates the relation between job de-mands (workload, inequity and work/family confl ict) and work satisfaction. As shown in Table 4, the fi rst condition (regression 1) was met for inequity and work/family confl ict, which are signifi cantly associated with work satisfaction. The second condition (predictor-mediator relation) was met. In order to test the third condition, a regression analysis was carried out and showed that mental fatigue is associated with work satisfaction (β = –0.21, p < 0.001). Thus mental fatigue was included in the multiple regression analysis (regression 4) with job demands.

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Table 3Mediation analysis of mental fatigue for physical symptoms (N = 697)

Physical symptoms

B SE β Total R2

Regression 1Workload 0.13 0.09 0.06Inequity 0.23 0.06 0.03Work/family confl ict 0.46 0.06 0.31***

0.12***

Regression 4Workload 0.07 0.10 0.03Inequity 0.05 0.06 0.03Work/family confl ict 0.38 0.08 0.26***

Mediator Mental fatigue 0.18 0.09 0.10*

0.13***

Note: *p < 0.05; ***p < 0.001

Table 4Mediation analysis of mental fatigue for work satisfaction (N = 697)

Work satisfaction

B SE β Total R2

Regression 1Workload 0.10 0.07 0.06Inequity –0.23 0.05 –0.21***

Work/family confl ict –0.20 0.05 –0.17***

0.08***

Regression 4Workload 0.15 0.07 0.10*

Inequity –0.23 0.05 –0.21***

Work/family confl ict –0.11 0.06 –0.10*

Mediator Mental fatigue –0.18 0.07 –0.13*

0.09***

Note: *p < 0.05; ***p < 0.001

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The decrease of beta coeffi cient, measured using Sobel’s test, was statistically signifi cant (z = –2.81; p < 0.01) showing that mental fatigue was a mediator between work/family confl ict and work satisfaction. On the contrary, mental fatigue did not mediate the relationship between inequity and satisfaction. Again, Hypothesis 3 was confi rmed only for work/family confl ict.

7. Discussion

In line with the framework of the energetic process of the JD-R model, the main aim of this study has been to examine the mediating role of mental fatigue between three job demands (workload, inequity, and work/family confl ict) and teachers’ health and work satisfaction.

The results reveal that mental fatigue is a signifi cant mediator in the relation-ship between work/family confl ict and the three outcomes: psychological and phys-ical symptoms and work satisfaction. Therefore our hypotheses are partially sat-isfi ed. These results support the energetic process of the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model by showing that high work/family confl icts increase mental fatigue in terms of work reluctance, which, in turn, have an infl uence on the psycho-physical health and work satisfaction of individuals that are unable to adequately meet the job demands. Furthermore, our results confi rm the validity of the JD-R model by replac-ing its components (such as burnout) with other constructs, like mental fatigue.

To be noted in particular is that work/family confl ict is the job demand that was most closely associated with both types of symptoms and satisfaction, and that mental fatigue mediated these associations. Many studies have shown that experi encing confl ict between the work and family spheres may have serious nega tive consequences for well-being, such as burnout and depression (ALLEN et al. 2000). However, teachers have not often been considered a fruitful target for these studies because researchers expected teachers to experience low levels of work/family confl ict.

In spite of these expectations, some studies have demonstrated that many teach-ers are unable to separate their professional and family roles effectively (ELBAZ-LUBISCH 2002). In fact, many female teachers attribute importance to their work role as well as to their family role, and they share certain work/family confl ict issues with other women professionals. For example, CINAMON and RICH (2005) showed that the combination of being a teacher and a mother is not easy for teachers, and they re-port being forced into ‘triple-shifts’ of work consisting of teaching, housework, and childcare. Other researches have reported that teachers reveal very stressful aspects of fi lling family and professional roles concurrently, especially the chronic lack of energy necessary to care for one’s own children and to be a good teacher.

In this light, we have identifi ed a factor that mediates the effect of job demands on health and satisfaction, namely mental fatigue. The intervention on this mediating variable could allow reducing the effect of excessive demands.

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In fact, on the one hand, it is important to recognise the psychosocial risk fac-tors in the work environment related to health, and in this sense, work/family confl ict must be considered an important antecedent of psycho-physiological symptoms; on the other hand, it is sometimes not possible to fi nd strategies to reduce these as-pects of work when organizations monitor psychosocial risk factors. For example, the combination of professional and family roles is a further aspect that is sometimes not easy to manage by workers and organization.

As a consequence, fi nding factors that have a mediating effect on health en-ables the organization to identify intervention areas in order to reduce these harmful aspects of work. In this sense, mental fatigue is viewed here as a phenomenon with a partly protective function that makes workers avoid further stress when exposure has reached a critical level. This means that perceived fatigue signals that recovery is needed and that, unless recovery is obtained, the individual may suffer harmful con-sequences such as musculoskeletal symptoms, anxiety and depression. Continuous or frequent exposure to high job demands triggers high mental fatigue, which may lead to an accumulation of negative load effects that may persist for a longer period of time (e.g. exhaustion, psychosomatic complaints, and lack of work engagement), eventually becoming irreversible and manifest (SLUITER et al. 2003). Seen in this way, the cumulated fatigue might be expressed as higher needs for recovery after working time. Repeated insuffi cient recovery from work-related fatigue is conceived as triggering an unfavourable vicious circle in which extra effort must be made at the beginning of every new working period in order to rebalance the sub-optimal psycho-physiological state, and prevent performance breakdown. Subsequently, these greater needs for recovery are seen as precursors of ill health in the longer term (SLUITER et al. 2003).

A practical implication of our fi ndings is that a critical factor, like work/family confl ict, does not necessarily have adverse health consequences if the pre-strain con-dition is identifi ed and spent resources can be recouped (TARIS et al. 2006). Mental fatigue and the consequent need for recovery is a pre-strain condition that develops before more intense outcomes such as burnout or stress-related diseases (SHIROM 2003). In fact it is an intervening psychophysical state arising between perceiving stressors and experiencing strain (SLUITER et al. 2001).

According to the Effort-Recovery Model of MEIJMAN and MULDER (1998), with adequate recovery, individuals can return to baseline levels and re-establish their psychobiological balance without falling into exhaustion and depression and developing stress-related diseases. When the reduction of stressors is not feasible, the next best strategy may be to ensure that workers can regularly recover spent re-sources (HULST et al. 2006). In this sense the need for resource recovery can be used as a marker of early strain development.

This study also has some limitations that should be mentioned. The fi rst con-cerns the cross-sectional design of the study, which prevents establishing the direc-tion of the hypothesised causal relations. Secondly, the concept of mental fatigue is a complex one, and it has different dimensions. As a consequence, future research

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could be important in order to operationalise this construct better, pointing out its role in the work contexts. Thirdly, we used only mental fatigue as mediator of the relationship between job demands and work outcomes. Actually, the work context is more complex and future research will have to examine different models with multiple mediators, as well as the role of job resources, by considering also the mo-tivational process of the JD-R model.

In our opinion, mental fatigue has an applicative impact because its role and the need to monitor the recovery involve the debate on the variable work time consid-ered relevant in terms of psychosocial risk factors by various European publications (e.g. PAOLI & MERLLIÉ 2001).

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CĂTĂLINA TUDOSE* & FLORIN TUDOSE

THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOTHERAPY IN RUMANIADURING THE SOCIALIST DICTATORSHIP OF

NICOLAE CEAUŞESCU

(Received: 6 January 2011; accepted: 22 February 2012)

The paper tries to provide a history of psychotherapy in Rumania during the socialist dictatorship of Nicolae Ceauşescu (1965–1989). In order to fully understand the peculiarities of the develop-ment of psychotherapy in the last decades of the previous century, it is absolutely necessary to take into consideration the deep degradation of the quality of interpersonal relations in Rumania and to analyze the causes that have determined this process. Rumania is the only country in Eastern Europe having as leaders, for 45 years continuously, two Stalinists, both of them with identi-cal political formation, who are remembered for intense ideological activity, misguided zeal and constancy, both becoming dreaded and indisputable leaders, setting up a national-communist dic-tatorship – Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej – and a personal one – Nicolae Ceauşescu. Under these cir-cumstances, beginning with 1945, the recently founded Rumanian Society for Psychopath ology and Psychotherapy disrupted its activity, due to the schisms between members. The Rumanian Academy was abolished, and a new one was set up. One by one, the Popular Rumanian Academy contested Freudism, psychosomatic medicine, and behaviourism. Without being formally forbid-den, psychotherapy was incompatible with the primitive Marxism of the era, and this general state of things lasted for quite a long period. The paper presents the efforts of specialists after the ‘60s, when more papers and books were published that described various types of psychotherapies, familiarising the professionals with the fundamental ideas in psychotherapy; there were also psy-chiatrists and psychologists with initiatives in the fi eld and the main textbooks published in this period described psychotherapeutic methods. Unfortunately, little attention was paid to psychoa-nalysis, cognitive therapies, group therapies, family therapies, and psychodrama. Without openly suppressing the practice of psychotherapy, the offi cials responsible for the health system did not encourage the ones with such initiatives at all, and the academic bodies, with few exceptions, were hostile to various forms of psychotherapy with an emphasis on those of psychoanalytic origin, for which they had cultivated old refl exes of rejection. This state of things explains the amplitude and the vigour of the initiatives breaking out after 1989, accomplishing the modalities for a structured and complete training.

European Journal of Mental Health 7 (2012) 221–235DOI: 10.5708/EJMH.7.2012.2.4

ISSN 1788-4934 © 2012 Semmelweis University Institute of Mental Health, Budapest

* Corresponding author: Cătălina Tudose, 52 Austrului Str., Sector 2, Bucharest CP 024072, Rumania;[email protected].

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Keywords: psychotherapy, Rumania, communism, state socialism, dictatorship, history, retro-spect, helping profession, Ceauşescu, contextual therapy

Geschichte der Psychotherapie in Rumänien in der Ära der sozialistischen Diktatur von Ni-colae Ceauşescu: Ziel dieses Artikels ist es, den Zustand der Psychotherapie in der Ära der sozia-listischen Diktatur von Nicolae Ceauşescu (1965–1989) darzustellen. Um die Charakteristika der psychotherapeutischen Zusammenhänge in den letzten Jahrzehnten des vergangenen Jahrhunderts zu verstehen, müssen notwendigerweise auch die Verzerrungen in den zwischenmenschlichen Beziehungen in Rumänien untersucht und deren Ursachen aufgedeckt und analysiert werden. Rumänien ist das einzige Land im Ostblock, in dem 45 Jahre lang nacheinander zwei nach stali-nistischen Richtlinien handelnde Machthaber regierten, die ideologisch sehr aktiv waren und mit der Einführung einer national-kommunistischen Diktatur (Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej) bzw. einer Diktatur mit Personenkult (Nicolae Ceauşescu) zu gefürchteten und unanfechtbaren Führern der Partei und des Landes emporwuchsen. Unter diesen Bedingungen ist die Tätigkeit der Gesell-schaft für Psychopathologie und Psychotherapie in Rumänien nach 1954 infolge von internen Streitigkeiten notgedrungen in eine Sackgasse geraten, die Rumänische Akademie wurde aufge-löst, die an ihrer Stelle gegründete Rumänische Volksakademie kämpfte gegen die Lehren von Freud und gegen die Ansätze von Psychosomatik und Behaviorismus. Die Psychotherapie wurde zwar nicht explizit verboten, dafür aber als mit den primitiven marxistischen Ideen nicht vereinbar diffamiert. Der Artikel beschreibt die Anstrengungen von Fachleuten in der Zeit nach den 1960er Jahren, dank deren regelmäßig Werke veröffentlicht wurden, die verschiedene Richtungen der Psychotherapie thematisiert und so Fachleute mit den Grundzügen der Psychotherapie vertraut gemacht haben. Es gab Psychologen und Psychiater mit Initiative und Tatkraft. In Fachbüchern, die in den letzten Jahrzehnten der Diktatur erschienen, wurden bereits psychotherapeutische Me-thoden erörtert, doch Psychoanalyse, kognitive und Gruppentherapien sowie familientherapeu-tische Methoden wurden an den Rand gedrängt. Die Durchführung von Psychotherapien wurde zwar nicht offen verboten, aber diejenigen, die in diesem Bereich tätig werden wollten, wurden von den Entscheidungsträgern im Gesundheitswesen nicht gerade ermutigt. Auf der anderen Seite stießen die verschiedenen psychotherapeutischen Richtungen – vor allem die der Psychoanalyse, der man mit den gewohnten Verdrängungsrefl exen begegnete – in den Foren der Akademie mit wenigen Ausnahmen auf feindseliges Verhalten. Diese Situation kann vielleicht den große Elan erklären, mit dem sich die neu gegründeten Gruppen und Gesellschaften unterschiedlichster Rich-tungen nach 1989 in der Realisierung verschiedener Ausbildungen und praktischer Tätigkeiten sowie in der Anerkennung gegliederter Ausbildungen eingebracht haben.

Schlüsselbegriffe: Psychotherapie, Rumänien, Kommunismus, Staatssozialismus, Diktatur, Ge-schichte, Rückblick, helfender Beruf, Ceauşescu, Psychoanalyse

1. General historical overview

In order to fully understand what happened with Rumanian psychotherapy during the regime of Nicolae Ceauşescu (1965–1989), one must start by understanding the local historical particularities which differed signifi cantly from what was happening in the rest of Europe. Namely, Ceauşescu’s personal communist dictatorship continued a long string of dictatorships that had commenced in the interwar period: monarchist dictatorship (1938–1940), National Legionnaire dictatorship (1940–1941), military-

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fascist dictatorship (1941–1944), communist dictatorship (1945–1989), culminating in the personal dictatorship of Nicolae Ceauşescu after 1965 (PĂTRĂŞCANU 1970). All dictatorships, with the exception of the monarchist dictatorship, had had a nega-tive effect on humanist and liberal professions, as well as on the level of intellectual debate, regardless of the fi eld of activity.

The military-fascist dictatorship, by promoting racial laws, had its own particu-lar contribution because many of those who practiced psychiatry and psychotherapy were Jewish. Therefore psychoanalysis, which had until that point been considered a perfectly acceptable method from a medical point of view, was very quickly iden-tifi ed as a Jewish invention that should not be validated any longer. ‘Freud’s the-ories, are Semite in their essence and applicable only to patients or for Jews, whose psychological nature and physical structure are characterised by a morbid sexuality’ (TOROUŢIU 1936, 58, our trans.).1 Many Jewish doctors emigrated during this period.

A real social catastrophe happened in Rumania after the end of the war, with inestimable psychological effects on population and professionals alike. Incompetence and improvisation became the main criteria for promotion. Independent professionals and competence were not necessary in the new system, only docile servants. People who had previously been recognised as superior pro-fessionals suffered indictment, being characterised in the Soviet style as elitist, noble, distinguished, well-bred, values that have not regained their lost prestige even today (BENTOIU 2007).

In the period between 1948–1989 the number of political prisoners was more than 1,131,000, with a minimum detention period of two years, and more than 500,000 died in prisons and camps due to the living conditions in those places (BOLDUR-LĂŢESCU 2006).

A society with three social strata was progressively structured. The leaders con-stituted the fi rst – the ‘less free’, almost hermetically isolated from the rest of society, with very special privileges (residential districts, special food and clothes stores, schools, hospitals, etc.), with disproportionate revenues in comparison with the rest of the population; in this way they were more easily defended but also controlled. They were also a model for those ambitious people who hoped to belong to this cat-egory. But inside this group there was a gloomy equality, no one was exempt from supervision, no one was above the orders of Number One, also subordinated to the Soviet leaders. No one was safe and any act of independence could have the most dramatic consequences, up to physical elimination, i.e. Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu.

Then came the great mass of people who did not get involved and who were not rebels either, manifesting a docility determined by the desire to survive – a mixture of persons, not only those who had lost their privileges, but also simple merchants, craftsmen, offi cials, those with liberal professions. This group also included people who previously were very poor and for whom having a stable job, the conditions of

1 Original text: ‘Teoriile lui Freud, semite în fondul lor şi aplicabile numai la bolnavi sau la semiţi care prin fi re şi prin însăşi structura lor fi zică sunt de o sexualitate bolnăvicioasă.’

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equal distribution of poverty, a room in a block of fl ats with warm water and heating, the possibility to become literate – all these aspects were quite satisfactory, much better than the prospect of dreaded prisons.

Thus a kind of complicity was created between masses and leaders, the former having a strange mixture of feelings for the latter, including resignation and fear too, of course, but more than that, a deep and unconfessed gratitude for those who suc-ceed to maintain, due to their effort, such a comfortable equity between each person and the most brilliant one known. For many people, the superiority (the high per-formance) of someone else is not a subject of admiration and enjoyment, but could provoke humiliation in a greater measure than poverty.

The leaders instead ensured that their privileges and ‘conquests’ would become permanent and any favours were not only deserved by them but would also have to be offered with maximum respect. In a society of obedient people and masters, the most dynamic persons decided to fi ght to succeed and enter the group of leaders, choosing one of the possibilities offered by the system; for instance a lot of young people considered it a success to be selected by Securitate.

Finally, the third stratum was formed by the real or suspected opponents who had no rights at all; they were branded thieves, bastards, and they were left to die from hunger and cold while no one took any notice. Their families’ complaints re-mained unanswered. After the period when they were imprisoned in forced labour camps, they did not receive any exit documents or even identity cards; they were no-bodies. These people were subject to permanent surveillance by the Securitate which brutally intervened in all aspects of everyday life of those followed.

For the others, Securitate control was annoying to a certain extent, but if they decided in the very depths of their souls not to think in any other way than was al-lowed by the system, they did not risk anything. This decision was not considered as resignation, but only as a commonsense attitude, and if they were obedient, the constant surveillance by the police could only have positive effects in the forms of safety in the streets, order, and an absence of drugs (BENTOIU 2009). The majority was content with the little they received. How many persons suffered for the lack of liberty? How many of them would really know what to do with liberty? Any person’s brain will get numbed by the sweet ankylosis of lack of responsibility. Violence characterised the system not only in its initial stages; it remained a per-manent distinctive feature, necessary to restrain imagination, spontaneity and the force of original creation that continues to exist in each human being and is reborn with each new generation.

2. The state of psychotherapy and psychoanalysis in light of Marxist ideology

This ideology systematically used lies at the intellectual level and hate and envy at the emotional level. How could psychotherapy be conceived under these circum-stances? The debate around psychotherapy and psychoanalysis gradually received

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an ideological tone, schisms occurring among members of the newly established Rumanian Society of Psychopathology and Psychotherapy. In 1948 an article on the social etiology of neurosis signed by Dr. Egon WEIGEL was published. Directly or indirectly, a sign of equality between psychoanalysis and reactionary concepts became increasingly evident.

As Vasile D. ZAMFIRESCU noted: Among all the disciplines rejected by communist ideology, only psychoanaly-sis remained marginalised until the last moments of the existence of communism.No other victims of ideological conviction – genetics, sociology, ‘idealistic’ philosophy – were banished with such consistency and for so long as psychoanalysis. The vehemence with which these were convicted came from the resentful rejection of everything that came from the past and had defi ned the bourgeois age. Proletcultism, the last big cultural product of its resentful kind, had produced a clear reversal of values. (2003, 39, our trans.)2

The character of opposition between communist ideology and psychoanalysis lies in the fact that psychoanalysis focuses on individuality while communism pro-fesses that individual wellbeing is an automatic consequence of general wellbeing. For this reason, psychoanalysis was rejected by the totalitarian regime, and so were all philosophical orientations interested mainly in the individual and only secondar-ily in society.

Another aspect concerning the autonomy of the person: psychoanalysis is a theory, the subject of which is the individual who enjoys much independence. His status as a well-adjusted bourgeois in capitalism allows him to be independent. In the totalitarian world this personal autonomy is continuously assaulted, invaded, and limited (CLIT 2004, 93). Both the medical world and the psychiatric milieu con tinued to have an extremely reserved attitude towards psychoanalysis and psychiatry, and the political factor began to play an increasingly important role.

During the dark decade of 1950–1960, the Academy of Medical Sciences combat-ed one by one Freudism, psychosomatic medicine, and behaviourism (Academia R.P.R. 1953). The three parents of Rumanian psychiatry – Obregia, Tomescu and Urechia – were in that period simply tagged as adepts of idealistic and reactionary ideas, repre-sented by the duality of body-soul, Freudism and the psycho-morphological thesis.

Perhaps nowhere else but in Rumania could one have encountered in psych-iatry lectures phrases such as ‘the conservative position of individual psychology becomes apparent especially in the therapeutic attitude advocated by it – an attitude of adjustment to the existent social environment, which means conformism and re-strain from rebellion or outrage against the injustice of the bourgeois society’, or ‘psychoanalysis represents the refl ux of the parasitic life of the bourgeoisie masked

2 Original text: ‘Dintre toate disciplinele respinse de ideologia comunistă, doar psihanaliza a rămas margina-lizată până în ultimele momente de existenţă a comunismului. Nici genetica, nici sociologia, nici fi losofi a «idealistă» – celelalte victime ale condamnărilor ideologice, nu au făcut obiectul unei atât de consecvente şi îndelungate ostracizări. Înverşunarea cu care au fost condamnate provine din respingerea resentimentară a tot ceea ce venea din trecut şi defi nea evul «burghez». Proletcultismul, ca ultim mare produs cultural de tip resentimentar, procedează la o hotărâtă inversare a valorilor.’

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in the costume of science’ (MULLER 1950, 21, our trans.).3 The person who wrote these words was neither more nor less than a colleague of the well-known psycholo-gist A.R. Luria; he left the country and he founded a modern laboratory of neuro-linguistics in the Democratic Republic of Germany. In Rumania he was dismissed from his university chair, because he did not suffi ciently criticise himself, especially concerning Freudian errors of his youth.

In 1955, one of the most famous personalities in Rumanian medicine stated that ‘the discovery of experimental neurosis on dogs has opened endless opportunities for researchers to deepen our knowledge in the fi eld of human neuroses’ (KREINDLER 1955, 247–48, our trans.).4 Under these circumstances it soon became obvious for everyone that any kind of discussion about psychotherapy was futile. Nevertheless, even the Head of the Psychology Department of the Academy wrote one chapter entitled Psychoanalysis in the United States: The Amoral Aspects of Psychology and the Phase of Putrefaction of Capitalism (RALEA 1954).

In the medical books and papers of the time, one could read many bizarre ideas, such as the following: in the book Neurosis with the Dominance of Cardiac Symptoms (1956) the authors recommended psychotherapy among the treat-ments; although they considered it to be of crucial importance especially in the cenesto pathic forms of asthenic neurosis, the same authors stated that psycho-therapy requires the patient to understand his disease, and emphasised: ‘The cor-rect spreading of Pavlovian ideas regarding pathophysiology of higher nervous activity is a powerful factor for a rational psychotherapy of neurosis’ (ENESCU et al. 1956, 66, our trans.).5

Without being formally banned, psychotherapy, considered to be idealistic, was intolerable for the primitive Marxism of the era. It is clear that throughout the Communist era the psychotherapy training process was virtually prohibited by either making any contact with foreign specialists impossible or censoring written informa-tion by all means (TEODORESCU 2001).

As this isolated group was not concerned by gathering a large number of fol-lowers, Rumanian psychoanalysts were not in real danger from the regime at that time. Fearing contention, the regime was more interested in other larger organised groups, posing a greater risk of a potential increase in their membership. This danger was perceived to be even bigger if these members included persons who had key positions in the nomenklatura. This was hardly the case with psychoanalysis or other psychotherapists. ‘The communist regime had the force and the science to impose

3 Original text: ‘[P]oziţia conservatoare, de clasă, a psihologiei individuale reiese mai cu seamă din atitudinea terapeutică pe care aceasta o preconizează – o atitudine de adaptare la mediul social existent ceea ce înseamnă îndemn la conformism şi abţinere de la răzvrătire sau de la indignarea împotriva nedreptăţilor societăţii bur-gheze’ şi ‘psihanaliza este refl uxul vieţii parazitare a burgheziei îmbrăcat într-o haină ştiinţifi că.’

4 Original text: ‘[D]escoperirea nevrozelor experimentale ale câinelui a fost cea care a deschis cercetătorilor perspective nemăsurate pentru adâncirea cunoştinţelor noastre în domeniul nevrozelor omului.’

5 Original text: ‘propagarea corectă a ideilor fi ziopatologiei pavloviste a activităţii nervoase superioare consti-tuie un puternic factor de psihoterapie raţională a nevrozelor’.

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itself entirely, to beat most of the resistance and to install its fundamental features’ (CLIT 2004, 94, our trans.).6

Among these features a special position was occupied by the illusion of om-nipotence. Actually, as Freud noticed, the basis for this illusion of omnipotence is rather a feeling of failure with deep roots. The totalitarian regime, like an enormous sandcastle always in need of reinforcement, is destined for a sudden collapse when threatened by bigger waves.

After 1970, a phenomenon occurred that had some favourable consequenc-es; although the relaxation and the opening of the fi rst years of Ceauşescu’s re-gime began to disappear, the regime that was excessively fanatical and repressive during 1948–1960 due to a fear of deviation and counterrevolution, became more pragmatic. The regime found that the ‘counter-revolutions’ of Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia did not awaken any interest in the West, and the protesters were not too dangerous with their intellectual allegations, and so it turned to maintain power and privileges. Therefore such a practice as psychotherapy, in any of its forms, especially psychoanalysis, could not have a mass character and was not dangerous. Without making it offi cial, the regime stopped banning it and classifi ed it in a grey area where, at any time, the scarecrow of illegality could be reinforced.

3. Major fi gures in psychotherapy, their work and fate in the ’60s and ’70s

Isolated attempts to introduce psychotherapies were made in Cluj by Johny Bîlcea – hypnosis and autogenic training – and by Iuliu Albini – hypnosis and rêve-éveillé. Both therapists left Rumania.

A particular case was that of the psychiatrist Dan Arthur (1923–1969), who worked from 1960 in the Săvârşin Sanatorium of Neurosis and then in the Gătaia Hospital. He was a great promoter of psychotherapy, teaching ‘psychodrama tech-nique, logotherapy, Jungian psychotherapy and Schultz relaxation training’ (OLARU 1981, 524, our trans.).7 Among other things, Dan ARTHUR said ‘to try psychotherapy – especially psychoanalysis, in patients with simplistic mentality equals the absurd-ity of challenging the impossible’ (1972, 13, our trans.).8

The doctor made courses and summaries for the group of resident doctors he worked with at Săvârşin and then Gătaia. We can argue that this was the fi rst organ-ised attempt to train psychotherapists. The group of doctors trained at Gătaia would later become the most progressive core and most open to the therapeutic approaches

6 Origlinal text: ‘[R]egimul comunist . . . a avut forţa şi ştiinţa de a se impune peste tot, de a înfrânge cea mai mare parte a rezistenţelor şi de a-şi instala caracteristicile fundamentale.’

7 Original text: ‘[A] iniţiat pe mulţi în tehnica psihodramei, logoterapiei, psihoterapiei jungiene şi antrenamen-tul Schultz.’

8 Origlinal text: ‘[A] încerca psihoterapia – şi mai ales psihanaliza la bolnavii cu mentalitate simplistă echiva-lează cu bravarea imposibilului.’

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of the time. Unfortunately, the research made by one of our colleagues – Mihai Ardelean – on the cooperation of the psychiatrists with the organs of repression re-vealed that at least one of the students of Dan Arthur was recruited by Securitate in order to regularly report all ‘progress’ made in psychotherapy.

In the years following the ’60s, there were a series of works that begun to speak clearly about psychotherapy, familiarising a greater number of psychiatrists and psych ologists with basic ideas related to this kind of therapy: Introducere critic în psihanaliză (‘Critical Introduction to Psychoanalysis’) by Victor SᾸHLEANU and Ion POPESCU-SIBIU (1972), Introducere în psihoterapie (‘Introduction to Psychotherapy’) by Ion VIANU (1975), Ce este psihanaliza? (‘What is Psychoanalysis’) by Aurel DICU (1977). On the eve of the ’80s there was still massive reluctance towards the methods derived from psychoanalytic psychotherapy. One of the more conservative professors of psychiatry from Iaşi allocated over 20 pages to hypnosis and relaxation methods, and only 3 pages to analytical psychotherapy and to psychoanalysis and narcoanalysis (BRÂNZEI 1979).

It has to be noted that a great number of specialists, physicians and psycholo-gists, Jews and Germans, left the country in the ’50s and ’60s. In this way the number of competent specialists decreased signifi cantly, the more so as these were in a more important contact with information resources from the West.

A particular case is that of psychologist Vladimir Aristo Gheorghiu, who was moving between Germany and Rumania at the time. In 1973 he decided to return to Rumania although he was a professor at Mainz, where he also received his PhD for a thesis on hypnosis. He became a true advocate of this method, which he ac-credited as an extremely effective psychotherapy for most diverse psychosomatic disorders (GHEORGHIU 1977). In 1983 he was again forced to leave Rumania after the Transcendental Meditation scandal.

The psychoanalysts’ group in Bucharest was formed by Eugene Papadima’s students. He was the pupil of Ion Popescu Sibiu, and he practiced from 1972–1988 in Rumania, and then emigrated to the United States. Eugen Papadima returned to the country in 1995. Between 1972 and 1978 he gave lectures on psycho analysis, and in 1978 he was requested by the Bucharest Health Directorate to give coursesin a psychotherapy training program for health professionals. He was the one to initiate the Rumanian psychoanalytical movement and give a major boost to psychotherapy. Among those trained by him are Nadia Bujor, Radu Clit, Irene Talaban, Vera Şandor and Vasile D. Zamfi rescu, who practiced in various med-ical facilities like the Obregia Hospital, the Fundeni Hospital, and the Students’ Hospital (SCORUŞ 2007). It is interesting to know that one of the therapists had a direct family connection with the Ceauşescu family. There were rumours, after the demise of the College of Psychology (1979), that this happened at the express orders of the dictator, extremely irritated that a close relative of his was involved in the practice of psychoanalysis.

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4. Subjective experiences of psychotherapists

A few years after he emigrated from Rumania, Ion VIANU wrote in a magazine: ‘Our country is a white spot, a phenomenon that might interest a historian of European culture who is eager to discover the reasons which made our civil liberties more limited than elsewhere’ (1980, 25, our trans.).9

The same author says: ‘We were very isolated. I learned about Eugen Papadima’s efforts after he had left the country, though his person was known to me. Everything was happening as if we were some guys who “conspired” against the offi cial ideology’ (SCORUŞ 2007, 29). I. Vianu and E. Papadima practiced a ‘wild’ psychoanalysis, acting isolated and by themselves ‘as if we were building a homemade bomb’ (30, our trans).10

Irene TALABAN gave an interview to the review Psihiatru.ro, where she synthe-sised the experience she had during communism:

To practice psychoanalysis in a closed and opaque system, as the communist system was, is an original choice in the best scenario if not a sign of madness at worst. Actually, to attempt to pass an exam at the Faculty of Psychology in Bucharest in 1970 was rather a peculiar thought. I was obviously infl uenced by a drama teacher, by my own mother, by the history of my mother’s family – many traumatic events experienced by them which I found out about much later. I read Freud for the fi rst time when I was 20, borrowed from Popescu Sibiu. I had chosen psychology out of curiosity and psychoanalysis for the very same reason. I practiced psychoanalysis in conditions that prohibited any liberal profes-sion and considered the Freudian theory to be . . . bourgeois. I don’t have a clue about what Securitate did or didn’t know about my choices, but I have always told myself that I wasn’t such an important and public character to be noticed by them along with others like me who had the idea to mix in things that were not well-viewed. For all of our group psychotherapy was a challenge into deep, intelligent and complex searches for meanings. In other words, psychotherapy helped us think in a world where the process of thinking could be attacked at any moment by the communist system. Psychotherapy ‘forced us’ to use a vivid language in spite of the wooden language used everywhere and by everyone. There were many who asked me how it was even possible to practice psychotherapy at that time. It just was . . . as any other endeavour in an authentic, hard search, with many doubts but also with courage, a worthy and fulfi lling experience. Some people made theatre, others invented chess problems, others wrote books, and others worked in the gardens. We also attended an Astrology Circle (another entirely forbidden fi eld) organised by Professor Sîngeorzan. All these people, not indulged by the ‘system’, some knowing one another, some in total anonymity represented, like once Koestler said, the triumph of the human substance over an environment that lacked humanity. The psychotherapists and psychiatrists have been gathering in smaller or larger groups to talk, to debate different theories, to argue over some clinical case, sometimes to

9 Original text: ‘[Ţ]ara noastră reprezintă o pată aproape albă, fenomen care ar putea să intereseze pe un istoric al culturii europene, dornic să descopere motivele pentru care la noi libertăţile cetăţeneşti sunt mai limitate ca în alte părţi.’

10 Original text: ‘Eram foarte izolaţi. Am afl at despre strădaniile lui Eugen Papadima după ce a plecat din ţară, deşi persoana lui mi-era cunoscută. Totul se petrecea ca şi cum am fi fost nişte inşi care „unelteau” împotriva ideologiei ofi ciale’; ‘de parcă am fi construit o bombă de buzunar’.

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dispute different topics, but in the end, to express ourselves as free minds. But is it possible to be free in a jail? Steinhardt said in his Journal that it is because nobody could think every second that he was going to be arrested the next second. I don’t know what would have happened if the system had resisted another 20 years. Personally, I was neither expecting the regime to fall nor was I wondering what would happen in the next hundred years of the communist system. The psychotherapist is not a philosopher but a creative artist. From this perspective, he is not concerned about Eternity but about the well-done thing. I believe that our activity as psychotherapists in a derisory Rumania was a prolifi c effort, a kind of research on uncharted territories, an ongoing theoretical discovery. But the special thing about our activity was that we declined the ‘wooden language’! (2011, 24, our trans.)11

5. Psychotherapeutic literature

VIANU (1975) spoke about psychoanalysis in a favourable way in the book ‛Introduc-tion to Psychotherapy’. Even the general scheme of the book is psychoanalytical. But the feeling of not being followed is not an encouraging one. Although the work was intensively read and even cited, there was no review and after the author left Rumania in 1977 there were no other reprinted editions or prolonged circulation of the book.

11 Original text: ‘A practica psihanaliza într-un sistem închis, opac, precum sistemul totalitar comunist este, în cel mai bun caz, o alegere originală, în cel mai rău, o ţicneală. De altfel, a te duce să dai examen la facul-tatea de psihologie din Bucureşti, în anul 1970, e un gând năstruşnic. Evident, am fost infl uenţată . . . de o profesoară de teatru, de propria mea mamă, de periplul familiei mele materne, de diversele drame trăite de ai mei (pe care le-am afl at, de altfel, foarte târziu). Aşadar am citit primele texte de Freud la 20 de ani, mi le-a împrumutat Popescu-Sibiu. Alesesem psihologia din curiozitate, psihanaliza din aceeaşi curiozitate, ceva mai ascuţită, mai . . . formată şi am practicat în condiţiile în care orice practică liberală era prohibită iar teoria lui Freud, considerată . . . burgheză, nu avea drept de apel în cetate. Nu ştiu ce ştia sau nu ştia Securitatea şi mi-am zis totdeauna că eu nu eram un personaj atât de important, public, ca să se ocupe ei de mine – de noi, câţiva, care avuseserăm ideea de a ne vârî în treburi nu tocmai curate. Pentru noi, atunci, psihoterapia obliga la căutări complexe, inteligente, la construcţii de sensuri, pe scurt la o activitate de gândire într-o lume în care gândirea era atacată de sistem prin toate mijloacele. Ne obligă la o limbă vie, în pofi da limbii de lemn ce se strecura în toate propoziţiile, la toate nivelurile. Mulţi m-au întrebat cum a fost posibil să practicăm psihoterapia, atunci. A fost posibilă, pur şi simplu, ca orice muncă de căutare, autentică, spinoasă, sub semnul îndoielii şi al îndrăznelii deopotrivă, o muncă aducătoare de bucurie. Alţii au făcut teatru, alţii au inventat probleme de şah, alţii au scris cărţi, alţii şi-au lucrat grădinile. Mergeam, în paralel, la un Cerc de Astrologie, al profesorului Sîngeorzan (alt domeniu interzis cu desăvârşire). Toţi aceşti oameni, marginali în raport cu sistemul, anonimi, unii cunoscându-se între ei, alţii nu, reprezentau, cum zicea Koestler, triumful substanţei umane asupra unui mediu dezumanizant. Noi, psihoterapeuţii, psihanaliştii, ne întâlneam când şi când, în grupuri mai mari sau mai mici, discutăm diverse teorii, discutăm secvenţe clinice din terapiile cu pacienţii . . . ne contraziceam, argumentam, ne enervam, mă rog, ne comportam liber. E posibil sa fi i liber într-o închisoa-re? Este, spunea Steinhardt în Jurnalul său. Pentru că nimeni nu se poate gândi, în fi ecare secundă, în mod continuu, că în secunda următoare va fi arestat. Nu ştiu ce s-ar fi întâmplat dacă sistemul ar fi durat încă 20 de ani. Personal, nu mă aşteptam să cadă – dar nici nu m-am întrebat, serios, ce se va petrece în următorii o sută de ani ai acestui sistem. Psihoterapeutul nu este un fi lozof ci un artizan creator – în această calitate, el nu îşi pune problema eternităţii ci a lucrului bine făcut. Şi cred că activitatea noastră de terapeuţi într-o Românie derizorie a fost o activitate fecundă, un soi de cercetare pe teren nedefrişat, de descoperire teoretică în mers. Şi mai ales noi nu am lucrat, atunci, în limba de lemn!’

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‛The Textbook of Psychiatry’ was written in 1976, under the redaction of Prof. Vasile PREDESCU. The chapter dedicated to psycho-socio-therapies is 54 pages out of a total of 1,150 pages, as follows: individual psychotherapy – 3.5 pages, acti vating psychotherapies – 8 pages, psychotherapy under barbiturate narcosis – 6 pages, suggestive psychotherapy – 9 pages, psychoanalysis – 2 pages, group psych otherapy – 8 pages, occupational therapy – 5 pages, sociotherapy – 6 pages.

Most of the approximately 1,000 trained psychiatrists from the 1972–1990 period had as a fundamental guide the broad collective work published by the Bucharest Department of Psychiatry. Around this time, in Timişoara. Mircea Lăzărescu led a doctoral thesis on speech therapy (Ch. Furnică). After 1990, this psych iatrist with many concerns in psychotherapy became the president of The Society of Existential Analysis and Speech Therapy.

The ‛Vademaecum of Psychiatry’ (1985), the fi rst paper that refers extensively to the new guidelines generated by the emergence of psychiatry DSM-III, presented in a comprehensive and balanced way the main trends in psychotherapy. Freud’s fi rst writings were published in Hungarian translation (S. Ferenczi, J. Lengyel and Z. Partos) in Bucharest, including papers from 1910 (lectures on psychoanaly-sis), 1932 (new lectures on psychoanalysis) and an excerpt from Totem and Taboo (FREUD 1918). There is a belief according to which the book entitled Pszichoanalízis [Psychoanalysis] by S. FREUD (1977) published by Kriterion in Hungarian also paved the way for the fi rst Rumanian translations from 1980.

The book Psihologie clinică (‛Clinical Psychology’) that was released in 1985, prepared by a team appointed by the Academy under the coordination of G. Ionescu, has a chapter dedicated to psychotherapy with three sections: psychoanalytical psy-chotherapy (author: E. Papadima), family psychotherapy (author: A. Ionescu) and counselling (author: M. Bejat). The chapter presented psychotherapy in a positive light with the authority only a work of such a grand scale, published by the Academy of Social and Political Sciences of the Socialist Republic of Rumania, could warrant. Still, times seemed to be changing. In 1990 the two younger authors of this chapter left Rumania for the Western world (IONESCU et al. 1985).

An event with real signifi cance was the emergence of the fi rst three volumes, between the years 1987–1989, of ‛The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Psychiatry’, (GORGOS et al. 1987–1992), a work in which a group of young psychiatrists and psychologists reviewed without prejudice and inhibition the fundamental concepts of therapies, adopting a very open attitude, similar to the Western publications of the time. An important fact is that three of the authors directly practiced psy-chotherapy: Teofi l Andriescu – behavioural therapy, Veronica Şandor and Irena Talaban – psychoanalysis. Some of the authors of the book went on to become leaders of opinion after the 1989 revolution in post-Communist Rumania.

The ‛Rumanian Review of Psychotherapy’ has been in existence since 1998, and published biannually; as an undoubted recognition, in 2010 the Rumanian Association of Psychiatry changed its name to Rumanian Association of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy.

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6. Psychotherapeutic care

It can be said that psychotherapy was recognised in the seventies as a possible ther apy but without any real practitioners and without a formal recognition or a structured way of training and learning the best-known techniques. A number of people are recognised in this area – Constantin Oancea in child and adolescent psychother apy, or Radu RICMAN, director of the Gǎtaia Hospital from the ’80s, where they began to organise psychotherapy seminars that received considerable interest. The Gătaia Hospital hosted, in 1986, the fi rst edition of the seminar of psychotherapy, during which the National Society for Psychotherapy was founded. The themes were: sug-gestive psychotherapy, cognitive psychotherapy, child psychotherapy; meetings that begun at Gătaia represented the fi rst real forum of debate on issues of psychotherapy practices in Rumania (1997).

The most spectacular political-legal staging of the eighties occurred in 1982, the so-called business of transcendental meditation. A dark story which had a signifi -cant impact on intellectuality, but especially on psychology, psychiatry and psycho-therapy practices. How did it happen? The Secret Police (Securitate) supervised the work of a French citizen of Rumanian origin, NS, who came to Rumania, paradox-ically, at the invitation of the Ministry of Education. He proposed a neuropsychologi-cal rehabilitation program, specifi cally a neuropsychological relaxation technique, applicable especially in stress-related situations or in states following special mental effort, called transcendental meditation.

For reasons hard to explain, at some point the government’s attitude became very reluctant to the guest’s practices, and all those who attended the presenta-tions and open meetings were investigated, excluded from the Communist Party, fi red from their jobs or professionally demoted. The Institutes of Psychology and Education were abolished. Among those punished were academia members, uni-versity professors, doctors, psychologists, writers (including the famous Marin Sorescu) and lawyers. But let us see the list as written by the hand of the omnipres-ent Securitate of the professional structure found to have come into contact with transcendental meditation: 87 engineers, 31 architects, 2 historians, 12 artists, 13 economists, 24 doctors, 45 teachers, 25 psychologists, 9 lawyers, 45 mathemat-icians, 4 biologists, 4 journalists, 3 writers, 11 lyrical artists, 3 actors, 2 priests, 31 technicians, 9 clerks, 1 worker, 21 college students and 23 high-school students. The apparent rigor of paranoid Securitate workers must be noted, and also the fact that absolutely all meetings of the movement were reported, recorded and analyzed (JELA et al. 2004). This intervention of the party’s brutal Securitate sparked fear, anxiety and confusion in the whole society but especially in those who practiced psychoanalysis.

There were of course people who strongly opposed any form of psychotherapy, maintaining that it was not a solution to mental illness. ‘One of the Bucharest lead-ers of psychiatry in the ’80s discouraged his interns by posing an ironic question: Can you show me a schizophrenic healed by psychotherapy?’ (TEODORESCU 2001,

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127.)12 Others invented ‘therapeutic’ methods as rehabilitation, considered as a reso-cialisation therapy, which were rooted directly in the dialectical materialist concep-tion; according to its author, resocialisation meant highlighting the socio-economic dimension of the mentally ill. The personality traits had to be addressed not by psy-chiatric criteria but by sociological, political and economical ones. In this regard, the psychiatric facility had to be transformed into an institution that simulated the normalcy from a social perspective. It should not be perceived as a bizarre scene and the group discussions should be healthy, ‘we cannot do it à la Moreno, promoting hallucinatory psychodrama’ (ROMILĂ 2004, 556, our trans.).13 This scheduled work therapy and full control over the inpatient/outpatient’s program fi t perfectly with the communist ideology and social practice of the time, where everything depended on the will of another and where they would decide whether or not you conformed to the certifi cate of normalcy.

Instead of conclusions, we can say the following: psychotherapy was not a well-viewed practice under the dictatorship, and the number of doctors and psychologists who were more or less qualifi ed for this practice was insignifi cant (BRĂTESCU 1994). Without openly suppressing the practice of psychotherapy, the offi cials responsible for the healthcare system did not encourage the ones with such initiatives at all, and the academic bodies, with few exceptions, were hostile to various forms of psychotherapy with an emphasis on those with psychoanalytic origins, for which they had cultivated old refl exes of rejection. Therefore, isolated psychotherapists or small professional groups were not considered a major threat by the communist regime. There was a situation like that described by Arthur KOESTLER while he was travelling in the Soviet Union in 1934: teachers gave private lessons, physicians consulted patients in their homes and so many people did their jobs very well but illegally (1994, 444). All these individuals were not protected by anybody assuming all these risks.

After 1989, the temptation for psychotherapy was amazing and a real rebound occurred; in 1995 there were already 7 associations or societies representing dif-ferent modalities of psychotherapy – psychoanalytic, psychodrama, somatotherapy, hypnosis and suggestion, logotherapy and existential analysis, Balint psychotherapy – that formed the fi rst national association of psychotherapy, and in 2001 there were already 12 national associations of psychotherapy (BOTEZAT-ANTONESCU 2004).

7. Major fi gures in psychotherapy, their work and fate in the ’80s and ’90s

A special interest in psychosomatic disease psychotherapy was shown by Alfred Dumitrescu, and in relaxation therapies by Irina Holdevici, author of over 20 books in the fi eld. They would be joined by Radu Clit from Fundeni Hospital and Alexei

12 Original text: ‘[U]nul din liderii psihiatriei bucureştene din anii 80 îşi descuraja secundarii cu întrebarea ce se voia ironică: îmi puteţi arăta un schizofrenic vindecat prin psihoterapie?’

13 Original text: ‘nu putem face à la Moreno, să facem psihodramă halucinatorie’.

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Florescu from Bucharest Emergency Hospital. After 1990 Radu Clit focused more on psychoanalysis, settling down in France permanently.

Nadia Bujor also began her career at Fundeni Hospital, and later replaced Eugen Papadima at the Students Hospital as a psychologist and psychotherapist. In the mid-’80s Vera Şandor also started as a psychoanalyst, until then being particu-larly interested in psychotherapy of children and adolescents. She states:

Psychoanalysis was an isolated practice, exercised almost exclusively in the psychiatric en-vironment, without possibility of becoming an ideological and mass phenomenon . . . I don’t believe we were practicing an ordinary form of denying the danger, I rather think we felt this ambiguous guilt in which we all were living and that served the totalitarian regime. You can easily subdue people who feel slightly guilty and anxious. (SCORUŞ 2007, 176, our trans.)14

Practicing psychoanalytic psychotherapy according to this psychotherapist meant that they were doing their jobs in an authentic and not in a forged routine man-ner. In 1994 Vera Şandor became the fi rst Rumanian psychotherapist recognised by the IPA. From an offi cial point of view the Rumanian psychoanalysts did not exist be-cause their group was not registered by the International Psychoanalytic Association. In his presentation from 1992 at the Freudian Group in Paris, a Rumanian psycho-analyst noted:

[S]uch a registration would have endangered our existence . . . However, they probably would not have shot us for this, being already in 1970, when the Western world fi nally started to survey and to penalise, according to its possibilities, the totalitarian abuses of the so-called ‘socialist countries’. There was still the risk that our professional life . . . would be forbidden. The proof . . . for this kind of danger is the history of . . . ‘transcendental meditation’ from 1982 when the intellectuals caught in fl agrante delicto attending these meetings were ‘pun-ished’, being sent to ‘blue collar’ work, being forced to earn their existence as unqualifi ed people. (PAPADIMA 2002, 175, our trans.)15

References

ACADEMIA R.P.R. (1953) Lucrările sesiunii lărgite a Secţiunii de Ştiinţe Medicale din 18–20 decembrie 1952 (1953) (Bucharest: Academiei).

ARTHUR, D. (1972) ‘Mituri căzute (din jurnalul unui psihiatru)’, Tribuna 16, 24.

14 Original text: ‘Psihanaliza era o practică izolată exersată aproape exclusive în mediul psihiatric, fără potenţial de transformare în fenomen ideologic şi cultural de masă . . . Nu cred că noi practicam o formă banală de negare a primejdiei. Cred mai degrabă că simţeam că această difuză culpabilitate în care trăiam toţi servea regimului totalitar. Îi supui mai uşor pe oamenii vag culpabili şi anxioşi.’

15 Original text: ‘(O) astfel de înregistrare ne-ar fi pus în pericol existenţa noastră . . . Probabil că nu ne-ar fi împuşcat pentru aceasta – eram totuşi în 1970 şi lumea occidentală începuse, în sfârşit, să supravegheze şi să sancţioneze, în limita posibilităţilor pe care le avea, abuzurile totalitare din aşa zisele „ţări socialiste”. Exista însă riscul ca funcţionarea noastră profesională . . . să fi e interzisă. Dovada . . . o constituie istoria . . . cu „meditaţia transcedentală” din 1982, când intelectualii care au fost „prinşi” în fl agrant delict de participare la această practică au fost „pedepsiţi” prin trimiterea la „munca de jos”, fi ind obligaţi să-şi câştige existenţa ca muncitori necalifi caţi.’

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BENTOIU, A. (2007) Timpul ce ni s-a dat: Memorii 1944–1947 (Bucharest: Humanitas).BENTOIU, A. (2009) Timpul ce ni s-a dat: Memorii 1947–1959 (Bucharest: Humanitas).BOLDUR-LĂŢESCU, GH. (2006) Genocidul comunist în România (Bucharest: Albatros).BOTEZAT-ANTONESCU, I. (2004) ‛The History of Rumanian Psychotherapy’, in E. SOREL & D.

PRELIPCEANU, eds., Images of Psychiatry Rumania 21st Century Rumanian Psychiatry (Bucharest: Infomedica).

BRÂNZEI, P. (1979) Itinerar psihiatric (Iaşi: Junimea).BRĂTESCU, G. (1994) Freud şi psihanaliza în România (Bucharest: Humanitas).CLIT, R. (2004) Cadru totalitar şi funcţionare narcisică (Bucharest: Fundaţiei Generaţia).DICU A. (1978) Ce este psihanaliza? (Bucharest: Ştiinţifi că şi enciclopedică).ENESCU, I., B. POLLINGHER & C. NEGOIŢĂ (1956) Nevroza cu predominanţa tulburărilor cardi-

ace (Bucharest: Medicală).FREUD S. (1977) Pszichoanalízis (Bucharest: Kriterion).FREUD S. (1918) Totem and Taboo (New York: Moffat Yard).GHEORGHIU, A.V. (1977) Hipnoza realitate şi fi cţiune (Bucharest: Ştiinţifi că şi Enciclopedică).GORGOS, C., F. TUDOSE & C. TUDOSE (1987–1992) Dicţionar enciclopedic de psihiatrie, 4 vols.

(Bucharest: Medicală).IONESCU G., M. BEJAT & V. PAVELCU (1985) Psihologie clinică (Bucharest: Academiei RSR).JELA, D., C. STRAT & M. ALBU (2004) Afacerea meditaţia transcedentală (Bucharest: Humanitas).KOESTLER, A. (1994) Œuvres autobiographiques (Paris: Robert Lafont).KREINDLER, A. (1955) ‘Studii clinice, fi ziopatologice şi terapeutice în nevroza astenică’ in

Lucrările sesiunii ştiinţifi ce a Secţiei de Ştiinţe Medicale a Academiei R.P.R. din 22–24 ian 1954 (Bucharest: Academiei) 247–48.

MULLER, M. (1950) Curs de psihiatrie (Cluj: IMF).OLARU, A. (1981) Tradiţii şi orientări în psihiatria românească (Bucharest: Medicală).PAPADIMA, E. (2002) Psihanaliza şi psihoterapie psihanalitică (Bucharest: Jurnalul literar).PĂTRĂŞCANU, L. (1970) Sub trei dictaturi (Bucharest: Politică).PREDESCU, V., ed. (1976) Psihiatrie (Bucharest: Medicală).RALEA, M. (1954) Caracterul antiuman şi antiştiinţifi c al psihologiei burgheze americane

(Bucharest: E.S.P.L.S).RICMAN, R. (1997) Un loc fără nume: O monografi e a Spitalului de Psihiatrie din Gătaia

(Timişoara: Mirton).ROMILĂ, A. (2004) Psihiatrie, ed a II-a revizuită (Bucharest: Asociaţia Psihiatrilor Liberi din

România).SᾸHLEANU, V. & I. POPESCU-SIBIU (1972) Introducere critic în psihanaliză (Cluj: Dacia).SCORUŞ, I. (2007) Paradoxurile psihanalizei în România (Piteşti: Paralela 45).TALABAN, I. (2011) ‘Invitat special’, Psihiatru.Ro 24, retrieved 9 February 1011 from http://www.

pulsmedia.eu/inpage/psihiatru-ro-24/.TEODORESCU, R. (2001) ‘Terapiile comportamentale si cognitive în România’, Revista Română

de Psihiatrie 12, 3–4.TOROUŢIU, I. (1936) ‘G. Călinescu: Opera lui Mihai Eminescu’, Buletinul Mihai Eminescu 7:14, 58.TUDOSE, F. (1985) ‘Psihoterapia’ in C. GORGOS, ed., Vademaecum în Psihiatrie (Bucharest:

Medicală) 569–90.VIANU, I. (1975) Introducere în psihoterapie (Cluj: Dacia).VIANU, I. (1980) ‘La psychanalyse au présent: Roumanie’, La Quinzaine littéraire 326, 25.WEIGEL, E. (1948) ‘Etiologia socială a nevrozelor la Freud’, Studii 1, 172–84.ZAMFIRESCU, V.D. (2003) Introducere în psihanaliza freudiană şi postfreudiană (Bucharest: Trei).

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BOOK REVIEWS / REZENSIONEN

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ANDREA MESTERHÁZY

UP AND DOWN: FINDING BALANCEWITH COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY

LAM, D.H., S.H. JONES & P. HAYWARD (2010) Cognitive Therapy for Bipolar Disorder: A Therapist’s Guide to Concepts, Methods and Practice (Leicester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell) 334 pp., 23 cm, ISBN 978-0470779378, €112.

The authors have treated patients with bipolar disorder (BD) for decades. D.H. Lam is Professor of Clinical Psychology, Head of Clinical Psychology Department and Programme Director of Doctoral Degree in clinical psychology at the University of Hull. His research interests are mood disorders, including BD. Steven H. Jones is Professor of Clinical Psychology and Director of the Spectrum Centre for Men-tal Health Research at Lancaster University. His fi eld of research is mental health, and for the last decade his primary interest has been the diagnostics and treatment of BD. Both of them have published widely on intervention and treatment of BD. As a cognitive behavioural therapist, Peter Hayward PhD has worked with patients with several mental problems on a clinical basis. He is retired now but continues his practice in private.

The book describes the treatment approach of cognitive behavioural therapy with bipolar disorder patients. The authors accept that BD is a serious and import ant mental illness; patients suffer from multiple episodes, which have immediate and/or long-term consequences in several areas of their lives. The authors emphasise that cognitive behavioural psychotherapy is an effective adjunctive to pharmacological intervention that helps clients to cope with the disorder. The second and updated edition of the guide incorporates the latest research and studies in the fi eld of BD. The 13 chapters of the book can be divided into two parts. The fi rst four chapters summar ise the basic knowledge about BD, treatment, psycho-social aspects and the authors’ model for psychological approach. The second, main part focuses on the therapeutic treatment in detail, based on the cognitive behavioural concept.

The fi rst chapter describes the diagnostic criteria for BD taken from the current Diagnostic and Statistic Manual IV; epidemiology, severity and impact of the dis-order are discussed. Patients may face several episodes with different lengths. The detection of prodromes can help clients to cope with their illness and cause less fre-quent relapses. The chapter highlights that people can spontaneously identify when they experience prodromal manic and (to a lesser extent) depressive symptoms. Some of them are common in the disorder, but many symptoms are very idiosyn-cratic. Manic phases are more public, more noticeable, have more positive aspects, benefi ts, and may have immediate or long-term negative consequences associated with occupational or fi nancial loss and social embarrassment. Depression may also hinder social functioning; it can cause fi nancial diffi culties, child neglect, marital

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problems, loss of status and prestige, etc. Recurrence is associated with more factors, e.g. substance abuse, domestic atmosphere; the risk of mortality is also increased among patients with BD, so all these problems are presented.

The pharmacological approach has played the most important role in the treat-ment of BD, as discussed in Chapter 2. Lithium was the fi rst described treatment, and is nowadays among the often prescribed medications. Recently, other medications, like antiepileptics and second-generation antipsychotics have come to be used in acute mania, depression and in rapid-cycling disorder. The side effects and non-com-pliance might hinder the effectiveness – despite the effi cacy – of a pharmacologic al treatment. Psychotherapy was often ignored or just not prescribed. Psychotherapy was mainly used in a non-acute phase of the disorder. The authors provide a summary of some of the current therapy methods, like focused family therapy, group psycho-education, teaching skills and individual cognitive behavioural therapy and individ-ual interpersonal social rhythm therapy. There are only few controlled studies – and mostly pilot – of the effectiveness of the psychological approach and the authors urge more improvement in studies. At the end of this chapter, the authors summarise the diffi culties patients face and the areas where the therapy can intervene.

Life events play an important role in onset and relapse in BD, but there is a discussion about which particular type of event or life stress is particularly import-ant. The duration of stress, goal attainment, life events and its exaggerated positive or negative evaluation, events which disrupt social rhythm, personality and belief system seem to be important factors of the disorder. Among these questions Chapter 3 discusses that studies have shown that dysfunctional attitudes and assumptions are present in the disorder. The authors postulate for example that high goal attain-ment beliefs may interact with the illness and predispose clients to have a more severe course of the disorder, since it leads to extreme behaviour and irregular daily routine, which can make the course of the disorder more chronic and diffi cult to treat. Three diathesis-stress models – like (1) the behavioural activation system and reward responsiveness, (2) behavioural sensitisation and kindling, and (3) circadian disturbance and internal appraisal are presented. All of them share a diathesis stress approach in which biological, psychological and social elements are equally import-ant. There is evidence that they have an effect on BD; however, it is not clarifi ed exactly whether they are competitive or complementary models.

The authors’ model presented in Chapter 4 assumes an interaction between stressors and biological vulnerabilities. Disruption of routine and sleep can lead to bipolar episodes through the disruption in circadian rhythms. Prediction, anticipa-tion and prevention of such disruption in routine and sleep by stresses – not all life events, but irregular lifestyle, acute stress – can be an important aspect in the psy-chological management of BD.

Consistent with the cognitive model of affective disorders, the authors accept the thought that mood and behaviour affect each other. Patients are more sensitive to environmental signs of award (they lead to goal-directed activity) or frustrative non-rewards (that lead to non-engagement) leading to manic/depressive episodes.

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The mood state can lead to selective abstracting mood-congruent information in the environment to feed the vicious cycle. Similarly, misattribution of bodily symptoms to personal weakness or self-potency or patients’ behaviour during the prodromal stages can infl uence the course of an episode.

Patients go through prodromal stages of mania or depression of various lengths in an idiosyncratic way. Identifying symptoms, and coping with them during the pro-dromal stage can have important implications for the development from prodromal stages to full-blown episodes since mania can fuel itself and depression can spiral down. The best time to intervene is at an early stage of the course.

The authors argue that individual cognitive behavioural therapy can be useful in psycho-education, teaching cognitive behavioural skills to cope with prodromes, to maintain routine and sleep, and to deal with long-term vulnerabilities.

Cognitive behavioural therapy is adjunctive to medication, based on the col-laboration between patient and therapist. The chapter closes with a short outline of treatment, some aspects of which are described in the following chapters in detail.

The second main part starts with the pre-therapy assessment in Chapter 5. The patients’ personal and family history are very important, like early experiences, up-bringing, education, important authentic fi gures, relationship with others, history of the illness, the perception of current and past treatment in order to put the illness in the clients’ context, etc. The history of the disorder can be summarised in a life chart; the therapist and patient can together examine the pattern of the symptoms, prodro-mal symptoms, the course of the illness, the effect of medication and/or the neglect of medication and its consequences.

Clients’ perception of the illness and treatment compliance and stigmatisation are discussed. Relevant core beliefs, dysfunctional attitudes are present by the pa-tients. Clients’ current mood state should be evaluated using tests, self reports and observation of the clients. Some clients are pessimistic about their future and their illness, so hopelessness and the risk of suicide should be assessed before the therapy starts. Social performance, like employment, intimate relationship, social presenta-tion are also infl uenced by the disorder; these might be very idiosyncratic. Social support, its structural and functional aspects, satisfaction and dissatisfaction, expect-ations, formal and informal form are also to assess.

Introducing the model to the patient is very important; it helps the client to understand the model and the intervention and helps to develop a collaborative work with patients as described in Chapter 6. In the practice of the authors an informa-tion leafl et is given to the patient, which helps the client and the therapist to discuss the disorder and its treatment. They emphasise the interrelationship among thought, emotion, behaviour and environment, and that stress can trigger episodes. The life chart method helps the client to understand the model from the patient’s own experi-ences and give an insight into the therapy methods. Problems, like denial of the disorder or major trust in pharmacology are also discussed.

Goal setting is so important in therapy that an entire chapter (7) is dedicated to it. Goals are identifi ed in relation to the disorder at the beginning of the ther-

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apy, but throughout the sessions of therapy additional goals may emerge. Different topics – like symptom reduction, medical compliance, functional goals, gaining greater control over patients’ emotional, cognitive processes, building and using so-cial services – can emerge. It is suggested to start with an immediate goal, which is realistic and attainable, while longer-term goals can be targeted later.

In Chapter 8 other specifi c cognitive techniques are discussed that can be used with patients, particularly when they are relatively stable, moderately depressed or hypomanic. Mood monitoring in a 24-hour period is recognised as being a key com-ponent and it is also important to teach the clients the distinction between normal and abnormal mood swings. In mood states, present dysfunctional, biased thoughts can be identifi ed (e.g. need for approval, perfectionism or bad attainment), collected and changed in both depressive and hypomanic states. Some thoughts and themes are connected to the prodromal phases of the disorder in mania/depression, so they can be examined and reframed as symptoms. Some patients evaluate their hypo-manic phase as positive, so they can analyse the cost and benefi ts of the disorder. In a hypomanic phase patients tend to act before they realistically evaluate their activ-ities, so clients can learn delaying strategies to avoid negative consequences of their disorder. The identifi cation and challenging of dysfunctional assumptions are part of the therapy; the questioning of unhealthy rules help to work out how to meet a new, healthy rule.

The guide continues with behavioural techniques in Chapter 9, to make the patients able to manage the disorder. Mood and activity are connected; a chaotic lifestyle and stressful events may cause changes in mood, routine, sleep, circadian rhythm, which can trigger depressive/manic episodes as underlined in the diathesis-stress model. Regular lifestyle, the development of a regular sleep and wake cycle routine and food intake seem to be a key to maintaining a stable phase. Skills in planning and management in routines and activities can be developed. Clients with BD need to plan time for activities they like and enjoy, they need to avoid crises and need to learn how to set priorities among their activities. Other useful strategies like relaxation, sleep routine, problem solving, sitting, listening targets are also pres-ented. Stimulus control is to help the client to identify idiosyncratic stimuli that are associated with prodromes, e.g. alcohol or drug use, caffeine consumption, fi nancial control or other risky behaviour. The changes are often recorded, put in vivo and discussed.

Identifying prodromal symptoms and signs is important in coping with the dis-order. They can be targeted and revealed in the therapy. Previous chapters discussed techniques and skills of helping the client take more active control in order to man-age the disorder. The pattern of the course can differ from patient to patient; the stages of manic/depressive phases and the length of each stage can be sorted out. Within the therapy, clients are asked to identify the prodromes in the domains of mood, cognition and behaviour at a different (early, middle and late) stage of de-pression/mania as described in Chapter 10, and different actions, coping strategies are collaboratively developed for each phase that help the patients to moderate the

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symptoms and fi nd balance. Most clients can describe their prodromes and possible coping strategies spontaneously; some might fi nd it diffi cult to identify them, but the collaborative working style can help both the client and the therapist. Other self-management techniques, like forming a good routine, setting up a professional sup-port network, building on a social network are also discussed in this chapter.

The defi nition of the self and long-term issues is targeted in Chapter 11. Patients with BD may struggle with defi ning the self, who they are in reality, in a depressed or euthymic phase. Some of them cannot accept the disorder, they might deny it or some might use it as an excuse. Prejudice and stigmatisation are also a present prob-lem of BD clients; they can hinder the acceptance of the disorder. Patients may suffer from them and face diffi culties at work or in applying for a job. Stigma, guilt and shame during the depressive phase are often intertwined; clients take an exaggerated responsibility or demand. Main depressive episodes can result in losses of job, loved ones, status, existence, etc. and in a therapy the therapist can work with the client to adjust to the new circumstances with CBT techniques, emotional processing. Anger and avoidance are also discussed since they are also part of long-term diffi culties.

The patients’ social environment is also to be attacked as introduced in Chapter 12. To make family members help the client cope with the disorder, patients and ther-apists should understand labile mood and behaviour and the burden of the family, fi nancial diffi culties, family problems, identity, loss of jobs, status, etc. According to the studies not only manic but depressive phase-related behaviour might burden families; emotional, practical, social support can help the family members to cope with the disorder of the client. Sessions with the spouse might help to stabilise the partnership. Education, helping to fi nd compromise, agreement, (ir)responsibility for family, employment, etc. can be among the topics discussed. The family member can help to carry on the activities, coping strategies at different prodromal stages (de-scribed in Chapter 10). The acceptance of autonomy, the distinction of normal and abnormal mood swings, trust, changes in libido in the different phases of the disorder are suggested to be targeted in the therapy.

Finally, Chapter 13 raises some interpersonal and service-related issues. So-called nonspecifi c therapeutic effects are also important, like therapeutic alliance with clients who show inconsistency in mood states, behaviour, trust, intimacy, which can be very diffi cult to handle for the therapist. Reliability and trust are import ant, especially when patients are getting into the hypomanic stage. Showing interest and acceptance, making an effort to understand the patients, and accepting patients’ autonomy even in their grandiose ideas, increased self-confi dence, motives and/or inappropriate behaviour are part of the therapeutic relationship. The function of trust and rapport fulfi ls its special role in ‘holding’. At this point patients can be very irritable or resentful toward the therapy; they may feel that they are not under-stood or the therapy is useless. It is suggested not to take criticism personally, but creating a therapeutic relationship of support, empathy, focusing on usefulness and evidence of progress, fi nding strategies for calming down, etc. are some of the strat-egies and issues presented. In case of pharmacological noncompliance the patients’

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resistance, problems and fears can be targeted through discussing the consequences of taking or not taking medication. Psychological therapy is usually one part of the therapy/service; some of its diffi culties, e.g. communication or team work are issues professionals should be aware of.

This book is a helpful treatment manual of cognitive behavioural therapy for BD patients written for professionals. It provides a basic knowledge of BD, includ-ing the latest studies. The book offers easy-to-follow guidance and illustrates the process of the therapy with many case examples. A wide range of strategies, moni-toring tools, and handouts for patients are also presented. Some of the techniques and strategies were adapted from traditional cognitive therapy for emotional dis-orders, while others were specifi cally developed for bipolar disorder. Reading the book, the authors’ point seems convincing that besides pharmacotherapy, cognitive behavioural psychotherapy should be prescribed for the complex and more effective intervention and treatment of bipolar disorder in patients.

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GERGELY ROSTA

SÄKULARISIERUNGEin Begriff der Vergangenheit?

TOMKA, M. (2011) A vallás a modern világban: A szekularizáció értelmezése a szociológiában (Budapest: SE EKK Mentálhigiéné Intézet & Párbeszéd (Dialó-gus) Alapítvány) 247 S., 23,5 cm, ISBN 978-963-9129-77-1, HUF 3.000.

Miklós Tomka war ohne Zweifel einer der bekanntesten Religionssoziologen in Mittel- und Osteuropa. Als junger Forscher gehörte er Anfang der 1970er Jahre im damaligen Ostblock zu den ersten, die mit soziologischen Mitteln die Situation und Entwicklung von Religiosität untersuchten. Schon in seinen frühen Werken ist die grundlegende Frage zu erkennen, die ihn während seiner gesamten wissenschaftli-chen Laufbahn beschäftigt hat: Gibt es tatsächlich einen Säkularisierungsprozess, der als Folge der sozialen Modernisierung zwangsläufi g, unaufhaltbar und unum-kehrbar zum Bedeutungsverlust und letzten Endes zum Verschwinden von Religion und Religiosität führt? Seine Antwort auf diese Frage war von Anfang an ein ein-deutiges Nein. Die theoretischen und empirischen Erkenntnisse zu diesem Thema hat er in unzähligen Publikationen präsentiert. Die hier zu besprechende Arbeit, die er 2008 ursprünglich als akademische Dissertation verfasst hat und die als Buch erst nach seinem unerwarteten Tod im Jahre 2010 herausgegeben werden konnte, kann man als Synthese der Ergebnisse seiner langjährigen Arbeit an der Säkularisie-rungstheorie – bzw. am Säkularisierungskonzept, wie Tomka immer nachdrücklich betonte – betrachten.

Zwar trägt nur ein Unterkapitel des vierten Abschnitts den Titel „Eine Kritik des Säkularisierungskonzepts“ („A szekularizációs koncepció kritikája“), Belege für die Unhaltbarkeit der Kerngedanken der Säkularisierungsthese durchziehen jedoch die gesamte Arbeit. Dabei argumentiert Tomka grundsätzlich aus drei unterschied-lichen Perspektiven, die auch die Grundlage für die Gliederung des Werks bilden.

Der erste Teil gibt vor allem eine historische Übersicht über die Prozesse, die oft als Säkularisierung bezeichnet werden. Ausgehend von der Schilderung bekann-ter historischer Prozesse der Neuzeit wie Industrialisierung, Urbanisierung, stei-gende soziale Mobilität, ein breiterer Zugang zu Bildung oder wachsende soziale Wohlfahrt, fährt Tomka mit der Darlegung des schwindenden kirchlichen Einfl usses fort und weist sodann mehrere Phasen eines Rückgangs von kirchlicher Religiosität nach. Wie aber schon der Untertitel dieses Kapitels („Hanyatlás és megújulás“ – „Niedergang und Erneuerung“) ankündigt, wird diese Beschreibung weiter ergänzt: In den nun folgenden Ausführungen wird zum einen erläutert, dass es in der Ge-schichte immer wieder Auf- und Abschwünge gab, die Entwicklung von Religiosität also keinesfalls linear, sondern eher in Wellen verläuft; zum anderen wird aber auch auf religiöse Erneuerungstendenzen sowie den Gestaltwandel von einer kirchlich

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defi nierten zu einer individualisierten Form von Religiosität hingewiesen. Im letzten Unterkapitel des ersten Teils behandelt der Autor relativ knapp die Frage, wie stark die theoretische Interpretation historischer Entwicklungen von Religion vom jeweils zugrunde gelegten Religionsbegriff abhängt. Dieser Aspekt stellt eines der wichtigs-ten Elemente seiner Kritik am Säkularisierungskonzept dar.

Der zweite Teil betrachtet die Säkularisierungsdebatte aus einer sozialwissen-schaftlichen Perspektive. Der grundlegende Unterschied zum deskriptiven histori-schen Ansatz ist der erklärende Anspruch der Sozialwissenschaften – vor allem der Soziologie –, die einen kausalen Zusammenhang zwischen Modernisierung und Sä-kularisierung annehmen. Gerade diese Annahme steht im Mittelpunkt der Kritik von Tomka.

Nach einem kurzen Ausblick auf die Interpretation von Säkularisierung in den Rechts- und Geschichtswissenschaften sowie in der Alltagssprache werden im zwei-ten Teil vorwiegend soziologische Aspekte wie die Rolle der Rationalisierung, der sozialen Differenzierung oder der unterschiedlichen gesellschaftlichen Ebenen und Dimensionen und deren Relationen zueinander diskutiert. Dieser Teil liefert eine sehr umfassende Übersicht über die unterschiedlichen Positionen der Vertreter der Säkularisierungsthese. Diese Positionen werden aber gleichzeitig immer wieder durch historische, empirische oder theoretische Einwände relativiert oder widerlegt, sodass die Darstellung der sozialwissenschaftlichen Säkularisierungsdebatte insge-samt sehr kritisch ausfällt. Schon in der Einleitung des Kapitels verdeutlicht Tomka, dass er Säkularisierung bestenfalls als Konzept, keineswegs aber als Theorie be-trachtet, da es keinen wissenschaftlichen Konsens über den Inhalt und den Ablauf von Säkularisierung gibt und selbst die Vertreter der „Säkularisierungstheorie“ ex-plizit erklären, dass eine Theorie der Säkularisierung, die den strengen, logischen Regeln der Sozialwissenschaften entspricht, gar nicht existiert.

Im dritten Teil seiner Arbeit versucht Tomka die Anwendbarkeit des aus der abendländisch-christlichen Tradition entstammenden Konzepts der Säkularisierung in nichteuropäischen Kulturen zu überprüfen. Es mag wohl wenig überraschend sein, dass er in keiner der vier untersuchten Kulturregionen (Islam, Indien, China und Japan) überzeugende Beweise für die Plausibilität des Konzepts fi ndet. Unter-schiede zur westlichen Welt im Religionsverständnis, in den Organisationsformen der institutionalisierten Religion, im Verhältnis von Staat und Religion und in den Modernisierungsprozessen sowie empirische Befunde über den religiösen Wandel sind die wichtigsten Argumente für die Ablehnung des Säkularisierungskonzepts als Beschreibungs- und Erklärungsansatz in nichtchristlichen Kulturen. In einem weite-ren Unterkapitel geht Tomka der Frage nach, wie die Globalisierung die Position von Religion weltweit beeinfl usst. Seinem Fazit nach gibt es keinen Hinweis auf eine nachlassende Bedeutung, viel mehr auf eine Aufwertung von Religion als Konfl ikt-quelle und politischer Faktor.

Der vierte Teil bietet zuerst eine Zusammenfassung der wichtigsten Punkte von Tomkas Säkularisierungskritik, gefolgt von einem relativ kurzen Ausblick auf vier alternative Erklärungsansätze. Die zwanzigseitige, systematisch in Tabellenform

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dargestellte Sammlung von Kritikpunkten kann auch als Auszug der Kerngedanken der gesamten Arbeit aufgefasst werden. Aus den vielen Einwänden, die insgesamt zur vollständigen Ablehnung des Säkularisierungskonzepts führen, möchte ich nur die beiden hervorheben, die Tomka selbst für die wichtigsten hält. Einerseits schließt das Konzept die Möglichkeit der Selbsttransformation des religiösen Systems aus. Würde man Religion als ein soziales Subsystem auffassen, das von historischen Um-ständen bestimmte Bedürfnisse befriedigt, so könnte man statt von Säkularisierung als Niedergang der Religion von einer Transformierung der Religion der Traditionen zu einer Religion der Moderne sprechen. Andererseits ist es laut Tomka noch proble-matischer, dass das Säkularisierungskonzept im kausalen Zusammenhang von Mo-dernisierung (oder im breiteren Sinne von sozialem Wandel) und Religion letztere ausschließlich als abhängige Variable betrachtet. Hingegen ist Religion, so Tomka, als bedürfnisschaffender, zielsetzender und sozialkritischer Akteur selbst Mitgestal-ter von sozialen Prozessen. Es ist durchaus möglich, dass eine bestimmte Religion diese Funktionen nicht mehr erfüllen kann, was aber nicht unbedingt auf externe Ur-sachen zurückzuführen ist, sondern oft auch mit internen Fehlentwicklungen erklärt werden könnte.

Als Alternative bietet Tomka vier Ansätze an, ohne sich dabei für einen ein-zelnen explizit zu entscheiden. Da es nicht zur eigentlichen Zielsetzung der Arbeit gehörte, nach der Widerlegung der Säkularisierungsthese eine ebenso ausführlich elaborierte alternative Erklärung religiöser Wandlungsprozesse zu entwickeln, wer-den diese Ansätze nur skizzenhaft dargelegt. Die erste Alternative ist die Instituti-onentheorie, die zum besseren Verständnis von religiösen Institutionalisierungspro-zessen und Lebenszyklen religiöser Organisationen beitragen könnte. Eine zweite Möglichkeit stellt die religiöse Markttheorie dar. Dieser in der Rational-Choice-Theorie wurzelnde Ansatz geht von einer konstanten religiösen Nachfrage aus, deren Befriedigungsgrad besonders von der Freiheit des Wettbewerbs am religiösen Markt abhängt. Eine dritte Alternative bietet nach Tomka die Individualisierungstheorie, die den Rückgang der kirchlichen Religiosität nicht als Niedergang von Religiosität schlechthin, sondern als Formwechsel zu einer weniger institutionsgebundenen, per-sönlichen Religiosität versteht. Der vierte Ansatz ist das Konzept der Öffentlichen Religion von Casanova. Dieser beobachtet seit Anfang der 1980er Jahre eine De-privatisierung von Religion, da Religion und Religiosität wieder an politischer und öffentlicher Bedeutung gewinnen. Laut Casanova ist Säkularisierung eine mögliche, aber keinesfalls notwendige Folge der Modernisierung. Stattdessen ist die Entwick-lung bedingt durch eine starke Allianz und gegenseitige Abhängigkeit von Kirche und Staat: Religiöse Institutionen, die ihre Selbstständigkeit bewahren konnten, ha-ben bessere Chancen, unter Bedingungen der Modernität effektiv eine öffentliche Rolle zu spielen.

Im fünften und letzten Teil („Tanulságok“ – „Lehren“) fasst Tomka erneut in knapper Form die wichtigsten Aussagen seiner Arbeit in zehn Punkten zusammen. In den letzten Sätzen der Arbeit verdeutlicht er dabei aufs Neue, in welchem Sinne er den Begriff „Säkularisierung“ akzeptieren kann (zur Beschreibung bestimmter

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historischer Prozesse) und in welchem nicht (als allgemeingültiger kausaler Zusam-menhang und Prädiktion).

Das letzte in ungarischer Sprache herausgegebene Buch von Miklós Tomka stellt vor allem durch seine systematisch elaborierte Kritik einen fundamentalen Bei-trag zur Säkularisierungsdebatte dar. Sein sehr eindeutiger Standpunkt wird weiteren Diskussionen sicherlich ausreichend Stoff bieten. Bedauerlicherweise kann der Au-tor selbst diese Diskussionen mit seinen umfassenden Kenntnissen über das Thema nicht mehr bereichern.

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ZSUZSA MARLOK

SALUTOGENESE IN DER SCHULEEin effektives Trainingsprogramm

für pädagogische Fachkräfte

KRAUSE, CH. & C.-H. MAYER (2012) Gesundheitsressourcen erkennen und för-dern: Training für pädagogische Fachkräfte (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Rup-recht) 175 S., 23x15,6 cm, ISBN 978-3-525-70137-9; €19,95.

Der Frage „Was erhält Menschen gesund“ wird von Fachleuten der Medizin, Sozio-logie, Psychologie und Gesundheitswissenschaften besonders seit dem Erscheinen des ersten Buches von Aaron ANTONOVSKY (1979) nachgegangen. Der salutogeneti-sche Ansatz rückt neben der schon länger bestehenden traditionellen Auffassung der Pathogenese immer mehr ins Zentrum der Aufmerksamkeit. Faktoren der Gesund-heitserhaltung werden weltweit – so auch in Deutschland – bezogen auf unterschied-liche Berufe und Lebenssituationen intensiv erforscht und diskutiert. Zum Thema „Salutogenese im pädagogischen Kontext“ gibt es aber bisher bis auf einige weni-ge Publikationen kaum Fachliteratur. Christina Krause und Claude-Hélène Mayer zielen mit ihrem Buch Gesundheitsressourcen erkennen und fördern: Training für pädagogische Fachkräfte (2012) auf gerade dieses bisher in den salutogenetischen Fachdiskussionen wenig beachtete Berufsfeld. Das ist äußerst erfreulich, denn pä-dagogische Fachkräfte sind erwiesenermaßen durch den täglichen Stress und die komplexen Leistungserwartungen vielfältigen Gesundheitsrisiken ausgesetzt, die sie körperlich, geistig und emotional stark fordern und häufi g dermaßen überfordern, dass sie im Vergleich zu anderen Berufsgruppen gegenüber psychosomatischen Er-krankungen und dem Burn-out-Syndrom viel anfälliger sind. Um dieser Tendenz entgegenzuwirken, entwickelten Krause und Mayer ein salutogenetisch orientiertes Trainingsprogramm für Lehrer, mit dessen Hilfe diese ihre psychische und körper-liche Gesundheit effektiver und bewusster erhalten, pfl egen und verbessern können. Somit ist dieses Buch sowohl ein Lücken schließendes Grundwerk als auch ein wichtiger Schritt in Richtung der Ausweitung der Salutogenese auf das Gebiet der Pädagogik. Das ist sehr zu begrüßen.

Der Name von Dr. Christina Krause (Familien-, Kinder- und Jugendpsycho-therapeutin) ist in Fachkreisen aufgrund ihrer früheren Arbeiten zum Thema Salu-togenese in der Erziehung schon seit über einem Jahrzehnt bekannt. Sie entwickelte ein Gesundheitsförderungsprogramm für Grundschul- und Kindergartenkinder und verfügt über reichhaltige Erfahrungen auf dem Gebiet der Arbeit mit Kindern, El-tern und Lehrern. Dr. Claude-Hélène Mayer (Mediatorin, systemische Beraterin und systemische Familientherapeutin, Professorin für interkulturelle Wirtschaftskommu-nikation) ist in erster Linie im Bereich der interkulturellen Mediation und des Kon-

European Journal of Mental Health 7 (2012) 249–254DOI: 10.5708/EJMH.7.2012.2.Rev.3

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fl iktmanagements tätig. Sie sammelte Erfahrungen als interkulturelle Trainerin und Beraterin in Wirtschaftsorganisationen und sozialen Institutionen in Ländern Euro-pas und des südlichen Afrika. Dabei hat sie sich auf interkulturelles Konfl iktmanage-ment und Mediation sowie systemische interkulturelle Beratung in internationalen Organisationen spezialisiert.

Das vorliegende Trainingsbuch ist eine äußerst gelungene Synthese der Kom-petenzbereiche der beiden Autorinnen. Pädagogik und Wirtschaftswissenschaft, Persönlichkeits- und Wirtschaftsorganisationsentwicklung, Konfl iktmanagement und Selbstrefl exion erscheinen nebeneinander, einander begleitend und ergänzend. Neuartig an diesem Buch ist also nicht nur die Adaptation des salutogenetischen Ansatzes auf den pädagogischen Bereich, sondern auch die Kombination der oben genannten Wissens- und Kompetenzbereiche.

Das Hauptanliegen des Buches ist einerseits, pädagogischen Lehrkräften be-wusst zu machen, wie wichtig die Erhaltung und Pfl ege ihrer mentalen Gesundheit ist. Andererseits wird ein praktisches und leicht anwendbares Trainingsprogramm angeboten. Das ist ohne Zweifel sehr wichtig, denn die Themen Hilfe und Selbsthilfe im pädagogischen Kontext, d.h. welche Strategien und Techniken Lehrer benutzen können, um die tägliche Belastung zu ertragen, bekommen in der Lehreraus- und -fortbildung immer noch nicht genügend Gewicht. Pädagogische Fachkräfte bringen weder die Fähigkeiten noch das Problembewusstsein für die eigene Gesundheits-erhaltung mit. Mithilfe dieses Programms, das sowohl als Selbstlernprogramm als auch als Fachmaterial für Fortbildungen, Supervision und Beratung benutzt werden kann, können Lehrer ihr Wissen und Können zur Gesundheitserhaltung auffrischen, sich dieses bewusst machen und Neues dazulernen.

Die Module des Buches thematisieren zehn gesundheitsfördernde Bereiche, die speziell für Lehrkräfte ausgewählt wurden. In den ersten zwei Modulen wird der Leser mit dem Konzept der Salutogenese vertraut gemacht, wobei die Merk-male des gesundheitsbewussten Denkens diskutiert und refl ektiert werden. Vom dritten bis zum siebten Modul werden fünf Gesundheitsressourcen zum Thema gemacht, die für Lehrer unentbehrlich sind: Selbstwertgefühl, Zugehörigkeitsge-fühl, emotionale Intelligenz, Kommunikationskompetenz und Konfl iktlösungs-kompetenz. Interkulturelle Kompetenz als Quelle der Gesundheit ist das Thema des achten Kapitels und Stressmanagement wird im neunten analysiert. Das letzte Modul stellt die Rolle von Bewegung und Ernährung als Gesundheitsressource dar. Die einzelnen Themen bauen zwar inhaltlich aufeinander auf, die modulhafte Struktur ermöglicht aber, dass sie in beliebiger Reihenfolge und/oder unabhängig voneinander benutzt werden können.

Die Module sind alle nach dem gleichen, äußerst benutzer- und leserfreund-lichen Schema aufgebaut. Die Benutzerfreundlichkeit wird in einem ersten Schritt dadurch gewährleistet, dass am Anfang jedes Kapitels jeweils in Form einer Ta-belle ein Entwurf zum Arbeitsablauf zu fi nden ist, der Ziele, Inhalte sowie me-thodisch-didaktische Tipps zur Umsetzung und Hinweise auf das Arbeitsmaterial beinhaltet. Der Leser bekommt so einerseits einen schnellen Überblick über Inhalt

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und Aufbau des Kapitels, andererseits methodisch-didaktische Anleitung zur Be-arbeitung des Materials.

Danach folgt das kurz ausformulierte, übergeordnete Lernziel des jeweiligen Kapitels. Jedes Modul wird mit einer theoretischen Einführung in das Thema fortge-setzt. Diese besteht meistens aus Hinweisen auf allgemein bekannte Theorien, ohne Anspruch auf Vollständigkeit, in angemessenem Umfang und verständlicher Spra-che. Die Leser werden nicht mit theoretischem Wissen überschüttet. Es wird nur ein Grundverständnis vermittelt, um die nachfolgende praktische Arbeit vorzubereiten.

Wie in einem didaktisch durchdachten Trainingsbuch wird das in der Theorie Eingeführte mithilfe unterschiedlicher Aufgabentypen bewusst gemacht und einge-übt. Das reichhaltige Übungsangebot (z.B. Diskussion, Refl exion, Entspannungs-übungen, Rollenspiel) ermöglicht dem Leser oder Trainer, abhängig von den eigenen Interessen bzw. denen der Teilnehmer, die entsprechenden Übungen auszuwählen. Die Übungen beziehen sich in jedem Modul auf drei Bereiche: auf die Arbeit an den persönlichen Gesundheitsressourcen der Lehrer, auf die Teamarbeit mit Kollegen und auf die Arbeit mit Kindern, wobei der jeweilige Anteil in den einzelnen Modulen vom behandelten Thema abhängt. Die Autoren legen großen Wert auf die Festigung des Gelernten, daher wird jedes Modul mit einer Empfehlung zur Zusammenfassung und Wiederholung abgeschlossen. Äußerst benutzerfreundlich ist auch, dass am Ende der Module die Aufgabenblätter jeweils als Kopiervorlage vorzufi nden sind.

Aufgrund seines Aufbaus entspricht das Buch also in jeder Hinsicht den An-forderungen eines leicht handhabbaren Trainingsbuches. Der Benutzer kann sich im Material sehr leicht orientieren, das Nötige auswählen und bearbeiten. Betrachtet man die anfänglich erwähnte Überlastung der Lehrkräfte, ist das sehr zu begrüßen.

In den ersten zwei Modulen wird der Leser in das salutogenetische Grundkon-zept eingeführt. Salutogenese, salutogenetischer Ansatz, Gesundheits-Krankheits-Kontinuum, Gesundheitsressourcen und Resilienz werden kurz erklärt und anhand von Fragen refl ektiert: „Was bedeutet Gesundheit?“ – „Wie ist das subjektive Ge-sundheitsempfi nden?“ – „Wie schätzt man den eigenen Platz auf dem Gesundheits-Krankheits-Kontinuum ein?“ – „Wie verändert sich diese Position im Laufe der Zeit?“ – „Was sind die personalen und sozialen Gesundheitsressourcen?“. Diese letzte Frage scheint besonders wichtig zu sein, denn obwohl alle Menschen über Gesundheitsressourcen verfügen, können sie diese nicht immer spontan nutzen. Ressourcen müssen häufi g erst einmal erkannt werden, erst dann ist es möglich, sie effektiv einzusetzen. Im salutogenetischen Konzept nimmt der Begriff Resilienz eine zentrale Stelle ein. Darunter versteht man die Gesamtheit jener Ressourcen, die uns zur Verfügung stehen und es uns ermöglichen, Herausforderungen und Krisen des Lebens zu meistern. Wer unter schwierigen Umständen gesund bleibt, ist wider-standsfähig, also resilient.

Im Theoriegebäude von Antonovsky spielt der von ihm entwickelte Begriff „Kohärenzgefühl“ (sense of coherence – SOC) eine wesentliche Rolle. Die Leser können das eigene Kohärenzgefühl mithilfe eines mehrfach validierten Fragebo-gens einschätzen, der im Anhang des Buches zu fi nden ist. Die Entwicklung eines

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starken Kohärenzgefühls kann eine adäquate Maßnahme sein, um dem Bedürfnis nach Gesundheitsförderung entgegenzukommen. Die Übungen im zweiten Modul beziehen sich in erster Linie auf die Arbeitsbedingungen in der eigenen Einrichtung. Man kann zusammen mit Kollegen den Anteil von Stressoren und Ressourcen ge-geneinander abwägen und zusammen mit den Kollegen refl ektieren. Dies kann als wesentliche gesundheitsfördernde Maßnahme im Sinne der sozialen Unterstützung betrachtet werden.

Die Module drei und vier fußen auf dem von Krause und Mitarbeiterinnen entwickelten Gesundheitsförderprogramm für Kinder. Im Fokus des dritten Moduls steht das Selbstwertgefühl. Die gefühlsmäßig verankerte Beziehung des Menschen zu sich selbst ist zweifellos eine der wichtigsten Schlüsselkompetenzen im Dienste des Wohlbefi ndens und der körperlichen und psychischen Gesundheit. Die Leser können über ihre Stärken und Schwächen refl ektieren und sich bewusst machen, was zur Entstehung des Selbstwertgefühls beitragen kann. Das schöne Gedicht Ich bin ich von Virginia Satir als Selbstwert stärkendes Mittel ist Teil dieses Moduls.

Modul vier macht auf die Wichtigkeit des Zugehörigkeitsgefühls als Gesund-heitsressource aufmerksam. Mit Recht wird hier als krankmachendes Gegenphäno-men Mobbing – die soziale Isolation in einer Gruppe, in der jemand über länge-ren Zeitraum von einer oder mehreren Personen ausgegrenzt wird – thematisiert. Zugehörigkeit und Mobbing werden auf zwei Ebenen refl ektiert. Einerseits geht es um den Lehrer als Mitglieds eines Teams, die Arbeitsatmosphäre im Team und die gegenseitige Wertschätzung der Kollegen. Andererseits um die Arbeit des Lehrers mit den Kindern, darum, wie der Zusammenhalt der Schüler in der Klasse gestärkt und Mobbingsituationen in der Klasse verhindert bzw. gehandhabt werden können.

Nicht weniger wichtige Themen bearbeiten die nächsten drei Module. Dies sind die von der WHO als „life skills“ ausgearbeiteten Kompetenzen: emotionale Intelligenz, Kommunikationskompetenz und Konfl iktlösungskompetenz.

Kognitive Intelligenz gehört seit Langem zu den am besten untersuchten Ei-genschaften des Menschen. Über die Bedeutung der emotionalen Intelligenz werden aber erst seit den 90er Jahren intensive Diskussionen geführt. Emotionale Intelli-genz bedeutet, dass man fähig ist, die eigenen Gefühle wahrzunehmen, zu bewerten, auszudrücken und zu regulieren. Je besser ein Mensch seine Gefühle und Impulse kennt, desto weniger ist er ihnen ausgeliefert. Emotionale Intelligenz bedeutet auch die Fähigkeit, die Gefühle der anderen zu erkennen und zu verstehen. Ohne Zweifel sind diese Fähigkeiten im Lehrerberuf von außerordentlich großer Bedeutung. Nach dem theoretischen Überblick folgen im fünften Modul Übungen zur Achtsamkeit, d. h. zur Beobachtung der eigenen Körperempfi ndungen, Gefühle, Stimmungen, Ge-danken und inneren Bilder. Dazu können Entspannungstechniken (z.B. autogenes Training, progressive Muskelrelaxation) wesentlich beitragen.

Das sechste Modul ist der Kommunikationskompetenz gewidmet. Im ersten Teil des Kapitels werden die wichtigsten Thesen der von Watzlawick, Rogers, Schulz von Thun, Satir und Rosenberg entwickelten Kommunikationstheorien vorgestellt. Es ist von besonderer Bedeutung, das Wissen über erfolgreiche Kommunikationsge-

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staltung in Können zu überführen. Das ist der Grund für das im Vergleich zu anderen Modulen reichere Übungsangebot, das sich einerseits auf die Kommunikation mit Kindern und andererseits auf die Kommunikation mit Kollegen bezieht.

Das siebte Modul befasst sich mit der Konfl iktlösungskompetenz. In pädago-gischen Systemen kommt es täglich zu Konfl ikten unter Kindern, zwischen Leh-rern und Eltern und mit Kollegen. Diese konstruktiv zu lösen, ist eine grundlegen-de Aufgabe und Herausforderung für Lehrkräfte. Die Autoren betonen in diesem Kontext die Bedeutung einer friedlichen Konfl iktlösung, die zu einer sogenannten „Win-Win-Lösung“ führen kann. Die theoretischen Anteile werden wie gewohnt re-fl ektiert und geübt.

Kulturelle Vielfalt und Diversität sind in deutschen Schulen in den letzten Jahr-zehnten zum Alltag geworden, wodurch pädagogische Fachkräfte früher unbekann-ten Stressfaktoren ausgesetzt sind. Der Umgang mit kulturellen Unterschieden ist eine neue Herausforderung. Das begründet, warum auch transkulturelle Kompetenz in dieses Programm aufgenommen wurde. Im Modul acht wird der Zusammenhang zwischen transkultureller Kompetenz und Wohlbefi nden herausgearbeitet. In den Übungen kann man die eigene kulturelle Zugehörigkeit refl ektieren, sich mit inter- und transkulturellen Konzepten in der Pädagogik auseinandersetzen, einen Entwick-lungsplan zum Übergang von der interkulturellen zur transkulturellen pädagogischen Organisation in der Schule entwerfen und ein interkulturelles Curriculum planen.

Ein besonders sensibles Thema, das Stressmanagement, wird im neunten Mo-dul behandelt. Hierbei werden die Entstehung von Stress sowie seine Auswirkungen und Möglichkeiten der Stressbewältigung diskutiert. Erfolgreiches Stressmanage-ment kann die personalen Schutzfaktoren der Lehrkräfte intensiv stärken und so-mit zur Gesundheitserhaltung wesentlich beitragen. Die Übungen zielen darauf ab, Stressoren zu erkennen, Stresssymptome an Kindern und an sich selbst zu identifi -zieren, sich kurzfristige und langfristige Strategien zu Stressbewältigung bewusst zu machen und zu erproben. Da Entspannungsübungen sowohl zu den kurzfristigen als auch zu den langfristigen Bewältigungsstrategien gehören, bieten die Autoren neue Techniken an, mit denen sich Stress reduzieren lässt.

Die Themen Bewegung und Ernährung sind nicht der Schwerpunkt des Bu-ches, aber es ist dennoch wichtig, dass diese am Ende des Buches im zehnten Mo-dul ihren Platz bekommen haben. Denn körperliches und seelisches Wohlbefi nden hängen auch von Ernährung und Bewegung ab und sie sind als wichtige Säulen der Gesundheitserhaltung zu betrachten. Vorgeschlagen werden leicht in den Alltag integrierbare Übungen wie z.B. Bewegung im Rahmen der integrierten Lernthera-pie (ILT), gemeinsame Bewegung mit Kindern und Kollegen oder ein gemeinsames Frühstück.

Das Buch „Gesundheitsressourcen erkennen und fördern“ ist ohne Zweifel eine spannende Lektüre und gleichzeitig ein niveauvolles Trainingsbuch. Durch die aus-gewogene Mischung von theoretischen Grundlagen und praktischen Übungen haben die Autoren pädagogischen Fachkräften ein effektives Handwerkszeug sowohl für die individuelle als auch für die gemeinsame Nutzung im Team an die Hand gege-

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ben. Ich halte das Buch für einen wichtigen Meilenstein auf dem Gebiet der Gesund-heitserhaltung und -pfl ege von pädagogischen Fachkräften, das allen Lehramtsstu-denten und schon im Beruf stehenden Lehrkräften als wichtige Lektüre empfohlen werden sollte.

Referenzen

ANTONOVSKY, A. (1979) Health, Stress and Coping (San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass).

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ABSTRACTS / ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN

(Croatian, Czech, English, German, Hungarian, Polish,Rumanian, Russian, and Slovakian Abstracts /

Kroatische, Tschechische, Englische, Deutsche, Ungarische, Polnische,Rumänische, Russische und Slowakische Zusammenfassungen)

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APSTRAKTI

HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF & WIM NOORLANDER (str. 157)

Resursi povjerenja u jednom raspadajućem svijetu: Društveno-gospodarska dimenzija i etika povezivanja tragom Boszormenyija-Nagya: Sjedinjujući gospodarsko-znanstvenu, od-nosno društveno-znanstvenu literaturu, u studiji se induciraju praktične primjene koje se grade na fi lozofskim, te na teološkim iskustvima. Stavljamo primjedbe s obzirom na posljedice fi nan-cijsko-gospodarske krize, te „slobodnog tržišta” i privatne sfere, koje su se javile u nedavnoj prošlosti. Poput terapeuta moramo ispitati suvremene odnose izvješća koja raspolažu s društveno-gospodarskim činjenicama i (inter)personalnim dimenzijama. Što je situacija s ideologijom au-tonomije i jednakosti prikrivenim uvjetima odgovornosti povezivanja usred postojeće društvene nepravednosti i neizvjesnosti? Usred takvih okolnosti, istražujemo realnu perspektivu nade „kao heuristiku straha”. Snaga etike povezivanja može se učiniti iluzijom ako pretpostavimo da sna-šanje odgovornosti ovisi o mjeri slobode kojom nas je podarila priroda i kultura. Iako je poznata ova pretpostavka, etika povezivanja ipak je onaj motivacijski sloj koji pruža nadu u svezi uspo-stavljanja povređene ljudske pravednosti. Čitajući Levinasa možemo bolje razumjeti kako je sve to moguće. Privlačna snaga druge osobe za mene je motivacija. „Njezina zapovjed bez moći” čini me slobodnim. Kontekstualni pristup Boszormenyija-Nagya nudi vrijedne mogućnosti za izgrađi-vanje odgovorne brige povezivanja.

Ključne riječi: gospodarska kriza, etika povezivanja, resursi povjerenja i pouzdanosti, kontekstu-alna terapija, uzajamnost

ROBERT BIEL (str. 184)

Dušobrižništvo u Poljskoj prije i poslije političkog prevrata: Dušobrižništvo je jedna takva temeljna riječ pastoralne teologije, koju već odavno prihvaćaju u širem krugu. Pored karitasa i otkrivenja spada među bitna pitanja Crkve. Težina dušobrižništva posebno je porasla u vrijeme totalitarne potlačenosti Crkve. Tako je bilo to i poslije II. svjetskog rata u Poljskoj. Komunistič-ke vlasti neprijateljski su se odnosile prema Crkvi. Stoga je i na djelatnost poljske Crkve, i na dušobrižništvo silno utjecalo komunističko preuzimanje vlasti. Slijedom toga, u komunističkoj Poljskoj Crkva je prisiljena na to da se dušobrižničkom djelatnošću takoreći povuče u sakristiju. Takav život „Crkve u sakristiji”, koji su komunisti jedino otrpili za udovoljavanje duhovnih potre-ba vjernika, na mnogim mjestima dovela je do minimalističkog razumijevanja dušobrižništva. U sjeni komunizma dušobrižništvo, posebno takva djelatnost u krugu vojnika i u zatvorima, moralo je prkositi brojnim poteškoćama. To je u totalitarnom sustavu Crkvu prisililo na ustanovljavanje novih oblika pastoralnog rada. Ponovo stečena sloboda stavila je Crkvu pred nove izazove, kojima nije jednostavno zavladati. Današnje vrijeme, dakle, prisiljava Crkvu na promjenu paradigme, na prijelaz iz „Ecclesie militans” za vrijeme komunizma u „Ecclesiu serviens” koja živi na tlu slo-bodnog društva. Mora ponovo promisliti svoje poslanje i sprovesti svojevrsni „aggiornamento”. Nova situacija potiče Crkvu na preuređivanje pastoralne djelatnosti. Ova preobrazba i pastoralna

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djelatnost u postkomunističkim društvima zgodno se može nazvati „Postsocijalističkim slijeđe-njem Krista”. Dakle, položaj poljske katoličke Crkve poslije obrata pretpostavlja onaj proces cr-kvene obnove, koju je Ivan Pavao II. nazvao novom evangelizacijom. Tako se Crkva u pogledu promijenjenog društvenog uređenja nalazi pred izazovom ustanovljenja novog stila „pastoralne djelatnosti”. Za to da pastoralna djelatnost ne postane zbirnim mjestom takvih dijelova u kojem će nastati samo puno pojedinačnih koncepcija dušobrišništva, usko se mora povezati s teologijom. Putem nje, okretanjem prema modernim humanističkim i društvenim znanostima, i uz kritički dijalog s njima, pastoralna djelatnost postala je značajka odgovorne dušobrižničke djelatnosti Cr-kve. Upravo u tom pogledu u poljskoj pastoralnoj teologiji moraju se nadoknaditi veliki zaostaci. Ateistička država spriječila je svaki takav pokušaj Crkve kojim bi ona stvorila mogućnosti teo-loškog obrazovanja za laike. U komunističkoj Poljskoj Crkva je mogla imati samo jedan katolički fakultet (KUL)-ujedno ovo je bio jedini katolički fakultet u cijelom istočnom bloku. Međuvreme-no teološki kraj se promijenio. Poslije obrata Crkva je znala iskoristiti povoljnu priliku da stvori bolje mogućnosti teološkog usavršavanja za laike. Uspjela je preuzeti jedno varšavsko sveučilište (UKSW) i utemeljiti veliki broj državno priznatih teoloških fakulteta. Slabu točku poljske teologi-je danas svakako čini znanstveno osoblje, devedesetpostotno sastavljeno od takvih svećenika koji rade i u dušobrižništvu. Profesori su osposobljeni opskrbiti postojeće fakultete i zavode, ali često puta istovremeno predavaju u više ustanova. Sada je već i u Poljskoj moguća interdisciplinarna suradnja u teologiji, stoga svojim studentima nude i nove stručne smjerove, kao što su primjerice etika, novinarstvo, društvena komunikacija i obiteljske znanosti. Na poljskim crkvenim fakulteti-ma danas na teologiji prema procjenama uči 16.000 studenata, među kojima je isto tako budućih svećenika kao i teologa-laika. To se čini osobito važnim glede budućnosti poljske Crkve.

Ključne riječi: Poljska, dušobrižništvo, komunizam, povijest, osvrt, obrat, teologija, fakulteti

DINA GUGLIELMI, CHIARA PANARI & SILVIA SIMBULA (str. 204)

Odrednice blagostanja učitelja: Posrednička uloga intelektualnog umora: Proteklih godina veliki broj studija bavio se odlučujućim čimbenicima i posljedicama stresa koji pogađa učitelje. Jedan od najnovijih teorijskih modela vezanih za stres je model zahtjeva i resursa na radnom mjestu (JD-R, Job Demands-Resources). Ova studija ispituje jedini proces – poimence proces energije,– pretpostavljajući kako visoki zahtjevi na radnom mjestu iscrpljuju sve intelektualne i fi zičke resurse zaposlenih, oštećujući njihovo zdravlje. Studija i pobliže ispituje posredničku ulogu intelektualnog umora prema trima zahtjevima postavljenim prema učiteljima na radnom mjestu (radna opterećenost, nejednakosti, odnosno sukob između posla i obitelji) i trima poslje-dicama stresa (psihički i fi zički simptomi, kao i zadovoljstvo poslom). Talijansku verziju upitnog lista PWSQ (Questionnaire for Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress), koji se popunjavao samostalno, ispunilo je 697 slučajno odabranih učitelja predstavljajući 17 obrazovnih udruga. Rezultati pokazuju kako intelektualni umor ima posredničku ulogu u konfl iktu između posla i obitelji, odnosno između triju ispitivanih posljedica, to jest između psihičkih i fi zičkih simptoma, kao i između zadovoljstva na radnom mjestu. Studija donosi važne zaključke u svezi sa strategi-jom uplitanja, pošto je intelektualni umor jedno takvo prenapeto stanje, koje se javlja prije nego bilo koji intenzivniji pojavni oblik, primjerice bolesti koje se mogu dovesti u vezu sa stresom. Rano otkrivanje takvog stanja omogućava prevenciju od posljedica stresa.

Ključne riječi: učitelji, stres, intelektualni umor, modeli zahtjeva i resursa na radnom mjestu, zdravlje

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CĂTĂLINA TUDOSE & FLORIN TUDOSE (str. 221)

Povijest psihoterapije u Rumunjskoj za vrijeme socijalističke diktature Nicolaea Ceauşes-cua: Cilj je studije da prikaže stanje psihoterapije u vrijeme Ceauşescuove diktature(1965–1989). U posljednjim desetljećima prošloga stoljeća za razumijevanje značajki iskušanih psihoterapij-skih odnosa neophodno je proučavanje iskrivljenosti osobnih veza u Rumunjskoj, otkrivanje i analiza uzroka koji su doveli do njih. Rumunjska je jedina država istočnog bloka, u kojoj su tije-kom 45 godina, slijedivši staljinističke smjernice, jedan drugog naslijedila dva takva čelnika koji su vršili aktivnu ideološku djelatnost, dok su izrasli u strahopoštovane i nedodirljive vođe partije i države, ostvarivši nacionalno-komunističku (Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej) diktaturu, i diktaturu temeljenu na kultu ličnosti (Nicolae Ceauşescu). Usred takvih okolnosti poslije 1954. godine, djelatnost Rumunjskog psihopatološkog i psihoterapijskog društva prisilili su na kolosijek unu-tarnjih trvenja, ukinuli su Rumunjsku akademiju, a umjesto nje utemljena Rumunjska narodna akademija usprotivila se freudizmu, psihosomatskim i behaviorističkim učenjima. Iako je nisu otvoreno ukinuli, ali su psihoterapiju proglasili nesuglasnom s primitivnim marksističkim uče-njima. Studija prikazuje napore stručnjaka poslije 60-ih godina, posredovanjem kojih su tiskana djela koja su razglabala razne oblike psihoterapije, upoznavši stručnjake s njihovim osnovnim načelima. Pojavili su se psiholozi i psihijatri (specijalisti za duševne bolesti) koji su raspolagali sa sklonošću ka inicijativi. Stručna literatura nastala u posljednjim desetljećima diktature već je opisala psihoterapijske metode, ali je još samo sa margine doticala psihoanalizu, kognitivne i gru-pne terapije, odnosne metode obiteljske terapije. Doduše otvoreno nisu zabranili psihoterapijsku praksu, ali oblikovatelji zdravstvenog sustava nisu ohrabrivali prijavljene s inicijativama takvih obilježja, dok su forumi akademije-s malo iznimaka- iskazivali neprijateljsko ponašanje prema ra-zličitim tipovima psihoterapije, osobito prema onima koji su bili psihoanalitički usmjereni, prema kojima su se odnosili s davno nastalim refl eksima otpora. Ovaj položaj možda je objašnjavao onu eksplozivnu energiju, kojom su se, nakon 1989. osnovane grupe, društva najraznovrsnijeg usmje-renja ubacila u izvođenje raznih obrazovnih i praktičnih djelatnosti, u postavljanju strukturalnih obrazovanja službenim.

Ključne riječi: psihoterapija, Rumunjska, džavni socijalizam, diktatura, povijest, retrospektiva, pomoćno zanimanje, Ceauşescu, psihoanaliza

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ABSTRAKTY

HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF & WIM NOORLANDER (s. 157)

Zdroje důvěry ve fragmentarizujícím se světě: Sociálně-ekonomická dimenze a vztahová etika podle Boszormenyi-Nagye: Ve studii indukujeme praktické zkušenosti a jejich aplikaci na fi lozofi cké a teologické bázi s použitím odborné literatury hospodářských a společenských věd. Ve studii bude diskutovaná nedávná fi nanční a ekonomická krize, volné tržní hospodářství a jejich důsledky v soukromé sféře. Jako terapeuti musíme zkoumat aktuální souvislosti společensko--ekonomických faktů s (inter)personálními rozměry. Jaké jsou podmínky odpovědnosti vztahu v prostředí společenské nespravedlnosti a nejistoty, zahaleny ideologií autonomie a rovnosti? V kontextu „heuristiky strachu“ zkoumáme reální perspektivu naděje. Síla vztahové etiky se může zdát iluzí za předpokladu, že míra odpovědnosti závisí od stupně svobody, která nám byla udělena přírodou a kulturou. Ačkoliv se tento předpoklad zdá být povědomý, vztahová etika má přece jen takovou motivační sílu, která dává naději k obnovení poškozené lidské spravedlnosti. Čtením Levinasa můžeme lépe pochopit, jak je to všechno možné. Přitažlivost druhé osoby motivuje. „Její nenásilný rozkaz” osvobozuje. Kontextuální přístup Boszormenyi-Nagye nabízí prospěšné návrhy k vytvoření zodpovědné péče ve vztahu.

Klíčová výrazy: ekonomická krize, vztahová etika, zdroje důvěry a spolehlivosti, kontextuální terapie, vzájemnost

ROBERT BIEL (s. 184)

Duchovní péče v Polsku před a po politickém převratu: Duchovní péče je jedním z nejstarších hesel pastorační teologie. Vedle charity a ohlašování Evangelia patří k základním úlohám církve. Duchovní péče nabyla na významu hlavně v době totalitního utlačování církve. Nebylo tomu jinak ani v Polsku po 2. světové válce. Komunistické orgány měly negativní vztah k církvi. Proto byla nastoupením komunistické moci značně ovlivněna jednak činnost církve, jednak duchovní péče. V důsledku toho byla církev v komunistickém Polsku nucena svou duchovní činnost takřka stáhnout do sakristie. Tato „sakristicko-církevní” existence, kterou komunisté tolerovali jako je-diný způsob naplňování duchovních potřeb věřících občanů, vedla na mnoha místech k minima-listickému pojetí duchovní péče. Ve stínu komunismu musela duchovní péče vzdorovat mnohým potížím, a to zejména při práci s vojáky a ve věznicích. Existence v totalitárním režimu teda přiměla církev k vyvinutí nových forem pastorační činnosti. Znovu získaná svoboda představuje pro církev nové výzvy, na které není vždy snadné odpovědět. Dnešní doba nutí církev ke změně z „Ecclesia militans” doby komunismu na „Ecclesia serviens” svobodné společnosti. Musí nanovo promyslet své poslání a uskutečnit jistý druh „aggiornamenta”. Tuto přeměnu a pastoraci můžeme v postkomunistických společnostech výstižně nazvat „postsocialistickým následováním Krista”. Porevoluční postavení polské katolické církve předpokládá postupnou obnovu církve, kterou Jan Pavel II. nazval novou evangelizací. Je proto také zapotřebí, aby církev hledala nové pastorační přístupy. Je nevyhnutné, aby tyto přístupy měli na jedné straně dobrý základ v teologii, na druhé

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straně aby byly v úzkém kritickém dialogu s dalšími vědnými obory, zejména humanitními. Právě v polské pastorální teologii třeba v tomto ohledu doplnit mnoho zameškaného. Ateistický stát zabránil jakémukoliv pokusu církve o vytvoření možnosti teologického vzdělání laiků. V komu-nistickém Polsku měla církev jen jednu katolickou univerzitu (KUL) – která byla zároveň jedinou katolickou univerzitou v celém východním bloku. Od té doby se teologické prostředí změnilo. Po převratu byla církev schopna využít příznivé příležitosti k vytvoření lepších možností pro teolo-gické vzdělávání i pro laiky. Podařilo se jí převzít jednu Varšavskou univerzitu (UKSW) a založit četné, státem schválené teologické fakulty. Jednou ze slabých stránek dnešní polské teologie jsou určitě vědečtí pracovníci, kteří jsou z 90% kněží, kteří aktivně působí i v oblasti duchovní péče. Profesoři jsou sice schopni obsloužit stávající fakulty a ústavy, většinou ale přednášejí ve více zařízeních zároveň. Nyní je i v Polsku možná interdisciplinární spolupráce v teologii, takže poslu-chačům nabízejí i takové nové specializace, jako jsou např. etika, žurnalistika, společenská komu-nikace a rodinné vědy. Na polských církevních univerzitách dnes studuje teologii podle odhadů 16.000 posluchačů, mezi nimiž jsou i budoucí faráři i laičtí teologové. A to se zdá být mimořádně důležitým z hlediska budoucnosti polské církve.

Klíčová výrazy: Polsko, duchovní péče, komunismus, dějiny, retrospektiva, převrat, teologie, univerzity

DINA GUGLIELMI, CHIARA PANARI & SILVIA SIMBULA (s. 204)

Faktory psychického a fyzického zdraví učitelů: Zprostředkovací role duševní únavy: V posledních letech se mnohé studie věnovali hlavním faktorem a následkem stresu, který postihuje učitele. Jeden z nejnovějších teoretických modelů stresu je model zdrojů a pracovních požadav-ků (JD-R, Job Demands-Resources). Tato studie zkoumá jediný proces – jmenovitě energetický proces – s předpokladem, že vysoké pracovní požadavky vyčerpávají všechny duševní a fyzické zdroje zaměstnanců a tím poškozují jejich zdraví. Studie podrobně zkoumá zprostředkovací roli duševní únavy v souvislosti se třemi pracovními požadavkami učitelů (pracovní zátěž, nerovnost, konfl ikt práce a rodiny) a tří následků stresu (duševní a fyzické příznaky, nespokojenost na pra-covišti). Italskou verzi dotazníku PWSQ (Questionnaire for Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress) vyplnilo 697 náhodně vybraných učitelů zastupujících 17 vzdělávacích institucí. Výsledky ukazují, že duševní únava hraje zprostředkovací roli v konfl iktu práce a rodiny, resp. tří zkouma-ných následků (spokojenosti na pracovišti, duševních a fyzických příznaků). Ze studie vyplývají důležité důsledky pro oblast prevence. Nakolik je duševní únava vyčerpaností, která se projeví dříve než jiné symptomy, jako například onemocnění spojité se stresem, je včasné rozpoznání tohoto stavu neodmyslitelné v prevenci důsledků stresu.

Klíčová výrazy: učitelé, stres, duševní únava, model zdrojů a pracovních požadavků, zdraví

CĂTĂLINA TUDOSE & FLORIN TUDOSE (s. 221)

Dějiny rumunské psychoterapie v době socialistické diktatury Nicolae Ceauşesca: Cílem studie je představení stavu psychoterapie v období Nicolae Ceauşesca (1965–1989). K pojetí cha-rakteristiky psychoterapeutického kontextu posledních desetiletí minulého století je nevyhnutné studium narušení mezilidských vztahů v Rumunsku, jako i identifi kace a analýza jeho příčin. Ru-munsko je jedinou zemí východního bloku, ve které během 45 let nastoupili po sobě dva vůdcové následující směr stalinismu, kteří vykonávali zvláště aktivní ideologickou činnost, přičemž se stali

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obávanými a nespornými vůdci strany a státu a zavedli diktaturu založenou na národním komunis-mu (Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej ) a osobním kultu (Nicolae Ceauşescu). Za těchto okolností byla po roce 1945 činnost nově založené Rumunské psychopatologické a psychoterapeutické společnosti v důsledku vnitřní schizmy narušena. Činnost Rumunské akademie byla zastavena a místo ní byla založena Rumunská lidová akademie, která se postavila proti freudizmu, psychosomatickému a behaviorálnímu učení. Psychoterapie sice přímo zakázána nebyla, ale byla vyhlášená za neshod-nou s marxistickým učením. Studie představuje úsilí odborníků v období po šedesátých letech, jehož prostřednictvím se do tisku dostávali díla, které se zabývaly různými odvětvími psychotera-pie a seznámili tak odborníky s její zásadami. Objevili se psychologové a psychiatři s iniciativním přístupem. Odborné knihy, které vyšly v posledních desetiletích diktatury, už popisovali psycho-terapeutické metody, ale psychoanalýzu, kognitivní a skupinové terapie jako i metody rodinné terapie ponechali ještě povedle. Psychoterapeutickou praxi sice přímo nezakázali, představitelé zdravotního systému však nepodporovali podobné iniciativy. Fóra akademie, až na malé výjimky, projevovali na základě dříve vzniklých obranných refl exů, negativní postoj k různým druhům psy-choterapie, zvláště k psychoanalýze. Nejspíš lze touto situací vysvětlit tu výbušnou energii, kterou se po roce 1989 nově založené skupiny a spolky s nejrůznějším zaměřením vrhali do realizace a certifi kace různých vzdělávacích kurzů a praktické činnosti.

Klíčová výrazy: psychoterapie, Rumunsko, komunismus, státní socialismus, diktatura, dějiny, prěhled, pomocná povoláni, Ceauşescu, psychoanalýza

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ENGLISH ABSTRACTSENGLISCHE ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN

ABSTRACTS

HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF & WIM NOORLANDER (p. 157)

Resourcing Trust in a Fragmenting World: The Social-Economic Dimension and Relational Ethics in the Track of Boszormenyi-Nagy: In this essay, we combine literature on economics and social sciences, inducing practical experiences and philosophically and theologically inspired praxis. We give our perceptions of the recent fi nancial-economic crisis and the ‘free market’-economy and of some consequences in the private domain. As therapists we have to refl ect on con-temporary issues of interrelatedness of social-economic facts and narratives with (inter)personal dimensions. How about the conditions for relational responsibility in the midst of social injustice and instability, hidden behind ideologies of autonomy and equality? Against this background as ‘heuristics of fear’, we search for a realistic perspective of hope. The strength of relational ethics can be seen as an illusion, when we would assume that being responsible is dependent on the extent of freedom which nature and culture give us. Although this assumption is familiar, rela-tional ethics still are the motivational layer in which hope resides for repairing the hurt human justice. Reading Levinas helps us to understand how this is possible. The appeal of another person motivates me. His/her ‘command without force’ makes me free. In the contextual approach of Boszormenyi-Nagy, there still are valuable stepping stones to be found for resourcing the sense of responsible relational caring.

Keywords: economic crisis, relational ethics, resources for trust and trustworthiness, contextual therapy, reciprocity

ROBERT BIEL (p. 184)

Pastoral Counselling in Poland before and after the Political Change: Pastoral counselling has long been widely acknowledged as a basic notion in pastoral theology. Besides caritas and revelation, it is also one of the essential issues in Church. Pastoral counselling became especially relevant during the oppression of Churches in totalitarian regimes, as in Poland after World War II. Communist authorities showed hostility towards the Church; therefore, the establishment of the Communist rule severely affected both the activity of the Polish Church and pastoral coun-selling. As a result, the pastoral counselling activity of the Church in Communist Poland was confi ned to the sacristies, so to say. This mode of Church existence was the only tolerated way of answering the spiritual needs of religious citizens but it led to a minimalistic interpretation of pastoral counselling in many places. Communism cast its shadow over the counselling activity, which struggled with a lot of diffi culties especially when it was carried out in the army or prisons. This situation forced the Church to develop new forms of pastoral work in the totalitarian regime. Since freedom was regained, the Church has been facing new challenges, which are not easy to overcome. The present era calls for a paradigmatic change in the Church and the transformation of the Communist-time ‘ecclesia militans’ into an ‘ecclesia serviens’ rooted in a free society. The Church has to reconsider its mission and carry out a kind of ‘aggiornamento’. In this new situ-

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ation, pastoration has to go through a reform as well. In post-Communist societies this trans form-ation and pastoration could felicitously be called the ‘post-socialist imitation of Christ’. The situ-ation in which the Polish Catholic Church has been living after the political change presumes the renewal process termed ‘new evangelisation’ by Pope John Paul II. With regard to the change in social order, the Church is facing the challenge of establishing a new working style of pastoration. In order to avoid the fragmentation of pastoral work into several individual concepts of spiritual counselling, it has to be closely linked to theology. This is why pastoration has turned to modern humanities and social sciences and has been involved in critical dialogue with these disciplines as part of the responsible counselling work of the Church. Pastoral theology in Poland has a lot to catch up with in this respect. The atheist state thwarted all Church attempts to provide theological education to lay persons. In Communist times the Polish Catholic Church was allowed to run one university only (KUL), which was also the only Catholic university in the whole Eastern bloc. In the meantime, the theological landscape has been transformed. After the political change the Church could take the opportunity to create better theological education for laymen as well. It suc-ceeded in taking over one of the universities in Warsaw (UKSW) and founding several theological faculties that have also been recognised by the state. The weakness of present-day Polish theology is defi nitely the academic staff, 90 percent of which consists of ordained people also active in pas-toral counselling. Professors are capable of covering the existing faculties and institutes but they usually fulfi l duties in a number of institutions. Interdisciplinary cooperation has become possible in Poland, too; therefore, students of theology can choose from new specialisation courses such as ethics, journalism, social communication and family studies. The number of students in Church-run Polish universities is estimated to amount to 16,000. The fact that this number includes both candidates for priesthood and lay theologians seems to be extremely important with view of the future of the Church in Poland.

Keywords: Poland, pastoral counselling, Communism, history, retrospection, political change, theology, universities

DINA GUGLIELMI, CHIARA PANARI & SILVIA SIMBULA (p. 204)

The Determinants of Teachers’ Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Mental Fatigue: In re-cent years, many studies have focused on the determinants and consequences of teacher stress. One of the most recent theoretical models concerning stress is the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model. This study examines one process – namely the energetic process – which supposes that high job demands exhaust employees’ mental and physical resources and therefore cause ill health. Particularly, this study examines the mediating role of mental fatigue between three job demands of teachers (workload, inequity and work/family confl ict) and three consequences of stress: psychological and physical symptoms and work satisfaction. An Italian version of the self-report Questionnaire for Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress (PWSQ) was administered to 697 teachers belonging to a random sample of 17 school organizations. The results showed that mental fatigue has a mediating role in the relationship between work/family confl ict and the three outcomes considered, namely psychological and physical symptoms, and work satisfaction. This study has an important implication for intervention strategy because mental fatigue is a pre-strain condition which arises before more intense outcomes, such as stress-related diseases occur. Iden-tifi cation of this condition allows prevention of the consequences of stress.

Keywords: teachers, stress, mental fatigue, Job Demands-Resources model, health

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CĂTĂLINA TUDOSE & FLORIN TUDOSE (p. 221)

The History of Psychotherapy in Rumania during the Socialist Dictatorship of Nicolae Ceauşescu: The paper tries to provide a history of psychotherapy in Rumania during the socialist dictatorship of Nicolae Ceauşescu (1965–1989). In order to fully understand the peculiarities of the development of psychotherapy in the last decades of the previous century, it is absolutely ne-cessary to take into consideration the deep degradation of the quality of interpersonal relations in Rumania and to analyze the causes that have determined this process. Rumania is the only country in Eastern Europe having as leaders, for 45 years continuously, two Stalinists, both of them with identical political formation, who are remembered for intense ideological activity, misguided zeal and constancy, both becoming dreaded and indisputable leaders, setting up a national-communist dictatorship – Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, and a personal one – Nicolae Ceauşescu. Under these cir-cumstances, beginning with 1945, the recently founded Rumanian Society for Psychopathology and Psychotherapy disrupted its activity, due to the schisms between members. The Rumanian Academy was abolished, and a new one was set up. One by one, the Popular Rumanian Academy contested Freudism, psychosomatic medicine, and behaviourism. Without being formally forbid-den, psychotherapy was incompatible with the primitive Marxism of the era, and this general state of things lasted for quite a long period. The paper presents the efforts of specialists after the 60s, when more papers and books were published that described various types of psychother-apies, familiarising the professionals with the fundamental ideas in psychotherapy; there were also psych iatrists and psychologists with initiatives in the fi eld and the main textbooks published in this period described psychotherapeutic methods. Unfortunately, little attention was paid to psy choanalysis, cognitive therapies, group therapies, family therapies, and psychodrama. Without openly suppressing the practice of psychotherapy, the offi cials responsible for the health system did not encourage the ones with such initiatives at all, and the academic bodies, with few excep-tions, were hostile to various forms of psychotherapy with an emphasis on those of psychoanalytic origin, for which they had cultivated old refl exes of rejection. This state of things explains the amplitude and the vigour of the initiatives breaking out after 1989, accomplishing the modalities for a structured and complete training.

Keywords: psychotherapy, Rumania, communism, state socialism, dictatorship, history, retro-spect, helping profession, Ceauşescu, contextual therapy

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GERMAN ABSTRACTSDEUTSCHE ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN

ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN

HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF & WIM NOORLANDER (S. 157)

Vertrauensressourcen in einer auseinanderbrechenden Welt: Die gesellschaftlich-wirtschaft-liche Dimension und die Beziehungsethik nach Boszormenyi-Nagy: In diesem Artikel werden auf der Grundlage einer Verknüpfung von wirtschaftswissenschaftlicher und sozialwissenschaftli-cher Fachliteratur auf einer philosophischen und theologischen Basis beruhende praktische Erfah-rungen und Anwendungen hergeleitet. Die jüngste Finanz- und Wirtschaftskrise, die freie Markt-wirtschaft und mögliche Konsequenzen für die Privatsphäre werden erörtert. Als Therapeuten haben wir die Aufgabe, aktuelle Zusammenhänge zwischen den gesellschaftlich-wirtschaftlichen Fakten und Berichten mit (inter)personalen Dimensionen zu untersuchen. Wie sieht es in einer Situation gesellschaftlicher Ungerechtigkeit und Unsicherheit – getarnt durch eine Ideologie von Autonomie und Gleichheit – mit den Voraussetzungen für eine Verantwortung in Beziehungen aus? In dieser Situation, verstanden als „Heuristik der Angst“, wird die reale Perspektive der Hoff-nung erforscht. Die Kraft der Beziehungsethik scheint vielleicht eine Illusion zu sein, wenn man davon ausgeht, dass das Übernehmen von Verantwortung abhängt von dem Maß an von Natur und Kultur zugestandener Freiheit. Diese Annahme mag uns bekannt vorkommen, doch die Bezie-hungsethik stellt die Art Motivation dar, die in uns eine gewisse Hoffnung auf Wiederherstellung der verletzten menschlichen Gerechtigkeit weckt. Beim Lesen von Levinas beginnt man zu ver-stehen, wie dies möglich ist. Die Anziehungskraft der anderen Person schenkt mir Motivation. Ihr „pressionsfreier Befehl“ macht mich frei. Der kontextuelle Ansatz von Boszormenyi-Nagy bietet wertvolle Möglichkeiten zur Gestaltung einer verantwortungsvollen Beziehung.

Schlüsselbegriffe: Wirtschaftskrise, Beziehungsethik, Ressourcen von Vertrauen und Zuverläs-sigkeit, kontextuelle Therapie, Gegenseitigkeit

ROBERT BIEL (S. 184)

Die Seelsorge in Polen vor und nach der Wende: Die Seelsorge gehört zu jenen pastoraltheologi-schen Grundbegriffen, die sich einer langen Geschichte und einer andauernden Akzeptanz erfreu-en. Sie gehört neben Caritas und Verkündigung zu den Wesensaufgaben der Kirche. Die Seelsorge gewann besonders zur Zeit der totalitären Unterdrückung der Kirche an Gewicht. So war es auch in Polen nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die kommunistischen Behörden waren der Kirche gegenüber feindlich eingestellt. Aus diesem Grund wurde sowohl die Tätigkeit der Kirche in Polen als auch die Seelsorge von der Machtübernahme durch die Kommunisten stark beeinträchtigt. Infolgedes-sen war die Kirche im kommunistischen Polen gedrängt, sich mit ihrer Seelsorge sozusagen „in die Sakristei“ zurückzuziehen. Die Einengung des kirchlichen Lebens auf die „Sakristeikirche“, die von den Kommunisten als einzige „Befriedigung der religiösen Bedürfnisse“ der gläubigen Bür-ger geduldet wurde, führte vielerorts zu einem minimalistischen Verständnis von Seelsorge. Die Seelsorge im Schatten des Kommunismus, besonders die Militär- und Gefängnisseelsorge, musste vielen Schwierigkeiten trotzen. Dies zwang die Kirche, neue Formen der pastoralen Arbeit im tota-

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litären System zu entwickeln. Die wieder gewonnene Freiheit stellt die Kirche vor neue Herausfor-derungen, die nicht einfach zu bewältigen sind. Die heutige Zeit zwingt also die Kirche in Polen zu einem gewissen Paradigmawechsel und zum Übergang von der im Kommunismus existierenden „Ecclesia militans“ zur auf dem Boden der freien Gesellschaft lebenden „Ecclesia serviens“. Die Kirche muss also ihre Sendung neu überdenken und eine Art von „aggiornamento“ vollziehen. Die neue Lage zwingt die Kirche zum Wandel der kirchlichen Pastoral. Dieser Wandel und die Pastoral in den postkommunistischen Gesellschaften ist treffend als „Nachfolge Christi – postsozi-alistisch“ zu bezeichnen. Die Lage der Kirche in Polen nach der Wende setzt also den kirchlichen Erneuerungsprozess voraus, den Johannes Paul II. als Neu-Evangelisierung bezeichnet. So ist die Kirche angesichts der veränderten gesellschaftlichen Ordnung zu einem neuen Stil der pastoralen Arbeit herausgefordert. Damit die Seelsorge nicht zum Steinbruch wird, in dem nur viele private Pastoralkonzepte entstehen, muss sie aufs Engste mit der Theologie verbunden sein. Die Hinwen-dung der Pastoral zu modernen Human- und Sozialwissenschaften und der kritische Dialog mit ihnen ist somit ein Merkmal einer verantwortlichen seelsorgerischen Arbeit der Kirche. Gerade in der Pastoraltheologie Polens besteht diesbezüglich großer Nachholbedarf. Der atheistische Staat blockierte alle Versuche der Kirche, für Laien theologische Ausbildungsmöglichkeiten zu schaf-fen. Die Kirche im kommunistischen Polen durfte nur über eine katholische Universität (KUL) verfügen – es war gleichzeitig die einzige katholische Universität im ganzen Ostblock. Inzwischen hat sich die theologische Landschaft verändert. Nach der Wende konnte die Kirche die Gunst der Stunde nutzen und bessere theologische Bildungsmöglichkeiten auch für Laien schaffen. Es ist der Kirche gelungen, eine Universität in Warschau (UKSW) zu übernehmen und etliche staatlich aner-kannte theologische Fakultäten zu gründen. Eine Schwachstelle der heutigen polnischen Theologie bildet sicherlich das wissenschaftliche Personal, das zu 90% aus Geistlichen besteht, die oft auch in der Seelsorge tätig sind. Die Professoren sind zwar in der Lage, die bestehenden Fakultäten und Institute zu betreuen, sie sind aber meistens gleichzeitig an mehreren Einrichtungen tätig. Jetzt ist auch in Polen interdisziplinäre Zusammenarbeit in der Theologie möglich, deshalb werden den Studierenden neue Studienrichtungen angeboten, wie z.B. Ethik, Journalistik, gesellschaftliche Kommunikation und Familienwissenschaften. An polnischen kirchlichen Universitäten studieren heute schätzungsweise 16.000 Theologiestudenten, sowohl Priesteramtskandidaten als auch Lai-entheologen. Dies scheint enorm wichtig für die Zukunft der Kirche in Polen zu sein.

Schlüsselbegriffe: Polen, Seelsorge, Kommunismus, Geschichte, Rückblick, Wendezeit, Theo-logie, Universitäten

DINA GUGLIELMI, CHIARA PANARI & SILVIA SIMBULA (S. 204)

Faktoren des Wohlbefi ndens von Lehrern: Die Vermittlerrolle mentaler Erschöpfung: In den vergangenen Jahren haben sich zahlreiche Studien damit befasst, welche Faktoren Stress bei Leh-rern bedingen und welche Folgen dieser haben kann. Eines der neuesten theoretischen Modelle im Zusammenhang mit Stress stellt das Modell Anforderungen und Ressourcen am Arbeitsplatz (JD-R, Job Demands-Resources) dar. Dieser Artikel untersucht einen bestimmten Prozess – den Energie-Prozess –, ausgehend von der Annahme, dass durch die hohen Anforderungen am Arbeitsplatz alle mentalen und körperlichen Ressourcen von Angestellten ausgeschöpft werden, was negative Auswirkungen auf ihre Gesundheit hat. Die Studie untersucht insbesondere die Rolle, die mentale Erschöpfung als Mittlerin zwischen drei verschiedenen Anforderungen an Lehrer am Arbeitsplatz einerseits (Arbeitsbelastung, Ungleichheiten, Konfl ikt zwischen Arbeit und Familie) und drei unter-schiedlichen Folgen von Stress (psychische und körperliche Symptome sowie Zufriedenheit am Ar-

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beitsplatz) andererseits spielt. Die italienische Version des selbständig auszufüllenden Fragebogens PWSQ (Questionnaire for Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress) wurde von 697 zufällig ausgewählten Lehrern an 17 verschiedenen Bildungsinstitutionen beantwortet. Wie die Ergebnis-se zeigen, spielt mentale Erschöpfung eine Vermittlerrolle zwischen dem Konfl ikt Arbeit/Familie und den drei untersuchten Folgen, d.h. den psychischen und körperlichen Symptomen sowie der Zufriedenheit am Arbeitsplatz. In der Studie wird eine wichtige Folgerung hinsichtlich einer Inter-ventionsstrategie gezogen, da mentale Erschöpfung ein Zustand der Überreizung ist, der früher als alle anderen ausgeprägteren Erscheinungsformen (z.B. auf Stress zurückzuführende Krankheiten) auftritt. Eine Früherkennung dieses Zustands ermöglicht eine Prävention von Stressfolgen.

Schlüsselbegriffe: Lehrer, Stress, mentale Erschöpfung, Modell Anforderungen und Ressourcen am Arbeitsplatz, Gesundheit

CĂTĂLINA TUDOSE & FLORIN TUDOSE (S. 221)

Geschichte der Psychotherapie in Rumänien in der Ära der sozialistischen Diktatur von Nico-lae Ceauşescu: Ziel dieses Artikels ist es, den Zustand der Psychotherapie in der Ära der sozialisti-schen Diktatur von Nicolae Ceauşescu (1965–1989) darzustellen. Um die Charakteristika der psy-chotherapeutischen Zusammenhänge in den letzten Jahrzehnten des vergangenen Jahrhunderts zu verstehen, müssen notwendigerweise auch die Verzerrungen in den zwischenmenschlichen Bezie-hungen in Rumänien untersucht und deren Ursachen aufgedeckt und analysiert werden. Rumänien ist das einzige Land im Ostblock, in dem 45 Jahre lang nacheinander zwei nach stalinistischen Richt-linien handelnde Machthaber regierten, die ideologisch sehr aktiv waren und mit der Einführung einer national-kommunistischen Diktatur (Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej) bzw. einer Diktatur mit Perso-nenkult (Nicolae Ceauşescu) zu gefürchteten und unanfechtbaren Führern der Partei und des Landes emporwuchsen. Unter diesen Bedingungen ist die Tätigkeit der Gesellschaft für Psychopathologie und Psychotherapie in Rumänien nach 1954 infolge von internen Streitigkeiten notgedrungen in eine Sackgasse geraten, die Rumänische Akademie wurde aufgelöst, die an ihrer Stelle gegründete Rumänische Volksakademie kämpfte gegen die Lehren von Freud und gegen die Ansätze von Psy-chosomatik und Behaviorismus. Die Psychotherapie wurde zwar nicht explizit verboten, dafür aber als mit den primitiven marxistischen Ideen nicht vereinbar diffamiert. Der Artikel beschreibt die Anstrengungen von Fachleuten in der Zeit nach den 1960er Jahren, dank deren regelmäßig Werke veröffentlicht wurden, die verschiedene Richtungen der Psychotherapie thematisiert und so Fach-leute mit den Grundzügen der Psychotherapie vertraut gemacht haben. Es gab Psychologen und Psychiater mit Initiative und Tatkraft. In Fachbüchern, die in den letzten Jahrzehnten der Diktatur erschienen, wurden bereits psychotherapeutische Methoden erörtert, doch Psychoanalyse, kognitive und Gruppentherapien sowie familientherapeutische Methoden wurden an den Rand gedrängt. Die Durchführung von Psychotherapien wurde zwar nicht offen verboten, aber diejenigen, die in diesem Bereich tätig werden wollten, wurden von den Entscheidungsträgern im Gesundheitswesen nicht ge-rade ermutigt. Auf der anderen Seite stießen die verschiedenen psychotherapeutischen Richtungen – vor allem die der Psychoanalyse, der man mit den gewohnten Verdrängungsrefl exen begegnete – in den Foren der Akademie mit wenigen Ausnahmen auf feindseliges Verhalten. Diese Situation kann vielleicht den große Elan erklären, mit dem sich die neu gegründeten Gruppen und Gesellschaf-ten unterschiedlichster Richtungen nach 1989 in der Realisierung verschiedener Ausbildungen und praktischer Tätigkeiten sowie in der Anerkennung gegliederter Ausbildungen eingebracht haben.

Schlüsselbegriffe: Psychotherapie, Rumänien, Kommunismus, Staatssozialismus, Diktatur, Ge-schichte, Rückblick, helfender Beruf, Ceauşescu, Psychoanalyse

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HUNGARIAN ABSTRACTSUNGARISCHE ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN

ÖSSZEFOGLALÓK

HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF & WIM NOORLANDER (157. o.)

Bizalmi erőforrások egy széttöredező világban: A társadalmi-gazdasági dimenzió és a kap-csolati etika Böszörményi-Nagy nyomán: A tanulmányban a gazdaságtudományi, illetve társa-dalomtudományi szakirodalmat ötvözve gyakorlati tapasztalatokat és fi lozófi ai, valamint teológiai alapokra épülő alkalmazásokat indukálunk. Észrevételeket teszünk a közelmúlt pénzügyi-gazda-sági válságát, a „szabad piac”-gazdaságot és a magánszférában jelentkező bizonyos következmé-nyeket illetően. Terapeutaként meg kell vizsgálnunk a társadalmi-gazdasági tények, valamint az (inter)perszonális dimenziókkal rendelkező beszámolók jelenkori összefüggéseit. Mi a helyzet az autonómia és egyenlőség ideológiájával leplezett társadalmi igazságtalanság és bizonytalanság közepette létező kapcsolati felelősség feltételeivel? Ilyen körülmények közepette, „a félelem he-urisztikájaként” a remény reális perspektíváját kutatjuk. A kapcsolati etika ereje illúziónak tűnhet azt feltételezve, hogy a felelősség viselése a természet és a kultúra által ránk ruházott szabadság mértékétől függ. Habár ismerősnek tűnik ez a feltételezés, a kapcsolati etika mégis az a motivá-ciós réteg, amely reményt nyújt a sérült emberi igazságosság helyreállítását illetően. Levinast ol-vasva jobban megérthetjük, hogyan is lehetséges mindez. A másik személy vonzereje motivációt ad számomra. „Erő nélküli parancsa” szabaddá tesz. Böszörményi-Nagy kontextuális megközelí-tésmódja értékes lehetőségeket kínál a felelős kapcsolati törődés kialakítására.

Kulcsszavak: gazdasági válság, kapcsolati etika, bizalmi és megbízhatósági erőforrások, kontex-tuális terápia, kölcsönösség

ROBERT BIEL (184. o.)

Lelkigondozás Lengyelországban a politikai fordulat előtt és után: A lelkigondozás a pasztorálteológia egyik olyan múltú alapszava, amelyet már régóta széles körben elfogadnak. A karitász és a kinyilatkoztatás mellett az egyház lényegi kérdései közé tartozik. A lelkigondozás súlya különösen az egyház totalitárius elnyomása idején nőtt meg. Így volt ez Lengyelország-ban a II. világháború után is. A kommunista hatóságok ellenségesen viszonyultak az egyházhoz. Ezért mind a lengyelországi egyház tevékenységét, mind a lelkigondozást erőteljesen érintette a kommunista hatalomátvétel. Ennek következtében a kommunista Lengyelországban az egyház arra kényszerült, hogy lelkigondozói tevékenységével úgyszólván a sekrestyébe vonuljon visz-sza. Ez a „sekrestyeegyházi” lét, amelyet a kommunisták a hívő polgárok lelki szükségleteinek kielégítésére egyedül eltűrtek, sok helyen a lelkigondozás minimalista értelmezéséhez vezetett. A kommunizmus árnyékában a lelkigondozásnak, különösen a katonák körében és börtönök-ben folyó ilyen tevékenységnek, sok nehézséggel kellett dacolnia. Ez a totalitárius rendszerben a pasztorációs munka új formáinak kialakítására kényszerítette az egyházat. A visszanyert sza-badság új kihívások elé állítja az egyházat, amelyeken nem egyszerű úrrá lenni. A mai kor tehát paradigmaváltásra és a kommunizmusbeli „Ecclesia militans”-ból a szabad társadalom talaján élő „ecclesia serviens”-be való átmenetre kényszeríti az egyházat. Újra kell tehát gondolnia küldeté-

European Journal of Mental Health 7 (2012) 269–271DOI: 10.5708/EJMH.7.2012.2.Abs.H

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sét, és egyfajta „aggiornamento”-t kell véghezvinnie. Az új helyzet az egyházi pasztoráció átala-kítására készteti az egyházat. Ezt az átalakulást és a pasztorációt a posztkommunista társadalmak-ban találóan „Krisztus posztszocialista követésének” lehet nevezni. A lengyelországi katolikus egyház fordulat utáni helyzete feltételezi tehát azt az egyházi megújulási folyamatot, amelyet II. János Pál új evangelizációnak nevezett. Így az egyház a megváltozott társadalmi rend tekinteté-ben új „pasztorációs munka”-stílus kialakításának kihívása előtt áll. Ahhoz, hogy a pasztorációs munka nehogy olyan töredékek gyűjtőhelyévé váljon, amelyben csupán sok egyéni lelkigondozói koncepció keletkezik, szorosan össze kell kapcsolódnia a teológiával. Ezáltal a pasztorációnak a modern humán- és társadalomtudományokhoz való odafordulása és a velük való kritikus pár-beszéd az egyház felelős lelkigondozói munkájának jellemzőjévé vált. Éppen a lengyelországi pasztorálteológiában e tekintetben még nagy lemaradásokat kell bepótolni. Az ateista állam meg-akadályozta az egyház minden olyan kísérletét, hogy teológiai képzési lehetőségeket teremtsen laikusok számára. A kommunista Lengyelországban az egyház csak egy katolikus egyetemmel (KUL) rendelkezhetett – egyszersmind ez volt az egyetlen katolikus egyetem az egész keleti tömbben. Időközben a teológiai táj megváltozott. A fordulat után az egyház ki tudta használni a kedvező alkalmat, hogy jobb teológiai képzési lehetőségeket teremtsen a laikusok számra is. Sike-rült átvennie egy varsói egyetemet (UKSW) és számos államilag elismert teológiai kart alapítania. A mai lengyel teológia egyik gyenge pontját minden bizonnyal a tudományos személyzet alkotja, amely 90%-ban olyan papi személyekből áll, akik a lelkigondozásban is tevékenykednek. A pro-fesszorok képesek ugyan a meglévő fakultásokat és intézeteket ellátni, de legtöbbször egyidejű-leg több intézményben adnak elő. Most már Lengyelországban is lehetséges interdiszciplináris együttműködés a teológiában, ezért hallgatóiknak olyan új szakirányokat is kínálnak, mint pl. az etika, újságírás, társadalmi kommunikáció és családtudományok. A lengyel egyházi egyetemeken ma a becslések szerint 16.000 teológiai hallgató tanul, akik között egyaránt vannak papjelöltek és laikus teológusok. Ez rendkívül fontosnak tűnik a lengyelországi egyház jövője szempontjából.

Kulcsszavak: Lengyelország, lelkigondozás, kommunizmus, történelem, visszatekintés, fordulat, teológia, egyetemek

DINA GUGLIELMI, CHIARA PANARI & SILVIA SIMBULA (204. o.)

A tanárok jóllétének meghatározói: A szellemi fáradtság közvetítő szerepe: Az elmúlt évek-ben számos tanulmány foglalkozott a tanárokat sújtó stressz meghatározó tényezőivel és követ-kezményeivel. A stresszel kapcsolatos legújabb elméleti modellek egyike a munkahelyi követel-mények és erőforrások (JD-R, Job Demands-Resources) modellje. A jelen tanulmány egyetlen folyamatot vizsgál, – nevezetesen az energia-folyamatot – feltételezve, hogy a magas munkahelyi követelmények kimerítik az alkalmazottak minden szellemi és fi zikai erőforrását, károsítva ezzel az egészségüket. A tanulmány közelebbről is megvizsgálja a szellemi fáradtság közvetítő szerepét a tanárokkal szemben támasztott háromféle munkahelyi követelmény (a munkateher, az egyen-lőtlenség, illetve a munka és a család közötti konfl iktus) és a stressz három következménye (a pszichés és fi zikai tünetek, valamint a munkahelyi elégedettség) között. A PWSQ (Questionnaire for Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress) önkitöltős kérdőív olasz változatát 17 oktatási szervezetet képviselő 697 véletlenszerűen kiválasztott tanár válaszolta meg. Az eredmények azt mutatják, hogy a szellemi fáradtságnak közvetítő szerepe van a munka és a család közötti konf-liktus, illetve a három vizsgált következmény, azaz a pszichés és fi zikai tünetek, valamint a mun-kahelyi elégedettség között. A tanulmány fontos következtetést von le a beavatkozási stratégiára vonatkozóan, mivel a szellemi fáradtság egy olyan túlfeszített állapot, amely előbb jelentkezik,

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mint bármilyen intenzívebb megjelenési forma, például a stresszel kapcsolatba hozható beteg-ségek. Ezen állapot korai felismerése lehetővé teszi a stressz következményeinek megelőzését.

Kulcsszavak: tanárok, stressz, szellemi fáradtság, munkahelyi követelmények és erőforrások mo-dellje, egészség

CĂTĂLINA TUDOSE & FLORIN TUDOSE (221. o.)

A romániai pszichoterápia története Nicolae Ceauşescu szocialista diktatúrája idején: A dol-gozat célja a pszichoterápia állapotának bemutatása Ceauşescu diktatúrája (1965–1989) idején. A múlt század utolsó évtizedeiben tapasztalt pszichoterápiás összefüggések jellegzetességeinek megértéséhez elengedhetetlen a személyközi kapcsolatok Romániában tapasztalt torzulásainak tanulmányozása, az oda vezető okok feltárása és elemzése. Románia a keleti tömb egyetlen olyan országa, ahol 45 év során két olyan sztálinista irányvonalat követő vezető követte egymást, akik igen aktív ideológiai tevékenységet folytattak, miközben a párt és az ország rettegett és megtámad-hatatlan vezéreivé nőtték ki magukat, nemzeti-kommunista (Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej) és szemé-lyi kultuszra alapuló (Nicolae Ceauşescu) diktatúrát honosítva meg. E körülmények közepette 1954 után, a frissen alakult Román Pszichopatológiai és Pszichoterápiás Társaság tevékenységét a belső torzsalkodások vakvágányra kényszerítették, beszüntették a Román Akadémiát, a helyette megalakított Román Népi Akadémia sorra szembeszállt a freudizmussal, pszichoszomatikai és behaviorista tanokkal. Nyíltan ugyan nem tiltották be, de a primitív marxista tanokkal összeférhe-tetlennek kiáltották ki a pszichoterápiát. A dolgozat bemutatja a 60-as évek utáni korszak szakem-bereinek erőfeszítéseit, amelyek révén rendre olyan művek kerültek sajtó alá, amelyek taglalták a pszichoterápia különböző válfajait, megismertetve a szakembereket azok alapelveivel. Feltűn-tek kezdeményező készséggel rendelkező pszichológusok és pszichiáterek (elmegyógyászok). A diktatura utolsó évtizedeiben megjelent szakkönyvek már leírták a pszichoterápiás módszereket, de még pályaszélen futtatták a pszichoanalízist, kognitív és csoportterápiákat valamint a család-terápiás módszereket. Nyíltan ugyan nem tiltották be a pszichoterápiás gyakorlatot, ám az egész-ségügyi rendszer alakítói nem bátorították az ilyen jellegű kezdeményezésekkel jelentkezőket, miközben az akadémia fórumai – kevés kivétellel – ellenséges magatartást tanúsítottak a pszi-choterápia különböző típusai, kiemelten a pszichoanalitikus beállítottságúak iránt, amelyekhez régről fogant hárítási refl exeikkel viszonyultak. Ez a helyzet magyarázhatta talán azt a kirobbanó energiát, amellyel 1989 után a frissen alakult legkülönfélébb irányultságú csoportok, társaságok belevetették magukat a különféle képzések és gyakorlati tevékenység lebonyolításába, a struktu-rált képzések hivatalossá tételébe.

Kulcsszavak: pszichoterápia, Románia, kommunizmus, államszocializmus, diktatúra, történe-lem, visszatekintés, segítő foglalkozás, Ceauşescu, pszichoanalízis

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ABSTRAKTY

HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF & WIM NOORLANDER (s. 157)

Zasoby społecznego zaufania w podzielonym świecie: Wymiar społeczno-gospodarczy i ety-ka relacji międzyludzkich według koncepcji Boszormenyi-Nagya: w oparciu a literaturę spe-cjalistyczną dotyczącą kwestii ekonomicznych i społecznych formułujemy indukcję praktycznych doświadczeń i postaw ugruntowanych na fundamencie fi lozofi i i teologii. Przekazujemy własne spostrzeżenia dotyczące minionego kryzysu fi nansowo-gospodarczego, gospodarki „wolnego rynku” i niektórych ich skutków, pojawiających się w sferze prywatnej. Jako terapeuci musimy badać obecne związki, zachodzące pomiędzy faktami społeczno-gospodarczymi oraz sprawozda-niami posiadającymi wymiar (inter)personalny. Jakie są kryteria odpowiedzialności za istniejące relacje w warunkach społecznej niesprawiedliwości i niepewności, ukrytej pod płaszczem au-tonomii i ideologii równości? W takich warunkach, niejako w atmosferze „heurystyki strachu”, badamy realną perspektywę nadziei. Siła etyki relacji międzyludzkich może się wydawać iluzją przy założeniu, że ponoszenie odpowiedzialności zależy od zakresu wolności, przekazanego nam przez naturę i kulturę. I choć to przypuszczenie może się wydać znajome, pomimo to etyka relacji międzyludzkich jest sferą motywacyjną, która przynosi nadzieję na odbudowę naruszonej spra-wiedliwości i godności ludzkiej. Czytając Levinasa możemy lepiej zrozumieć, jak to wszystko jest możliwe. Sympatia do drugiej osoby daje mi motywację. „Rozkaz bez siły” czyni mnie wol-nym. Kontekstualne podejście Boszormenyi-Nagya daje cenne możliwości stworzenia odpowie-dzialnej relacji wzajemnej troski.

Słowa kluczowe: kryzys gospodarczy, etyka relacji międzyludzkich, zasoby społecznego zaufa-nia i rzetelności, terapia kontekstualna, wzajemność

ROBERT BIEL (s. 184)

Duszpasterstwo w Polsce przed i po upadku komunizmu: Duszpasterstwo jest myślą prze-wodnią teologii pastoralnej, już od dawna powszechnie akceptowaną. Oprócz diakonii należy do zasadniczych form realizacji misji Kościoła. Rola duszpasterstwa wzrosła zwłaszcza w czasie represji systemu totalitarnego. Z tej też racji jest ono we wrogich Kościołowi systemach tota-litarnych przedmiotem zaplanowanej walki ideologicznej. Tak też było w Polsce po II. Wojnie Światowej, kiedy to władze komunistyczne próbowały usunąć Kościół na margines życia spo-łecznego spychając tym samym duszpasterstwo do przysłowiowej zakrystii. Ze względu na fakt, że władze komunistyczne nie chciały uznać osobowości prawnej Kościoła wszelka działalność duszpasterska była postrzegana jako antysocjalistyczna i nielegalna. Stąd duszpasterstwo musiało się dokonywać niejako w „areszcie domowym” systemu komunistycznego. Przejawem tego były różne szykany zarówno administracyjne jak i personalne oraz instytucjonalne próby utrudnia-nia działalności duszpasterstwa. Wspomnieć tu należy o zakazach Urzędzie ds. Wyznań, który odgrywał znaczącą rolę w procesie szykanowania Kościoła i ograniczania działań duszpaster-stwa. Po upadku komunizmu, do którego w znacznym stopniu przyczynił się Kościół, zmienił

European Journal of Mental Health 7 (2012) 272–274DOI: 10.5708/EJMH.7.2012.2.Abs.PL

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się całkowicie kontekst pracy duszpasterskiej w Polsce. Specyfi ka tego już postsocjalistycznego duszpasterstwa polegała na tym, że Kościół musiał się z jednej strony borykać z pewnymi men-talnymi pozostałościami komunizmu, a z drugiej strony był konfrontowany z nowymi zjawiska-mi społecznymi i eklezjalnymi rodzącymi się na bazie transformacji społecznej i gospodarczej. Jednym z ważnych elementów tych przemian społecznych było odrodzenie teologii na polskich uniwersytetach i umożliwienie studiów teologicznych również osobom świeckim. To z kolei stworzyło możliwości dialogu teologii z innymi dyscyplinami naukowymi oraz pewnych poczy-nań naukowych o charakterze interdyscyplinarnym. Te nowe kierunki interdyscyplinarne: etyka, dziennikarstwo, studium rodzinne czy turystyka, będące reakcją na zapotrzebowanie społeczne i rynkowe stanowią też dobry prognostyk i fundament dla przyszłości Kościoła w Polsce. Teologia polska po upadku komunizmu była jednak obarczona trudnym dziedzictwem minionej epoki, cze-go wyrazem był choćby brak wystarczającej liczby pracowników naukowych. Ten defi cyt kadry teologicznej związany był z tym, że w Polsce powojennej istniała tylko jedna uczelnia katolicka. Inny ważny problem polskiej teologii sprowadza się do tego, że Kościół w Polsce nie jest praco-dawcą i dlatego studia teologiczne nie dają absolwentom dobrych perspektyw życiowych. Mimo to nadzieją na przyszłość może napawać fakt, że w Polsce obecnie teologię studiuje kilkanaście tysięcy młodych ludzi.

Słowa kluczowe: kościół, Polska, duszpasterstwo, komunizm, historia, czas przełomu, teologia, uniwersytety

DINA GUGLIELMI, CHIARA PANARI & SILVIA SIMBULA (s. 204)

Wyznaczniki dobrostanu pedagogów: Pośrednicząca rola zmęczenia psychicznego: W ostat-nich latach wiele prac naukowych omawiało czynniki wywołujące stres u nauczycieli i jego kon-sekwencje. Jednym z najnowszych modeli teoretycznych dotyczących stresu jest model wymo-gów miejsca pracy i zasobów (JD-R, Job Demands-Resources). Niniejsze studium bada tylko jedno kryterium – konkretnie proces energii – zakładając, że wysokie wymogi miejsca pracy wyczerpują wszelkie umysłowe i fi zyczne zasoby pracowników, co niekorzystnie wpływa na ich zdrowie. Studium analizuje dogłębnie pośredniczącą rolę zmęczenia psychicznego pomiędzy trzema wymogami miejsca pracy (nakład pracy, dysproporcje oraz konfl ikt między miejscem pra-cy a rodziną) a trzema skutkami stresu (objawy fi zyczne i psychiczne oraz zadowolenie z pracy). Włoską wersję samokontrolnego testu PWSQ (Questionnaire for Psychosocial Work Environ-ment and Stress) wypełniło 697 przypadkowo wybranych nauczycieli z 17 placówek edukacyj-nych. Wyniki testu dowodzą, że zmęczenie umysłowe posiada rolę pośredniczącą na konfl ikt pomiędzy miejscem pracy a rodziną, oraz istnieje współzależność pomiędzy trzema badanymi czynnikami, to znaczy objawami fi zycznymi, psychicznymi i zadowoleniem z pracy. Studium wyciąga ważny wniosek dotyczący strategii interwencyjnej, ponieważ zmęczenie umysłowe jest stanem wielkiego napięcia, który pojawia się wcześniej od jakiejkolwiek bardziej intensywnej formy objawu, na przykład chorób powiązanych ze stresem. Wczesne rozpoznanie tego stanu umożliwia zapobieganie negatywnym skutkom stresu.

Słowa kluczowe: nauczyciele, stres, zmęczenie psychiczne, wymogi miejsca pracy i model za-sobów, zdrowie

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CĂTĂLINA TUDOSE & FLORIN TUDOSE (s. 221)

Historia rumuńskiej psychoterapii w czasach socjalistycznej dyktatury Nicolae Ceauşescu: Celem pracy jest przedstawienie stanu psychoterapii w czasach dyktatury Ceauşescu (1965–1989). Do zrozumienia typowych zjawisk psychoterapeutycznych ostatnich dziesięcioleci minio-nego wieku niezbędne jest zbadanie zwyrodnień w kontaktach międzyludzkich mających miej-sce w Rumunii oraz identyfi kacja i analiza przyczyn, jakie do tego doprowadziły. Rumunia była jedynym krajem bloku wschodniego, w którym przez 45 lat władzę sprawowało kolejno dwóch przywódców, reprezentujących linię stalinowską, prowadzących aktywną działalność ideologicz-ną, którzy stali się groźnymi i niekwestionowanymi wodzami partii i kraju, urzeczywistniając dyktaturę narodowo-komunistyczną (Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej) i dyktaturę opartą na kulcie jed-nostki (Nicolae Ceauşescu). W tych okolicznościach Rumuńskie Towarzystwo Psychopatologicz-ne i Psychoterapeutyczne powstałe w 1954 roku, na skutek walk wewnętrznych znalazło się w ślepym zaułku, zlikwidowano Rumuńską Akademię Nauk, zaś powstała na jej miejsce Rumuńska Akademia Ludowa występowała przeciw freudyzmowi oraz kierunkom psychosomatycznym i behawioralnym. Wprawdzie pschychoterapia nie została ofi cjalnie zakazana, ale uznano ją za sprzeczną z prymitywnymi marksistowskimi dogmatami. Studium przedstawia wysiłki specja-listów po okresie lat 60-tych, dzięki którym systematycznie publikowano dzieła, prezentujące rozmaite odmiany psychoterapii, przedstawiając specjalistom jej zasady. Pojawiali się psycho-logowie i psychiatrzy wykazujący dużą inicjatywę. Podręczniki ukazujące się w ostatnich dzie-sięcioleciach dyktatury opisywały już metody psychoterapii, ale jedynie marginalnie pojawiały się w nich psychoanaliza, terapia kognitywna i grupowa oraz metody terapii rodzinnej. Praktyka psychoterapeutyczna nie była wprawdzie ofi cjalnie zakazana, ale twórcy systemu zdrowotnego nie zachęcali zgłaszających się z tego typu inicjatywami, podczas gry fora akademickie – z nie-licznymi wyjątkami – demonstrowały wrogą postawę wobec rozmaitych rodzajów psychoterapii; szczególnie odnosiło się to do zwolenników psychoanalizy, wobec których postępowali zgodnie z refl eksami odziedziczonymi z przeszłości. Tym właśnie można tłumaczyć wybuch energii, z jaką świeżo powstające po 1989 roku ugrupowania i towarzystwa, reprezentujące różnorodne grupy, rozpoczęły wielokierunkowe szkolenia i zajęcia praktyczne oraz zainicjowały tworzenie urzędo-wych struktur kształcenia.

Słowa kluczowe: psychoterapia, Rumunia, komunizm, państwo socjalizm, dyktatura, historia, przegląd hystoryczny, zawody służb społecznych, Ceauşescu, psychoanaliza

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ABSTRACTE

HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF & WIM NOORLANDER (pag. 157)

Resurse sigure într-o lume sfărâmată: Dimensiunea economico-socială şi etica relaţională din perspectiva lui Boszormenyi-Nagy: În acest studiu, îmbinând literatura de specialitate din domeniul ştiinţelor economice respectiv al ştiinţelor sociale, prezentăm câteva experienţe practice şi aplicaţii clădite pe baze fi lozofi ce, respectiv teologice. Facem observaţii referitoare la recenta criză economico-fi nanciară, la economia de „piaţă liberă” şi la consecinţele lor în sfera privată. În calitate de terapeuţi, trebuie să examinăm care este în prezent corelaţia dintre datele socio-econo-mice, respectiv rapoartele cu dimensiuni (inter)personale. Acum, când nedreptatea şi nesiguranţa socială sunt mascate prin ideologia autonomiei şi a egalităţii, care este situaţia condiţiilor respon-sabilităţii relaţionale? În astfel de condiţii, ca o „euristică a spaimei”, căutăm perspectiva reală a speranţei. Puterea eticii relaţionale poate părea o iluzie dacă considerăm că, asumarea respon-sabilităţii depinde de cuantumul libertăţii cu care suntem înzestraţi prin natură şi cultură. Deşi această ipoteză pare a fi cunoscută, totuşi etica relaţională este acel strat motivaţional, care poate da speranţă în restabilirea dreptăţii umane lezate. Citind scrierea lui Levinas, vom putea înţelege mai bine, cum sunt posibile toate acestea. Atracţia faţă de o altă persoană îmi dă o motivaţie. „Porunca ei fără forţă” mă face liber. Modul de abordare contextuală al lui Boszormenyi-Nagy oferă oportunităţi valoroase în vederea modelării unei preocupări de responsabilitate relaţională.

Cuvinte cheie: criză economică, etică relaţională, resurse sigure şi de încredere, terapie contex-tuală, reciprocitate

ROBERT BIEL (pag. 184)

Îngrijirea spirituală în Polonia înainte şi după schimbarea regimului politic: Îngrijirea spiri-tuală este o expresie veche de bază în teologia pastorală, fi ind acceptată în cercuri largi. Pe lângă caritate şi revelaţie este o chestiune esenţială în cadrul bisericii. Importanţa îngrijirii spirituale a devenit tot mai necesară în perioada asupririi totalitare a bisericii. Aşa s-a întâmplat în Polonia şi în urma celui de al II-lea Război Mondial. Autorităţile comuniste au avut un comportament os-tilitar faţă de biserică. Preluarea puterii de către comunişti a avut un impact puternic atât asupra bisericii cât şi asupra îngrijirii spirituale. În urma acestui fapt, în Polonia comunistă biserica a fost nevoită să-şi restrângă aria de activitate, astfel încât îngrijirea spirituală a avut loc doar în sacris-tiile bisericilor. Această „biserică sacristială”, fi ind singura formă – sufi cientă pentru necesităţile spirituale elementare – acceptată de regimul comunist, în multe locuri a condus la minimalizarea sensului de îngrijire spirituală. În umbra comunismului, activitatea de îngrijire spirituală, mai ales în rândul soldaţilor şi a deţinuţilor, a trebuit să înfrunte multe greutăţi. Acest lucru a impus ca biserica să însuşească în regimul totalitar noi forme în munca pastorală. Libertatea redobândită a adus bisericii noi provocări, care nu sunt uşor de învins. Era contemporană obligă biserica la schimbarea paradigmelor, la trecerea de la „ecclesia militans” a comunismului la „ecclesia servi-ens” a societăţii libere. Ar trebui să-şi reconsidere misiunea, realizând un fel de „aggiornamento”.

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Noua situaţie îndeamnă biserica la reorganizarea pastoraţiei bisericeşti. Această transformare şi pastoraţia în societăţile postcomuniste pot fi denumite în mod nimerit „urmărirea postsocialistă a lui Isus”. Biserica catolică din Polonia, în urma schimbării regimului politic, necesită deci un proces de reînnoire a bisericii, ceea ce Papa Ioan Paul al II-lea l-a numit noua evanghelizare. Astfel, în privinţa noii orânduiri sociale, biserica se înfruntă cu formarea unui nou stil de „muncă pastorală”. Ca această muncă pastorală să nu devină o colecţie a fărâmiturilor, unde se formează doar o mulţime de concepţii individuale ale îngrijirii spirituale, trebuie să fi e în strânsă corelaţie cu teologia. Prin acest fapt, întoarcerea pastoraţiei spre ştiinţele socio-umane moderne, precum şi dialogul critic cu aceştia, a devenit un caracteristic important al responsabilităţii bisericii în cardul îngrijirii spirituale. Chiar în teologia pastorală poloneză este mult de recuperat în acest domeniu. Statul ateist a împiedicat orice încercare a bisericii, care prezenta modalităţi de formare a laicilor în domeniul teologiei. În Polonia comunistă biserica avea doar o singură facultate de teologie ca-tolică (KUL), aceasta fi ind singura facultate catolică în tot blocul estic. Întretimp peisajul teologic s-a schimbat. După schimbarea regimului politic, biserica a ştiut profi ta de oportunităţile favorabi-le date şi a reuşit să acorde modalităţi de formare pe plan teologic şi pentru laici. A reuşit să preia o universitate din Varşovia (UKSW) şi să înfi inţeze numeroase facultăţi de teologie recunoscute de stat. Punctul slab al teologiei poloneze actuale constituie în mod sigur personalul ştiinţifi c, care în proporţie de 90% este alcătuit din clerici care activează şi în domeniul îngrijirii spirituale. Profesorii pot acoperi necesităţile şi munca în facultăţile şi instituţiile existente, însă de multe ori predau la mai multe instituţii în acelaşi timp. În prezent şi în Polonia există posibilitatea colaboră-rii interdisciplinare în cadrul teologiei, astfel oferă studenţilor şi specializări noi, cum ar fi : etica, jurnalistica, comunicarea socială sau asistenţa socială. Estimativ, la universităţile teologice din Polonia, învaţă 16.000 de studenţi, dintre care sunt deopotrivă şi laici şi viitori clerici. Acest fapt pare a fi foarte important din punctul de vedere al viitorului bisericii din Polonia.

Cuvinte cheie: Polonia, îngrijire spirituală, comunism, istorie, retrospectivă, schimbare, teologie, universităţi

DINA GUGLIELMI, CHIARA PANARI & SILVIA SIMBULA (pag. 204)

Factorii determinanţi ai bunăstării profesorilor: Rolul intermediar al oboselii psihice: În ultimii ani numeroase studii s-au ocupat de factorii şi urmările determinante ale stresului în cazul profesorilor. Una dintre cele mai noi modele teoretice ale stresului este modelul cerinţelor şi re-surselor la locul de muncă (JD-R, Job Demands-Resources). Studiul de faţă abordează doar un singur proces – şi anume procesul de energie –, presupunând că cerinţele exigente la locurile de muncă epuizează toate resursele fi zice şi psihice ale angajaţilor, deteriorând sănătatea acestora. Studiul cercetează îndeaproape rolul intermediar al oboselii psihice a profesorilor între cele trei cerinţe ale locului de muncă (volumul de muncă, inegalitatea, respectiv confl ictul dintre familie şi loc de muncă) şi cele trei urmări ale stresului (simptomele psihice şi fi zice, precum satisfacţiile la locul de muncă). Varianta italiană a chestionarului autoevaluativ realizat de PWSQ (Questionnaire for Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress) a fost completată de 697 de profesori aleatoriu aleşi, reprezentanţi ai 17 instituţii de învăţământ. Rezultatele arată că, oboseala fi zică are un rol intermediar între confl ictele dintre familie şi locul de muncă şi cele trei urmări studiate, adică simptome fi zice şi psihice, respectiv satisfacţii la locul de muncă. Prin acest studiu s-a ajuns la o concluzie importantă referitoare la strategia de intervenţie, deoarece oboseala psihică este o stare încordată, care apare înaintea oricărei forme intensive a bolilor cauzate de stres. Recunoaşterea timpurie a acestei stări ajută la prevenirea problemelor cauzate de urmările stresului.

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Cuvinte cheie: profesori, stres, oboseală psihică, modelul cerinţelor locurilor de muncă şi resur-selor, sănătate

CĂTĂLINA TUDOSE & FLORIN TUDOSE (pag. 221)

Istoria psihoterapiei din România în timpul dictaturii socialiste a lui Nicolae Ceauşescu: Lu-crarea încearcă să facă o prezentare a dezvoltării psihoterapiei în România, în perioada dictaturii socialiste a lui Nicolae Ceauşescu (1965–1989). Pentru înţelegerea însă a particularităţilor evolu-ţiei psihoterapiei în ultimele decenii ale secolului trecut este necesar studiul deteriorării profunde a calităţii relaţiilor interpersonale din România şi analizarea cauzelor care au condus la aceasta. România este singura ţară din Est în fruntea căreia s-au succedat, consecutiv, timp de 45 de ani, doi stalinişti, ambii cu o formare politică identică, care s-au remarcat printr-o activitate ideologică intensă, constantă, au devenit conducători temuţi şi de necontestat ai partidului şi ai ţării, institu-ind dictaturi: naţional-comunistă Gheorghe Gherghiu-Dej şi personală a lui Nicolae Ceauşescu. În aceste condiţii, începând din 1945, activitatea Societăţii Române de Psihopatologie şi Psiho-terapie recent înfi inţată se perturbă, apărând schisme între membrii săi, se desfi inţează Academia Română, iar cea nou înfi inţată, Academia Populară Română va combate pe rând freudismul, psi-hosomatica, behaviorismul. Urmează o perioadă în care fără să fi e interzisă formal, psihoterapia este incompatibilă cu marxismul primitiv al epocii. Lucrarea prezintă eforturile specialiştilor în perioada de după anii 60, când apar progresiv lucrări care descriu diverse tipuri de psihoterapii familiarizând profesioniştii cu ideile fundamentale, se remarcă psihiatri şi psihologi cu iniţiati-ve în domeniu; de asemenea manualele de psihiatrie publicate în ultimele decenii ale dictaturii vor descrie metodele de psihoterapie, acordând însă foarte puţină atenţie psihanalizei, terapiilor cognitive, terapiilor de grup, terapiilor familiale. Fără să reprime făţiş practicarea psihoterapiei, responsabilii ofi ciali ai sistemului de sănătate nu îi încurajau deloc pe cei care aveau astfel de iniţiative, iar forurile academice erau cu mici excepţii ostile diferitelor forme de psihoterapie cu un accent special pe cele de inspiraţie psihanalitică pentru care aveau cultivate vechi refl exe de respingere. Această stare de lucruri explică amploarea şi vigoarea cu care, după 1989, numeroase grupuri se organizează, se iniţiază şi practică diferite tipuri de psihoterapii, desăvârşind modalită-ţile ofi ciale de formare structurată.

Cuvinte cheie: psihoterapie, România, comunism, socialism de stat, dictatură, istorie, retrospec-tivă, profesie de ajutorare, Ceauşescu, psihanaliză

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РЕЗЮМЕ

HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF & WIM NOORLANDER (cтp. 157.)

Ресурсы доверия в разрывающемся мире: Общественно-экономическое простран-ство и этика контактов по Бузормени-Надю: Сплетая экономическую и общественную литературу, статья индуцирует практический опыт и применения, опирающиеся на фи-лософскую и теологическую основу. Делаются также замечания о финансово-экономи-ческом кризисе недавнего прошлого, об экономике «свободного рынка» и о некоторых последствиях, возникающих в личной сфере. В качестве терапевта, нам необходимо ис-следовать нынешнюю взаимосвязь общественно-экономических фактов и докладов, име-ющих (интер)персональные димензии. Как обстоит дело с условиями ответственности в контактах, существующей при общественной несправедливости, завуалированной иде-ологиями самостоятельности и равенства. В таких условиях, мы исследуем «эвристику страха» как реальную перспективу надежды. Сила этики контактов может показаться ил-люзорной при предположении о том, что несение ответствености зависит от меры свобо-ды, возложенной на нас природой и культурой. Несмотря на то, что такое предположение кажется знакомым, этика контактов всё-таки является тем мотивирующим слоем, кото-рый даёт нам надежду на восстановление повреждённой человеческой справедливости. Читая Левинаса, нам проще понять, как всё это возможно. Привлекательная сила другого человека даёт мне мотивацию. Его «приказ без силы» делает меня свободным. Контек-стуальный подход Бузормени-Надя предоставляет нам ценную возможность для создания ответственной заботливости в контактах.

Ключевые слова: экономический кризис, этика контактов, ресурсы доверия и надёжности, контекстуальная терапия, взаимность

ROBERT BIEL (cтp. 184.)

Духовный уход в Польше до и после поворота: Духовный уход в пасторальной тео-логии является основным словом такой давности, что он стал уже принятым в широком кругу. Наряду с милосердием и откровением он принадлежит к кругу существенных во-просов церкви. Вес духовного ухода вырос особенно во время тоталитарного угнетения церкви. Так это было в Польше и после Второй мировой войны. Коммунистические влас-ти имели враждебное отношение к церкви. Поэтому от перехода власти к коммунистам сильно пострадали как деятельность церкви так и духовный уход. В последствии этого церковь в коммунистической Польше словно вынуждена была уйти со своей деятель-ностью по духовному уходу в сакристию. Такое существование «церкви в сокристии» осталось единственным, для удовлетворения духовных потребностей верующих гра-ждан, которое коммунисты ещё были готовы терпеть, во многих местах привело к мини-малистской концепции духовного ухода. В тени коммунизма духовному уходу, особенно в кругу солдат и в тюрмах, приходилось бороться с множеством трудностей. Это при

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тоталитарном режиме заставило церковь разработать новые формы пасторальной работы. Возвращение свободы поставило перед церковью новые вызовы, преодолеть которые не просто. Значит, сегодняшняя эпоха заставляет церковь сменить парадигму и перейти от «Ecclesia militans» коммунизма в «ecclesia serviens», живущую на почве свободного об-щества. Таким образом она должна заново обдумать своё назначение и осуществить некое «aggiornamento». Новое положение вынуждает церковь перестроить церковную пастори-зацию. Такую перестройку и пасторизацию в пост-коммунистических обществах мож-но скорее всего назвать «пост-социалистическим следованием за Христом». Положение польской католической церкви после поворота предполагает таким образом тот процесс обновления, который Иоанн Павел II назвал новой евангелизацией. Итак, по отношению к изменившемуся общественному порядку, церковь стоит перед вызовом создания нового «пасторального стиля работы». Для того, чтобы избежать превращения пасторальной ра-боты в набор таких фрагментов, в котором существуют лишь множество индивидуальных концепций по духовному уходу, она должна установить связь с теологией. В силу этого обращение пасторации к современным гуманитарным и общественным наукам и прово-димый с ними критический диалог стали характерными чертами ответственной работы церкви по духовному уходу. Именно в этом отношени пасторальной теологии в Польше предстоит ещё ликвидация весьма многих пробелов. Атеистическое государство препят-ствовало каждой попытке церкви создать возможности теологического образования для мирян. В коммунистической Польше церковь могла обладать только одним католическим университетом (KUL) – в то же время oн был единственным католическим унверситетом во всём восточном блоке. Со временем картина теологии изменилась. После поворота церковь смогла воспользоваться благоприятным случаем для того, чтобы создать более совершенные условия в целях теологического образования для мирян. Ей удалось при-нять начальство над университетом в Варшаве (UKSW) и основать многочисленные тео-логические факультеты, признанные государством. Одним из слабых звеньев сегодняш-ней польской теологии, по всей вероятности, является научный персонал, 90% которого священники, действующие и в области духовного ухода. Хотя профессора всё ещё могут удовлетворить потребности существующих факультетов и институтов, но в большинтве случаев они преподают одновременно в нескольких учреждении. Уже и в Польше cтaлo возможным интердисциплинарное сотрудничество в теологии, поэтому студентам пред-лагаются новые дисциплины, как например этика, журналистика, общественная коммуни-кация и науки о семье. В церковных университетах Польши сегодня обучаются примерно 16 тысяч студентов теологов, среди них равным образом имеются будущие священники и светские теологи. Это кажется весьма важным с точки зрения будущего польской церкви.

Ключевые слова: Польша, духовный уход, коммунизм, история, ретроспекция, поворот, теология, университеты

DINA GUGLIELMI, CHIARA PANARI & SILVIA SIMBULA (cтp. 204.)

Определяющие факторы благосостояния преподавателей: Посредническая роль ум-ственной усталости: В последние годы многочисленные статьи были посвящены основ-ным факторам и последствиям стресса, которому подвергаются преподаватели. Одной из новейших теоретических моделей, занимающихся стрессом, является модель требования работы – ресурсы работы (JD-R, Job Demands-Resources). Настоящая статья изучает един-ственный процесс, а именно – энергетический процесс, предполагая, что высокие тре-

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бования на работе истощают все духовные и физические ресурсы служащих, тем самим вредя их здоровью. В статье подробно рассматривается посредническая роль умствен-ной усталости между тремя рабочими требованиями, которым должны соответствовать преподаватели (нагрузка, неравенство и конфликт работы и семьи) и тремя последстви-ями стресса (психологические и физические симптомы и также удовлетворенность тру-дом). Итальянская версия самостоятельно заполняемой анкеты (PWSQ (Questionnaire for Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress) заполнили 697 случайно выбранных препода-вателей, представляющих 17 образовательных организаций. Результаты показывают, что умственная усталость играет посредническую роль в конфликте работы и семьи и между тремя исследуемыми последствиями, то есть между психическими и физическими сим-птомами и удовлетворённостью трудом. В статье делаются важные выводы касательно стратегии вмешательства, поскольку умственная усталость является напряженным состо-янием, которое проявляется раньше, чем любая более интенсивная форма проявления, как например заболевания, связанные со стрессом. Раннее осознание этого состояния способствует профилактике последствий стресса.

Ключевые слова: преподаватели, стресс, духовная усталость, модель требования работы – ресурсы работы, здоровье

CĂTĂLINA TUDOSE & FLORIN TUDOSE (cтp. 221.)

История психотерапии в Румынии во время социалистической диктатуры Николае Чаушескy: Цель работы – показать состояние психотерапии во время диктатуры Чаушес-ку (1965–1989). Для того, чтобы понять взаимосвязи психотерапии, проявившиеся в по-следние десятилетия прошлого века, необходимо исследовать искажение межличностных отношений, наблюденное в Румынии, выявление и анализ причин, приводивших к этому. Румыния единственная страна восточного блока, где в течении 45 лет последовали друг за другом два руководителя-приверженца сталинизма, которые проводя весьма активную идеологическую деятельность, выросли в грозных и неприкосновенных вождей партии и страны, и ввели национально-коммунистическую диктатуру (Георге Георгиу-Деж) и диктатуру культа личности (Николае Чаушеску). При таких обстоятельствах, после 1954 г. внутренние трения загнали в тупик деятельность только что основанного Румынско-го психопатологического и психотерапевтического общества, Академия Руминии была упразднена, основанная вместо неё Румынская народная академия противостояла фрей-дизму, психосоматическим и бихевиорическим учениям. Хотя психотерапию открыто не запрещали, её объявили несовместимой с примитивными учениями марксизма. Работа показывает усилия специалистов в период после 60-ых годов, благодаря которым в прес-се подряд были опубликованы произведения, излагающие разновидности психотерапии, знакомящие специалистов с основными её принципами. Стали известными некоторые инициативные психологи и психиатры. Специальные книги, опубликованные в послед-ние годы диктатуры, уже описали методы психотерапии, однако ещё не взяли в центр внимания психоанализ, когнитивные и групповые терапии и методы семейной терапии. Практика психотерапии открыто не воспрещалась, однако руководители системы здраво-охранения не поддерживали претендентов, выступающих с такими инициативами, фору-мы академии в то же время – с некоторыми незначительными исключениями – проявляли враждебное отношение к разным видам психотерапии, в первую очередь основанным на психоанализе, к которым они относились издавна с укоренившимися рефлексами устра-

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нения. Такая ситуация могла послужить объяснением той взрывной энергии, с которой свежеоформившиеся общества и группировки после 1989 г. ринулись осуществлять раз-ные виды обучения и практической деятельности, оформлять официальную аккредита-цию структурированого обучения.

Ключевые слова: психотерапия, Румыния, коммунизм, государственный социализм, дик-татура, история, ретроспекция, вспомогательная деятельность, Чаушеску, психоанализ

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SLOVAKIAN ABSTRACTSSLOWAKISCHE ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN

ABSTRAKTY

HANNEKE MEULINK-KORF & WIM NOORLANDER (str. 157)

Pramene dôvery vo fragmentarizujúcom sa svete: Socio-ekonomická dimenzia a vzťahová etika podľa Boszormenyi-Nagya: V štúdii indukujeme praktické skúsenosti a ich aplikáciu na fi lozofi ckej a teologickej báze s použitím odbornej literatúry hospodárskych a spoločenských vied. V štúdii bude diskutovaná nedávna fi nančná a hospodárska kríza, voľné trhové hospodárstvo a ich možné vplyvy na osobnú dimenziu. Ako terapeuti musíme skúmať aktuálne súvislosti medzi spolo-čensko-ekonomickými faktami a (inter)personálnou dimenziou. Čo znamená zodpovednosť v pro-stredí sociálnej nespravodlivosti a nestability, skrývajúcimi sa za ideológiu autonómnosti a rov-nosti? V kontexte „heuristiky strachu” hľadáme reálnu perspektívu nádeje. Sila vzťahovej etiky sa môže zdať iluzórnou, ak vychádzame z predpokladu, že miera zodpovednosti je daná stupňom slo-body, ktorá nám bola udelená prírodou a kultúrou. Hoci sa zdá byť tento predpoklad pomerne bež-ný, predsa má vzťahová etika takú motivačnú silu, že dáva nádej na obnovenie narušenej ľudskej spravodlivosti. Čítaním Levinasa môžeme lepšie pochopiť, ako je to všetko možné. Príťažlivosť druhej osoby ma motivuje. „Jej nenásilný rozkaz” oslobodzuje. Kontextuálny prístup Boszorme-nyi-Nagya ponúka užitočné námety na budovanie zodpovedných a starostlivých vzťahov.

Kľúčové pojmy: hospodárska kríza, vzťahová etika, zdroje dôvery a spoľahlivosti, kontextuálna terapia, vzájomnosť

ROBERT BIEL (str. 184)

Duchovná starostlivosť v Poľsku pred a po politickom prevrate: Duchovná starostlivosť, ako jeden zo základných pojmov pastorálnej teológie, má za sebou dlhú históriu. Popri charite a ohla-sovaní Evanjelia patrí k základným úlohám Cirkvi. Zvláštny význam nadobudla duchovná starost-livosť v dobe totalitného utláčania cirkvi. Nebolo tomu inak ani v Poľsku po 2. svetovej vojne. Komunistické orgány mali voči cirkvi negatívny vzťah. To sa prejavilo čoskoro po nastúpení k moci komunistickej strany výrazným obmedzením činnosti cirkvi, zvlášť v oblasti duchovnej starostlivosti. V dôsledku toho bola cirkev nútená stiahnuť svoju duchovnú činnosť takpovediac do sakristie. Táto „sakristicko-cirkevná” existencia, ktorú komunisti tolerovali ako jediný spôsob napĺňania duchovných potrieb veriacich občanov, viedla na mnohých miestach k minimalistic-kému poňatiu duchovnej starostlivosti. V tieni komunizmu musela duchovná starostlivosť vzdo-rovať mnohým ťažkostiam, a to zvlášť pri práci s vojakmi a väzňami. Pod vplyvom existencie v totalitnom režime vyvinula cirkev v Poľsku nové formy pastoračnej činnosti špecifi cké práve pre situáciu neslobody. Znovu získaná sloboda však predstavuje pre cirkev nové a iné výzvy, na ktoré nie je vždy ľahké odpovedať. Dnešná doba núti cirkev k zmene z „Ecclesia militans” doby komunizmu na „Ecclesia serviens” slobodnej spoločnosti. Cirkev musí nanovo premyslieť svoje poslanie a uskutočniť istý druh „aggiornamenta”. Porevolučná situácia v poľskej katolíckej cirkvi predpokladá postupnú obnovu, ktorú Ján Pavol II. nazval novou evanjelizáciou. Je preto potrebné, aby cirkev hľadala nové pastoračné prístupy. Je nevyhnutné, aby mali tieto prístupy

European Journal of Mental Health 7 (2012) 282–284DOI: 10.5708/EJMH.7.2012.2.Abs.SK

ISSN 1788-4934 © 2012 Semmelweis University Institute of Mental Health, Budapest

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na jednej strane dobrý základ v teológii, na druhej strane aby boli v úzkom kritickom dialógu s ďalšími vednými odbormi, zvlášť humanitnými. Práve v poľskej pastorálnej teológii treba v tomto ohľade dobehnúť veľa zameškaného. Ateistický štát totiž zabránil akémukoľvek pokusu cirkvi o vytvorenie možnosti teologického vzdelávania laikov. V komunistickom Poľsku mala cirkev len jednu katolícku univerzitu (KUL), ktorá bola zároveň jedinou katolíckou univerzitou v celom východnom bloku. Odvtedy sa teologické prostredie zmenilo. Po prevrate bola cirkev schopná využiť priaznivé príležitosti na vytvorenie lepších možností pre teologické vzdelávanie aj pre laikov. Podarilo sa jej prevziať jednu Varšavskú univerzitu (UKSW) a založiť mnohé štátom schválené teologické fakulty. Jednou zo slabých stránok dnešnej poľskej teológie sú však vedeckí pracovníci. Okolo 90% z nich tvoria kňazi, ktorí sú často do veľkej miery vyťažení pastoračnou prácou. Vyučujúci sú síce schopní naplniť potreby existujúcich fakúlt a inštitútov, väčšinou to však znamená, že musia zároveň prednášať na viacerých inštitúciách. I v Poľsku je už bežná in-terdisciplinárna spolupráca teológie s ďalšími odbormi, takže poslucháči majú možnosť vybrať si i zo špecializácii ako napr. etika, žurnalistika, spoločenská komunikácia a rodinné vedy. Na poľs-kých cirkevných univerzitách dnes študuje teológiu podľa odhadov okolo 16.000 poslucháčov, tak kandidátov kňazstva ako aj laických teológov. Zvlášť dôležitým sa pre budúcnosť poľskej cirkvi javí práve prítomnosť laikov na teologických fakultách.

Kľúčové pojmy: Poľsko, duchová starostlivosť, komunizmus, dejiny, retrospektíva, prevrat, te-ológia, univerzity

DINA GUGLIELMI, CHIARA PANARI & SILVIA SIMBULA (str. 204)

Faktory duševného a psychického zdravia učiteľov: Sprostredkovacia rola duševnej únavy: V posledných rokoch sa mnohé štúdie venovali hlavným faktorom a následkom stresu, ktorý postihuje učiteľov. Jeden z najnovších teoretických modelov stresu je model zdrojov a pracov-ných požiadaviek (JD-R, Job Demands-Resources). Táto štúdia skúma jediný proces – konkrétne energetický proces – s predpokladom, že vysoké pracovné požiadavky vyčerpávajú všetky dušev-né a fyzické zdroje zamestnancov a tým poškodzujú ich zdravie. Štúdia podrobne skúma spro-stredkovaciu úlohu duševnej únavy spomedzi troch pracovných požiadaviek na učiteľa (pracovná záťaž, nerovnosť, konfl ikt práce a rodiny) a troch následkov stresu (duševné a fyzické príznaky, nespokojnosť na pracovisku). Talianskú verziu dotazníku PWSQ (Questionnaire for Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress) vyplnilo 697 náhodne vybraných učiteľov zastupujúcich 17 vzde-lávacích inštitúcií. Výsledky ukazujú, že duševná únava hrá dôležitú úlohu pri konfl ikte práce a rodiny, resp. troch skúmaných následkov (spokojnosti na pracovisku, duševných a fyzických príznakov). Zo štúdie vyplývajú dôležité dôsledky pre oblasť prevencie. Duševná únava je totiž vyčerpanosťou, ktorá sa prejaví skôr, než iné symptómy, ako napríklad ochorenia zapríčinené stresom. Včasné rozpoznanie tohto stavu umožní prevenciu ďalších následkov stresu.

Kľúčové pojmy: učitelia, stres, duševná únava, model zdrojov a pracovných požiadavkov, zdravie

CĂTĂLINA TUDOSE & FLORIN TUDOSE (str. 221)

Dejiny rumunskej psychoterapie v dobe socialistickej diktatúry Nicolae Ceauşesca: Cieľom štúdie je predstavenie stavu psychoterapie v období diktatúry Nicolae Ceauşesca (1965–1989). Pre pochopenie kontextu, v ktorom sa psychoterapia v Rumunsku v posledných desaťročiach minulého storočia vyvíjala, je nevyhnutné štúdium narušenia medziľudských vzťahov, ku ktoré-

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mu v Rumunsku došlo, ako aj identifi kácia a analýza jeho príčin. Rumunsko je jedinou krajinou východného bloku, kde počas 45 rokov nastúpili po sebe dvaja vodcovia nasledujúci smer sta-linizmu. Obaja vykonávali obzvlášť aktívnu ideologickú činnosť, pričom sa stali obávanými a nespornými vodcami strany a štátu a zaviedli diktatúru založenú na národnom komunisme (Ghe-orghe Gheorghiu-Dej) a osobnom kulte (Nicolae Ceauşescu). Za týchto okolností bola po roku 1945 činnosť novo založenej Rumunskej psychopatologickej a psychoterapeutickej spoločnosti v dôsledku vnútornej schizmy narušená. Činnosť Rumunskej akadémie bola zastavená a namiesto nej bola založená Rumunská ľudová akadémia, ktorá sa postavila proti freudizmu, psychosoma-tickému i behavioristickému učeniu. Psychoterapia síce priamo zakázaná nebola, no bola vyhlá-sená za nezhodnú s marxistickým učením. Štúdia predstavuje úsilie odborníkov, ktorí v období po skončení šesťdesiatych rokoch publikovali diela zaoberajúce sa rôznymi odvetviami psycho-terapie a touto cestou oboznamovali odborníkov s ich zásadami. Objavili sa psychológovia a psy-chiatri s iniciatívnym prístupom. Odborné knihy, ktoré vyšli v posledných desaťročiach diktatúry, už popisovali psychoterapeutické metódy, no psychoanalýze, kognitívnej a skupinovej terapii či metódam rodinnej terapie sa ešte nevenovali. Psychoterapeutická prax síce nebola priamo zaká-zaná, nebola však zodpovednými osobami zdravotníckeho systému podporovaná. Fóra akadémie – až na malé výnimky – prejavovali na základe dávno vzniknutých obranných refl exov negatívny postoj k rôznym druhom psychoterapie, zvlášť k psychoanalýze. Toto pozadie možno do istej mie-ry vysvetľuje tú energiu, s ktorou sa po roku 1989 novo založené skupiny a spolky s najrôznejším zameraním vrhali do realizácie a certifi kácie rôznych vzdelávacích kurzov a praktickej činnosti.

Kľúčové pojmy: psychoterapia, Rumunsko, komunizmus, štátny socializmus, diktatúra, dejiny, retrospektcia, pomáhajúca profesia, Ceauşescu, psychoanalýza

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Dr. Robert BIEL Papieska Akademia Teologiczna w Krakowie Wydział Teologiczny Sekcja w Tarnowie Urszulańska 9/6 PL-33-100 Tarnów Poland/Polen [email protected]

Dr. Dina GUGLIELMIUniversita’di BolognaDipartimento di scienze dell’educazioneVia Filippo Re 6I-40126 BolognaItaly/[email protected]

Dr. MARLOK ZsuzsaSemmelweis EgyetemEgészségügyi Közszolgálati KarMentálhigiéné IntézetH-1089 BudapestNagyvárad tér 4., 19. em.Hungary/[email protected]

MESTERHÁZY AndreaNyugat-Magyarországi EgyetemBenedek Elek Pedagógiai KarH-9400 SopronFerenczy J. u. 5. I. 45.Hungary/[email protected]

Dr. Hanneke MEULINK-KORFProtestantse Theologische Universiteit Plantage Kerklaan 199NL-1018 CX, AmsterdamNetherlands/[email protected]

Dr. Wim NOORLANDERInstitut ProCatharina van Clevelaan 24NL-1181 BH AmstelveenNetherlands/[email protected]

Dr. Chiara PANARI Universita’ di ParmaDiparimento di EconomiaVia Borgo Carissimi 10I-43100 ParmaItaly/[email protected]

Dr. ROSTA GergelyWestfälische Wilhelms-Universität MünsterJohannisstraße 1–4D-48143 MünsterGermany/[email protected]

Dr. Silvia SIMBULAUniversita’ Milano BicoccaDipartimento di PsicologiaPiazza dell’Ateneo Nuovo 1I-20126 MilanoItaly/[email protected]

Dr. Cătălina TUDOSEUniversitatea de Medicină şi FarmacieCarol Davila, BucureştiŞos. Berceni nr. 10–30., sector 4R-041914 BucureştiRumania/Rumä[email protected]

Prof. Florin TUDOSEUniversitatea Spiru Haret, BucureştiSplaiul Independentei, Nr. 169, sector 5R-050098 BucureştiRumania/Rumä[email protected]

CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS ISSUE/AUTOREN DIESES HEFTES

ISSN 1788-4934 © 2012 Semmelweis University Institute of Mental Health, Budapest

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POLISH PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION EDITORIAL COMMITTEEKomitet Redakcyjno-Wydawniczy PolskiegoTowarzystwa Psychiatrycznego

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ARCHIVES OF PSYCHIATRY AND PSYCHOTHERAPYPolish Psychiatric Association quarterly international journal in Englishoffers broad spectrum of research reports – from biological psychiatry

to social psychiatry and psychotherapy

In the current issue you will fi nd among others:– In search of the role played by of DRD2 and ANKK1 gene polymorphisms in

alcohol dependence using haplotype analysis Jolanta Kucharska-Mazur; Anna Grzywacz, Justyna Pełka-Wysiecka,Agnieszka Samochowiec, Hans Rommelspacher, Jerzy Samochowiec

– Assessing the link between coping patterns and interpersonal behaviors in depressed women Deborah Schwartzman, Katherine Thompson, Debora D’Iuso,Keith S. Dobson, Ueli Kramer & Martin Drapeau

– Investigating the relationship between depression severity and cognitive rigid-ity through the use of cognitive errorsBrittany Pothier, Keith S. Dobson, Martin Drapeau

– Pre- and Post-Sleep Stress Levels and Negative Emotions in a Sample Dream Among Frequent and Non-Frequent Nightmare SufferersSara Antunes-Alves, Joseph De Koninck

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see also our websites:archivespp.pl – free access to full-texts of “Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy”

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psychoterapiaptp.pl – free access of English abstracts and full-texts in Polish of quarterly “Psychoterapia”

psychiatriapsychoterapia.pl – quarterly e-journal “Psychiatry and Psychotherapy”

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We interpret mental health promotion to include every effort and all manner of individual and communal endeavour to realise principles and ideals of mental health at a social level. This means approach and attitude, praxis and theory, fields of activity and institutional systems alike. This approach to mental health promotion always requires cooperation and communal efforts, these days not only between individuals, specialists and groups but also between states, nations and research groups.

East Central Europeans must therefore strive to find each other and come closer together, but certainly not at the price of the hard-won contacts between the two halves of an all too long divided continent. On the one hand, our common history, the many similarities in our past pave the way for cooperation both rationally and emotionally; on the other, we all share a vision of a truly common European future, hopes and goals that unite us. Between past and future, our situation, our problems and experiences are similar but not identical. They can mutually complement and enrich each other and contribute to the achievement of our common goals, the reduction of harmful factors and the promotion of mental health. For mutual and deep understanding, however, we must develop a common language, common forums and organs in which we can share our experiences and reflect on them together. This journal seeks to contribute to that effort with its abstracts in 9 languages in order to serve, through the emergent dialogue, a colourful and many-faceted reality which consists not so much of education, social work, health care, religion, mass media, political activity and legislation as of individuals, families, communities and societies.

www.ejmh.eu

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Founding member and first president of the

INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH

FACULTY OF HEALTH AND PUBLIC SERVICES

SEMMELWEIS UNIVERSITY

mental health promotion multidisciplinary approaches

individual, family, community, society