Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 147 (2013) 148–156
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
0378-87
http://d
n Corr
fax: 880
E-m
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep
Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used by traditionalhealers in Bangladesh for gastrointestinal disorders
Mohammad Fahim Kadir a,n, Muhammad Shahdaat Bin Sayeed b, M.M.K. Mia c
a Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladeshb Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladeshc Former Principal Scientific Officer and Consultant, Bangladesh National Herbarium, Bangladesh
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 15 October 2012
Received in revised form
11 February 2013
Accepted 16 February 2013Available online 28 February 2013
Keywords:
Bangladesh
Ethnopharmacological survey
Gastrointestinal disorders
Medicinal plants
Traditional healers
41/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Irelan
x.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.02.023
esponding author. Tel.: þ880 2 9664953, þ
2 9664950.
ail addresses: [email protected], fahimkad
a b s t r a c t
Ethnopharmacological relevance: Gastrointestinal diseases are common worldwide, including Bangladesh
where majority of the rural people depend on water from unprotected sources. The people from
Bangladesh use medicinal plants as their first line of health care to cure and prevent different types of
gastrointestinal disorders.
Aim of the study: To compile plants used for the treatment of different gastrointestinal disorders in
Bangladesh.
Materials and methods: The field survey was carried out in a period of 18 months. Fieldwork was
undertaken in total of eleven districts of Bangladesh. Open-ended and semi structured questionnaire
were used to interview a total of 1280 people including traditional healers, Ayurvedic/Unani drug
manufacturers and local people.
Results: A total of 250 plant species of 93 families were listed. Leaves were the most cited plant part used
against gastrointestinal disorders. Most of the reported species were tree in nature and decoction is the
mode of preparation of major portions of the plant species. Most of the plant species were very common
and were cultivated or planted in homestead or roadsides. The doses of the plants for different treatments
varied widely.
Conclusion: In view of the fact that the plants were selected based on their medicinal usage for treating
different kinds of gastrointestinal diseases including diarrhoea, the activities reported here need more
works for validation and could be rationalised by the presence of active compounds found in those plants.
The documentation represents the preliminary information in need of future phytochemical investigation
and is important for the conservation of these plants.
& 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
There are different types of gastro-intestinal diseases whichare associated with the inflammation of the gastro-intestinal tractresulting in abdominal pains and cramps of varying degrees(Barbara, 1998; Naik and Sketh, 1976) and infection from differ-ent bacterial strains is the most common gastrointestinal dis-orders. It has been reported that infections are responsible for thedeaths of up to 3 million pre-school children each year (Farthingand Kelly, 2007). WHO estimated approximately 2 billion casesof diarrhoea worldwide per year in 2009, causing 6.9% of deathsoverall (WHO, 2009). In 2004, diarrhoeal disease was the thirdleading cause of death in low-income countries (Thapar and
d Ltd. All rights reserved.
880 1816572691 (Mobile);
[email protected] (M.F. Kadir).
Sanderson, 2004). In Bangladesh WHO estimates that the diseasestill kills more than 50,000 children in Bangladesh annually(BHSR, 2010).
For the last couple of years, there has been a global trend forthe renewal of interest in the traditional system of treatments.Simultaneously the need for basic scientific investigation ofmedicinal plants using indigenous medical systems has becomeever more pertinent for accelerating better and effective treat-ment. WHO has also recognised the role of traditional medicine inthe primary health care system (Akerele, 1984). A number oftribal people with diverse cultural backgrounds reside in Bangla-desh and practice their own system of traditional medicine forprimary healthcare. Reportedly more than 80% of the Bangladeshiuse non-allopathic (Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Homoeopathy)medicines for their healthcare and herbs constitute a majoringredient of these alternative systems of medicine (Yusuf et al.,2009). Therefore, synergistic botanical preparations used by thetraditional health practitioners (THPs) may be considered as one
Fig. 1. Location of Bangladesh in Asia and area of collection of the plants used in gastrointestinal disorders in Bangladesh with number of plants collected from the area as
indicated in the map.
M.F. Kadir et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 147 (2013) 148–156 149
of the prime strategies in drug discovery (Patwardhan andMashelkar, 2009).
Heterogeneous ecologic and geographic conditions have madeBangladesh to house more than 6000 species of indigenous andnaturalised plants out of which more than 1000 contain medicinallyuseful chemical substances (Banglapedia, 2003; Mia, 1990). Theknowledge on medicinal plants usage is very often passed on fromone generation to the next only verbally (Nadembega et al., 2011)and most of this knowledge has not been documented (Sofowora,1993; Asase et al., 2008, 2010). Moreover due to aberrant climate,man-made hazards in the forest and migrations of traditionalmedicinal healers to other jobs contributed to the rapid loss of thisrich knowledge on medical treatment through natural ways.
Several ethnobotanical investigations have been carried out atdifferent parts of the world to explore the traditional treatmentagainst gastrointestinal disorders (Heinrich et al., 1992; Appidiet al., 2008; Tetali et al., 2009; de Wet et al., 2010; Vera-Ku et al.,2010; Ribeiro et al., 2010). But no ethnobotanical survey wascarried out in Bangladesh to explore the medicinal plants used inthe treatment of gastrointestinal diseases. Because of geographi-cal position, life style of people, lack of proper sanitation andawareness about disease prevention have lead to different typesof gastrointestinal diseases. Current study was conducted in orderto document the traditional knowledge of the plants used by thetraditional healers of Bangladesh for treating different gastro-intestinal disorders.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
Bangladesh, a sovereign state located in South Asia andbordered by India and Myanmar and by the Bay of Bengal tothe south (latitudes 201 and 271N and longitudes 881 and 931E,
with population over 162 million having 35 smaller groups ofindigenous people covering about 2% of the total population livingin different pockets of the hilly zones and some areas of the planelands of the country (CIA World Factbook, 2012). Fig. 1 shows thearea covered in our study (Dhaka, Chittagong hill tracts, Ranga-mati, Bandarban, Cox’s bazaar, Mymensingh, Sylhet, Sundarbans,Rangpur, Rajshahi and Barishal) and the number of plantscollected as specimen from there for deposition in BangladeshNational Herbarium, Dhaka (DACB).
2.2. Informants and ethnomedicinal data collection
The objectives of the study were clearly explained in Bengalilanguage and verbal consent was obtained by the interviewer fromeach informant who met in social gatherings arranged by local peoplefamiliar with traditional healers and who could communicate withnative communities. Current ethnobotanical survey was conductedbetween January 2010 and June 2012 with an aim to cover at least sixKabiraj/Ayurved/Hakim/Unani practitioners in each area. The expertsin alternative and complementary medicine and reputed Hakims and/or Ayurvedic drug manufacturers namely Hamdard, Ayurvedio Phar-macy, Shakti, Sadhana and Kundeshwari were also consulted. Specialfocus was given to the people having practical or empirical knowl-edge on medicinal plants. A total of 1280 people were interviewed forthis purpose whose gender, age, educational background and experi-ence on the use of traditional medicinal plants were also documented.Open-ended and semi structured questionnaire (Cotton, 1996; Bruniet al., 1997) were used for the purpose. The record of questionnairesused included the following information: (a) the local name,(b) plants part/s used, (c) the method of preparation, (d) solvent/adjuvant used, (e) mode of application, (f) gastrointestinal and othermedicinal uses, (g) voucher specimen number and (h) dose anddosage forms. Scientific names, family names, habit, habitat, natureand relative abundance were documented either consulting withBotanist Mr. Md. Manzur-ul-Kadir Mia, former Principal Scientific
Table 2Adjuvants used in traditional treatments of gastrointestinal disorders.
Atap rice Curd Opium
Babla leaves Cyperus rotundus Pepper
Bark of Butea sp. Egg Phyllanthus emblica
Barley Fenugreek seeds Puffed paddy
Betel Fern lygodium Rice
Black berry Ghee Rice water
Black peeper Ginger Rock salt
Butter Holarrhena antidysenterica Root of Ficus
benghalensis
Butter milk Jaiphal (seeds of Myristica
fragrans)
Saccharine
Cardamom Juice of cyperus rotundus Saffron
Centella asiatica Juice of pomegranate fruit Sago
Cheera (pressed
rice)
Mango stem bark Salt
Chutney Molasses Sesame oil
Cinnamon Mustard oil Sugar
M.F. Kadir et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 147 (2013) 148–156150
Officer and Consultant of Bangladesh National Herbarium, Dhaka orby literature search. The specimens were pressed, preserved and lateridentified by Botanist Mr. Md. Manzur-ul-Kadir Mia. The voucherspecimens of the plants were deposited in Bangladesh NationalHerbarium, Dhaka (DACB).
2.3. Data analysis
The species were listed in alphabetical order by their scientificname, family, local name, general name, plants parts used, modeof preparation, habit, habitat, relative abundance, geographicaldistribution, nature, general name, solvent used and frequency ofcitation (FC). The FC of the species of plants being utilised wasevaluated using the formula: FC¼(Number of times a particularspecies was mentioned/total number of times that all specieswere mentioned)�100. Frequency distribution was then calcu-lated using the IBM SPSS Statistics 19 software.
Cloves Mustard seeds Sugar candy
Coconut Native spirit Terminalia chebula
Cumin Nutmeg Vinegar
3. Results3.1. Informants
Among the 1280 interviewees, major informants were male(67%), aged (regardless of gender) 50–60 years (35.6%), mostlywith 10 years of institutional education (32.81%) and having 10–20 years of relevant experience (33.36%) (Table 1).
3.2. Plants for gastrointestinal disorders and other relevant
information
250 plant species belonging to 93 plant families have beenidentified as being used in the gastrointestinal disorders by
Table 1Demographic Data of the informants.
Variable Categories Frequency (n¼1280)
Gender Male 859
Female 421
Age (years) o20 73
20–30 128
30–40 169
40–50 317
50–60 456
460 137
Education (years)b 0a 75
5 142
8 255
10 420
12 215
16 115
416 58
Experiencec o2 105
2–5 290
10–20 427
20–30 320
420 138
Profession Hakim 152
Unani 127
Ayurvedic 122
Independent healer 448
Otherd 431
a These people do not have any formal educational training.b Year completed through formal educational institution.c Relevant to treating people.d People who acquired medicinal knowledge by themselves and usually
involved in profession not relevant to medicine.
traditional healers in Bangladesh. The largest number of specieswas noted from the family Fabaceae (20 species), followed byRubiaceae (11 species), Asteraceae (11 species), Euphorbiaceae (9),Malvaceae (8 species), Rutaceae (7 species), Moraceae (7 species),Caesalpiniaceae (6 species), and Zingiberaceae (6 species). For aspecies, different parts were used—among these leaves (35.6%)were the most frequent used plant parts, followed by roots (30%)and barks (22.8%). The major mode of preparation is decoction(52.2%) followed by juice (24%) and infusion (19.6%). Preparationswere made with water, honey, wine, lime water and milk assolvent. The list of adjuvants used is presented in Table 2. Themode of administration was oral (96.4%), topical (1.6%), oral &topical (1.2%), oral & rectal (0.4%) and rectal (0.4%). 36.4% of thereported species were herb which was followed by tree (36%),shrub (17.6%) and climber (8.8%). Of these plants, 39.2%, 31.6% and12.4% of the species grow in forest, garden and hill forestrespectively. There are significant portions that grow in villagethicket (10.8%) and road side (10.4%) effortlessly. On the basis ofavailability of the species, they are categorised as common (70.8%),less common (22.4%) and rare (6.8%). Most of the plants are wild(47.2%) and some are either cultivated or planted; some are bothcultivated and wild and others are cultivated and planted. Thespecies Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr, Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.)Wall ex. Nees, Averrhoea carambola (L.), Cannabis sativa L., Carica
papaya L., Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f., Musa paradisiaca L. were themost frequently cited in the study area. The doses of the availableplants are presented in Table 3.
4. Discussion
Most of the medicinal plants listed in the current investigationbelonged to the Fabaceae family. This predominance could beexplained by world-wide prevalence of the species from thisfamily (Kadir et al., 2012a; Marles and Farnsworth, 1995). Themajor plant parts used were leaves solely or mixed with otherplant parts. Similar kind of results have also been reported inother studies (Mahishi et al., 2005; Abo et al., 2008; Gonzalezet al., 2010; Telefo et al., 2011; Kadir et al., 2012a). Ease ofcollection of leaves in comparison to roots, flowers and fruits isanother prime reason (Giday et al., 2009; Telefo et al., 2011).Herbs and trees were the most common plants which might beattributed to the huge number of trees or herbaceous plants
Table 3Doses of the available plants.
S/L Name of the plants Doses
1 Acacia catechu Willd.
It is used as a tonic in diarrhoea in
combination with aromatics such as
cinnamon and nutmeg in doses of 5–20
grainsa.
2 Acacia nilotica L.
The tender leaves (3–4 g) in 1–2 poabs of
water are boiled and reduced to one chatakc,
and then used once or twice with a little
sugar to enhance the efficacy. 3–4 g of bark
of Holarrhena antidysenterica is added at the
time of boiling.
3 Acorus calmus L.
It is given as a hot infusion in doses of two
ouncesd twice or thrice a day. A decoction is
made by boiling together two ounces of
rhizome, one drachme of coriander and half
a drachm of black pepper in a pint of water
till the liquid is recluced to 12 ounces. One
ounce of the decoction is given three times a
day to adults and 1–3 drachms with sugar
two or three times a day to a child.
4 Aegle marmelos L.
Pulp of green fruit, softened by roasting and
sweetened with sugar candy is useful in
chronic diarrhoea and dysentery (dose: 2–6
fluid drachms, 3–4 times in 24 h). Unripe
fruit cut into slices, sun-dried and heated
before eating with a little sugar. lt is given in
doses of 1–2 drachms.
5 Allium sativum L.
In case of dysentery and dyspepsia one small
part of bulb (qua) is chewed every morning
and if tolerable one qua of bulb is taken
every morning and evening.
6 Alstonia scholaris R.Br.
1–2 fluid ounces of the infusion of bark are
given 2–3 times a day. In bowel complaints,
3–5 grains of the powdered bark are
prescribed. In catarrhal dyspepsia 15 grains
are given at night.
7 Areca catechu L.The doses are 10–15 grains with sugar every
three or four hours.
8Asparagus racemosus
Willd
In dysentery, the powder of the root in doses
of about 45 grains is given with milk. In
diarrhoea the dose is half tolaf. The juice
from the fresh root is given orally in
dysentery. In blood dysentery, the juice of
the powdered root (about 4 teaspoonsg) is
mixed with 7–8 teaspoons of milk and taken
internally twice a day for one or two days.
9 Bauhinia variegata L.
An emulsion of the astringent bark made
with rice water is given with a little ginger
in diarrhoea.
10 Butea monosperma Lamk.
The dose of the powdered gum is 5–20
grains or 10–30 grains with a few grains of
cinnamon or 5–30 grains with a few grains
of aromatics. In doses of 5 grains, it is most
useful in checking serious cases of diarrhoea.
4 grains being an average dose for children
of 4 years.
11 Calotropis gigantea L.
15 grains of the powder root bark combined
with a grain of opium is substitute for
ipecacuanha. The dried and powdered pistils
and stamens in doses of 2–3 grains are
repeated hourly to check or moderate
vomiting in cholera. The flower buds in
doses of 5 grains combined with black
pepper and salt are useful in dyspepsia with
palpitation and in cholera; in later disease
especially to check vomiting.
12 Cannabis sativa L.
The preparation made specially from dried
leaves and flowers known as bhang, siddhi or
hashis is given to check diarrhoea, dyspepsia
and bowel complaints. The smoke of dried
pistillate of flowering tops which are coated
with resinous exudation (known as ganja) is
passed through the rectum for relief from
strangulated hernia and griping pains of
dysentery.
Table 3 (continued )
S/L Name of the plants Doses
13 Careya arborea Roxb.
The bark extract is given in empty stomach
with cow’s milk once daily for 3 days in case
of blood dysentery. For more effectiveness
‘cheera’ (pressed rice) and jaiphal (seeds of
Myristica fragrans) are also added.
14 Carica papaya L.
In dysentery one teaspoon of the raw latex
of the fruit mixed with 30 drops of lime
water are taken internally with milk (once
only) to relieve colic pain.
15 Carum copticum Benth
The water obtained by distillation of the
seeds called omum warer, exercises
considerable power; especially in the early
stage of diarrhoea and vomiting. At the same
time stimulate the system. The dose taken
internally in chronic dyspepsia is: jowan of
the weight of 2 ounces; haritaki (dried fruit
of Terminalia chebula) of the weight of
2 ounces; rock salt of the weight of 1 ounce;
administered with lime juice, every
morning.
16 Ceiba pentadra L.20–30 grains of the gum are given to
children in diarrhoea.
17 Centella asiatica L.
The juice of the leaves is efficacious in empty
stomach. The whole plant mixed with
Drymaria cordata and Oxalis cornicultais
boiled and taken or 2–3 spoonfuls of leaf
paste given in empty stomach for 2–3 days
to cure dysentery. The paste of 3–4 leaves
with cumin and sugar is used as poultice on
the abdomen or the juice taken internally to
give relief against blood dysentery and
diarrhoea.
18 Corchorus capsularis L.
It is dried and taken at breakfast time with
boiled rice in case of dysentery or blood
dysentery.
19 Coriandrum sativum L.
15 g of coriander, 25 g of cow ghee, boiled
until almost dried then strained and is used
twice in the morning and evening for two
days.
20Curculigo orchioides
Gaertn.
The two year old tubers should be washed
and freed from rootlets cut in slices by a
wooden knife and dried in the shade. For
dysentery and diarrhoea a powder of the
rootstock is taken with butter milk or rice
water.
21Cymbopogon citratus
(DC.) Stapf.
It is given in doses of 3–6 drops with sugar
or as an emulsion. A tea made from leaves is
a stomachic.
22 Cynodon dactylon Pers
Two leaves of lndian black berry (Sygyzium
cumini) together with 5–7 g of this grass are
crushed and the juice after straining mixed
with a little hot milk and administered to
cure any type of dysentery.
23 Cyperus rotundus L. They are scraped and pounded with honey.
24 Daucus carota L.
20–25 g of carrot, cut into pieces and soaked
in 4 cupsh of water until the amount of
water is reduced to approximately half, are
used 2–3 times after properly straining in
cases of diarrhoea.
25 Drypetes roxburghii Wall.The powered seeds 250 mg doses is taken
every 4 h with a little sugar and water.
26 Erythrina variegata L.
One or two teaspoons of the bark juice
warmed a little with 2–4 teaspoonful of milk
and is administered for 2–3 days to cure
blood dysentery.
27 Evolvulus alsinoides L.The juice is given in doses of half teaspoon
twice a day.
28 Feronia limonia L.Powder of the leaves is given in 1/2–1
drachm.
29 Ficus benghalensis L.A small quantity of the milk juice is taken
early in the morning in dysentery.
30 Ficus racemosa L.The milk juice or latex is administered in
piles and diarrhoea in 2–3 drops.
31Flacourtia jangomas
(Lour,) Willd
Paste of about 7 g of bark with 2 mg of
mustard seeds is heated in an earthen pot
M.F. Kadir et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 147 (2013) 148–156 151
Table 3 (continued )
S/L Name of the plants Doses
and given with curd twice everyday in
dysentery.
32 Gossypium herbaceum L.
The juice of the leaves in doses of 1–2
drachms or their infusion with the addition
of lime water is given in diarrhoea and
dysentery. The leaf juice with a teaspoon of
juice of the rhizomes of Cyperus rotundus
mixed with little honey is very efficacious in
diarrhoea.
33Hedyotis corymbosa
(L) Link.
A paste prepared of 15 g of plant in 1.5–2
cups of hot water, kept for an hour, strained
and taken internally a little quantity every
15–20 min is very efficacious for strong
diarrhoea. Alternatively 6–7 g of dry plant is
made inot a paste and boiled with 3 cups of
water until the liquid is reduced to
approximalely 2 cups. This decoction is
strained and 4–5 tea spoonfuls are
administered every 15–20 min.
34Hemidesmus indicus (L.)
R.Br.
The root powder is given in doses of 10–60
grains with milk, or its decoction in doses of
2–3 ounces thrice a day. The root (5 g) along
with Talmuli (Curculigo orchioides), root of
Elephantopur scaber, motha (rhizome of
Cyperus rotundus) fennel and cumin seeds is
given to children 2–3 times a day in
diarrhoea.
35Hemigraphis hirta (Vahl)
Ander.
In the cases of dysentery and blood
dysentery the juice of the plant is taken one
or two teaspoonfuls according to age. The
dried and powdered plant is also used in 5–
7 g doses.
36
Holarrhena
antidysenterica (Heyne
ex Roth.)
The liquid extract is given in doses of 15–30
drops for children and one to two1–2
drachms for adults. The decoction is given in
doses of 1–3 ounces; the daily doses of the
powder are 60–120 grains divided into 3–4
portions.
37 Ixora coccinea L.
In dysentery, 2 tolas of the flowers fried in
ghee, rubbed down with a little cumin and
nagkesar, made into a bolus with butter and
sugar candy and administered twice a day.
38Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam).
Persoons,
The dose is 45–180 grains or 1/4–1 tola mixed
with twice its quantity of melted butter.
39Lannea coromandelica
(Houtt.) Merr.
Decoction of bark is given in 1/2–1 ounces
dose in dyspepsia and general debility, gout
and dysentery. 10 g of bark is boiled in 4–5
cups of water until the liquid is reduced to
one cup, cooled and strained before use.
40 Mangifera indica L.
The fried kernel is given to children and to
expected mothers suffering from diarrhoea in
doses of 1–3 grains. In dysentery, with slime
the kernel powder is taken with curds. The
powdered kernel with resin and kurchi is also
given in dysentery. Dose: equal quantities of
each ingredient mixed together and about 15
grains are given twice or thrice a day to
adults; in case of children, 1–3 grain dose
alone or with dried bael (Aegle marmelos).
41Melastoma
malabathricum L.
Powdered leaves are taken alone or with
leaves of Hedyotis and Ageratum in decoction
for dysentery. A paste made from 2–3 roots
of this plant and 3–5 roots of Antidesma
diandrum.
42Mikania cordata
(Burm.f.) Robins.
The leaf is useful in stomachic pain and
dysentery; about 150 ml of leaf sap is given
three times a day.
43 Mimosa pudica L.
The decoction of the leaves and stem (dose:
of the weight of 2 ounces) are used
internally in chronic dysentery. ln cases of
amoebic dysentery leaves (5–6 g only) are
boiled and after straining the decoction is
taken internally.
44 Ocimum basilicum L.
They are given in doses of 1–2 drachms to
adults and 4–5 grains to infants
administered in syrup.
Table 3 (continued )
S/L Name of the plants Doses
45 Ocimum tenuiflorum L.
The leaf juice is stomachic and is given in
doses of 180 grains every morning in
dysentery and dyspepsia.
46 Oroxylum indicum Vent.
Its infusion is given in doses of two ounces
three times a day or its powder in doses of
5–15 grains. The juice expressed from the
root bark is heated in a container of leaves
plastered with layer of clay outside. The
juice is then mixed with the gum of Bombax
ceiba and given in dysentery and diarrhoea.
47 Oxalis corniculata L.
Leaves boiled in butter milk and taken thrice
a day or leaves reduced to a paste together
with ghee and curdled milk or leaf juice
made into a sherbet with a little sugar.
48 Piper betle L.
The juice with honey is given to children in
coiic indigestion, diarrhoea and fever in one
drachm doses twice a day.
49 Piper longum L.
Tlre mature spikes (pipul), mixed with
haritaki (dried fruits of Terminalia chebula)
are used in dysentery. The dose is 1 part of
pipul and 4 parts of haritaki in 3 g of hot
water.
50 Plumbago zeylanica L.It is given only in small doses of 10–20
grains in dyspepsia and diarrhoea.
51 Portulaca oleraceae L.
15 drops of warm juice is mixed with 2–4
drops of honey and given twice a day
morning and evening.
52 Psidium guajava L.
To prepare the decoction, half an ounce of
the root bark is boiled with 6 ounces of
water and evaporated to reduce the liquid to
3 ounces. It is administered in doses of one
or more teaspoonfuls 3 or 4 times a day for
children. The young leaves with the buds of
the pomegranate and babla leaves, given in
the form of a cold infusion are useful in
diarrhoea of children.
53 Raphanus sativus L.
10 grains of dried radish is boiled in 4 cups
of water until the mixture is reduced to one
cup. The decoction is then strained and
administered 4–5 times in a day.
54 Ricinus communis L.
The purgative effect is obtained with doses
of 1–2 drachms taken in empty stomach;
larger doses frequently induced diarrhoea.
The roots of the plants are also used against
colic and blood dysentery. 25 g of roots are
first boiled in a mixture of half poa of milk
and half seeri of water until the decoction is
reduced to half poa and used after straining.
a One grain¼0.0647989 g.b One poa¼233.25 g.c One chatak¼58.32 g.d One ounce [troy]¼31.1034768 g.e one drachm¼3.8 g.f One tola¼11.6638125 g.g teaspoons¼5 ml.h Cups¼250 ml.i seer¼933.105 g.
M.F. Kadir et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 147 (2013) 148–156152
naturally abundant in the locality (Tag et al., 2012) and accessibleto the communities of traditional healers (Tabuti et al., 2003;Uniyal et al., 2006).
Deforestation and selective cutting are the main factors for thespecies being rare. In the study area, deforestation is proceedingat alarming rate due to agricultural expansion and urbanisation(Kadir et al., 2012b). Also there is a tendency of using particulartypes of plants excessively for its popularity in some particularhealings, without concerning its vulnerability.
We have documented the local unit for the dose suggested bythe THPs as conversions of local unit to international unit makesthe calculation unnecessarily complicated. However, the conver-sion scale is given in Table 3. We noticed the lack of precision ofdoses among the informants on certain remedies due to rough
M.F. Kadir et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 147 (2013) 148–156 153
estimation of the doses. THPs prescribed the dose customarilybased on their observations of the type of ailments, seriousnessof the illness and age of the patient. Doses of liquid remediesadministered to humans were usually measured using tea orcoffee cups, teaspoons or by number of drops.
It was noticed that THPs used concoction of different adjuvantsincluding another plant parts for the preparation of medication inthe treatment of single ailments. Several researchers also reportedthe similar findings (Teklehaymanot et al., 2007; Ignacimuthu et al.,2008; Tabuti et al., 2010; Upadhyay et al., 2010). The frequent use ofmultiple plant remedies might be attributed due to the fact ofsynergistic actions where two or more plants produce an effectgreater than the sum of their individual effects (Giday et al., 2010).Poly-herbal treatment might attain better healing power than singlemedicinal plant treatment, since each medicinal plant containsample of pharmacologically active compounds (Teklehaymanotet al., 2007).
The species with high FC values reflect the popular plants withstrong and versatile healing power and further pharmacological,toxicological and phytochemical analysis of these plants shouldbe carried out for the discovery of potential novel antidiarrhealdrugs.
Explaining the mode of actions of 250 plants individually isbeyond the scope of this study. To generalise the mechanism onthe other hand means excluding a lot of important information.Most of the plants documented in our study are used not only totreat gastrointestinal disorders but also in many other diseaseslike sore throat, astringent, menorrhagia, haemoptysis, malaria,liver disorder, snake bite, gout, rheumatism, bronchitis, piles,kidney disease, heart burn, emesis, palpitation, hernia, vomitingof bilious remittent fever, insomnia, vomiting, dysuria, depres-sion, loss of appetite, haemoptysis, wounds, scurvy, intermittentfevers, emmenagogue, bilious pepsia, flatulence, hiccup, febrifuge,infestation by worms, mucus stools etc. This trend indicates thetradition of developing local healing system through trials anderrors for optimal treatment practices as mentioned elsewherealso (Dey and De, 2012).
In order to find the specific compound responsible for therationale of use, several studies have been conducted for activeprinciples in the plants used to cure gastrointestinal disorders(Kumar et al., 2001; Chitme et al., 2004; Gilani et al., 2008).Among 250 plants in our study, the phytochemical investigationswere not conducted in most of the plants and therefore thecompounds founds therein are still unknown. Extensive phyto-chemical investigations on the plants mentioned in our studycould be another mammoth task. As most of the plants in our
Table 4Literature study of the plants surveyed having toxicity.
Scientific name Toxic compounds Toxic eff
Acorus calamus L. Beta asarone Procarcin
Annona squamosa L. Abortifac
Argemone mexicana L. Sanguinarine, Dihydrosanguinarine Epidemic
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Azadirachtin Encephal
Bacopa monieri (L.) PennellSuppress
Digestive
Calotropis procera (Ait) Ait.f. Catotoxin, Calotropine, Calcilin, Gigantin Ocular to
Cannabis sativa L. Carcinoge
Carica papaya L. Azoosper
Cassia occidentalis L. Pyrrolizidine alkaloid Hepatoto
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Abortifac
Ricinus communis L. Ricin Abortifac
study did not undergo phytochemical investigations, informationprovided here is very limited. Most of the plants in our study withearlier report contain phytochemicals like glycosides and flavo-noids that are considered to have anti-diarrhoeal properties(Palombo, 2006). Lectin from Aegle marmelos (L.) (Raja et al.,2011); asiaticoside from Centella asiatica L. (Cheng et al., 2004;Guo et al., 2004); alkaloid from Holarrhena antidysenterica (Heyneex Roth.) Conessi. (Raj et al., 2010); flavonoids and terpenoidsfrom Vitex negundo L. (Nagarsekar et al., 2010); phenol fromTamarindus indica L. (Escalona-Arranz et al., 2010); zingerone(vanillylacetone) from Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Chen et al., 2007)possess different properties that are relevant to use in differentgastrointestinal disorders. Also a trace of quercetin aglyconetogether with five glycosides (quercetin 3-O-alpha-Larabinoside(guajavarin); quercetin 3-O-beta-D-glucoside (isoquercetin);quercetin 3-O-beta-Dgalactoside (hyperin); quercetin 3-O-beta-L-rhamnoside (quercitrin) and quercetin 3-Ogentobioside ) wasisolated from the Psidium guajava leaf that shows spasmolyticactivity (Lozoya et al., 1994). Several unidentified compoundsfrom different parts of Carica papaya L. (Chen et al., 1981; Ezikeet al., 2009) also possess the property for being used in gastro-intestinal disorders.
Several investigators have reported about the pharmacologicalrelevance to the plants used in gastrointestinal disorders (Cacereset al.,1990; Rojas et al.,1995; Johns et al.,1995; Longanga et al.,2000; Diehl et al., 2004; Maniyar et al., 2010; Imran et al., 2011;Kozan et al., 2011; Rani and Khullar, 2004; Ahmad and Aqil, 2007;Dey et al., 2011; Mukherjee et al., 2012) but most of the 250plants included in our study do not have much informationregarding pharmacological relevance. Some of the plants haveextensive information regarding their phytochemical compoundsand mechanism of action which is related to substantiate theirproperties to have application in gastrointestinal disorders andpossess hepatoprotective, gastro-protective, anti-enteric bacter-ial, anti-helmintic, anti-amoebic, anti-diarrhoeal, anti-cholera,antiulcer and purgative activities. Holarrhena antidysenterica
(Heyne ex Roth.) Conessi. prevents adhesion of the entericbacteria Escherichia coli on host epithelial cells (Gilani et al.,2010), activates histamine receptors and blocks calcium channelfor mediation of antidiarrheal and spasmolytic properties(Kavitha and Niranjali, 2009); Aegle marmelos L. Corr. inhibitscolonisation of enteric bacteria in the gut epithelia (Mazumderet al., 2006; Brijesh et al., 2009); Alstonia scholaris R.Br. worksagainst fore stomach carcinogenesis (Jagetia et al., 2003;Nersesyan, 2004; Shah et al., 2010); papain from Carica papaya L.decreases acid secretion (Chen et al., 1981); Centella asiatica L.
ects Reference
ogenicWeisburger (1979);
Paneru et al. (1997)
ient, eye irritant Ajesh et al. (2012)
dropsyMeaker (1950); Verma et al. (2001);
Sharma et al. (1999); Das and Khanna. (1997)
opathy, Ophthalmopathy Gandhi et al. (1988); Bhaskar et al. (2010)
spermatogenesis and fertility,
problemPravina et al. (2007); Singh and Singh (2009)
xicity Kuriachen et al. (1989); Basak et al. (2009)
nic Moir et al. (2008)
mia Lohiya et al. (2002)
xic
Huxtable et al. (1989);
Vanderperren et al. (2005);
Vashishtha et al. (2007)
ient Katewa et al. (2008)
ient Arag~ao et al. (2009)
M.F. Kadir et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 147 (2013) 148–156154
controls myeloperoxidase activity (Cheng et al., 2004) andinhibits nitric oxide synthase (Guo et al., 2004) in the ulcertissues; Emblica officinalis Gaertn. possesses antisecretory, anti-ulcer and cytoprotective activites due to its effect on mucosalfactors such as acid, pepsin, mucin secretion etc. (Sairam et al.,2002; Al-Rehaily et al., 2002); Hedyotis auricularia L. possesseshepatoprotective and gastroprotective properties (Singh andHanda, 1995; Shanmugasundaram and Venkataraman, 2006);Tamarindus indica L. decreases gastric juice volume and aciditywhich is comparable with standard drug (Kalra et al., 2011);Vitex negundo L. possess anti- ulcerative colitis properties(Zaware et al., 2011).
Through literature study, we 11 eleven plants having toxicpotentiality (Table 4). Unless epidemic dropsy and oculartoxicity caused by seed oil of Argemone mexicana L. (Meaker,1950; Verma et al., 2001; Sharma et al., 1999; Das and Khanna,1997) and latex of Calotropis procera (Ait) Ait.f (Kuriachen et al.,1989) respectively, the rest are toxic only due to high dosesingestion.
5. Conclusion
Current inventory represents the contribution of natural floraof Bangladesh to the global approach in the treatment of differentgastrointestinal disorders. This knowledge will aid in the devel-opment of novel plant based treatment. Although, preliminarystudies undertaken on these medicinal plants have confirmedtheir efficacy, but further investigations should be carried onespecially in order to ensure safe therapy concerning medicinalplants.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the contribution of all the traditionmedicine practitioners and ayurvedic drug manufacturers forproviding relevant information regarding medicinal plants andtheir practices. We also express appreciations to all the govern-ment and non-government authorities for their help and theadministrative facilities during the survey.
Appendix A. Supporting information
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found inthe online version at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.02.023.
References
Abo, K.A., Fred-Jaiyesimi, A.A., Jaiyesimi, A.E.A., 2008. Ethnobotanical studies ofmedicinal plants used in the management of diabetes mellitus in SouthWestern Nigeria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115, 67–71.
Ahmad, I., Aqil, F., 2007. In vitro efficacy of bioactive extracts of 15 medicinalplants against ESBL producing multidrug resistant enteric bacteria. Micro-biological Research 162, 264–275.
Ajesh, T.P., Krishnaraj, M.V., Prabu, M., Kumuthakalavalli, R., 2012. Herbalabortifacients used by Mannan tribes of Kerala, India. International Journalof PharmTech Research 4, 1015–1017.
Akerele, O., 1984. WHO’s traditional medicine programme, progress and perspec-tives. WHO Chronicle 38, 76–81.
Al-Rehaily, A.J., Al-Howiriny, T.A., Al-Sohaibani, M.O., Rafatullah, S., 2002. Gastro-protective effects of ‘Amla’ E. officinalis on in vivo test models in rats.Phytomedicine 9, 515–522.
Appidi, J.R., Grierson, D.S., Afolayan, A.J., 2008. Ethnobotanical study of plants usedfor the treatment of diarrhoea in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. PakistanJournal of Biological Sciences 11, 1961–1963.
Arag~ao, T.P., Lyra, M.M., Silva, M.G., Andrade, B.A., Ferreira, P.A., Ortega, L.F.,da Silva, S.D., da Silva, J.C., Fraga, M.C., Wanderley, A.G., Lafayette, S.S., 2009.
Toxicological reproductive study of Cassia occidentalis L. in female Wistar rats.Journal of Ethnopharmacology 123, 163–166.
Asase, A., Akweteya, G.A., Achel, D.G., 2010. Ethnopharmacological use of herbalremedies for the treatment of malaria in the Dangme West District of Ghana.Journal of Ethnopharmacology 129, 367–376.
Asase, A., Kokubun, T., Garyer, R.J., Kite, G., Simmonds, M.S.J., Oteng-Yeboah, A.A.,Odamtten, G.T., Simmonds, M.S.J., 2008. Chemical constituents and antimi-crobial activity of medicinal plants from Ghana: Cassia seiberiana, Haemas-tostaphis barteri, Mitragyna inermis and Pseudocedrela kotchyi. PhytotherapyResearch 22, 1013–1016.
Banglapedia: National encyclopedia of Bangladesh, 2003. Asiatic Society ofBangladesh. Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Barbara, B.B., 1998. Gastroenteritis. Medical Update for Psychiatrists 4, 95–98.Basic Health Statistics Report, 2010. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh.Bhaskar, M.V., Pramod, S.J., Jeevika, M.U., Chandan, P.K., Shetteppa, G., 2010.
MR imaging findings of neem oil poisoning. American Journal of Neuroradiology31, E60–E61.
Brijesh, S., Daswani, P., Tetali, P., Antia, N., Birdi, T., 2009. Studies on theantidiarrheal activity of A. marmelos unripe fruit: validating its traditionalusage. BMC complementary and alternative medicine 9, 47.
Bruni, A., Ballero, M., Poli, F., 1997. Quantitative ethnopharmacological study ofthe Campidano valley and Urzulei district, Sardinia, Italy. Journal of Ethno-pharmacology 57, 97–124.
Basak, S.K., Bhaumik, A., Mohanta, A., Singhal, P., 2009. Ocular toxicity by latex ofCalotropis procera (Sodom apple). Indian Journal of Ophthalmology 57,232–234.
Caceres, A., Cano, O., Samayoa, B., Aguilar, L., 1990. Plants used in Guatemala forthe treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Screening of 84 plants againstenterobacteria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 30, 55–73.
Chen, C.F., Chen, S.M., Chow, S.Y., Han, P.W., 1981. Protective effects of C. papayaLinn. on the exogenous gastric ulcer in rats. The American Journal of ChineseMedicine 9, 205–212.
Chen, J.C., Huang, L.J., Wu, S.L., Kuo, S.C., Ho, T.Y., Hsiang, C.Y., 2007. Ginger and itsbioactive component inhibit enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli heat-labileenterotoxin-induced diarrhoea in mice. Journal of Agriculture and FoodChemistry 55, 8390–8397.
Cheng, C.L., Guo, J.S., Luk, J., Koo, M.W., 2004. The healing effects of Centella extractand asiaticoside on acetic acid induced gastric ulcers in rats. Life Sciences 74,2237–2249.
Chitme, H.R., Chandra, M., Kaushik, S., 2004. Studies on anti-diarrhoeal activity ofCalotropis gigantea R.Br. in experimental animals. Journal of Pharmacy andPharmaceutical Sciences 7, 70–75.
CIA The World Factbook, 2012. Available from /https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.htmlS (accessed 15.10.12).
Cotton, C.M., 1996. Ethnobotany: Principle and Application, New York. John Wileyand Sons.
Das, M., Khanna, S.K., 1997. Clinicoepidemiological, toxicological, and safetyevaluation studies on argemone oil. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 27,273–297.
Dey, A., De, J.N., 2012. Ethnobotanical survey of Purulia district, West Bengal, Indiafor medicinal plants used against gastrointestinal disorders. Journal of Ethno-pharmacology 143, 68–80.
Dey, A., Mukherjee, S., Das, T., 2011. In vitro antibacterial activity of n-Hexanefraction of methanolic extract of P. rubra L. (Apocynaceae) stem bark. Journalof Plant Sciences 6, 135–142.
Diehl, M.S., Atindehou, K.K., Te�re�, H., Betschart, B., 2004. Prospect for anthel-minthic plants in the Ivory Coast using ethnobotanical criteria. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 95, 277–284.
Escalona-Arranz, J.C., Pe� res-Roses, R., Urdaneta-Laffita, I., Camacho-Pozo, M.I.,Rodrı�guez- Amado, J., Licea-Jime�nez, I., 2010. Antimicrobial activity of extractsfrom T. indica L. leaves. Pharmacognosy Magazine 6, 242–247.
Ezike, A.C., Akah, P.A., Okoli, C.O., Ezeuchenne, N.A., Ezeugwu, S., 2009. C. papaya(Paw–Paw) unripe fruit may be beneficial in ulcer. Journal of Medicinal Food12, 1268–1273.
Farthing, M.J.G., Kelly, P., 2007. Infectious diarrhoea. Medicine GastroenterologyPart 3 of 435, 251–256.
Gandhi, M., Lal, R., Sankaranarayanan, A., Banerjee, C.K., Sharma, P.L., 1988. Acutetoxicity study of the oil from Azadirachta indica seed (neem oil). Journal ofEthnopharmacology 23, 39–51.
Giday, M., Asfaw, Z., Woldu, Z., 2009. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic groupof Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical study. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124,513–521.
Giday, M., Asfaw, Z., Woldu, Z., 2010. Ethnomedicinal study of plants usedby Sheko ethnic group of Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132,75–85.
Gilani, A.H., Khan, A., Khan, A.U., Bashir, S., Rehman, N.U., Mandukhail, S.U., 2010.Pharmacological basis for the medicinal use of H. antidysenterica in gutmotility disorders. Pharmaceutical Biology 48, 1240–1246.
Gilani, A.H., Khan, A.U., Raoof, M., Ghayur, M.N., Siddiqui, B.S., Vohra, W., Begum, S.,2008. Gastrointestinal, selective airways and urinary bladder relaxant effects ofHyoscyamus niger are mediated through dual blockade of muscarinic receptorsand Ca2þ channels. Fundamental and Clinical Pharmacology 22, 87–99.
Gonzalez, J.A., Garcia-Barrriuso, M., Amich, F., 2010. Ethnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants traditionally used in the Arribes del Duero, Western Spain.Journal of Ethnopharmacology 131, 343–355.
M.F. Kadir et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 147 (2013) 148–156 155
Guo, J.S., Cheng, C.L., Koo, M.W., 2004. Inhibitory effects of C. asiatica water extractand asiaticoside on inducible nitricoxide synthase during gastric ulcer healingin rats. Planta Medica 70, 1150–1154.
Heinrich, M., Rimpler, H., Barrera, N.A., 1992. Indigenous phytotherapy of gastro-intestinal disorders in a lowland Mixe community (Oaxaca, Mexico): ethno-pharmacologic evaluation. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 36, 63–80.
Huxtable, R.J., 1989. Human health implications of pyrrolizidine alkaloids andherbs containing them. In: Cheeke, P.R. (Ed.), Toxicants of Plant Origin, 1. CRCPress Inc., Florida, pp. 42–86.
Ignacimuthu, S., Ayyanar, M., Sankarasivaraman, K., 2008. Ethno-botanical study ofmedicinal plants used by Paliyar tribals in Theni district of Tamil Nadu, India.Fitoterapia 79, 562–568.
Imran, I., Hussain, L., Zia-Ul-Haq, M., Janbaz, K.H., Gilani, A.H., DeFeo, V., 2011.Gastrointestinal and respiratory activities of Acacia leucophloea. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 138, 676–682.
Jagetia, G.C., Baliga, M.S., Venkatesh, P., 2003. Effect of Sapthaparna (A. scholarisLinn) in modulating the benzo(a)pyrene induced for stomach carcinogenesis inmice. Toxicology Letters 144, 183–193.
Johns, T., Faubert, G.M., Kokwaro, J.O., Mahunnah, R.L., Kimanani, E.K., 1995. Anti-giardial activity of gastrointestinal remedies of the Luo of east Africa. Journalof Ethnopharmacology 46, 17–23.
Kadir, M.F., Bin Sayeed, M.S., Mia, M.M.K., 2012b. Ethnopharmacological survey ofmedicinal plants used by indigenous and tribal people in Rangamati, Bangla-desh. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 144, 627–637.
Kadir, M.F., Bin Sayeed, M.S., Shams, T., Mia, M.M.K., 2012a. Ethnobotanical surveyof medicinal plants used by Bangladeshi traditional health practitioners in themanagement of diabetes mellitus. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 144,605–611.
Kalra, P., Sharma, S., Suman Kumar, S., 2011. Antiulcer effect of the methanolicextract of T. indica seeds in different experimental models. Journal ofPharmacy and Bioallied Sciences 3, 236–241.
Katewa, S.S., Galav, P.K., Nag, A., Jain, A., 2008. Poisonous plants of SouthernAravalli hills of Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 7, 269–272.
Kavitha, D., Niranjali, S., 2009. Inhibition of enteropathogenic Escherichiacoliadhesion on host epithelial cells by H. antidysenterica (L.) Wall. PhytotherapyResearch 23, 1229–1236.
Kozan, E., C- ankaya, I.T., Kahraman, C., Akkol, E.K., Akdemir, Z., 2011. The in vivoanthelmintic efficacy of some Verbascum species growing in Turkey. Experi-mental Parasitology 129, 211–214.
Kumar, S., Dewan, S., Sangraula, H., Kumar, V.L., 2001. Anti-diarrhoealactivity of the latex of Calotropis procera. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 76,115–118.
Kuriachen, P.M., Dave, Y., 1989. Structural, developmental and histochemicalstudies in the collectors of Calotropis procera (Asclepiadaceae). Journal ofPhytological Research 2, 7–14.
Lohiya, N.K., Manivannan, B., Mishra, P.K., Pathak, N., Sriram, S., Bhande, S.S.,Panneerdoss, S., 2002. Chloroform extract of Carica papaya seeds induces long-term reversible azoospermia in langur monkey. Asian Journal of Andrology 4,17–26.
Lozoya, X., Meckes, M., Abou-Zaid, M., Tortoriello, J., Nozzolillo, C., Arnason, J.T.,1994. Quercetin glycosides in Psidium guajava L. leaves and determination of aspasmolytic principle. Archives of Medical Research 25, 11–15.
Longanga, O.A., Vercruysse, A., Foriers, A., 2000. Contribution to the ethnobotani-cal, phytochemical and pharmacological studies of traditionally used medic-inal plants in the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea in Lomela area,Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 71,411–423.
Mahishi, P., Srinivasa, B.H., Shivanna, M.B., 2005. Medicinal plant wealth of localcommunities in some villages in Shimoga District of Karnataka, India. Journalof Ethnopharmacology 98, 307.
Maniyar, Y., Bhixavatimath, P., Agashikar, N.V., 2010. Antidiarrheal activity offlowers of Ixora coccinea Linn. In rats. Journal of Ayurveda and IntegrativeMedicine 1, 287–291.
Marles, R., Farnsworth, N., 1995. Antidiabetic plants and their active constituents.Phytomedicine 2, 137–165.
Mazumder, R., Bhattacharya, S., Mazumder, A., Pattnaik, A.K., Tiwary, P.M.,Chaudhary, S., 2006. Antidiarrheal evaluation of A. marmelos (Correa) Linn.root extract. Phytotherapy Research 20, 82–84.
Meaker, R.E., 1950. Argemone mexicana Seed Poisoning. South African MedicalJournal 24, 331–333.
Mia, M.M.K., 1990. Traditional Medicines of Bangladesh. Traditional medicinesIn: Ghani, A. (Ed.), Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka.
Moir, D., Rickert, W.S., Levasseur, G., Larose, Y., Maertens, R., White, P., Desjardins,S., 2008. A comparison of mainstream and sidestream marijuana and tobaccocigarette smoke produced under two machine smoking conditions. ChemicalResearch in Toxicology 21, 494–502.
Mukherjee, S., Dey, A., Das, T., 2012. In vitro antibacterial activityofn-hexanefraction of methanolicextractof A. scholaris (L.) R.Br. stembark against somemultidrug resistant human pathogenic bacteria. European Journal of MedicinalPlants 2, 1–10.
Nadembega, P., Boussim, J.I., Nikiema, J.P., Poli, F., Antognoni, F., 2011. Medicinalplants in Baskoure, Kourittenga Province, Burkina Faso: an ethnobotanicalstudy. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 133, 378–395.
Nagarsekar, K.S., Nagarsenker, M.S., Kulkarni, S.R., 2010. Evaluation of compositionand antimicrobial activity of super critical fluid extract of leaves of V. negundo.Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 72, 641–643.
Naik, S.R., Sketh, U.K., 1976. Inflammatory process and screening methods for anti-inflammatory agents—a review. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine 22, 5–21.
Nersesyan, A.K., 2004. Modification of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) induced for stomachcarcinogenesis in mice by means of extract of the bark of Alstonia scholaris(ASE). Toxicology Letters 154, 159–160.
Palombo, E.A., 2006. Phytochemicals from traditional medicinal plants used in thetreatment of diarrhoea: modes of action and effects on intestinal function.Phytotherapy Research 20, 717–724.
Paneru, R.B., le Patourel, G.N.J., Kennedy, S.H., 1997. Toxicity of Acorus calamusrhizome powder from Eastern Nepal to Sitophilus granarius (L.) and Sitophilusoryzae (L.) (Coleoptera, Curculionidae). Crop Protection 16, 759–763.
Patwardhan, B., Mashelkar, R.A., 2009. Traditional medicine-inspired approachesto drug discovery: can ayurveda show the way forward? Drug Discovery Today14, 804–811.
Pravina, K., Ravindra, K.R., Goudar, K.S., Vinod, D.R., Joshua, A.J., Wasim, P.,Venkateshwarlu, K., Saxena, V.S., Amit, A., 2007. Safety evaluation of BacoMindin healthy volunteers: a phase I study. Phytomedicine 14, 301–308.
Raj, V.P., Chandrasekhar, R.H., Vijayan, V., Dhanaraj, S.A., Rao, M.C., Rao, V.J., Nitesh, K.,2010. In vitro and in vivo hepatoprotective effects of the total alkaloid fraction ofH. auriculata leaves. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 42, 99–104.
Raja, S.B., Murali, M.R., Kumar, N.K., Devaraj, S.N., 2011. Isolation and partialcharacterisation of a novel lectin from Aegle marmelos fruit and its effect onadherence and invasion of Shigellae to HT29 cells. PLoS One 6, 16231.
Rani, P., Khullar, N., 2004. Antimicrobial evaluation of some medicinal plants fortheir anti-enteric potential against multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi.Phytotherapy Research 18, 670–673.
Ribeiro, A., Romeiras, M.M., Tavares, J., Faria, M.T., 2010. Ethnobotanical survey inCanhane village, district of Massingir, Mozambique, medicinal plants andtraditional knowledge. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 6, 33.
Rojas, A., Cruz, S., Rauch, V., Bye, R., Linares, E., Mata, R., 1995. Spasmolyticpotential of some plants used in Mexican traditional medicine for thetreatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Phytomedicine 2, 51–55.
Sairam, K., Rao, Ch.V., Babu, M.D., Kumar, K.V., Agrawal, V.K., Goel, R.K., 2002.Antiulcerogenic effect of methanolic extract of E. officinalis: an experimentalstudy. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 82, 1–9.
Shah, A.J., Gowani, S.A., Zuberi, A.J., Ghayur, M.N., Gilani, A.H., 2010. Antidiarrhoealand spasmolytic activities of the methanolic crude extract of A. scholaris L.are mediated through calcium channel blockade. Phytotherapy Research 24,28–32.
Shanmugasundaram, P., Venkataraman, S., 2006. Hepatoprotective and antioxi-dant effects of H. auriculata (K. Schum) Heine Acanthaceae root extract. Journalof Ethnopharmacology 104, 124–128.
Sharma, B.D., Malhotra, S., Bhatia, V., Rathee, M., 1999. Epidemic dropsy in India.Postgraduate Medical Journal 75, 657–661.
Singh, A., Handa, S.S., 1995. Hepatoprotective activity of Apium graveolens and H.auriculata against paracetamol and thioacetamide intoxication in rats. Journalof Ethnopharmacology 49, 119–126.
Singh, A., Singh, S.K., 2009. Evaluation of antifertility potential of Brahmi in malemouse. Contraception 79, 71–79.
Sofowora, A., 1993. Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa, 2ndedition Spectrum Book Ltd., Ibadan, Nigeria, p. 289.
Tabuti, J.R.S., Kukunda, C.B., Waako, P.J., 2010. Medicinal plants used by traditionalmedicine practitioners in the treatment of tuberculosis and related ailments inUganda. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 127, 130–136.
Tabuti, J.R.S., Lye, K.A., Dhillion, S.S., 2003. Traditional herbal drugs of Bulamogi,Uganda: plants, use and administration. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 88,19–44.
Tag, H., Kalita, P., Dwivedi, P., Das, A.K., Namsa, N.D., 2012. Herbal medicines usedin the treatment of diabetes mellitus in Arunachal Himalaya, northeast, India.Journal of Ethnopharmacology 141, 786–795.
Teklehaymanot, T., Giday, M., Medhin, G., Mekonnen, Y., 2007. Knowledge and useof medicinal plants by people around Debre Libanos monastery in Ethiopia.Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111, 271–283.
Telefo, P.B., Lienou, L.L., Yemele, M.D., Lemfack, M.C., Mouokeu, C., Goka, C.S.,Tagne, S.R., Moundipa, F.P., 2011. Ethnopharmacological survey of plants usedfor the treatment of female infertility in Baham, Cameroon. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 136, 178–187.
Tetali, P., Waghchaure, C., Daswani, P.G., Antia, N.H., Birdi, T.J., 2009. Ethnobota-nical survey of antidiarrhoeal plants of Parinche valley, Pune district, Mahar-ashtra. India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 123, 229–236.
Thapar, N., Sanderson, I.R., 2004. Diarrhoea in children: an interface betweendeveloping and developed countries. The Lancet 363, 641–653.
Uniyal, S.K., Singh, K.N., Jamwal, P., Lal, B., 2006. Traditional use of medicinalplants among the tribal communities Chhota, Western Himalaya. Journal ofEthnobiology and ethnomedicine 2, 1–14.
Upadhyay, B., Parveen Dhaker, A.K., Kumar, A., 2010. Ethnomedicinal andethnopharmaco-statistical studies of Eastern Rajasthan, India. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 129, 64–86.
Vanderperren, B., Rizzo, M., Angenot, L., Haufroid, V., Jadoul, M., Hantson, P., 2005.Acute liver failure with renal impairment related to the abuse of sennaanthraquinone glycosides. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 39, 1353–1357.
Vashishtha, V.M., Kumar, A., John, T.J., Nayak, N.C., 2007. Cassia occidentalispoisoning as the probable cause of hepatomyoencephalopathy in children inwestern Uttar Pradesh. Indian Journal of Medical Research 125, 756–762.
Vera-Ku, M., Me�ndez-Gonza� lez, M., Moo-Puc, R., Rosado-Vallado, M., Sima�-Polanco, P., Cedillo-Rivera, R., Peraza-Sa�nchez, S.R., 2010. Medicinal potions
M.F. Kadir et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 147 (2013) 148–156156
used against infectious bowel diseases in Mayan traditional medicine. Journalof Ethnopharmacology 132, 303–308.
Verma, S.K., Dev, G., Tyagi, A.K., Goomber, S., Jain, G.V., 2001. Argemone mexicanapoisoning: autopsy findings of two cases. Forensic Science International 115,135–141.
Weisburger, E.K., 1979. Natural Carcinogenic Products, Environmental Science &Technology. ACS Publications.
WHO Fact Sheets, 2009. Diarrhoeal Disease. /www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/index.htmlS.
Yusuf, M., Begum, J., Hoque, M.N., Chowdhury, J.U., 2009. Medicinal Plants ofBangladesh. Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Dhaka1205, Bangladesh.
Zaware, B.B., Nirmal, S.A., Baheti, D.G., Patil, A.N., Mandal, S.C., 2011. Potential of V.negundo roots in the treatment of ulcerative colitis in mice. PharmaceuticalBiology 49, 874–878.
de Wet, H., Nkwanyana, M.N., van Vuuren, S.F., 2010. Medicinal plants used for thetreatment of diarrhoea in northern Maputaland, KwaZulu-Natal Province,South Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 130, 284–289.
