A Geography of Europein the

Modern World2nd Edition

BRIA l

vV. BJLOUIET

THE EU AND NEIGHBORSA Geography of Europe in the Modern World

THE EU AND NEIGHBORSA Geography of Europe in the Modem World

BRlAN W. BLOUETCfl lieg~ '~f'W;IIfmlt and MOJ;t

~WILEYJOHN WJLEY & SONS, INC.

Vioe President and Pu bl i.~ h er .!ay 0 'Callaghan E:tecutive Editor Ryan F/ahiw: Editorial Assi.~>t ant Darne/1 Se:o:wm.'i E.xecutive Markeling Manager Margaret Barrell Photo Edi tor Jennifer Mm:Millan Senior Produc.tion M an a~ r .Janis Salions with Ryan Flahive, who deserves mucb credit for his contribution in shaping the projeeL Ryan was supported by able assistants induding Courtney Nelson who bas seen the book through the production pha~e at John Wiley. High quality reviewing was provided by William Berentsen (University of Connecticut), Renate Holub (University of California, Berkeley), Cub Kahn (Oregon State University), J on Kilpinen (Valparaiso University). Daria Munroe (Ohio .State University), Ann Oberhauser (VIIest Virginia Universiiy). Erik Prout {Texas A&M University). and Donald Zeigler (Old Donunion University). 'f'haoks to the reviewers for vaiUJed inputs. Al John Wiley thanks go to: Jay O'Callaghan (VP and Publisher), Ryan Flahive (Executive Editor), Jeffrey Rucker (Marketing Manager), Nicole Repasky (Production Editor). Usa Gee (Senior Photo Editor), .Sandra nigby (Senior Lllustration Editor). Kevin Mmphy (Senior Designer) and Courtney Nelson (Edilorial Program Assistan t). Academic debts are extensive. H.R. Wilkinson, my supervisor at Hull Unive'fsity, was an autho rity on the Salkans and the fonner Y ugoslavia. At the University of Shdfield J worked wilh Alice Gamet, Charles fisher. Bryan Coates. David Grigg. and Malcolm Lewis. John Sibbons taught me much about France. At the University of NebraskaLincoln inlluential colleagues included Leslie Hewes, David Wisltart, Dean Rugg, Bob

vi

l'teface Stocldard, and Richard Lonsclale. Al Texas A&M University Peter Hugill. Robert Bed narz, and Cl.arissa Kimber shared much knowledge. At Williaul and Mary, w here 1 bold appointments in the Sebool of Education and the Department of Covemment, 1 have benefited from interaeli on with James Bill, Mike Tierney. Paula Pickering. Rani Mullins. Maria Ivanova. Clay Clemens. Alan Ward, and Laurie KoloskL On research leaves 1 have been aided extensively in the library of the Sebool of Geography, Oxford, and enjoyed visils to Hertford College Senior Conm10n .Room. Jean Gottmann, John House. Andrew Goudie, Paul Coones. Ian .S~-argill. Gori! on .Smith, and Andrew Wanen all helpTh< Baltic SlillfS: toub. LaMa LI01u:mlt 389Polanri Slovai.Ll 393 41Z

...._CUAPTE RBt:001ANY AND I'!L\' !36 lut rnducllou 2:36 GL't l:..urope S.ullJlwy 4U flu Rt>~ 4!5

IJ.,,,

.. e llA P'f E R 13E~-"~\Iia, Macedonia. and Montenegro are in taJks about applying, wbereas Turkey, with nearly 80 million inhabilanls !hat are mostly Muslim, is seen as difficull to absorb.

ORlGINS OF TI-IE EUROPEAN UNIONSi nce the Napoleonic wars, the gr~.at powers of Europe-france, Gemany, the nussian Empire, and Auslria-Huogary-fought to control space, people, and resources. Tiu,, geopolitical cornpetition for terrilory quickened in the decades before World War I. The Swedish geopolitician Rudolf Kjellen advocated a northern super state dominat~d by Gennany. The poliiieal geographer Friedrich Ratzel spelll'teel Community was a Franco-German mnstroct to reduce rivalry in the. area of heavy industry. The Con! and Steel Community roles now apply to all EU economic space. The plau bas produced a relatively efficient distributioo of iron and steel induslries and did allow ltaly to build several large integrate.d iron and ste.el plants at port loealions using imported coal and iron ore.

ROME TO MAASTRICHTThe Treat) of Rome (1957) created the EEC to allow the free movement of goods, labor. and capital anwng the original six members: France. Germany. llaly. and th Benelux countries. Brossels and Strasbourg became major cent~.rs of administration and the European Padian1en1 (Photos Ll, 1.2, 1.3). Creating simred economic space was a slow process. It look until 1968 to remove tarilfs on goods, originating in the community, moving belween member countrles. Even with the renwval of tariff.~. paperwork barriers remained. The free movement of capital look decades to achieve and is noi f111ly complete, Labor mobili.ty bas increas ed but cultural fvdottwent of the EllrOPectedly heavy snowfall ilisrupl rood and rail networks. 'Aiestem Europe has a maritime climale. 'l11ere is pmcipilalion in all months, though on average, more in winler than in sununer (Figlll'l! 1.5). Temperatures, in botb winler and

General

Climal~

Coltliderations

21

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Nonhwawn h f opc> Go'lcr.alvr.:urt, ctu4yw";ors. Sumlt9 071:! w:~mt W.l'l~ !llr0"9 AJO~e shg h, oo'dcut( atd

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r" t are about equal wiU1 dea th rdles sometlmes e>)

36 363336

1.81.9 2.0 2. J 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.9 3.1 3.5 3,9 4.2 4.6 4.8 5. 1 5.5 5.9 6, l 6.4 6,7 7.5 8. 1 8.3 8.6 9.0 9.4

u

30 29 33 33 33 31 32 35 29 29 28 27 25

u

z:;

15

Ja16 14

l population gruwth rate bad slnwed since 1816 but numbers stiil grew. At the end of the cenlury birth and dealh rales were equal and little growth in populalion nwnbers, by natural increase. Between the beginning of the 20th ,century and 19161 due to wrus and a low birth rate. total pupulation numbers in hance were stagnant. Aft~r World War 0 the birth raie rose relalive lo death rales and there was a baby boom. Pop~nlation also increasoo by migration from fonner French colonies (Table 3.3). Rcdncing Mortality What f-aclors brought death rate dedines in the second half of the 18th century? Jn the Enlightenm!!flt. someti.mes ealloo the Age of Reason. p!!Ople benune le~ fillalistic and

70

Chapler 3. I'Opulailun. ObiribUiion, Oeotopulauon II~ Iernre llurc.Ju, 2010. ll.ll.l\Ul r.Uoll, huemudOJml 111 Populallon of Eumpv. A fllflll( Odo1~ . UK: Bl lldgOJ' llOJ1rand/Age foloSiock AmeJIca. Inc.

The R~nalssance City

99

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Flgure 4.3 ElltliM!lt.\ lu lhe nMJrphology of doe absoluti.\1 tily_

100

Chapter 4. Rural and Ur han Setllemenl'

Absolutist slyles were widely u.~ed in cities atToss France in the 18th century. Bordeaux is an example of 18th-century redevelopment. 1be obsolete fortifications were in disrepair, th-e gates too narrow to accommodate traffic entering the cily. streets were cramped and crooked. often obstructed by builelings projetiing into the tltoroughfare. Paris of the urban area within the walls were derelict. The authorities bad gates and streets widened, filled in the dilch that !ay around the walls. and built a ring road. Inside the walls grand open spaces. !ike Jardin Royal. were created. German town.~ were remodeled with Baroque builelings. The ouL~tanding example was Dresden, now restered after being deva.~tingly. and controversially. bombed near the end of World War IL The German lands al~o had cities with a Versailles-style layout as at Mannheim liJld Karlsruhe, which are grand, spacious town.~ lai d out as royal residences. Britain put a stop to absolutism by beheading Charles 1 in 1649. No royal residential towns were built, although the absolutist urban style is on elisplay when the sovereign opens Parliament. The Queen moves by horse-drawn coach ftom Buckingbant Palace, down the Mall through St. Jarnes's Park. past a monumental barracks with par.ade ground, under a triumphal arch to Parlian1ent. The landscape and pageantry. from Palace to Parliarnent, retletis the 18th century. Elsewhere in England resort towns !ike Bath, willi its Crescent , Circus. squares. and classically inspired architecture and grand vista.~. elisplay 18th-century styles (Photo 4.13).

l'bolo 4.13 The Crescent overlooked and dominated ~1e rurallandscape below. These grand townl10uses 10/erc owned or rented by wealthy visitors to Ba01. Jane All'>Len !~ad a modest house tn a less fashionable part of town.Source: Mruk DybatVAiamy tmagcs.

The Rehaissa.nce Clly .. 1OI

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Fij;ure 4.4 Edlnbwgh, Smllaml.

E uropean urban trends, from medieval times through the 18th century, are visible at Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland. The medi eval eastl e was built high on an igneous rock that plugs the vent of an extinct volcano. Beneath the eastlea walled medievaltown grew with cramped alleys running oJT the mainstreet (the Royal Mile), that fell steeply to Cannongate. Beyond the gate was the royal palace, Holyrood, started by the king of ScotIandin 1500 with an adjoining park. Thday. within the !ine of the former city walls, few medi eval buildings are left for, in the 18th century as Edinburgh prospered, old habitations were knocked down and replaced with tall tenemenls. Overcrowding was relieved in the late 18th century when New Town was laid out, to the north, with George Street mnning from St.. Andrew Square to Charlotte Square. Buildings are in a dassical style alo ng broad, straight streets, inteJSecting at right angles (figure ilA, Photos -t.J4 and 1.15).

Urban PopuJationAlthough towns and cilies grew in the period from 1200 to 1800, 1\Jost of the population of Europe stilllived in rural areas. No European country, in 1800, had an urban majority. ln 1500 only 5-10 pereent of the population ofwestern Europe was urban. Going to the east, urban populations were smallerand in Russia !ess than 5 pereent of the population

102

Chapter 4. Rural and Ur han Settlemenrs

Photo 4.14

View of Edinburgh Ca-; tle frorn Princes in Street in Edinburgh. Scotlan.d.

Sow Doug CCBTance/C.uy lmages. ce:

Photo 4.15

George Street in 18th-century Edinburgh.

Source: Per Ande:;en/Alamy lmagcs. 1

The ROpulations but no European country bad more than 30 pereent of the population in urban places. In the 19th century. induslrialization stimulated urbanization. Europe became a region in which rural-to-urban migration created urban majorities (Figure 4.5).

A TLANTIC OCEAN 0 0 0 00

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Approximate City Sizes 0 25,000 - 50,000 51,000 - 100,0000

101.000 - 250.000 251,000 - 500,000 501,000 - 1,000,000

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Figure 4.5 DlstribuUon of European cilies e. 1850. (Afier Pountls. 1 990).

104

Chapler 4. Rural and Urltan Settlemenl'

THE iNDUSTRlAL CITYPreindustrial towns were crowded with the makers of craft goods: silversmillts, cobblers, jewelers, wood carvers. clothiers, milliners. pollers, and the makers of furniture, metal goods. and candles, as weil as food processors like millers and bakers. Artl~ans were on fashionable :streets. side streets, alleys. and eellars (Photo 1.16). Noxious trad es. animal slaughter and the Ianning ofleather, were usually J>Ushed to the periphery, but not alwa)'S Th ere were few large manufacturing operations. Port cities bad shipyards, some capable of building many vessels at once as al Veoice and Barcelona. The manufacture of armamenl~. such as the casting of cannon, was underiaken in founddes. The surrounding counlT)oside produced products for sale in the city includling poltery. wood. reed producls, and lextiles. Taiile making was a collage industry. oflen utilizing middlemen who organized spin ning. then weaving and the sale of elo th. Most ac tivities in the city or countryside were hand-powered but there were windmills and w;aterwbeels to grind grain and saw timber. When water power was utilized in meta! tracles, to drive hammers and power bellows, workshops located alo ng streams. ln the 18th century the texlile industry started to use water power to drive spinning and weaving equipmenL The usa of water power spread manufacturing aclivity in chaius along waler courses, as one workshop after another utilized downstrearn ri.ver Oow to

Phoio 4.16 High StrecLIum buildlngs in Glasgow. Scotland.Source: Mansell/l'lmo Llfe Pkl ureslt:tty tnmges.

The Jndustrial Cl!y

105

Pboto 4.17 Sllk mill, Derby. Originally Lhe ntlll was ddve.n by waler power. The smokestacks indicate sleam eugines have been installed. Source: Sli' TlJomas l..ombe's SUk MIU, Dcrby, IBU1 ceutury pru1t by A uonymous. Prlvate CoUectiou/ l'bcBridgeman Aot .Llbra1 , y

turn water wheels. By the end of lhe 18th cenlury some factorytype operations were water powered. as at the large silk mill in Derby, England (Photo 4.1 7), The use of the stearn engine, developed by the Smt James Wall (17:!&-1819}, to power manufaLturing brought different locational forces, starting in the late 18th century. The steam engine burned co al, so loealions on coal fields were favored. The stearn engine was uneconomical in a workshop setting. Steam engines were economicaJJy effective driving multiple machines and that meant factories staffed by many machine minders. The result was, by the 19th century, towns on coal fields became manufacturing centers and workers were housed in row upon row of hooses built close to factories because workers walked to work. lndustrial cities displayed what we now call environmental injustice with workers living in "tmdc wastelands" (Piatt, 2005, p. 20} close to factories, while entrepreneurs anti professional~ inhabited spacious su burbs. lndustrial ei ties degraded air and water quality. Steam engines burned mai. producing smoke and carbon dioxide. Metal smelter.; threw particulate matter into the air. Warm, pulluted waste water lltnved from factory to stream. Rivers became industiial drains laeking fish (Photo r41lri":J .flg A. llOJUIOW.,.

Photo 4.18

Circa 1890. Smoke rising from factory chimoeys over Sheffield.

Sowc e: Hutton Archlve/Cttty lmages.

surrounding field~ as fertilizer. Belter houses might have a cess pit or a drain that carried wa~tes to the river. Outbreaks of cholera were common in industrial cities. Conditions improved in the late 19th and eady 20th centuries in parts of western Europe. Public health acts, or city regulali ons. required the installation of sewers. Water works were created upstream of cities to provide dean drinking water. In central and ea~tern Europe progress came later, with many parts of Vienna and Berlin imperfectly provided with water and sewage services until the 20th century. Ameniti.es improved in the late 19th century. As towns grew, property tax revenues increased. Schools, public libraries, recreational space, and, in Jarger cities, technical colleges and universities were created. Trams-first horse-drawn. then electric-allowed the city to spread and create outlying suburbs (Photo 4..19). The old housing for workers close to the :industrial heart of the city remained occupied until post-World War ll slum clearance sc.hemes demoli~hed rowhouses and tenements.

Rural Settlement .. 107

Photo .U9

1901. fl horse4mvu tram In Portsououllt, U.K

Sowcc: Hullo11 Al'chlve/Cctty hnages.

RURAL SEITLEMENTToday, most Europeans live in towns and cities. ln economically advanced countries a tiny pereentage of the workforce is employed in agrit11lture. The agricul tural workfon-e is larger in eastern Europe. In terms of gross domestie product (GDP), agrit11lture eontributes 1 pereent in the United Kingdom and Germany and 3 pereent in T he Netherlands and Fmnee. 1b the east, the figures rise. with Romania drawing 1:l pereent of GDP from agriculture. ln spite of urbanization. the mechanization of farming. and the d eeline in agricultural workforces, the landscapes of rural Europe are stiil characterized by farrnhousoes, cottages. hamlel~. \illage.~. and small towns. which provide services to summnding :areas. In the midwest of the United States, increa~ing farm size has led to farmhouse abandonment and the decline of small towns. This is not the case in Europe. People eommute from eountryside villages to work in cities. The demand for second homes and vacation homes has meant that fannhouses and co ttages in villages have been renovated by those who want a place in the country. Britons. German.~. and Scandinavians buy or rent farms. villas, and houses in Spain, southern France. and ltaly to enjoy an assured warm s ununer. ln the United States many aspire to a condo in Florida. ln westem Europe the ideal is a Thscan fannhouse with in reach of Florence.

Rural Setdement TypesRural settlernenls are classified as nucleated or dispersed. The most widespread form of nucleated settlemenl is the village, an agglomemtion of resi.dences and buildings providing basic services. including a scl1ool. church, village sbop, bar, and post office.

108

O.apter 4. Rural and Urban Setllemenl\

l'bolo 4.20 Dispersed farms teads are common in wes! European land.\Capes. N ole nh~ intensive

cultlvallon at tllis farm in Verzenay. France.Sow A fotostock America. ~l c./SUPilRSfOC.'K . .:e: ge

Dispersed sel!lements am re presenteel by individual lilfmltouses and cotrnges dotted ac ross U e landscape with perbaps small elustars of hooses at a crossroads (Photo 4.20). Such t small eluslars are called hamlel~ and they provide few services. Sume paris of Eumpe are characterized by dispersed settlemenl~ and other regions by nucleated seltlements. Forexample, il is agmed that the highlands and islands ofScotland, Wales, lreland, Bdllany, westem France, northwestern Spain, northwestern GemJany, and Sweden have dispersed rurnl settlen1ents. The midlanms/A.lamy lmagos. yoPhoto 4.21

and ton, as in Birmingham {the seltlement of Binn' s people). Meilzen's initially altraelive thesl~ does not stand up as there are areas of dl~persed seltlement in zones olf Germanic colonization, including East Anglia, southem Sweden, Flanders, and Germall!y. Other factors that commentators have exarnined in the search for origins are numerous. In part~ of France. for example. the origin of outlying farmhouses may be associated with the distribution of Roman villas, for after the empire contracted. locals tended to stay around the villa and perpetuate the settlement sil e. This explanation cannot be used to expiain dispersed s ettlement in general b ecause some areas of dispersed settlement-for example, central Wales-were not seltled by the Romans. ln the Po valley the corti, villages buill around a central courtyard, are said to have starred around Roman villas (Ph oto 4..21). The fonn of landholding is of irnportance. lf a society has individualland ownership many fanlilies would choose to live on their holding to be close to cmps and livestock, giving rise to a dispersed pattern of farmhouses. This is what happene d on the prairies and plains of North America when govemmenl~ made laod available in blocks that encouraged the development of single-family farms and farmhouses. How ever, if a society had communal Ian d ownership, and com muna! farmi ng, groups would lend to seltle in the middle of the communallands and live in a village. a~ long as the Jand was held in common and the villagers farmed the surrounding open fields. Open 6e.ld~ are noi enclosed in individual plots. Members of the communi ty have cultivation right~ in the fields but not title to !and. What were te.rmed "open-field villages" were common from lowlaod England. thmugh northern France, to the J utland peninsula and across the la.nd~ on the south sl10re of the Balti c Sea. Open-field villages pe.rsisted into the 19th cenlury when the 6elds were often divided into individual farms, and fanlilies

110

Chapler 4. Rutal and Ur ban SeulemenL'then moved to fam1houses on the Jana. A ft'W open field villages are stiil pre.served as histude siles in England and Denmark. The open-lield system worked in the following way. Membets of the conununity lived in the central village surrounded by two or three large fields consisting of many strlps of land. Eacb year lots were drawn to distribute the cultivation strips to household.~. lf you were lucky you drew slrlps that were near the '' illage and ntinimized walking. On common grazing land each household was allowed to run a stated number of animals. The origin of the open-tleld village, with group settlement al the center of the lands the community contrulled. may go back to the time or Germanh: sett.lement. There are otl1er reasons why a group of people ntight cluste:r in a comnmnity and form a village settlernent. lf waler is avai]able al a reliable spring. a sattlernent rnight fom1 do.se lo an assured supply. People might choo.se to cluster together for defense. The numtrm (MolfJI0\1) No.slov na Of.IIHI Odt>so1 Nall l e~ Volgojjl'lld (Stnllngr;uh Hlnnl l-vJh!lll

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24

74

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127

FURTHER READINGBttlfvolo. L f/Ho l:l11opcau Ci(Y. Oxfad. UK lllac:k>~~. 1003.

Bbcbll.

.wd A.M. \\ Ullan1>. 17N! El1roptan t'/MJ/LyJgr. CtoJ(J7fJJu lmd Dr~lop~Mti In tM Eutopr;m COifiiBIMIIIt. Nev. Y!ll'k. Oxlutd IJnlvo.>rslly Pr."ity PrtS$. 2003.

Kapbu. D.tl .. ''""' ' 0. IVbrler, Sr.vn R. llnlloway, aoo 'l'hom>S A. llooler. Urban C~grap/IJ . Nw Yo1k: Jolu1 WiiL',Y. 21~11!.L~bordt,

P. Th ~ S(J3ilal ll\~ lutlou or ~1\>st liu"'flau C.:hlb 1950 1992, lu M. lllocksoU and A.M. Wlll lan.s, 'l i C'uro pesu C/wllrn.~ New Yock: O.rocd IJnlv..,:J ty "'"""' IYY4.

OaJJIJ, D.

c..us..,.u's

Budwest GtVJ(JrJphiral /lcc'klc K1(2)

L11hrlallldb, L (ed.) 7w Ft~ur ofEuroP":. llvral l'rlpbtrlt3.Ald.nbo~ UK Ai In CinlllatloA OJhuJP, lntto.aJIM fJrtk, . NN Yor~: l'antheoo Soob. I 008.

Joo UJb.:J11Yor~:

l'ouuds. /I:J.G. At1 /Ustork-.J G'OOfTapbJ' of 1111DP". Nt"'' Yodc Cambridg lbth tulty l'M'S>, 1990.

Hall. 1'. UrliRu utrd Rcglllu:ll Pfa1111f)Jg . 4lh dlllnn. Mil Routledge. :11111~ .Hamlllrlll,

Stangl P. R..wlnS S..llns Untt'l .... Lbxt.Q, ldooololl). World Vle11 , l'bc :ld Sl""" Jowu:llnfiUstcrh'tl/ G"t!f!ra"" !fl(2000): 352 310.

tt.E:.I. StHUial SIIUC'I UIU lu E.to\1 Eu rf1) ~1u t:lll f'S., lii RA. I' 1 1 ,llld J'.J::. lallllamtllo" (1' are rare. so Lhe fanue"' look dla atUoa 'edSowco: Nt U.km ../< lleaux-.Al1s, 'lt,velopnrnt Repoel. New Y01l,: UN: Populatlon R.trru't!uW Bui'C:hJ,

FURTHER READINCButli1t RA .. and R.A. O