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ESTABLISHING A PARTICIPATORY PLANNING
FRAMEWORK FOR THE GOONJ ARLAN
ABORIGINAL CORPORATION CONSERVANCY IN
THE KIMBERLEY.
Grant Walsh, BSc, Grad. Dip. Mgt Stud, Grad Dip Sc
This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
The University of Western Australia
School of Earth and Environment
2010
i
ABSTRACT
Government policy regarding indigenous people in a natural resource management
context is commonly peripheral to broader indigenous issues. Current Australian policy
aims to encourage participation but has not increased involvement of Aboriginal people in
sustainable natural resource management. Notably the role of family outstations in
“caring for country” is understated.
This thesis develops frameworks for indigenous people to plan their use of country at
a localised level through integration of economic development and capacity building. A
planning framework for natural resource management was developed and applied to an
outstation community, the Bunyiol Bardi family group of Goonj Arlan in King Sound,
Western Australia (Chapter 1). The intention of the Bunyiol Bardi was to implement a
management strategy accommodating customary practices including access control,
harvesting and monitoring of the country‟s condition. The planning framework they used
is based on the theoretical framework of the research and has potential for application
elsewhere in Australia and overseas since community ownership of destiny underpins
successful development.
Literature relating to management of natural resources by indigenous people was
reviewed (Chapter 2). From this a set of base principles underpinning reportedly
successful activity was derived and used to critique Australian Government policy as it
relates to opportunities for Aboriginal people (Chapters 3 & 4). Mechanisms to address
governance shortfalls and support self-reliance were developed from the critique.
Wild harvesting of crocodile eggs by the Djelk Rangers, an Indigenous community in
central northern Arnhem Land, was examined as a case study to support interpretation of
the base principles. This yielded a conceptual model (Chapter 5) comprising
considerations for initiatives involving natural resources.
The conceptual model was then used to develop and implement a Participatory
Planning Framework, for the family outstation of Goonj Arlan (Chapters 6 & 7). The
people of Goonj Arlan are intent on returning to country to meet their custodial
responsibilities and create opportunities for current and future generations. Facilitation
ii
assisted the family group derive and implement the planning framework, and translate
collective aspirations into actionable tasks. Through structured workshops the family
considered opportunities for business, community development and caring for country.
Application of the planning framework led to conceptualisation of a Goonj Arlan
Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy and Futures Plan that integrates social,
environmental and economic objectives (Chapter 8). The future for Goonj Arlan people,
as they view it, is potentially meaningful employment, healthy lifestyle and custodial
responsibility towards family claimed land and sea.
Philosophically, the key focus for many indigenous people in a family centric
community is belief the family-level link to country is strongest and activity on family
country has purpose. While Goonj Arlan is the medium for the research, the results have
wider relevance to Australia and overseas. Indigenous societies are typified by complex
social structures integrating people with country and resources (Chapter 9). The models
presented in this thesis are based on common themes relating more broadly to indigenous
people. They conceptualise the factors comprising indigenous development, provide a
planning framework to transform aspirations into outcomes and propose that indigenous
managed ventures can be more than single activities conducted by large communities.
While the Goonj Arlan plan remains to be implemented, the research clearly demonstrates
the desire and capacity of a small family group to identify shared values, develop a
commercially viable plan, and outline the future steps for its implementation.
iii
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ...………………………………………………………………………......i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..……………………………………………………………iii
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ………………………………………………...vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………………………...x
1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1 RESEARCH PROJECT ...................................................................................... 1 1.2 CONTEXT .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2.1 Definitions and Conventions ....................................................................... 4 1.2.2 Opportunity through Identity ....................................................................... 6 1.2.3 Customary Practices and Ecological Management...................................... 9 1.2.4 Regional Setting and Site Description ....................................................... 11 1.2.5 A Theoretical Framework for Participatory Planning ............................... 14
1.3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLGY ................................................ 18 1.3.1 Research Objectives................................................................................... 18 1.3.2 Research Design and Methods .................................................................. 19
1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS ...................................................................... 27
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................... 30 2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 30 2.2 TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND CARING FOR COUNTRY .............. 31 2.3 AUSTRALIA‟S INDIGENOUS SECTOR AND ECONOMY ........................ 34 2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS MANAGEMENT STRUCTURES37
2.4.1 Social Imperatives. .................................................................................... 39 2.4.2 Indigenous Leadership and Community Involvement. .............................. 42 2.4.3 Harnessing Niche Markets. ........................................................................ 46 2.4.4 Monitoring the Impact and Adapting to Environmental Imperatives. ....... 49 2.4.5 Reliance on State Involvement .................................................................. 51
2.5 CONCLUSION: PROPOSITIONS FOR RESEARCH .................................... 53
3 THE AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT, ABORIGINAL PEOPLE AND
COUNTRY ......................................................................................... 56 3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 56 3.2 COMMONWEALTH INTENT AND ACTIONS ............................................ 58
3.2.1 Government Intent through Inquiries and Strategies ................................. 58 3.2.2 Commonwealth Legislation Relating to Opportunity on Country ............ 64 3.2.3 Opportunity through Changed Arrangements ........................................... 67 3.2.4 The Natural Heritage Trust and Caring for Our Country Program. .......... 71 3.2.5 Other Government Initiatives .................................................................... 74
3.3 INTERESTS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR INDIGENOUS PEOPLE .......... 75 3.3.1 Aboriginal Involvement in Natural Resource Management ...................... 75 3.3.2 Employment Opportunity and CDEP ........................................................ 81 3.3.3 Training to Enable Indigenous Involvement ............................................. 85
3.4 CONCLUSION: THE POLICY IMPACT ON GOONJ ARLAN .................... 87 3.4.1 Considerations for Commonwealth Policy ................................................ 87 3.4.2 Government Impact on the Goonj Arlan Model ........................................ 93
iv
4 WESTERN AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT CREATING OPPORTUNITY
‘ON COUNTRY’ ................................................................................ 95 4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 95 4.2 THE INDIGENOUS AFFAIRS ADVISORY COMMITTEE AND THE
INDIGENOUS IMPLEMENTATION BOARD ....................................................... 96 4.3 STATE MANAGEMENT THROUGH STRATEGY ...................................... 98
4.3.1 Significance of State‟s Sustainability Strategy to Indigenous Opportunity98 4.3.2 The Aboriginal Fishing Strategy as a Benchmarking Strategy ................. 99
4.4 NATURAL HERITAGE TRUST AND WESTERN AUSTRALIAN
RANGELANDS NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY ......... 102 4.5 A WHOLE-OF-GOVERNMENT APPROACH ............................................ 106 4.6 REGIONAL VERSUS STATE MANAGEMENT ......................................... 107 4.7 WILDLIFE USE CHALLENGES CONSERVATIVE POLICY ................... 110 4.8 CONCLUSION: THE STATE IMPACT ON GOONJ ARLAN .................... 111
5 CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS ................................... 115 5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 115
5.1.1 Sustainable Harvesting in Australia ........................................................ 116 5.1.2 Crocodile Egg Harvesting by the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation ... 117
5.2 POLICY AND LEGISLATION ...................................................................... 118 5.2.1 Legislation/Policy and Wildlife Harvesting ............................................ 118 5.2.2 Northern Territory Management Policies ................................................ 119
5.3 ROLES OF STAKEHOLDERS ...................................................................... 121 5.3.1 Indigenous Communities in Central Northern Arnhem Land ................. 122 5.3.2 The Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation ................................................. 124 5.3.3 The Djelk Ranger Scheme ....................................................................... 125 5.3.4 The Northern Land Council ..................................................................... 125 5.3.5 Parks and Wildlife Service of Northern Territory ................................... 126 5.3.6 The Key Centre for Tropical Wildlife Management ............................... 127 5.3.7 Wildlife Management International ......................................................... 127
5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAC MANAGEMENT .............................. 128 5.4.1 The Executive Committee Structure and Its Interaction ......................... 128 5.4.2 Commercialism in a Hybrid Economy .................................................... 130 5.4.3 The Iterative Development of a Simple Commercial Venture ................ 133 5.4.4 Training to Support the Venture .............................................................. 134 5.4.5 Evaluating Commercial Activities to Satisfy External Scrutiny ............. 136
5.5 CONCLUSION: A BUSINESS MODEL FOR CARING FOR COUNTRY . 137 5.5.1 The Contribution by Government............................................................ 139 5.5.2 Characteristics of Executive Committee Management ........................... 140 5.5.3 Characteristics of Effective Enterprise .................................................... 141
6 A PLANNING FRAMEWORK FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AT
GOONJ ARLAN .............................................................................. 144 6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 144 6.2 A FRAMEWORK MODEL FOR PARTICIPATORY PLANNING ............. 146
6.2.1 The Process Model .................................................................................. 146 6.2.2 Participatory Planning Framework Step 1: Develop the Framework ...... 148 6.2.3 Participatory Planning Framework Step 2: Collecting the Data .............. 160 6.2.4 Participatory Planning Framework Step 3: The Futures Plan ................. 161
6.3 THEMES OF THE PARTICIPATORY PLANNING FRAMEWORK ......... 164
v
7 PREPARING THE PROJECT ............................................................................ 165 7.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 165 7.2 A DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH SITE ............................................. 165
7.2.1 Geography................................................................................................ 165 7.2.2 Native Species ......................................................................................... 170 7.2.3 The Threats to the environment ............................................................... 175
7.3 THE PEOPLE OF GOONJ ARLAN............................................................... 178 7.4 CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE AND KNOWLEDGE ................................... 181 7.5 INFRASTRUCTURE ...................................................................................... 182 7.6 BUSINESS IN THE PENINSULA ................................................................. 183
7.6.1 Gubinge as a Cash Crop .......................................................................... 183 7.6.2 Seed Collection ........................................................................................ 184 7.6.3 Fresh Produce .......................................................................................... 186 7.6.4 Tourism .................................................................................................... 186 7.6.5 Wildlife Use ............................................................................................. 188 7.6.6 Aquaculture.............................................................................................. 189
7.7 SOURCES OF SUPPORT .............................................................................. 191 7.8 DATA COLLECTED FROM WORKSHOP .................................................. 192
7.8.1 Workshop Stage 1: Where do we want to be? ......................................... 193 7.8.2 Workshop Stage 2: Who will be involved? ............................................. 194 7.8.3 Workshop Stage 3: What have we got already? ...................................... 195 7.8.4 Workshop Stage 4: What are our choices? .............................................. 200 7.8.5 Workshop Stage 5: What will guide us?................................................. 201
7.9 APPLYING THE DATA ................................................................................ 203
8 FORMULATING THE PLAN............................................................................. 204 8.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 204 8.2 FOUNDATIONS FOR GOONJ ARLAN SUSTAINABILITY ..................... 205
8.2.1 A Family Vision and Objectives ............................................................. 205 8.2.2 People: the Principal Foundation ............................................................. 207
8.3 THE CORPORATION CONSERVANCY MODEL ...................................... 210 8.3.1 Supporting a Choice of Lifestyle ............................................................. 215 8.3.2 Community Activity ................................................................................ 216 8.3.3 Caring for Country ................................................................................... 217 8.3.4 Diverse and Niche Enterprise .................................................................. 220
8.4 REVISITING THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL ............................................... 224 8.4.1 The Contribution by Government ............................................................ 225 8.4.2 Characteristics of Executive Committee Management ............................ 226 8.4.3 Characteristics of Activity ....................................................................... 230 8.4.4 A Goonj Arlan Model Enabling Custodianship....................................... 235
9 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .................................................................. 236 9.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 236 9.2 REFLECTIONS ON RESEARCH METHODS ............................................. 236 9.3 REVISITING THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................. 240
9.3.1 Collaboratively Developing a Planning Framework ............................... 240 9.3.2 Planning Framework Structure ................................................................ 241 9.3.3 The Complex Nature of the Planning Environment ................................ 242
9.4 RELEVANCE TO PARTICIPATORY PLANNING ..................................... 242 9.5 RELEVANCE TO OTHER BODIES OF LITERATURE ............................. 248
vi
9.5.1 Contribution to the Broader Literature Review ....................................... 248 9.5.2 The Family Outstation Contribution ........................................................ 254 9.5.3 Diverse and Niche Activity ..................................................................... 258 9.5.4 Mitigating Weaknesses in Government Policy ....................................... 260
9.6 ACHEIVEMENT OF THE OBJECTIVES ..................................................... 263 9.7 IMPLEMENTATION AND FUTURE RESEARCH ..................................... 265 9.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS .......................................................................... 267
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………263
APPENDICES
1. Data Collection Requirements and Competencies Relating Crocodile egg Harvesting
by the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation
2. Considerations for Initiatives Involving Natural Resource Management by
Indigenous Communities
3. A Futures Plan for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy
vii
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Tables:
1-1 Organisations interviewed
1-2 Identified stakeholder groups and key people interviewed for the Bawinanga case
study
2-1 A summary of Ubuntu Principles as they apply to business
5-1 Historical collection data for the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation‟s crocodile egg
harvesting enterprise. Source: The Regional Land Management Coordinator of the BAC
5-2 Allowed commercial harvesting quotas for Crocodylus porosus in the Northern
Territory
7-1 Flora species of Goonj Arlan identified during research fieldwork
7-2 Transects of wild Gubinge distribution
7-3 Bird species identified at Goonj Arlan during research fieldwork
7-4 Marine species identified at Goonj Arlan during research fieldwork
7-5 Seed supplying companies approached
7-6 Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation stakeholders
7-7 Existing skills for Goonj Arlan stakeholders
7-8 Issues affecting development
7-9 Guiding principles for Goonj Arlan
Figures:
1-1 The environs of Goonj Arlan
5-1 The region serviced by the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation. Crocodile eggs are
harvested from the mouths of the Liverpool, Tomkinson, Cadell and Blyth Rivers
viii
5-2 The networked relationships of the main stakeholders involved in the Bawinanga
Aboriginal Corporation‟s crocodile egg harvesting enterprise
5-3 The main language groups serviced by the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation.
Source: The Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation
5-4 Crocodile egg and turtle egg incubation equipment at Maningrida
5-5 The Djelk Ranger‟s workboat. Crews receive training in watermanship and
sophisticated navigation and communications equipment
5-6 A conceptual model for viable indigenous activity based on the crocodile egg
harvesting venture in Maningrida
6-1 A model for participatory planning used at Goonj Arlan
6-2 Workshop model to maximize participation
7-1 Topographical features of Goonj Arlan
7-2 Approximate distribution of reef and photographs showing their typical forms
7-3 Ochre and sand bowl at Goonj Arlan
7-4 Photographs showing typical frontal dune vegetation, mangrove and woodland
habitat of Goonj Arlan
7-5 Vehicle access to the beaches of Goonj Arlan are resulting in degradation of the
dunes in some areas
7-6 Locations at Goonj Arlan used for community customary activity involving coastal
resources.
7-7 Registered Aboriginal sites by name and site identification numbers. Source: Register
of Aboriginal Sites, Government of Western Australia Department of Indigenous Affairs
7-8 Example of aboriginal artifact found at Goonj Arlan
7-9 Existing infrastructure at Goonj Arlan
8-1 Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy functions
8-2 Activities comprising the community function for Goonj Arlan
8-3 Activities comprising the caring for country function for Goonj Arlan
8-4 Activities comprising the business function for Goonj Arlan
ix
8-5 A proposed logo for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy designed
by children of the custodial family during workshopping
8-6 Photographs of the Goonj Arlan custodians on country
9-1 A model for participatory planning
9-2 A workshop model
9-3 A conceptual model for viable indigenous activity
9-4 A model for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy
x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank all contributors to the research supporting this thesis including
Aboriginal groups, government and industry. I wish to thank, in particular the Bawinanga
Aboriginal Corporation and the Djelk Rangers for their support to the research
underpinning the case study assessment. Most importantly I wish to thank the people of
Goonj Arlan for their active involvement, in particular John Jacky for his leadership,
friendship, and guidance, Cheryl, Millie, David and Keith Phillips for their support as
custodians as well as Doug and Merilee for their hospitality. I am grateful to all of the
Goonj Arlan people for their unconditional hospitality they extended to me on their
country and their confidence in the project to deliver an outcome that will hopefully have
utility for their future.
I thank my wife Brigitte and my children Peter and Veronique for supporting my
seemingly irrational decision to leave a successful military career midlife to pursue full
time study and new professional goals.
I am very grateful to Professor Matthew Tonts for his advice and supervision
throughout my research. My fellow mature-age post-graduate candidate John Collins,
who befriended me on day one of my mid-life journey, was significant in his mateship. I
sincerely thank Dr Ian Eliot for his supervision. His subtle yet very effective manner, his
contribution to my new professional network and his enthusiastic friendship made the
experience both rewarding and enjoyable.
Finally I express my sincere gratitude to Nicholas Parsons of Kinsman Consultants
who without solicitation from me provided generous financial support to the project‟s
fieldwork in the Dampier Peninsula. Sadly Nicholas passed away unexpectedly in May
2009.
1
1 INTRODUCTION
―For us, country is a word for all the values, places, resources, stories
and cultural obligations associated with that area and its features. It
describes the entirety of our ancestral domains. All of it is important – we
have no wilderness, nor the opposite of wilderness, nor anything in between.
Country is country – the whole cosmos.
Country underpins and gives meaning to our creation beliefs – the stories
of creation form the basis of our laws and explain the origins of the natural
world to us – all things natural can be explained‖ (Dodson, 2009: 2).
1.1 RESEARCH PROJECT
The research underpinning this thesis is focussed on the question, “how can
indigenous people plan to be active on country at a localised level in a manner that
integrates economic development, caring for country1 and capacity building?” In
addressing this question the research aim is to develop a Participatory Planning
Framework for indigenous community initiatives based on sustainable management of
natural resources and apply it to produce a model for commercial development of an
Aboriginal family outstation on Native Title land in the Kimberley region of Australia.
The model is founded on sustainable management and use of natural coastal resources by
the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation on the Dampier Peninsula in Australia‟s
northwest. Its development addresses social, economic and environmental issues and
recognises the cultural link between people and country.
The planning framework and resulting community model draw from global as well as
Australian experiences of indigenous people. To that end, while the Australian family
initiative provides a medium to present the research, the research outcomes have
applicability to similar pursuits by other indigenous groups in Australia and overseas.
1.2 CONTEXT
Encouraging indigenous people to become active in natural resource management is a
difficult challenge commonly due to funding and governance rather than scientific related
1 The term „caring for country‟ is discussed in detail later in this chapter. Throughout
this thesis it refers to practices and activities undertaken by indigenous people that
contribute to the health of the country and the sustainability of natural resources.
2
factors. In Australia 20 percent, 1.5 million square kilometres, of country is freehold or
Native Title estate to Indigenous people. However despite government driven programs
there is an ―'investment deficit‘ in managing the Indigenous estate, and this may well have
adverse spillovers onto adjacent conservation estate and private lands‖ (Altman et al.,
2007:46).
An understanding of the role indigenous people have towards sustainable
management of natural resources is growing. Collaborative research is increasingly
resulting in combining customary knowledge and western science for common objectives.
―The analysis of many traditional Ecological Knowledge systems shows
that there is a component of local observational knowledge of species and
other environmental phenomena, a component of practice in the way people
carry out their resource use activities, and further, a component of belief
regarding how people fit into or relate to ecosystems‖ (Berkes et al.,
2000:1252).
Indigenous cultures involve people being part of the country, often through ancestral
linkage, and conducting activities maintaining the condition of habitat and resources.
Increasing recognition of this has driven numerous studies investigating how indigenous
people can actively participate in the long-term management of the environment in ways
that contribute to cultural, economic and environment objectives. A recent joint study into
a sustainability framework in the north of Australia determined that
―the most suitable sustainability framework for Northern Australia that
takes into account its unique culture and natural characteristics is a cultural
and conservation economy, which:
• recognises Aboriginal culture, rights and title;
• builds and supports strong, vibrant, sustainable communities;
• provides meaningful work, good livelihoods and sustainable enterprises;
and
• conserves and restores the environment–supports caring for country‖ (Hill
et al., 2008: 5)
The abundance of resources in coastal regions offers unique lifestyle and commercial
opportunities to remote indigenous communities. The link between culture and country
can underpin meaningful employment prospects to derive social benefits for communities
3
struggling to achieve a higher degree of self-reliance. If managed appropriately, resource
usage and caring for country can be inclusive. Social, economic and environmental
imperatives at all levels can be satisfied if management frameworks tangibly support
initiatives at a local level in achieving practical outcomes.
The principle presented in this thesis is that management systems supporting
indigenous initiatives are more than just the structures, processes and human dynamics
typifying many western enterprises. They are complex manifestations with aims not
normally aligned to those of the corporate world or western mindset. Success relies on
blending conflicting customary and western philosophies into arrangements that comprise
varied business, cultural, social and economic factors.
The choice of research topic relates directly to my personal experiences involving
people experiencing the impact of conflicting cultures on their customary lifestyles in
Australia and overseas. As an Army Officer with three decades of service I have seen a
number of positive and negative outcomes amidst clashing cultures around the world
including in Australia, East Timor, Iraq and Afghanistan. I have observed that many
situations supported by engagement, consultation and empowerment at a micro level have
had positive effects on collective capacity. In the late 1980s I served with one of the
Australian Army‟s Regional Force Surveillance Units in Far North Queensland and the
Torres Strait. The organisation‟s charter involved recruiting and training Indigenous and
non-Indigenous people in remote communities throughout the region to augment the
multi-jurisdictional National border protection arrangements. This was a formative
experience as I was able to see first hand the results of capacity building initiatives that
directly involved Indigenous community leadership, harnessed existing skills, provided
purpose and contributed to individual and collective esteem.
Similarly in various conflict zones, I have seen the impact of military operations, in
particular in counter-insurgency environments. A principle of such military operations is
that success is not pre-empted on offensive military might alone. The willingness to
engage populations at local and strategic levels in culturally sensitive ways, empower
decision making and contribute tangibly to capacity is often more powerful than sustained
direct action against an adversary. These experiences led to my pursuit to research how
participatory engagement can assist people to maintain customary ways of life in
conflicting socio-political environments. This research topic is aimed at developing
principles and tools to enable people to make choices and harness opportunities when
customary lifestyles are challenged by external pressures.
4
1.2.1 Definitions and Conventions
A number of concepts and conventions are frequently used throughout this research
thesis. Definitions have been drawn from wider academic literature and presented here as
they apply to this thesis.
Country
The term „country‟ is used in this thesis to underpin the cultural link that is
fundamental to aboriginal people. Rose (1996: 7,8) identifies country, people and
resources as one. She highlights that country is ―multi dimensional- it consists of people,
animals, plants, Dreamings, underground, earth, soils, minerals and waters, surface
water, and air‖.
Baker et al. (2001: xxii) further stress the lack of demarcation between land and sea
country as well as saltwater and freshwater country in this term. This is an important
characteristic when considering natural resource management in coastal areas.
The debate regarding aboriginal people living and working on country involves
potential social benefits and environmental impacts. In this thesis the term „on country‟
refers to indigenous people leading chosen lifestyles on land and sea to which they have
customary links. Choice drives the extent of activity conducted on country, which can
include consumptive harvesting, commercial use of resources, or actively exercising
custodial management responsibilities.
The term „caring for country‟ relates to practices and activities undertaken by
indigenous people that contribute to the health of the country and the sustainability of
natural resources. Basing practices on traditional knowledge can support the attachment
that people have for their customary land and sea. As Baker et al. (2001: 5) observe, the
―pathways for indigenous people to move from this powerful sense of
attachment to practical approaches to ‗caring for country‘ are very different
from what they were in former times. Today, indigenous people strongly
reassert that they rightly have a role in managing Australia‘s lands and
coastal regions, a role in which traditional ecological knowledge will be
significant.‖
It is important to recognise the interdependence between social, environmental and
economic objectives when discussing the activity of Aboriginal people on country. The
opportunity to practically exercise culture through natural resource management has
5
potential to achieve social outcomes as much as environmental ones, particularly if
traditional custodial responsibilities are being acknowledged and practiced.
Social objectives
Social objectives are those outcomes directly relating to social frameworks
underpinning a functional community. For the purposes of this thesis the social objectives
relate to improving the capacity of community through the development of opportunity
supporting choice. Specifically the research addresses building social capital through the
following social objectives:
Using and improving existing skills;
Learning new skills;
Job creation;
Leadership development;
Linking people to country;
Re-establishing collective values;
Enhancing social cohesion;
Developing trust and reciprocity;
Engendering a sense of belonging; and
Community leadership succession planning.
Family
Berndt and Berndt (1988: 43) describe that the ―basic unit of everyday living, and
ordinarily the smallest one, is always the family - a man, his wife or wives, and their
children‖. For the purposes of this project a broader definition of family is used. The
family includes the wider relations base of the participating community linked through
both matriarchal and patriarchal lines. Uncles, aunties, nieces and offspring are all
considered part of the family unit regardless of which side of the family they stem from or
whether relation is through blood or marriage. This definition of family membership
broadens the opportunity for participation by the family group involved in the research.
That said the custodial responsibilities, in particular decision-making relating to country,
remain with the direct patriarchal descendents of the family claiming ownership of family
country.
6
Sustainability
The United Nation’s 1987 Brundlandt Commission Report into sustainable
environmental development defines sustainable development as ―development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.‖ The Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy defines
sustainability as ―meeting the needs of current and future generations through an
integration of environmental protection, social advancement and economic prosperity‖.
For the purposes of this thesis sustainability is used to describe practices and activities
conducted by the project‟s participating community. Importantly sustainability in this
instance does not refer to establishing lifestyles equitable to pre-European contexts, rather
practices and relationships that are adaptive to contemporary and emerging social, cultural
and environmental imperatives. Sustainability applies to maintaining the health of country
and functionality of community for current and future generations. The former is
underpinned by customary and commercial activity protecting the integrity of habitat and
long-term survival of species. The latter is supported by lifestyle and social structures that
are based on customary order, enduring community values and community capacity
building.
Writing Conventions
Upper and lower case conventions are used throughout the thesis in order to
distinguish between global and Australian references as follows:
Aboriginal and Indigenous refer to Australian people while aboriginal and
indigenous are used in a global context; and
National, State and Territory refer to Australian jurisdictions whereas national
implies a global context and state refers to a nation or its government.
The full titles of legislation and government/non-government organisational policies,
reports, inquiries and strategies are written in bold, italic font. Abbreviated or informal
titles are written in regular font.
1.2.2 Opportunity through Identity
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which was
universally adopted in 1966, provides the legally binding international standard for
Human Rights. Other standards, agreements and treaties specific to indigenous people
have been developed since however this covenant still provides the broad definitions
7
guiding signatory nations. The identity of indigenous people is recognised in international
standards as being underpinned by a longstanding relationship to the land. This leads to
recognition that
―Traditional ways of living off the land are central to providing food,
medicine and housing to indigenous families and communities, and to
maintaining the practices that nourish their spiritual and social lives‖
(Amnesty International, 2005: 52).
International standards, legislation and policy can create the environment for indigenous
opportunities. Government recognition of the fundamental differences between
indigenous and mainstream communities could underpin practical programs supporting
indigenous development.
Enshrining rights in national law is an important capstone to a country‟s approach to
establishing workable programs that encourage and support proactive involvement by
aboriginal people. The circumstances for North American Indians are different to many
indigenous people in that their rights to some natural resources are constitutionally
recognised as a result of the 1778 Continental Congress Treaty. The treaty declared that
Indian lands and property could never be taken without Indian consent. When northwest
Indians gave up land ownership to retain their fishing rights, the agreement was
constitutionally supported (Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission, 1999). The resulting
agreement guaranteed half share of fishing harvests to Treaty Indians. Despite this,
fishing rights were gradually eroded over many generations. After much lobbying,
constitutional rights are being restored and tribal governments are self-regulating Indian
fishing activities.
In a similar vein, the Waitangi Treaty of New Zealand specifically refers to the right
of the Maori people to fish. Despite this, the practical implementation of this right was not
aligned. In 1986-87, the New Zealand courts directed that the government address the
situation and ordered Maori participation ―in the Quota Management System in the spirit
of partnership implied by the Treaty of Waitangi‖(Tsamenyi and Mfodwo, 2000: 10). The
government guaranteed half share in harvest, financed a fishing company for the Maori
people and established a separate Maori Fisheries Commission. The New Zealand
government financed company Sealords Ltd, now has assets in excess of NZ$500 million
and significant involvement in overseas ventures including half share of the quota to catch
orange roughy in Namibian Waters.
8
A constitutional treaty does not exist for Indigenous Australians. It was not until the
enactment of the Commonwealth Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976
and subsequently the Native Title Act 1993 that legislation addressed the ownership rights
for traditional land and associated natural resources. In discussing the outcome from the
High Court decision for „Wik‟, Langton (1997) equates Native Title coexistence with
pastoral lease, to the coexistence of different ways of law.
Rowse (2002: 80) cites the Millar Report to the Committee of Review of Aboriginal
Employment and Training Programs in concluding that
―the fundamental historical factor that has ensured the continuing low
economic status of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people is their loss
of ownership of natural resources.‖ Further, ―the ownership of land and
other resources is the first necessary step towards providing Aboriginal
people with the means to improve their economic status‖ (Miller, 1985:
317,318).
Land ownership can provide indigenous people with choices that link land use to
economic and ultimately social outcomes.
In describing the Fijian experience, Matthews et al. (1998: 209) state that the most
important management practice in Fiji is the traditional ownership of the land (vanua) and
the fishing ground (qoliqoli) by coastal community units. This ownership is the basis of
customary resource management and livelihood. It has underpinned the Fijian
Government approach to aligning customary fishing rights based on traditional tenure.
Obtaining recognition of land ownership involves legislative consideration. Langton
(1997) observes an increasing desire by Australian Aboriginal people and industry to
negotiate outcomes rather than embark on lengthy processes of litigation. This negotiation
establishes conditions of use. Aboriginal use may involve the right to occupy and hunt on
the land while pastoral use may instigate grazing constraints. In 1996 the Cape York
Land Council in Far North Queensland drove an agreement between pastoralists,
Aboriginal communities and environmentalists. It provided a framework for natural
resource use and management that recognised the interests of these three groups. The
wholeness of a negotiated settlement is determined by the willingness of participants to
compromise on specific interests. For example negotiating settlement over indigenous
control of coastal resource management, may be complicated if control is perceived to
threaten the interests of a legitimate commercial fishing industry.
9
According to Ganter (1996: 201) the Aboriginal concept of a single system that
includes coastal and marine environments is evidenced by the
―absence of jurisdictional boundaries between land and sea.‖ Any
boundary would fail to ―recognise the importance of the intertidal zone as the
basic source of their subsistence economy, nor their extensive spiritual
responsibilities and social obligations in relation to sites and country.‖
This contradicts controls provided by various Commonwealth and State fisheries statutes
that give Aboriginal people limited influence over activities in the marine environment.
For example Northern Territory legislation does allow for Aboriginal initiated closure of
seas adjoining Aboriginal land, however this is limited in practice and as Ganter (1996)
recognises, government preference is for communities to negotiate with stakeholders.
Tsanemyi and Mfodwo (2000) describe participation by Indigenous Australians in
commercial fishing activities as being limited to some community licences and labour
employment in the industry. Commercial participation involves ownership of fishing
rights (including licences and quotas), ownership of organisations and technology
(including companies and boats) and ownership of marine territory attracting royalties.
They imply that the contribution to sustainability made from traditional ecological
knowledge provides leverage to commercially expand Indigenous activities. Too much
development may threaten the fundamental traditional values underpinning many
communities and corporations. A balance between self-reliance through economic
development and customary values can mitigate this.
The fundamental element of aboriginal identity is land and resource ownership. This
philosophy underpins this research, which argues that identity is key to encouraging
aboriginal involvement in the broader national and global effort for sustainable
management of natural resources.
1.2.3 Customary Practices and Ecological Management.
The conscious intention for indigenous customary practices to result in ecological
benefit is undecided. Williams (1998) presents a debate regarding the intentions of
indigenous management and believes that traditional practices are explicitly focused on
improved productivity and environmental maintenance. The inherent checks and balances
ensure that biodiversity is maintained.
On the other hand Dwyer (1994) dismisses the concept that traditional practices are
intentionally ecologically focused. He considers that conservation is a by-product and the
10
activities conducted by small indigenous populations are characteristically of low impact.
He argues that modern conservation implies global management whereas the indigenous
focus is localised.
―Modern conservation practice seeks to sustain and, where necessary,
replenish natural populations and ecosystems. The intent is conscious and the
scope global‖ (Dwyer, 1994: 91).
In describing customary activities he states that
―localised practices may have outcomes which are analogous to those
desired by conservationists. But analogous need not imply a common ethical
basis‖ (Dwyer, 1994: 92).
This localised relevance arguably results in traditional knowledge contributing very little
to modern conservation. Regardless, customary law imposes management constraints. It
―restricts the timing and intensity of the harvest; the rights of individuals
to foraging areas, their rights to hunt and gather particular species; and the
distribution of the harvest. Killing of animals must be for a purpose - no-one
has a right to kill animals wantonly and wastefully‖ (Davies, 1998: 3).
The concept of totemic ownership contributes to biodiversity management by preventing
the killing of a species by the totemic group or individuals who are linked through
birthplace or conception to that species.
―Frequently people will not kill or eat their own totemic animal or they
will not kill or eat animals where a person of that totem has recently died.
Traditional ‗ownership‘ of animals implies responsibilities for care and
maintenance of the animals, because they embody people‖ (Davies, 1998: 3).
Harvesting techniques by the Yolngu People in north-eastern Arnhem Land are
ecologically conservative by nature. Conservation is linked to productivity and a spiritual
philosophy that no living thing is dominant over another. For example certain fish
trapping techniques ―involve provision for live storage and release of fish not needed for
immediate consumption‖ (Williams, 1998: 8).
Bomford and Caughey (1996: 191) state that ―the greatest wildlife management
problem for Indigenous people living in settlements is the over exploitation of nearby
resources‖. The challenge is to identify strategies that overcome post settlement impacts
on habitats, populations and the resident traditional knowledge. Strategies may include
11
establishing programs that employ Aboriginal people in activities like feral species
control, habitat manipulation, revegetation and monitoring techniques. Commercial
industries using natural resources could benefit from research to establish benchmarks
and quotas as well as ongoing monitoring to guard against species depletion.
Attempts to establish localised fisheries management programs in the Pacific region
have drawn on traditional management systems. Matthews et al. (1998: 208) identify that
―traditional systems, especially marine tenure systems in which specific
areas are owned outright or are under jurisdiction of specific villages or
clans, traditional biological knowledge systems, prohibitions on collecting or
consumption practices, strict ritual uses of certain rare species and
communal activities, can function as fisheries management systems.‖
While acknowledging the weakening of these systems due to a range of reasons,
including money based economies and non-traditional education systems; they comprise
key characteristics. Matthews et al. (1998: 209,10) identify these as including land and
fishing ground ownership, sacred areas, visitor management, totems and simple
exploitation methods to ensure small catches.
Regardless of the scope of impact or consciousness of the conservative nature of
activities, it is apparent that many indigenous cultures conduct management practices to
sustain productivity of species and environments. Practices recognise that natural systems
are essential to collective wellbeing. Unfortunately the impacts of introduced species
combined with the degradation of customary life and knowledge have affected the
integrity of these practices. Assessing practices by comparing their contribution to
modern conservation objectives risks undervaluing a localised social, cultural and
ecological contribution. This in turn can result in non-recognition of a contribution by
aboriginal communities in localised management, which parallels a philosophy of grass
roots involvement typifying many land-care type programs.
1.2.4 Regional Setting and Site Description
Recent determination of Native Title under the Bardi-Jawi claim (NTT, 2001) has
created an environment for a number of communities and families in the Kimberley
region to embrace economic and social development opportunities stemming from land
ownership. One such family in the Dampier Peninsula is investigating how they can
practically exercise their custodial responsibilities.
12
Goonj Arlan is the family outstation of a Bunyiol Bardi Aboriginal family, which has
claim to a stretch of coastline on the East Coast of Dampier Peninsula (Figure 1). The
outstation was previously established on un-allocated crown land with limited
infrastructure to support rudimentary occupancy.
While the outstation occupies approximately 5 acres of land, the family claim ties to a
stretch of coastline between Deep Water Point and Rumble Bay. This area contains five
cultural sites registered with the Western Australian Department of Indigenous Affairs
(WA Govt, 2006a). It supports customary fishing and crabbing from the Lombadina, One
Armed Point and Djarindjin communities.
The outstation is serviced by a seasonally open track running laterally from the main
north south road and is approximately 40 minutes drive from the community of
Djarindjin. It was formed by family members to support lifestyle choices only and
planning did not consider the real needs of community, business and caring for country
that ultimately support sustainable occupancy. This form of use has recently become an
issue for the Australian Government.
13
Figure 1-1 The environs of Goonj Arlan
One Arm Point Lombadina / Djarindjin
Goonj Arlan
Willie Point
Deep Water
Point
Rumble Bay
King Sound
Goonj Arlan Outstation
Derby
Broome
14
1.2.5 A Theoretical Framework for Participatory Planning
The theoretical framework for this thesis comprises key aspects of effective
participatory planning drawn from literature and case studies. These aspects are
introduced in this section and are covered in more detail in the pursuing chapters.
The Multidisciplinary Nature of Participatory Planning
Effective planning addresses a myriad of interlocking and sometimes conflicting
dynamics. Healey (1997: 4) explained that the history of contemporary planning
―segments our understanding into disciplines - sociology, economics,
politics, geography, ecology. It challenges the organisation of government
programmes into functional sectors, such as social welfare policy, economic
policy, education policy or environmental protection policy.‖
In discussing participatory planning at Mapoon Aboriginal settlement in Queensland,
Moran (2004: 340) proposed that
―[I]n seeking community development goals, participatory planning is by
necessity focused on the local and often proceeds on a household or
individual basis. From this point, participatory planning is situated within a
much larger context. It engages and negotiates with legislation, standards,
economies, representation, expectations, assumptions and government policy
at greater regional, state, national and international scales.‖
Indeed for planning involving indigenous interests in natural resources, the positive and
negative influences of government and social structures are significant. The engagement
of government programmes and dynamics of social and cultural manifestations are key
considerations for planning design and are major determinants of planning outcomes. The
literature review in Chapter two discusses a number of economic, social and cultural
aspects that are derived into a set of principles for subsequent application in planning.
The relevance of government to the multifaceted nature of participatory planning is
discussed in detail in Chapters three and four.
The Importance of Ownership
Community involvement and ownership in planning is important to the successful
development and long-term management of initiatives. A more detailed review of
literature pertaining to this is covered in Chapter two. Ownership is not merely initiated at
the implementation phase of a project; rather it is a critical aspect of participatory
15
planning, execution and monitoring of any task. Through describing the successful and
diverse projects undertaken by the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation in Australia‟s
Arnhem Land, Finlayson et al. (1997: 17) observed ―Ownership extends across the
resource, the process and the outcomes, including any data and information that is
collated or collected.‖
Similarly, in their report on the World Bank‟s Ecuador project under the Indigenous
Peoples Development Initiative in Latin America, Uquillas and Nieuwkoop (2003: 14)
identified one of the project‟s guiding principles as the ―promotion of participatory
processes to ensure that project design responds to grassroots demands and builds social
capital and trust‖.
Ownership is a key feature of the Bawinanga experience described in Chapter five. It
has also underpinned the outcomes of this research for Goonj Arlan. This is evidenced
throughout the development of a Participatory Planning Model described in Chapter six
and its implementation and the emerging outcomes described in detail in Chapters seven
and eight.
A Soft Systems Approach to Planning
Planning involving diverse stakeholders with differing perspectives often relies on
achieving mutual agreement to associated strategies. This requires the utilisation of
planning systems that are not necessarily based on a full understanding of the problem or
solutions.
Purnomo et al. (2004: 108) describe the categories of planning tools as hard and soft
systems. Hard systems generally ―start with a basic acceptance of a well defined
objective and problem specification.‖ This approach assumes that the problem is well
understood and that the relationships can be readily modelled. On the other hand, soft
systems are ―a learning system designed for complex human-dominated systems.‖ Such
systems are used to understand the problem rather than solve it. Soft systems are well
suited to participatory approaches involving processes
―through which members of a community identify a problem, collect and
analyse information, and act upon the problem in order to find solutions
suitable and adoptable to their unique situation and circumstances.‖
To that end, a Participatory Planning Framework using soft systems is a learning and
communication tool for participants as it allows them to understand the interconnections
between the human relationships and the differing perspectives underpinning a problem.
16
This is a fundamental concept underpinning the approach to this research. As illustrated in
Chapters six and seven, the people of Goonj Arlan approached their planning as a means
of understanding their aspirations and opportunities. The soft systems methodology
enabled them to collectively learn about their future in a dynamic manner that emphasised
the differing human perspectives.
Stages of a Participatory Planning Model
Purnom et al. (2004) describe a participatory planning model used to develop a
common vision for forestry management between stakeholders in the Lumut Mountain
area of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. The model involves three stages; firstly interactive
consultation with stakeholders to ascertain the factors including benchmarking socio-
economic data, secondly collaborative workshopping to develop strategies and thirdly
observation of the implementation of these strategies. The collaborative workshop
modelling was critical to the case study in developing an understanding of the problem
and then capturing and aligning the divergent perspectives into visions and strategies.
Subsequent observation of the implementation of outcomes identified a strong sense of
community ownership and commitment to the agreed strategies.
Laverack and Labonte (2000) describe a collaborative community approach to health
programme design and implementation. The importance of empowerment over lifestyles
is viewed as an essential ingredient in overall health management. They identify five
programme stages: programme design, objective setting: strategy selection, strategy
implementation and management, and programme evaluation. Each of these stages is
collaborative and facilitative to ensure that participants are empowered and their
aspirations drive agreed outcomes.
The stages of a theoretical framework are applied to the model developed through this
research which is described in detail in Chapter six.
Facilitation in Participatory Planning
The role of the facilitator in participatory approaches is important in capturing the
differing perspectives and integrating them into strategies. Effective facilitation cannot
drive outcomes towards predetermined or biased objectives. It must identify opportunities
to align perspectives and assist participants to develop their personal understanding of the
problem and work towards mutually agreeable outcomes.
Purnomo et al. (2004: 109) propose that facilitation is pivotal in the initial stages of
exploring the value of perspectives as well as the decision exploration stages. Effective
17
facilitation not only ensures that perspectives are considered but stakeholders feel free to
present their perspectives throughout the process.
Laverack and Lobonte (2000: 260) described the role of „outside agents‟ as
―an important link between communities and external resources. Their
role is especially important near the beginning of a new programme, when
the process of building community momentum may be triggered and
nurtured.‖
They identify that the facilitator increasingly transforms relationships so the community
increasingly assumes control of a programme.
Facilitation has been significant throughout the design and conduct of this research. A
strong participator/researcher relationship is inevitable in this type of research, however a
disciplined approach to facilitation will maintain ownership of the problem by the
community, hence mitigating the risk of biased influence by the researcher.
Distilling a Theoretical Framework
This analysis is further distilled into a theoretical framework for this research. The
framework comprises the following elements for the development and implementation of
a Participatory Planning Framework:
The integration of socio-economic, environmental and governance
considerations into a participatory planning framework;
The use of collaborative planning as a means to drive community participation
and community ownership of the process and outcomes;
The use of “soft systems” including consultation and facilitated workshopping
to capture the differing perspectives and bring diverse stakeholders together to
collaborate agreed strategies;
Designing a planning framework around the stages of:
Interactive consultation between stakeholders to develop an understanding
of the problem;
Collaborated strategy development; and
Implementation of agreed strategies.
The use of facilitated participatory planning as a learning experience for
participants to understand the problem and the interacting dynamics.
18
Laverack and Labonte (2000: 258) proposed that there is no totality of community.
Rather it is
―best considered to be organised groups that are important enough to
their individual members that they identify themselves, in part, by that group
membership. This implies that within any geographic ‗community‘ multiple
communities actually exist;‖
The theoretical framework for this research is applied to develop a Participatory Planning
Framework for application in situations involving small community groups with strong
family linkages, where customary land ownership delivers access to natural resources.
The individual members of this type of small community identify themselves through
family membership and customary linkages to their family stretch of coastal country.
1.3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLGY
1.3.1 Research Objectives
The objectives of the research project were as follows:
Objective 1: Identify the principles and considerations underpinning successful
participation in natural resource management by indigenous people. This required:
1.1: Identification of the key contributors to successful initiatives involving
indigenous people and natural resource management.
1.2: Understanding of factors supporting and impeding Indigenous economic
development in Australia in industries involving natural resources.
Objective 2: Ascertain governments‟ roles in supporting indigenous economic
development and involvement in natural resource management, through identification of:
2.1 Australian Government policies and processes that relate to Aboriginal
activity involving natural resources.
2.2 Deficiencies in implementing Australian Government policy.
2.3 Key elements of government involvement required to support indigenous
initiatives involving natural resources.
Objective 3: Study the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation as a case study in order to
develop and establish driving factors underpinning a successful Aboriginal venture
involving natural resources, and to determine:
19
3.1 Key elements of government involvement in the initiative.
3.2 Characteristics of the executive management committee underpinning
successful activity.
3.4 Characteristics of the enterprise contributing to business longevity.
Objective 4: Develop a model that enables the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation in
Australia‟s Dampier Peninsula to care for family claimed country through identification
of:
4.1 Environmental issues relating to Goonj Arlan and how the Aboriginal
Corporation can become actively involved in caring for country.
4.2 Social issues relating to Goonj Arlan and practical initiatives that support
the effectiveness of the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation.
4.3 Opportunities for economic development for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal
Corporation and how the family group can access these.
1.3.2 Research Design and Methods
The research design was aimed at deriving and implementing a Participatory Planning
Framework for community development. To achieve this, the research was conducted in
four stages. These were:
Stage 1: Understand the Principles.
Stage 2: Derive a Conceptual Model.
Stage 3: Derive and Implement a Participatory Planning Framework.
Stage 4: Derive a Model for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Conservancy.
Stage 1: Understand the principles
Research supporting the first stage of the research design aimed to derive a set of
principles relating to indigenous people and their contribution to natural resource
management, particularly in Australia. This included an understanding of industries where
indigenous people are using natural resources for economic gain. Base principles for
successful activity were identified and used as the foundation for subsequent stages of the
design.
Several research methods were used during this phase: literature review, interviews
and informal discussions.
20
Literature review was conducted to identify:
Themes relating to indigenous activity on country;
Management practices of indigenous organisations;
Factors affecting indigenous economic development;
Government policy and programs supporting indigenous people on country;
and
Initiatives and principles relating to developing the capacity of indigenous
communities to participate in natural resource management.
Interviews and discussions were conducted with key personnel from government
departments and non-government organisations identified in Table 1.1 to clarify matters
arising from a policy review. Workshops launching key Western Australian and
Australian Government policies relating to Indigenous tourism were attended. Comparing
the policy interpretations between Australian Government departments provided an
understanding of the intent of policy and how this intent is practically implemented
through committees and funding. Interview schedules focused on the following themes:
Strategic planning considerations underpinning government policy intended to
involve Aboriginal people in natural resource management and economic
development;
Government recognition of a relationship between economic development and
natural resource management;
Government approaches to community capacity building that relates to natural
resource management;
Practical implementation of policy by government departments;
Networks supporting policy development and implementation; and
Resource challenges associated with policy.
Literature was reviewed relating to niche industries providing opportunity to
aboriginal people. This was supported by interviews with organisations shown in Table
1.1 concerning industries that could be relevant to the research site. Specific industries
looked at were tourism, cash crop, native seed collection, aquaculture and wildlife use.
Case studies in particular provided an understanding of the overheads associated with
business in remote environments. The following themes underpinned this area:
21
The viability of specific industries in remote areas;
How skills development is achieved;
Management structures;
Sources of funding and support; and
Markets.
The themes stemming from this stage of the research were developed into a
preliminary set of principles for further development into a Conceptual Model based on
case study research. Importantly, the broader global relevance of literature does not
confine these principles to a specific Kimberly regional or Goonj Arlan relevance. The
principles relate to the involvement of indigenous communities in a wider Australian and
overseas context.
22
Table 1-1 Organisations interviewed
Type Department/Agency/Organisation
Western Australian and Local
Government
Department of Conservation and Land Management/
Department of Environment and Conservation
Department of Environment and Conservation
Office of Aboriginal Economic Development,
Department of Industry and Resources
Heritage Section Department of Indigenous Affairs
Department of Indigenous Affairs
NRM Office, Department of Agriculture
WA Tourism
Kimberley Development Commission
Community Capacity Building Section, Dept Local
Government and Regional Development
Department of Fisheries
Department of Premier and Cabinet
WA TAFE- Kimberley
Kimberley Development Commission
Commonwealth Government Office of Indigenous Policy Coordination
Indigenous Coordination Centre-Broome
Office of the Registrar of Aboriginal Corporations
Department of Industry Tourism and Resources
Department of Education, Science and Training
Non-Government Agencies Kimberley land Council
Native Seed Industry Operators
Centre for Excellence in Natural Resource Management
Green Skills Inc
Catholic Church Kimberley Region
Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research
Aboriginal Organisations and
Community Leadership
Djarindjin Community
One Armed Point Community
Madaar Outstation
Hassan Outstation
Kallari Region CDEP
Mamabulanjin Aboriginal Corporation
Munbana Aquaculture Hatchery and Discovery Centre
Kimberley Aquaculture Aboriginal Corporation
23
Stage 2: Derive a Conceptual Model
Derivation of a Conceptual Model involved examination of an existing Aboriginal
enterprise in order to further develop the principles identified in Stage 1 into a Conceptual
Model for application in subsequent stages of research and analysis. The case study used
was the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation‟s (BAC) crocodile egg harvesting venture in
central northern Arnhem Land. The specific research objectives for the case study were
to:
Identify government legislation and policy relating to sustainable harvesting;
Identify stakeholders involved in the BAC harvesting activity and their roles;
Identify management characteristics supporting the BAC venture; and
Develop a Conceptual Model for successful activity involving Aboriginal
people and natural resource management.
The operation was visited in Maningrida for five days in Sep 03 with government
agencies visited during a further ten days. Research methods used again involved
literature review and interviews. Literature review was used to identify the key aspects of
Northern Territory legislation and government policies relating to sustainable harvesting
of wildlife. The review also provided an understanding of management systems involving
Indigenous land and resource management in the Northern Territory, as well as the
stakeholders contributing to the Bawinanga activity. Interviews and discussions were held
with key appointments in each of the identified stakeholder groups shown in Table 1.2.
The literature review and interviews answered questions relating to research
objectives. Results were compared and a list of key management considerations was
derived. These were grouped into government factors, corporation management factors
and enterprise characteristics to inform the Conceptual Model.
24
Table 1-2 Stakeholder groups interviewed for the Bawinanga case study.
Stakeholder Group Key Person
The Bawinanga Aboriginal
Corporation
Chief Executive Officer
Regional Land Management Coordinator
Training Coordination Officer
The Djelk Rangers Ranger Supervisor
Assistant Land Management Coordinator
Rangers
The Northern Territory Parks and
Wildlife Commission
Director Wildlife
Desk Officer
The Northern Land Council Executive Officer Caring for Country Unit
The Key Centre for Tropical Wildlife
Management - Northern Territory
University
Lecturer and Project Manager
Wildlife Management International
Pty. Ltd.
Director
Applied Ecological Research Group
– University of Canberra
Researcher for the BAC long-necked turtle
development
Stage 3: Derive and Implement a Participatory Planning Framework
Model
A Participatory Planning Framework was derived and applied to the Goonj Arlan
research site. The Conceptual Model developed previously informed this to ensure
consultation and participation underpinned the framework design and subsequent
implementation. Data specific to the social, economic and environmental character of the
Goonj Arlan research site was collected. Developing rapport and trust was a significant
enabler and is discussed in detail in Chapter six.
Fieldwork was conducted annually and involved living on country with Goonj Arlan
family members. Three field trips were conducted between April 2004 and July 2006:
The first visit from 10 to 19 April 04 was to:
Establish networks and conduct interviews with government departments
in the Broome region; and
Frame the research project including the planning process.
The second visit from 7 April to 16 May 05 was to:
Establish networks and conduct discussions with Aboriginal communities
in the Dampier Peninsula;
Establish relationships with the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal family group; and
25
Conduct natural resource assessment on Goonj Arlan country.
The third visit from 2 to 10 Jul 05 enabled the:
Development of a relationship with the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal family
group;
Conduct of interviews with government departments in the Broome region;
Undertaking a natural resource assessment of Goonj Arlan; and
Discussions with government agencies and industry participants in Broome
and Aboriginal leaders in Dampier Peninsula.
The fourth visit from3 to 26 Jul 06 was to:
Maintain established relationships with the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal family
group;
Facilitate workshops with the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal family group;
Conduct interviews with government departments in the Broome region;
Further the natural resource assessment of Goonj Arlan; and
Conduct discussions with government agencies and industry participants in
Broome and Aboriginal leaders in Dampier Peninsula.
Interviews and discussions were held with local industry participants to determine
opportunities for the Goonj Arlan people to become involved in economic development.
Industry participants interviewed are included in Table 1.1. Government
seminars/workshops in Indigenous tourism were also attended.
A literature review of collaborative and participatory planning was conducted. This
provided a broad basis for the research and supported the development of a series of
facilitated workshops which were held at Goonj Arlan to ensure family ownership of the
entire project, frame achievable objectives, assess the available resource capital, and
inform associated action plans to underpin implementation. Workshopping was the
primary research method used to capture the extant human capital for Goonj Arlan as well
as the expectations of the people. The difference between extant and expected capacity
enabled deficiencies to be identified and community projects to be determined against
collective extant and future skill sets. The workshopping process is covered in detail in
Chapter six because of its significance to the project and the importance of the associated
data to the overall aim.
26
Observation of family and broader community activity on country was conducted
during field activities. Discussions with family members and neighbours were supported
by observations of community activity on country to identify the locations used for
fishing, crabbing and shellfish collection. Species taken from these sites could also be
identified. This enabled the research to qualify the extent of human interaction with the
research site. An accurate assessment could be made of the human processes affecting the
coastal habitat of Goonj Arlan. Field trips were conducted during the dry season when the
outstation environs were easily accessible and highly sought after fish species, mud crabs
and turtles were hunted.
An understanding of the natural resources prevalent in Goonj Arlan country supports
an awareness of the environmental significance of the area. Natural resources were
identified primarily through observation and where necessary identification of species
from photographs. Birds, flora and marine species visiting or prevalent in the area during
the periods of fieldwork were identified. Transects were taken as described in Chapter six
to determine the distribution of wild Gubinge. This species was chosen for more detailed
assessment due to its commercial value.
Other sources of specific data were:
Western Australian Bureau of Meteorology and Department of Planning and
Infrastructure for historical climatic data including cyclonic events;
Australian Bureau of Statistics Census for data relating to regional Aboriginal
Communities;
Native Title Tribunal for transcripts of tribunal hearing for Bardi-Jawi people in
the Dampier Peninsula; and
Western Australian Department of Environment for data on ground water in the
region.
Stage 4: Derive a Model for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Conservancy
Derivation of a model for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy
involved analysing the data obtained from stage 3 against the Conceptual Model derived
from stages 1 and 2. This enabled the development of a Futures Plan for the Goonj Arlan
Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy, which is attached as Appendix 3. Analysis of data
identified:
Opportunities for economic development;
27
Potential community projects involving caring for country; and
Community capacity development based on existing human capital.
A comparison of the developed conservancy model against the Conceptual Model
derived in stage 3 enabled validation of the Goonj Arlan Futures Plan against the
previously identified principles and considerations underpinning successful indigenous
ventures.
1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
This thesis is structured into nine chapters reflecting separate stages of the research
design. This underlines that participatory planning is the thesis topic. While later chapters
present the outcomes of planning for Goonj Arlan, the thesis is not intended to provide a
detailed business plan for an Aboriginal Corporation. Goonj Arlan is a medium to
illustrate the development and practical application of the derived Participatory Planning
Framework.
Chapter one as the introduction outlines the intent and context of the project and the
research design and methodologies used. A literature review is contained in Chapter two,
which captures key principles relating to aboriginal people and activities involving natural
resources. It draws on literature associated with management systems involving
indigenous people and natural resources in order to identify key principles underpinning
the concept of indigenous participation in integrated management systems. The chapter
considers the contribution of traditional knowledge towards caring for country, the
Indigenous sector and economy that exists in Australia and the characteristics of
management structures driving activities involving indigenous communities.
Chapters three and four deal with how the Australian Government promotes and
supports Aboriginal people to be active on country. Chapter three identifies if and how
the Australian Government intent encourages Aboriginal people to become involved in
natural resource management initiatives. The chapter reviews current Commonwealth
level legislation and policies relating to Indigenous involvement, including inquiries and
programs; discusses the interests and opportunities for Indigenous people on country; and
concludes with discussion on identified deficiencies in the current government initiatives.
Chapter four reviews the Western Australian Government‟s policy framework to
determine if State Government policy encourages and supports Indigenous participation
in land and resource management. This chapter also discusses the agenda of Western
Australia‟s peak Indigenous advisory body; reviews key state strategies that link
28
Aboriginal people to environmental sustainability; raises the proposal to broaden
commercial outcomes of natural resource management beyond non-consumptive
enterprises; and explores the intended whole-of-government approach to Indigenous
matters.
Chapter five develops the principles identified in the reviews of literature and
government into a Conceptual Model underpinning successful activity on country. It does
so through an assessment of the case study involving crocodile egg harvesting by the
Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation in central northern Arnhem Land. The assessment
identifies the key considerations contributing to success as they relate to government
involvement, Executive Management Committee function and enterprise characteristics.
The derived model is used later in the thesis to test the development of a model derived
for Goonj Arlan.
Chapter six describes the Participatory Planning Framework implemented by the
Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation. The development of the planning framework
involved consultation with, and participation by the Goonj Arlan family group. The
chapter describes the stages of the planning process model in detail and how it was
applied to capture the necessary data to inform the development of the Goonj Arlan
Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy model and Futures Plan.
Chapter seven prepares the project and presents the data collected for the Goonj Arlan
Aboriginal Corporation in terms of business, caring for country and social matters. It
provides an understanding of the geography, ecology and infrastructure characterising the
research site and its custodial people. It presents the key issues relating to potential
business opportunities in the Dampier Peninsula and data derived through family
workshopping relating to aspirations, capacity and corporation development. A „change in
voice‟ occurs in this chapter to represent the input into the research outcomes from the
people of Goonj Arlan. This emphasises the ownership of the problem by the Goonj Arlan
people and that the resulting outcomes of planning accord with community considerations
rather than the researcher‟s.
Chapter eight develops the collected data into a model for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal
Corporation Conservancy. The model has been developed in close consultation with the
Goonj Arlan family group using the Participatory Planning Framework and comprises
community, business and caring for country aspects. It is described in detail and then
assessed against the Conceptual Model described in Chapter five. The resulting model is
aimed at targeting the opportunities for active involvement in caring for country and
29
economic development and is to be implemented by the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal
Corporation Conservancy in future years.
Chapter nine concludes the thesis by reviewing the research methods used and the
relevance of the project to the wider literature. It assesses the extent to which the research
aim and objectives were achieved and identifies future research opportunities stemming
from this project. The chapter concludes with a summary of what has occurred to date to
implement the plan for the future of Goonj Arlan.
30
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
―Living things cannot be separated from the land they grow on, and that
peoples knowledge and myriad uses of natural resources cannot be separated
from their culture, and their survival as peoples on the land‖ (Christie (1996:
65) - describing the link between land and Indigenous people.).
Literature associated with management systems involving indigenous people and
natural resources, is reviewed in this chapter. Key principles underpinning the concept of
indigenous participation in integrated management of natural resources are identified.
These principles augment the theoretical framework described in Chapter one and are
drawn from reviewing the literature describing experiences in Australia and overseas. It is
proposed that management systems involving indigenous people are more than just the
structures, processes and human dynamics that typify euro-centric approaches. The
contribution of traditional knowledge towards caring for country, the Indigenous sector
economy in Australia and the characteristics of indigenous management structures driving
activities involving indigenous communities require consideration.
Discussions on western management strategies focus on efficiently exploiting
opportunities to achieve growth. For indigenous people, management often relates to a
more fundamental philosophy of responsibility to ancestors and future generations.
Indigenous communities seeking involvement in managing natural resources can
potentially benefit economically and socially without compromising their custodial
responsibilities. However there are many physical, social and legislative factors inhibiting
communities from realising their full potential.
Erlich and Daily (1993: 558) wrote that the need exists to improve the link between
science and management. This need is satisfied by ―the right mix of a simple solution,
perceived high cost of inaction, leadership and favourable economic conditions.‖ While
this right mix exists in some developed countries, and a collaborative research approach is
evolving, governments, communities and industry are slow to harness the outcomes. This
is most evident in national policy and legislation that addresses indigenous interests.
Examples of this are the struggle of North American Indians in obtaining fishing rights
and the lack of specific legislation to support commercial wildlife exploitation by
Indigenous Australians.
31
Matthews et al. (1998: 208) proposed that the
―traditional system of management in the Pacific islands can be a strong
basis for community-based coastal management programs. These traditional
systems, especially marine tenure systems in which specific areas are owned
outright or are under the jurisdiction of specific villages or clans, traditional
biological knowledge systems, prohibitions on collecting or consumption
practices, strict ritual uses of certain rare species and communal activities,
can function as fisheries management systems‖.
Integrating traditional systems into overall management policies and frameworks can
enhance indigenous participation in caring for country. Such integration provides people
with ownership of their involvement.
2.2 TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND CARING FOR
COUNTRY
Traditional knowledge is a key to identity and opportunity for indigenous people. It
underpins practices and social orders that are necessary for people to engage with
traditional country. Langton et al. (2005: 24) writes that
―For indigenous peoples and local communities, concern about the
preservation and maintenance of traditional knowledge is not only motivated
by the desire to conserve ‗biodiversity‘ as an end in itself, but also by the
desire to live on their ancestral lands, to safeguard local food security and, to
the extent possible, exercise local economic, cultural and political
autonomy.‖
This knowledge enables people to live on ancestral lands in a manner that supports
functional community and sustainable use of resources. It is critical to the autonomy of
chosen lifestyles.
The relationship between traditional ecological knowledge and intellectual property
impacts on management. Knowledge ownership can impede knowledge sharing to
support resource management. Williams (1998: 01) described intellectual property of
Aboriginal people as
―either individually or communally held, and the existence of communal
interests in native flora and fauna and in knowledge about them requires
protection, and if necessary, statutes specific to Indigenous people based on
32
their unique relationship to land and resources as the basis of both individual
and group identity‖.
This individual or communal ownership relates to individual elements of knowledge and
is in direct conflict with the knowledge sharing culture underpinning western
management practices. The concept that some knowledge can only be shared between a
few creates difficulties when endeavouring to harness indigenous practices for
commercial ends or embarking on co-management arrangements involving indigenous
and non-indigenous organisations. The idea of ―a body of ‗human knowledge‖ (Williams,
1998: 04) does not underpin the indigenous philosophy of information management.
Hunn (1993) on the other hand, proposed that greater benefit for indigenous people stems
from sharing traditional knowledge rather than protecting it, which may result in a loss of
knowledge altogether.
According to Dwyer (1994) the motivation to use traditional knowledge erodes with
the impact of modern regimes. It is feasible that the relevance of many traditional
practices declines with change stemming from modern impacts on the environment.
Despite development and impact, customary lifestyle underpinned by responsibility
towards managing resources can translate to a comprehensive intent towards
sustainability. Nietschmann (1997) writes about coral reefs of the Miskito people in
Nicaragua, which were threatened by years of piracy, commercial overfishing,
sedimentation, corruption, social poverty and war. The sea culture of the Miskito people
is strong and they claim customary ownership of some 1,000 kilometres of coastline and
adjacent sea. With significant support from global non-government organisations, they
have established a Miskito Coast Protected Area. This area is managed and protected by
community-based programs with ecological management founded on customary
practices. While they still struggle against piracy and other threats, they have successfully
instigated a bottom driven regime in an environment of top driven colonialism.
Regardless of the knowledge sharing nature of western business practices, corporate
knowledge is an important contributor to business continuity. Managing corporate
knowledge held by individuals with longevity in an organisation can be compared to a
form of knowledge ownership. Often corporate knowledge is guarded within an
organisation to support corporate security or even the standing of individuals in the
organisational hierarchy. This line of thought implies a parallel between aspects of
indigenous and western knowledge management. An interesting comparison is evident in
African business as illustrated by Mbigi (1997). In this reference the author adapted the
33
knowledge associated with the spiritual philosophy of Ubuntu (the African concept of
brotherhood and solidarity) to modern business. Ubuntu is a philosophy permeating
African life. It is described essentially as solidarity and expressed collectively in singing,
dancing, work, story telling, funerals, grief, respect, sharing, hunting, celebration, rituals
and worship. Mbigi aligned traditional African principles to western business values
involved in economic entrepreneurship. Cardinal principles are aligned to tenets of best
practice business involving institutional innovation and marketing management. This
innovative approach synergises cultural philosophies and is summarised in Table 2.1.
Table 2-1 A summary of Ubuntu principles as they apply to business (Mbigi, 1997).
Ubuntu Principle Business Practice
The Spirit of African Hospitality. On
entering at an African home, there is
instant hospitality with food and drink
offered as a token of hospitality.
African Hospitality – The client must feel
welcomed by the business to ensure
quality service. Quality is not only what
is done but how it is done.
The Spirit of Unconditional Collective
Trust
Collective Trust – Trust is the basis of
performance relationships within an
organisation, which lead to high
performance for the business. Trust is the
basis of effective customer relationships
The Spirit of Unconditional Dignity
comprises unconditional collective
acceptance and respect.
Unconditional Dignity – Unconditional
respect and positive regard must underpin
personal relations. This leads to high
organisational performance.
The Spirit of African Collective
Leadership
Collective Leadership – shared purpose
and ownership in an enterprise.
Ubuntu Collective Learning and
Development through ritual and
ceremony.
Corporate collective development is
achieved through investing in the people
at all levels of an organisation.
The awareness of the health of an environment stemming from a co-existence with it
offers invaluable data to any management system involving long-term monitoring. This
awareness is founded on long-term practices associated with livelihood. King and Faasaili
(1999: 134) observed that in Samoa
―…. Fishing communities are often repositories of valuable traditional
knowledge concerning fish stocks and have high levels of awareness of the
marine environment…. In addition, much subsistence fishing in tropical
regions is based on discreet communities which have some degree of control.
Either legal of traditionally assumed, of adjacent waters. Together, these
factors provide an ideal basis on which communities can be encouraged and
motivated to manage their own resources.‖
34
Indeed the incorporation of traditional knowledge into management systems involving
indigenous people can contribute to the sustainability of community participation and the
managed environment.
2.3 AUSTRALIA’S INDIGENOUS SECTOR AND ECONOMY
The evolution of Australia‟s „Self Determination Policy‟ for Indigenous people has
seen the establishment and growth of the Indigenous Sector. Rowse (2002: 01) identified
that the
―Indigenous sector consists of thousands of publicly funded
organisations. Some are statutory authorities (for example, the Land Councils
in New South Wales and in the Northern Territory, and the Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Commission – ATSIC), some are incorporated councils
performing the functions of local governments in remote parts of the
continent, some are employers and job placement agencies (the Community
Development Employment schemes), and there are Indigenous health
services, legal services, housing associations, schools and sporting clubs.‖
He continued to suggest that
―the rise of the Indigenous sector is the main product of the self
determination era‖. It ―is neither the ‗state‘ (though it is almost entirely
publicly funded), nor is it ‗civil society‘ (though its organisations are mostly
private concerns in their legal status)‖ (Rowse 2003: 13).
Rowse linked the Indigenous sector to facilitating individual and collective choice for
Indigenous people. The sector provides a means to work towards social and economic
aspirations. These aspirations differ greatly throughout Indigenous Australia and
individual choices determine if communities or families choose to seek economic
development or lead more traditional lives in remote regions. Facilitating this choice can
support outcomes related to Indigenous development.
The Community Development Employment Projects (CDEP) program, which
commenced in 1977, has been a contributing factor to the evolution of the Indigenous
sector. The Australian Government has recently announced changes regarding the
transition of this scheme. Debate leading to these changes related to the scheme‟s
effectiveness in creating real employment opportunities for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
islander people. Martin (2001: 33-34) assessed that
35
―under the 1987 Aboriginal Economic Development Policy and more
particularly since the Spicer Review of CDEP (Spicer 1997), the original
emphasis on ‗community development‘ has gradually been replaced, at the
policy level at least, by a focus on the scheme‘s capacity to facilitate
enterprise development and to prepare individuals for employment in the
mainstream labour market.‖
He linked the associated difficulties of CDEP to the capacity of regional economies; the
inability for economies to consider the Indigenous culture and „social economy‟; and the
inability to establish training and development in socially dysfunctional communities.
Rowse (2001: 39-40) described the political nature of CDEP, in particular at the local
level, as it embodies a form of Indigenous authority directing the collective working
capacity towards community goals.
The Indigenous Land Council (ILC) is significant in its contribution towards
Indigenous land ownership. Rowse (2002: 109) foresaw that by
―2004, the ILC will possess a fund of about 1.1 billion dollars; investment
returns from that fund will buy land – forever if the fund is prudently
managed – for Indigenous Australians. The ILC will also help the owners to
manage that land‖.
He explained the role that the ILC has in advising on land management regardless of
whether or not it was involved in the acquisition. On the other hand Rowse (2002: 111-
112) described the turbulent effect of government policies on regional land councils. The
land councils have subsequently evolved their responsibilities towards representing the
broader Indigenous interests due to an inability of government mechanisms to do so. This
evolution has resulted in the direct involvement of regional councils in economic
development and natural resource management on Aboriginal owned lands. This function
has driven the establishment of specific economic and land/sea branches in their
organisational structures.
In recognising the importance of the Indigenous Sector to the capacity of Indigenous
communities in Australia, it follows that the Indigenous economy is similarly different
from the mainstream Australian economy. It is simplistic to separate commercial, cultural
and social aspects of an Indigenous economy. Where ventures involve customary
practices they inevitably satisfy cultural and social objectives.
36
Altman (2001a) described the Indigenous „hybrid economy‟. Unlike western
economies that are focused on markets sustaining economic growth, Altman described an
economy based on markets sustaining production to support state sponsored development
and a customary economy, where productivity is not measured in monetary terms. In
other words the hybrid economy comprises interacting market, state and customary
elements.
The market that Altman (2001a: 04) referred to ―is always evident, but often more in
a consumptive than a productive manifestation.‖ He explained how markets are ―often
very small‖ and may support commercial wildlife harvesting amongst other niche
Indigenous opportunities. Mainstream markets are often remote from communities and
large demands can be beyond the capabilities of Indigenous corporations to satisfy.
The state is present according to Altman (2001a: 04) in ―many manifestations - as it is
everywhere - as service provider to citizens, as provider of the welfare safety net, as law
enforcer, and as regulator.‖ In many circumstances the effect of the state is
overwhelming due to the small productive market. It is the nature of state support rather
than the amount that threatens or supports community aspirations. Recognition and
inclusion of the productivity of customary practices in state programs is a benchmark that
may not necessarily be tied to excessive expenditure.
The customary economy is fundamental to the sustainability of remote communities
where residents lead more subsistence-based lifestyles. According to Altman (2001a: 05)
the customary economy is
―made up of a range of productive activities that occur outside the market
and that are based on cultural continuities: hunting, gathering and fishing
occur within the customary economy, but so too do a range of other activities
like land and habitat management, species management and the maintenance
of biodiversity. A distinctive feature of the customary economy is that it is not
monetised; consequently, its value has remained either unquantified or
unrecognised in mainstream terms… The monitory value of the customary
economy is most clearly evident when its products are marketed and attract a
dollar value...‖.
In applying Altman‟s hybrid economy, the assessment of economic health of an
indigenous community cannot be accurately assessed against commercial market criteria.
In Australia the customary economy existed well before European settlement and
recognises the contribution of productive activity that does not result in direct monetary
37
return. This makes defining commercialism difficult when a hybrid economy is not
entirely monetary based.
Altman further developed his hybrid model by identifying the linkages between the
three sectors. Market, state and customary linkages are evident in enterprises such as the
commercial utilisation of wildlife. Market and state linkages exist in commercial
enterprises supported by state programs. Market and customary linkages are experienced
in joint ventures that are not reliant on state funding but involve traditional practices. State
and customary linkages are present in customary activities, which are supported by state
programs.
The hybrid economy concept is evident in British Columbia where the strong shellfish
culture of aboriginal communities has been recognised in the North Coast Shellfish
Aquaculture Regional Business Strategy (2002). The Strategy (2002: 05) identifies that
the ―harvesting of shellfish for food and cultural purposes is a longstanding practice
deeply rooted in [a]boriginal communities.‖ In British Columbia, First Nation
communities are acknowledged for their knowledge of sustainable harvesting and the
business strategy embraces this as the foundation for them to participate in the
commercial industry. Fisheries policies are coordinated between regional, First Nation
community, provincial and federal levels. First Nation contribution relating to harvest
area management and seasonal activity is relevant to sustainability strategies. This
business strategy allows First Nation communities to participate in commercial harvesting
of Pacific oysters, Manilla clams, Japanese weathervane scallops, oysters and abalone
species. The aboriginal involvement in these commercial ventures links customary and
commercial imperatives.
The involvement of a publicly funded indigenous sector and recognition of the hybrid
nature of an associated economy are two influencing factors on management systems
involving aboriginal communities. The sector underpins the management networks of an
organisation supporting social, economic and environmental aspects. The elements of a
hybrid economy combine to contribute to overall community sustainability.
2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS MANAGEMENT
STRUCTURES
―Buying meat can make the young people lazy. People don‘t keep their
culture if they get into the cash economy too much‖ (Davies (1998: 12) citing
an Aboriginal man‟s concern for traditional life).
38
Bradley (2001) wrote that management is a two-way negotiated interaction with the
land. This stems from the cultural value linking people with the country. A belief that
―survival derives from the earth and all actions are within a sacred
context, seeks to maintain the harmony and balance of an interrelated and
essentially egalitarian system‖ (Lambrou, 1997: 05).
The outcomes of collaboration between indigenous people, western managers and
scientists offer opportunities for commercial activity that are focused on sustainability.
For industries that exploit scarce natural resources, sustainability is a major concern of
business strategies. The inhibitors to economic development for remote indigenous
communities are many. Rowse ( 2002: 17) referred to the poor Indigenous performance in
the labour market stemming from the lack of private investment in many locations where
Aboriginal communities reside. Social demands on Indigenous people often remove them
from labour markets as is evidenced by the importance of subsistence fishing and
gardening as sources of wealth to Torres Strait Islanders (Rowse, 2002: 38) and many
other coastal people.
Johannes (2002: 322) discussed the renaissance of community-based marine reserve
management in the Oceania. She highlighted the success of a number of locally derived
programs, including in Samoa where 52 of the 64 Village Fisheries Management Plans
were community-owned fish reserves rather than Fisheries Division instigated programs.
Such activities are not always successful. Adams and Dalzell (1995: 05) highlighted that
species over-fishing and reef damage occurs in Fiji despite the community management
systems in place. This is primarily for species of commercial value. They suggested that
traditional marine tenure is appropriately supported by sustainable management in order
to maintain long-term yields however non-subsistence fisheries require management
systems that are substantially modified.
Rowse (2002: 89) cited Altman as listing the prerequisites of successful and
sustainable Aboriginal participation in tourism. These characteristics are arguably
transferable to other industries harnessing the natural resources located on traditionally
owned lands. They are
―Aboriginal control, market realism for Aboriginal participants,
appropriate corporate structures, appropriate scale of enterprise,
accommodation of cultural and social factors, educating the industry, and
realistic subvention.‖
39
Management structures for successful indigenous commercial enterprises vary but
may display common characteristics including a focus on social imperatives, community
and leadership involvement, reliance on niche markets, adaptability to ecological
imperatives and state involvement.
2.4.1 Social Imperatives.
―The Aboriginal social setting, with its particular cultural form of anti-
individualism, does not tolerate those with appropriate formal skills taking
managerial positions if they lack other forms of authority‖ (Altman and
Johnson, 2000: ix).
As in many indigenous cultures the social order of Aboriginal society involves family,
clan and tribal structures that dictate codes of behaviour. Community standing is often
based on patriarchal and matriarchal lines. Family membership, rights of passage and
mentoring are aspects of social order that drive land and sea management responsibilities.
These complexities can impact on the effectiveness of management. Authority in
indigenous cultures is linked to clan structures and land or resource ownership.
Conversely, if enterprises are to succeed in competitive markets, or if an organisation
interacts with non-indigenous bodies as part of its core role, structures need to understand
western management traits. Alternatives to education in this knowledge, which in itself is
difficult to implement, are the establishment of largely non-indigenous administrations or
joint partnerships with non-indigenous companies. The former threatens self-reliance and
is predicated on involving quality staff who are sensitive to the cultural imperatives. An
Australian Government review into wildlife use will be discussed in Chapter three. This
recommended establishing joint ventures between Indigenous partners with expertise in
wildlife and non-Indigenous partners with capital and business experience.
Altman (1998) acknowledged the importance of the cultural and social influences on
Indigenous enterprise. He recommended differentiating Indigenous business by scale, by
population (individual and families, Traditional Owners or Native Title parties,
communities or regions) and by objectives (socio-cultural, public good or commercial).
This approach facilitates more accurate assessment by governments and policy makers to
inform decisions relating to programs supporting Indigenous enterprises. It also
recognises that the intent of employment and business development is not necessarily
about creating wealth as it is in a society based on consumerism. Matthews et al. (1998:
220) observed that the failure of many cooperative projects in Fiji results from business
practices and the focus on maximising profit. However in many ―coastal villages, the
40
community is still predominantly semi-subsistence, therefore maximising profits is not a
practical goal.‖ The important social intent of business in terms of meaningful
employment linked to customary lifestyle can be overlooked if profit margins drive
management objectives.
In contrast, Rowse (2002: 58) highlighted that many Indigenous people make the
important choice to work in the Indigenous Sector because of its social rewards. The
Indigenous Sector offers an environment free from many factors inhibiting Indigenous
employment in the wider labour market. It also provides opportunities to satisfy social
and cultural obligations towards communities.
Dwyer (1994) described the potential for inequality to generate from varying degrees
of commercial success. While he does not expand on this, it is feasible that inequalities
between indigenous elements within a community embarking on similar initiatives could
create social problems. This is particularly relevant to the „fringe dwellers‟ as Dwyer
described those who no longer live in their traditional way, because commercial programs
will generally find it difficult to accommodate their needs.
The indigenous land and sea management systems that have evolved over centuries
are manifested in social orders. Smyth (2001) explained a system of management
employing ceremony, entry control, seasonal exploitation of resources, harvesting
restrictions, resource distribution controls and prohibition of entry to certain areas. These
controls are based on clan membership and social structure. However as Rowse (2002:
14) recognised,
―to the extent that ‗integration with kin/integration with non-kin‘ is an
axis of variation among the social milieux that Indigenous Australians find
themselves in, there is a range of Indigenous milieux. The significance of
kinship in the Indigenous social order varies across regions and
generations.‖
From this it can be argued that it is not possible to template management systems
involving kinship mechanisms. It is beneficial to recognise the influence that kinship may
have on management systems, in particular when caring for country is an aspect of
management objectives.
A clan that holds a land title is usually denied the right to sole decision-making.
Individuals related through the women of the clan may be involved and may need to
concur with any final arbitration. The common factor is that landowner groups are linked
41
through shared beliefs. This demands involvement and concurrence between groups on
any matter relating to sharing resource management. Williams (1998: 08) explained that
―a decision about the use of resources in an estate for more than the
immediate needs of an individual or family is in principle subject to the same
constraints as one about a grant of subsidiary rights in land‖.
Traditional management systems are complex in their dealings with species. Clans
may hold rights over fishing a specific species or may be restricted in hunting or capturing
particular species. These rights may involve internal self-regulation including constraints
over harvesting times, locations and techniques. Dwyer (1994: 93) argued that these
localised
―communal systems of internally regulated resource management…are
mechanisms of social regulation as much as, or more than, they are
ecological.‖
That may be, however the strong links between social and ecological management make
discrimination of intent an over-simplification of a complex social and cultural
framework. Even in western cultures, objectives of ecological sustainability often overlap
with economic and social imperatives.
The role of Aboriginal family outstations in caring for country in Australia is
understated and often unnoticed by euro-centric agencies. Instead, emphasis is often
placed on acknowledging and supporting the achievements of larger community
activities. Larger communities involve formalised interaction between established
community groups, government agencies, sectors of resource based industry and natural
resource management focused institutions. One example of this is the community-based
trochus shell aquaculture project at One Armed Point in Dampier Peninsula of North
Western Australia. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research and the
Bardi Aborigines Association Inc. established this successful project with support from
government agencies and the Kimberley Aquaculture Aboriginal Corporation (Lee et al.,
2004). This, like many other large community projects, receives support and funding,
which result in employment and social benefit to the people living in the remote
community.
However the contribution of outstation occupancy and activity often includes
management practices involving customary access control, harvesting practices, fire
42
regimes and monitoring of the country‟s condition. In discussing the Arnhem Land
outstation activity and Indigenous affairs public policy, Altman (2003a: 75) assessed that
―Much of this discourse fails to recognise the lived reality of people who
are living on country and are actively engaged in customary economic
activity and associated landscape management. It also fails to recognise the
current and potential spin-off benefits of such activities for remote regions
and the nation.‖
Management structures involving indigenous people caring for their country often
have social imperatives. The complex links between people, country and business can be
incorporated into all aspects of management. Decision-making will often involve a social
intent.
2.4.2 Indigenous Leadership and Community Involvement.
Stakeholder ownership of processes is a principle of management philosophies. Bitter
experience of disenfranchisement for indigenous cultures has fuelled mistrust making
consultation and participation in sustainable management initiatives important.
Involvement in decision-making at all levels is a facet of integrated management that
needs to be incorporated into evolving activities and programs promoting indigenous
participation. When complexities of economic, social, cultural and environmental factors
are combined, indigenous cultures are unique in their contribution to sustainability.
Langton (1996) argued that majority Indigenous representation on joint management
boards is the model for protected areas managed as Indigenous rangelands to preserve
ecosystems and cultural integrity. Such a majority representation challenges the
frameworks that result in western dominance of natural resource management. A model
that features robust aboriginal managerial representation could integrate indigenous
cultural practices with western science. It creates an environment for long-term
management by indigenous people through recognition of the cultural practices as the
foundation.
Young (1998: 08) discussed the concept of co-management as ―an approach whereby
indigenous people form partnerships with government agencies to manage natural
resources.‖ In Australia, the concept is practically implemented in the co-management of
some National and conservation parks. However, as Young (1998: 09) identified,
overseas co-management extends beyond park management to areas involving diverse
stakeholders or even trans-jurisdictional management of wildlife species. This broadening
43
presents an opportunity for Indigenous people to achieve aspirations relating to species
protection or land management, in areas under Native Title that are not priority
conservation locations. It is an avenue of the co-management concept warranting
consideration in Commonwealth and State policies.
In 1994, a steering committee of people based in north-eastern Arnhem Land released
the Indigenous Marine Protection Strategy for Manbuynga Ga Rulyapa (the Arafura
Sea). This plan sought recognition by government and the commercial fishing industry of
the Indigenous right to use and manage the resources of the sea (Ganter, 1996). In the
Torres Strait region, Indigenous representation exists on the Torres Strait Fisheries
Management Committee and the Torres Strait Fishing Industry and Islanders Consultative
Committee. Notably in the 1990s the Torres Strait Protected Zone Joint Authority froze
expansion of non-Indigenous involvement in the fisheries to improve commercial
opportunities for local communities (Smyth, 1995).
As a result of the impact of commercial fishing on species in the Mitchell River
region, the Kowanyama community hosted a meeting in 1987 between Cape York and
Gulf communities, government fisheries authorities and commercial fishermen. This
resulted in Aboriginal representation on the Queensland Fish Management Authority and
the establishment of an Aboriginal Fisheries Sector. In subsequent years, the Kowanyama
community formed a Land and Natural Resource Management Office (KLANRO) within
the Kowanyama Aboriginal Council. The Office acts as a focal body for economic
development involving Indigenous resource management in the region and is responsible
for providing technical expertise, formulating policy as well as providing enforcement.
The Aboriginal Community Council and a Counsel of Community Elders jointly direct it.
The latter protects traditional interests. The success of this initiative lies in community
level conception and participation in its management (Sinnamon, 1992). Davies and
Drewien (1999: 3) agreed that success is due to
―'ownership' of KLANRO by the community, developed through close
involvement by community members in KLANRO's strategic planning and
through its open-door policy and long-term commitment by people employed
in the KLANRO coordinator position over the past decade; and a strong
vision, effective planning, and a willingness to negotiate.‖
Hughes (1996) discussed a different example in his criticism of the Maningrida
experience in Northern Territory from 1957 to 1974, which failed to appropriately
represent the people in administrative management. Establishing Maningrida as the hub of
44
administration for Indigenous activities, including commercial fishing ventures, failed to
embrace community ownership of the scheme. As a result, disillusioned people returned
to remote outstations and integrated some western traits into their lifestyles. In contrast,
the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation was established in 1973 and as a regional venture
as a community service provider and development organisation. It conducts diverse
projects involving commercial use of natural resources in accordance with government
approved management plans and collaboration with researchers. The key contributor to
success is ownership of the consultation and management by the community. ―Ownership
extends across the resource, the process and the outcomes, including any data and
information that is collated or collected‖ (Finlayson et al., 1997: 17). In discussing the
impact of commercial activity, Altman (2001a) acknowledged that a trade-off between
isolation and engagement with distant markets must be recognised by communities for the
potential impact on traditional lifestyles. The integration of community elders in planning
legitimises decision-making associated with issues potentially creating conflict between
customary life and business.
Community-based fisheries management has been formalised in Pacific nations.
Recognition of the fragility of fisheries, the value of traditional knowledge and the impact
of fishing practices on fish stocks have resulted in cooperative planning and adoption of
Village Fisheries Management Plans. King and Faasaili (1999: 134-135) discussed the
Fisheries Management Project Strategy in Samoa, which encouraged community
participation. This strategy was based on four principles: maximum community
participation to develop an awareness of community responsibility to long-term
sustainability; motivation rather than education in recognition of the significant
knowledge embedded in communities; a demand-based extension system to harness the
participation of communities with an awareness and concern for the marine environment;
and the development of alternative sources of seafood to reduce the pressures on fisheries
and destructive fishing practices. Participatory planning has resulted in the establishment
of government supported Village Fisheries Management plans that identify the key
problems and implement actions to mitigate or prevent the causes. In 2 years 44 villages
adopted the planning initiative and instigated actions including controls on quantities and
species in fishing take, bans on destructive practices such as the use of explosives and
bleach, and the establishment of protected areas (King and Faasaili, 1999: 138-139).
Zann (1999: 583-584) described the practical issues based approach used to develop
the strategy for inshore resources management in Samoa. The approach identified the key
45
issues affecting fisheries, the constraints to their resolution, possible management actions
and the status of those actions. Issues identified included the use of destructive fishing
techniques, overfishing of stock and lack of compliance to regulations. Co-management
of resources and community education were principal actions identified to mitigate
management issues. Zann (1999: 589) proposed that
―where local communities have a long tradition of environmental
conservation and communally own land and sea resources, and have a long
tradition in resource conservation, it is most appropriate to devolve
responsibilities in environmental management back to those communities.‖
Adams and Dalzell (1995: 03) wrote that
―It is because a large percentage of the rural community have some
interest and stake in fishing that community management is a feasible option
in many Pacific Islands. There are always reports coming into the chief on
what is happening on the fishing grounds, and the majority of the community
has a direct interest in seeing that the supply of food-fish is maintained.‖
This broad community interest associated with lifestyle is manifested as community
involvement in appropriate management. Communities in this region have recognized the
link between management and their survival. While this outcome is not a result of
centralized government management, government has facilitated community involvement
through funded programs and policies encouraging decentralised participation.
In discussing Indigenous community land-care in northern Australia, Altman and
Whitehead (2003: 01) highlighted an approach that emphasises the importance of
communality and inter-generational sustainability. However communality
―can be impaired by ‗free loaders‘. That is, some may not invest in
natural resource management, but still draw on the benefits. And inter-
generational sustainability requires an approach that not only mixes
Indigenous knowledge with western scientific knowledge, but selects best
practice from both and equips practitioners to draw on both ‗toolkits‘.‖
For natural resource management, participation of leadership and community in all
stages of planning and implementation is a critical ingredient of successful ventures.
Participation translates to ownership, which guards customary values. Results stem from
collective agreement and communities are empowered to control what is essentially their
livelihood to meet their aspirations. Regardless of whether activities are commercial or
46
otherwise, the involvement of indigenous people in decision-making mechanisms, in
particular when activities impact on traditionally owned land and sea supports a cultural
link to country and its resources.
2.4.3 Harnessing Niche Markets.
Niche markets are increasingly becoming an important part of economic systems.
Tonts and Selwood (2003: 565) refer to associated literature and identify that
―One of the recurring themes in this literature is an apparent shift from a
world economy based around the principles of mass production and
consumption, towards an economy based on more flexible production
systems, diverse consumption patterns and the exploitation of highly
profitable niche markets.‖
Up until the 1970s, mass production economies were supported by government
policies resourcing associated infrastructure and marketing organisations. However global
surpluses in many commodities drove a change to economic strategies that resulted in
changes including deregulation of public sectors, in particular marketing authorities
(Tonts and Selwood, 2003: 565).
Changes in consumer tastes have also driven markets away from standard, mass
produced products. Harvey (1989: 156) discusses the impact of the post-modern world on
consumerism. He argues that
"The relatively stable aesthetic of Fordist modernism has given way to all
the ferment, instability, and fleeting qualities of a postmodernist aesthetic that
celebrates difference, ephemerality, spectacle, fashion, and the
commodifications of cultural forms."
These economic developments have created opportunity for regional and remote
communities to access changing markets that mitigate impediments stemming from
geographical and social dislocation from main population centres. These impediments can
take many forms. Remoteness from mainstream markets can result in unrealistic
overheads associated with regulation, marketing and supply. A small consumer base in
proximity to a business can affect the viability of returns or compel the operator to deliver
products at unattractive prices. The lack of regional competition can result in initial
successes being affected by business complacency. Inadequate facilities and low levels
business knowledge can also undermine economic initiatives.
47
For Aboriginal people, providing unique products can mitigate some these obstacles if
products harness culture and resources that are not available to mainstream competitors.
Limited resources can in fact supplement the niche of some industries. For instance
sections of the tourism market seek unique experiences not necessarily founded on
extensive infrastructure and resources but on cultural and environmental experiences.
Regional infrastructure may be necessary to feed or support a remote and niche
initiative. In discussing niche tourism in rural areas, Hughes and MacBeth (2005: 425)
state that
―Difficulties in developing tourism in regional locations are likely to be
associated with minimal tourism-related infrastructure, a lack of obvious
tourism attractions and small resident and business populations. Ironically,
these are the very factors that often stimulate the quest to attract tourists.‖
They discuss ―the development of a captive-wildlife ‗tourist facility‘, later to be named
Barna Mia‖ as the attraction to harness the tourism opportunities unique to Dryandra
Woodland in Western Australia‟s southwest (Hughes and MacBeth, 2005: 431). In this
experience collaboration between government and community aimed to harness the
tourism market and provide conservation programs to eradicate pests and protect native
species. The tourism product theoretically provided a unique experience to participate
first hand in the outcomes of conservation programs in the woodland area. However the
region has a low tourism profile due to inadequate regional infrastructure. This led to the
wildlife product producing less than anticipated tourism results.
Land ownership provides the basis for indigenous tourism however operators often
rely on partnerships with other operators or the support of the broader tourism
infrastructure. Zeppel (2006: 280) recognises that establishing indigenous tourism is
typically staged with land ownership and partnership arrangements underpinning
development. He states that
―The stages of Indigenous ecotourism development are: (i) tourism
exploration of Indigenous peoples on tribal lands; (ii) involvement of local
community in providing tourism facilities; and (iii) tribal tourism
development based on secure land titles and partnerships with tour
operators.‖
Altman (2002a: 35) discussed the disadvantages experienced by Indigenous people
living in remote regions. He states that for
48
―Indigenous people whose cultural and economic circumstances are very
different from the dominant society‘s, those people residing on Aboriginal-
owned land in the remotest parts of Australia and engaged in a fundamentally
different customary economy….. striving for equality of measured outcomes
might be unattainable and inappropriate in such
circumstances………primarily due to two factors: residence in extremely
remote localities ‗beyond the market‘ and the shortage in such
geographically-remote locations of ‗viable‘ labour markets; and a
concomitant high level of engagement in the customary (non-market)
economy facilitated by strong cultural continuities, due in part to relatively
late and benign contact histories.‖
According to the 1998 Senate Inquiry into wildlife use in Australia, one of the major
problems associated with Indigenous commercial enterprises is the remoteness of markets
and significant overheads associated with supplying those markets. In addition, a public
resistance to source native wildlife products restricts market growth. But indigenous niche
markets, with little competition, support a number of successful ventures. The niche is
characterised by traditional knowledge and ownership of land where the resources are
found. Niche alone is unlikely to result in productivity if broader commercial regulatory
frameworks fail to create an environment supporting disadvantaged indigenous initiatives.
Deregulation of commercial exploitation of native wildlife is unlikely to greatly benefit
Aboriginal people according to Davies (1999), due to limited business resources and
market access. Davies argued that the value of deregulation to Aboriginal people is
localised at best and that privatisation brings benefit.
A realistic expectation of success underpins sound activities and niche products. In
Western Australia the Western Australian Indigenous Tourism Operators Committee
(WAITOC) is the peak association representing Indigenous tourism in the state.
WAITOC represents over fifty Aboriginal operators that provide products ranging from
experiences involving traditional dance and dreamtime stories to bush tours and art.
While the products vary, they all harness the uniqueness of Aboriginal culture in their
promotion and delivery (WAITOC 2007).
Altman and Whitehead (2003: 01) highlighted the contribution of niche activity to
mitigating limited commercial opportunities. They presented that
―engagement in productive customary activity can provide one of a very
few avenues for improving socioeconomic well-being. Similarly, harvesting of
49
wildlife (trees, bush materials) and other naturally-occurring resources can
provide important inputs to the arts industry that generate cash for
participants.‖
They referred to the arts and craft industry engaging
―thousands of Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory in meaningful
employment and contributes substantially to regional economies through both
direct sales and an indirect contribution to the tourism industry‖ Altman and
Whitehead (2003: 04).
2.4.4 Monitoring the Impact and Adapting to Environmental
Imperatives.
The impact of European settlement has affected the integrity of indigenous cultures
and the environment in which they live. This raises questions regarding the relevance of
extant customary knowledge to the management of natural resources in the modern world.
A growing recognition exists that integrating customary and western practices needs to be
considered if aboriginal people are to participate and a holistic approach is to be
embraced. The adaptation of customary practices can result from an awareness of the
impact of those practices on sustainability. This awareness can be a bi-product of
knowledge derived from integrated research and management. A number of communities
have embarked on joint research with scientists to ascertain the status of and human
impact on targeted species. An example of this is the collaboration between the
Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation in Arnhem Land and the University of Sydney
supporting commercial crocodile harvesting (Finlayson et al., 1997). Data collected from
Indigenous crocodile use informed research, which in turn supported species management
planning.
King and Faasaili (1999: 142-143) wrote that communities must recognise their
responsibilities towards managing resources and that
―Since many in subsistence fishing require seafood for their families on a
daily basis, it is unreasonable to expect communities to readily adopt
conservation measures which will, at least initially, reduce present catches of
seafood even further. Whether community-based or not, most conservation
measures, including preventing destructive fishing methods and imposing fish
size limits, will cause a short-term decrease in catches. Accordingly, a
community-based extension program which does not promote alternative
50
means of obtaining seafood is unlikely to be sustainable….the responsible
management of marine resources will only be achieved when all fishermen
see it as their own responsibility rather than that of government.‖
(Johannes, 2002: 319) noted that after observing the conservation outcomes of trochus
shell management, communities in Oceania
―decided to implement their own conservation measures to protect other
marine animals, including finfishes, lobsters, clams, bˆeche-de-mer, and
crabs, as well as to ban or restrict certain overly efficient fishing practices
such as night spearfishing and the use of nets, especially gillnets. One of the
surveyed communities set up a marine protected area and stocked it with
giant clam.‖
Similarly the harvesting of Dugong and Turtle in the Cape York and Torres Strait
region has involved self-regulation. Rowse (2002) observed that despite dugong hunting
being a significant cultural activity, communities recognised the protection requirements
and adapted their practices, at considerable cultural sacrifice. Self-imposed measures have
included restrictions and moratoriums.
Regardless of the integrity of traditional knowledge resident in a community,
monitoring provides evidence to inform adaptive management practices in a changing
environmental and social setting. Kyle et al. (1997: 175) described the establishment of
monitoring stations in the Maputaland marine reserve in northern Kwazulu-Natal in South
Africa. Shellfish harvesting is an important aspect of the lifestyle of coastal inhabitants in
the area. The stations were established to ascertain the impact of customary practices on
the sustainability of shellfish populations. Importantly local women were employed to
conduct the monitoring, which captured data relating to species, collection method, where
collectors came from and what proportion of collection was sold. This monitoring
identified that customary shellfish collection did not impact on sustainability of the
resource.
North American Treaty Indian communities have traditionally netted the protected
fish species of steelhead, particularly for their winter livelihood, but have restrained this
practice to sustain populations. Communities employ fisheries biologists to assist in
drafting regulations and monitoring fisheries and are using their fisheries programs to
research and enhance the steelhead resource. (Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission,
1999).
51
The impact of customary harvesting on populations and habitats is difficult to assess,
largely because of the lack of monitoring mechanisms and controls on quantities
harvested. Legislation allowing customary harvesting is not necessarily supported by
regulations controlling practices used. This is not the case for commercial activities where
species harvesting must be supported by Australian Government endorsed management
plans for threatened species, and sale or export of products is tightly controlled. Bomford
and Caughey (1996: 64) proposed that ―for conservation, it does not matter if animals are
taken by traditional tools or by modern weapons. What matters is how many animals are
taken.‖
Modelling the impact of species harvesting is a fundamental aspect of species
management planning. However even with modelling, ongoing monitoring is essential to
ensure that management plans can be readily adapted in response to any detrimental or
positive effects of harvesting. For example significant research was conducted to support
the crocodile industry of Northern Australia. However it was not until harvesting was
conducted that the impacts could be properly assessed and compared against modelling.
Webb et al. (1996: 177) stated that a “commitment to sustainability is a commitment to
monitoring‖. Monitoring showed that harvesting over 100,000 eggs and 6000 animals in
the Northern Territory between 1971 and 1994 did not result in any quantifiable
detrimental impact on populations (Webb et al., 1996: 177).
Monitoring the impact of community activities on the environment can involve
participation in species and habitat management. Knowledge of country is an important
element of monitoring. Integrating this knowledge with scientific practices can enhance
the utility of data collected. Importantly participation in monitoring can enhance
community awareness of the impact and potentially result in changes to detrimental
practices. Participation can educate a community of their responsibility to adopt
appropriate management practices.
2.4.5 Reliance on State Involvement
Government policy is discussed in detail in subsequent chapters however often
governments do not fully recognise the contribution of aboriginal customary activity to
broader natural resource management. Altman and Whitehead (2003: 04) discussed this
contribution and highlighted a lack of associated recognition translating to tangible
support from government. They referred to
52
―policy decisions that directly or indirectly call into question the validity
of customary practice, mostly on philosophical grounds rather than on
evidence of its contributions to sustainable resource use.‖
This lack of acknowledgement potentially limits access by indigenous communities to the
resources required to embark on organised initiatives. Development is also threatened by
a lack of management skills and statutes providing protection in competitive markets. In
many nations a degree of reliance on the state typifies indigenous management ventures.
While inadequate funding is a major inhibitor, it is how the funding translates to a
program that is important. Programs encouraging community and leadership participation
and control are the benchmark for governments. Equally the impact on existing non-
indigenous businesses needs to be considered. The Australian Senate Inquiry into wildlife
use acknowledged potential disadvantage to non-Indigenous industry if Indigenous
ventures were to be supported legislatively and financially. The negative impact of
positive discrimination is an issue that has particular emphasis in industries dealing with
scarce coastal resources.
Young (2001: 02) proposed that
―Commonwealth and State Government departments of primary resource
development, environment and conservation, have an obligation to deliver
services and support to the whole of Australia, and all its diverse population
groups, including Indigenous land-holders.‖
This responsibility extends to the provision of research and training programs. She was
critical in her assessment of this responsibility being met and referred to cultural
inadequacies in programs and training.
Training and education are an essential part of state programs. Altman (2001b: 13)
argued that
―A key missing ingredient remains appropriate training, advice and
mentoring (business incubators) for potential Indigenous entrepreneurs,
especially at remote communities.‖
Langton (1997) argued that research and education must be focused on community-based
management if needs are to be appropriately addressed. In support of its management
requirements, the Kowanyama community in Cape York conducted a curriculum
development project to prepare its people for management roles. Western and traditional
knowledge was included in the program, which was aimed at younger people for future
53
employment. The initiative was supported by a sophisticated Community Awareness
Program targeting ―local, regional, state, national and international Indigenous and non-
Indigenous communities via a broad range of media‖ (Sinnamon, 1992: 27).
2.5 CONCLUSION: PROPOSITIONS FOR RESEARCH
Indigenous management systems successfully participating in natural resource
management are underpinned by basic principles founded on communality and customary
practices. This appears to be the case regardless of the economic, social or environmental
focus of an initiative. These principles are significant to the research underpinning this
thesis. They provide the basis for developing a framework of considerations for
application in planning. A review of the literature examining the experiences of
indigenous people overseas and in Australia indicates that the following principles
contribute to successful activity:
The relevance of customary knowledge;
The importance of the Indigenous sector to participation;
The social objective of development;
The opportunities stemming from niche activity;
The importance of monitoring to adapting practices; and
The importance of state support to establishing and maintaining initiatives.
The relevance of customary knowledge to sustainability is a theme that typifies many
indigenous activities whether they involve commercial or consumptive harvesting of
resources or manage access to locations or species. Increasingly the integration of this
knowledge with western scientific practices is being driven by academic and political
debates informing policies and programs that promote ownership and involvement by
communities.
The indigenous sector is important to facilitation of community participation and
access to programs and resources. This sector provides a necessary conduit channelling
government funding towards workforce requirements, infrastructure development and
service delivery. It also provides the avenue for the customary economy to gain
recognition in the broader euro-centric bureaucracy driving resource management focused
programs.
54
Regardless of the level of support, ventures managed by aboriginal communities are
often underpinned by a social imperative that is not delineated from environmental,
economic or community ones. The spiritual link between man and country underpinning
indigenous cultures demands that community ownership of activities acknowledges the
customary management of country. Ownership is an important aspect of development and
implementation of resource management activity. It incorporates community leadership
and broader community involvement in the development and implementation of
initiatives.
Accessing niche markets can mitigate the negative affects of distant and sophisticated
markets. Niche stems from access to and ownership of land, sea and resources as well as
the unique cultural link between people, ancestors and country. In some industries a niche
product alone is not a panacea. For example economic development relying on tourism
requires operators to be supported by regional infrastructure attracting the market to the
region in the initial instance. The niche aboriginal product is then able to harness this
regional feed.
Monitoring impact is an aspect of sustainable activity. Integrating customary
knowledge with scientific practices can inform requirements for adapting to changes in
habitat and species populations. The ownership of practical monitoring practices by a
community can contribute to implementing change.
Finally state support is an essential ingredient to any activity on country. In the first
instance government recognition of the contribution that indigenous people can make to
the health of country is important. Additionally community initiatives require state
support to alleviate the burdens of raising and training a workforce, building infrastructure
and accessing resources. This support may be necessary to initially establish an activity
and maintain it.
These principles are aligned to the theoretical framework of this research. Traditional
knowledge systems comprise socio-economic, environmental and governance
considerations, which underpin a participatory planning environment. The Indigenous
sector and state involvement with communities are also characterised by the complex
relationships between communities and government as they interact in pursuit of social,
business and environmental outcomes. Soft systems approaches enable participants to
understand their own roles and aspirations as well as those of others. Collective planning
that harnesses soft systems processes incorporates the inherent stakeholder diversity into
planning.
55
During this thesis, these principles also provide the foundation for developing a
Conceptual Model through an assessment of government action and case study. This
model will then be applied to futures planning for a family based community managed
conservancy in the Dampier Peninsula of Western Australia. The question raised from
this application is whether these principles will be relevant to establishing a family-based
initiative that has community, caring for country and economic aspects. Literature
informing the assessment of these principles relates primarily to larger community
projects. Many of these projects have a single focus on a specific management issue.
However this research has a micro-social character with a view to developing a model
supporting a broad range of activities. The theoretical concept underpinning this research
is that the family connection to family claimed country is stronger than the larger
community link to regional land and sea. If meaningful activity on traditional land has
potential to improve environmental management and social conditions, then the
hypothesis is that meaningful activity on land with custodial meaning to family will
generate enthusiasm and involvement. A broad analogy of this is the family business in
mainstream Australia, which generates interest through a family‟s involvement in
growing and managing that business. If successful, such a business can benefit from a
greater sense of commitment by family members than larger corporate organisations do
from diverse employee populations.
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3 THE AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT, ABORIGINAL
PEOPLE AND COUNTRY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Understanding a government‟s role in engaging with indigenous people is a key
aspect of the socio-economic, environmental and governance considerations of the
theoretical framework described in Chapter one. In Australia, the influence of the
Commonwealth and State levels on participatory community planning is significant and
can constrain or create opportunities.
This chapter assesses recent Australian Government encouragement of Aboriginal
involvement in natural resource management is assessed in. Legislation and policies are
reviewed, including inquiries and programs. The interests and opportunities for
Indigenous people on country are discussed and the chapter concludes with discussion on
the considerations stemming from current government initiatives and the opportunities
that are presented for the Goonj Arlan people. This is an important aspect of the thesis as
government creates the environment for Indigenous people to participate in natural
resource management. It does so through designing policy, which integrates the activities
of Indigenous people into broader environmental, economic and social programs. This
requires consultation with Indigenous leaders and communities. Appropriate policy
requires adequate funding to support the planning, training and infrastructure needs of
localised practical initiatives aiming for long-term outcomes. An assessment of
Australian Government intent provides a benchmark to identify programs and policies
that may be accessed by the Goonj Arlan people of the Kimberley.
The influence of neo-liberal thinking has delivered significant changes to social policy
worldwide since the 1970s. Interventionist strategies underpinning welfare-based policies
gave way to deregulation and incentive-based strategies. However recently, intervention
has re-emerged to mitigate the social impacts that accompanied incentivised exploitation.
―The neo-liberal reforms of the 1980s and 1990s were generally driven
by a radical shift away from post-war policies and regulatory frameworks
based loosely around the principles of Keynesian economic management‖
(Tonts and Haslam-McKenzie, 2005: 184).
However the manifestations of these reforms were soon accompanied by detrimental
impacts, in particular in lower socio-economic sectors of the community. The 1990s saw
57
a social interventionist re-emergence in politics with an increasing influence on more than
merely economics. Tonts and Haslam-McKenzie (2005: 184) identify that
―While it is clear that economic concerns are still important, it is evident
that new forms of intervention are emerging. Much of this intervention is
focused on issues such as crime, immigration, national security, welfare
reform, urban regeneration, and regional regeneration.‖
Welfarism and incentive-based approaches have typified Australia‟s Indigenous
affairs policy since the 1970s. Paternal approaches have given way to ones more
conducive to supporting self-reliance for Aboriginal people. However Australia‟s
constitution empowers State and Territory governments with jurisdiction over matters
relating to natural resource management. Also while Indigenous affairs remains guided by
Commonwealth legislation and policy, State jurisdictions have been largely responsible
for implementing practical initiatives involving Indigenous people and land management.
Native title and recent changes in arrangements have increased the Commonwealth
Government‟s influence over activities. Tying government funding to specific community
outcomes through mutual agreement is an example of this increasing influence, which
arguably satisfies a public demand for improved accountability. However euro-centric
management by government portfolios can inhibit policy development to support an
environment that is inconsistent and does not suit a template approach. What is effective
for one community is not necessarily desirable for another. To that end, government
policy is typified by higher-level rhetorical intent and the provision of funds to support
broad objectives. The processes, people and energy required to translate this into practical
activity are the tangible elements that can be difficult to foster.
As the Australian Government develops its policies for Indigenous people it cannot
overlook the significance of country to culture and associated opportunities. Policy needs
to consider how it can support lifestyle choices, create meaningful employment and
recognise the social and economic importance of customary activity. Consideration
increasingly aims to involve Indigenous people in designing policy supporting Aboriginal
people on country. Skills development in governance, land management integrating
traditional and scientific knowledge and an emphasis on customary activity and social
values are all worthwhile objectives, which over time could mitigate some of the negative
themes stemming from generations of disenfranchisement.
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3.2 COMMONWEALTH INTENT AND ACTIONS
3.2.1 Government Intent through Inquiries and Strategies
Since the early 1990‟s a number of Commonwealth Government strategies have
indicated intent to involve Indigenous people in the sustainable management of the
natural environment and ensure equity in their access to resources and wealth. However
despite many inquiries, practical project implementation in regional and local environs is
difficult and is often realised on a broad scale in specific industries only.
The National Strategy on Ecologically Sustainable Development (NSESD) endorsed
by the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) in 1992 was the first single
Australian National approach to sustainable development. It has since guided and
informed subsequent strategies and policies. For example in 1994 the NSESD led to the
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission Environment Policy, which
emphasises Indigenous participation in environmental policy and equity in accessing
resources. The NSESD undertakes to:
―ensure effective mechanisms are put in place to represent Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander (ATSI) land, heritage, economic and cultural
development concerns in resource allocation processes‖; and ―strengthen the
active participation of ATSI peoples in formulation of ESD-related policies‖
(Cwlth Govt, 1992: Objectives 22.1 and 22.2).
However these objectives are not translated that crucial step further into specific target
actions and performance indicators. The last consolidated review of the implementation of
the NSESD against its objectives was prepared in 1996. It identified
―that there needs to be improved processes for including Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander peoples, and their knowledge, innovations and
practices, in the implementation of ecologically sustainable development and
in particular, as they relate to biological diversity‖ (Cwlth Govt, 1996a: chap
23)
The NSESD could be more effective if objectives were developed further to underpin
target actions that establish formal mechanisms linking government processes to practical
outcomes. Relevant actions could include promoting the role of Indigenous Land
Councils and regional natural resource management groups with regard to ensuring
Indigenous representation and influence on natural resource management committees;
effective government manning and funding of facilitation positions responsible for
59
working with Aboriginal communities; and recognition of customary activity as it
contributes to community development and broader sustainability.
The 1996 National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity (NSCB) focuses on
protecting Australia‟s ecological processes and systems. While it does not discretely deal
with Indigenous participation in its objectives, it does include as one of its base principles
that
―the close, traditional association of Australia's Indigenous peoples with
components of biological diversity should be recognised, as should the
desirability of sharing equitably benefits arising from the innovative use of
traditional knowledge of biological diversity‖ (Cwlth Govt, 1996b: Goals and
Principles)
In 1998 a Commonwealth Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport
Committee Inquiry into Commercial Utilisation of Australian Native Wildlife was
conducted. This did not result in specific legislation or policy however it did review the
viability of niche industries based on wildlife use. It discussed the impact of commercial
use on social, economic and environmental factors. The inquiry reviewed the benefits to
the broad Australian community and assessed activity by Indigenous people as an
extension of their customary use. In a response to the inquiry, Altman et al. (1997)
stressed that Indigenous interests and knowledge, combined with commercial
disadvantages, warranted further examination of the potential participation by Indigenous
groups in commercial ventures.
While species and habitat conservation are the main debated positives of commercial
wildlife use, the report proposes that other benefits include undermining illegal activities;
provision of conservation incentives to landowners; increased data collection
opportunities; financial return that could be directed to conservation; and the return of
ownership of species and management to landowners (Cwlth Govt, 1998a: 1.5, 2.11).
In its submission to the inquiry, the Department of Environment listed a number of
principles to support wildlife harvesting. Significant in these were: the need for a
legislatively regulated framework; a direct link between commercial activity and
increased knowledge of species; and independent monitoring (Cwlth Govt, 1998a: 4.50).
Any legislative frameworks that may eventually be developed to support wildlife
harvesting cannot ignore the custodial responsibilities that Aboriginal people have to
country. Similarly, knowledge development of species needs to incorporate the
60
knowledge that underpins customary management processes if Aboriginal people are to
be involved in the evolution of a wildlife-based industry.
The inquiry also discussed the concept of placing a value on wildlife. It highlighted
the necessity for value to look past the financial aspects and also consider the social,
aesthetic, recreational and scientific ones (Cwlth Govt, 1998a: 5.6-5.15). This is relevant
when considering wildlife use by Indigenous people. Economic return from modest
commercial enterprises may be far outweighed by the social benefits of meaningful
employment and the practical application of the cultural link between people and species.
This is a consideration applicable to the Goonj Arlan outstation. Activity involving wild
species may not be significant in terms of commercial gain; however it may involve
meaningful activity stemming from peoples‟ customary association with species. To that
end, wildlife-based initiatives are worth considering in planning for Goonj Arlan.
Indigenous enterprises in remote areas often suffer disadvantage due to distances from
markets, low capital and embryonic business skills. These factors can be exacerbated by
competition from more sophisticated and financially independent ventures. The Goonj
Arlan project will need to consider this issue and investigate niche opportunities
mitigating the threat stemming from larger sophisticated businesses.
The inquiry also recognised that Aboriginal people should be able to buy traditional
foods regardless of where they live. Current regulations do not enable Aboriginal people
who leave traditional lands to maintain their cultural links through food. If this were
addressed by amended legislation, it would provide a potential market opportunity for
Indigenous commercial enterprises. Emerging initiatives with limited capital such as
Goonj Arlan may consider accessing local markets to overcome the constraints arising
from current legislation. Goonj Arlan will have access to regional Aboriginal community
markets as well as certain wildlife resources. If commercial opportunities could be
pursued involving certain species, a community need could be supported by a niche and
modest enterprise. This thought goes beyond food consumption. Some flora and fauna
species could be harvested to supply raw products to the regional Indigenous arts and
craft industry.
While falling short of proposing strategies to involve Indigenous people in
commercial opportunities, the inquiry‟s committee did conclude
―that commercial utilisation of wildlife by Aboriginal people has an
important role to play in the economic development of some Aboriginal
communities‖ (Cwlth Govt, 1998a: 20.79).
61
In 1999 the Australian & New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council
(ANZECC) and Agriculture & Resource Management Council of Australia and New
Zealand (ARMCANZ) developed the National Principles and Guidelines for Rangeland
Management. These state that,
―the aspirations and inherent rights of Indigenous peoples, their
relationship with the rangelands, and the need for culturally appropriate
negotiation processes, must be recognised‖ (ANZECC and ARMCANZ,
1999: 5).
Guidelines include:
―The particular rights and interests of Indigenous peoples in Rangeland
planning and management should be incorporated in Rangeland planning
and management‖ (ANZECC and ARMCANZ, 1999: 26).
This requires recognition of ownership, consultation with communities and
integration of Indigenous knowledge into management practices.
A National Aquaculture Development Strategy for Indigenous Communities in
Australia was developed for the Commonwealth Department of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Forestry-Australia (AFFA) in 2001. The resulting recommendations established
Commonwealth level mechanisms supporting community and regional aquaculture.
Subsequent outcomes included a steering committee and specialist units within the former
ATSIC and facilities within bio-regions to provide assessments and knowledge to
communities and projects. The strategy aims to support cultural and environmental needs
through economic development and has led to practical mechanisms to support
community-based aquaculture.
The Kimberley Indigenous Aquaculture Development Working Group was
established in 2002 as a result of the National strategy. It coordinates the efforts of a
number of regional agencies supporting a viable industry. For example the Kimberley
Aquaculture Aboriginal Corporation maintains a three million dollar multi-species
hatchery facility and acts as the peak representative body providing support to regional
communities in the form of feasibility studies, business facilitation, training needs and
market access (Haylor, 2003 and KAAC, 2004). Arguably without this support,
communities would not consider embarking on aquaculture enterprises nor would their
sustainability be feasible.
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The aquaculture strategy presents opportunity to the people of Goonj Arlan.
Specifically the Kimberley Aquaculture Aboriginal Corporation combines with TAFE
programs as a conduit for communities such as Goonj Arlan to enter the industry and
access markets. This is discussed further in later chapters.
In 2002 the AFFA developed an Indigenous Strategy Statement to improve
consultation and involvement in portfolio matters. This places importance on activities
on-the-ground as one of its four themes. Stemming from this in 2003 was the National
Indigenous Forestry Strategy, which targets Indigenous participation in commercial
forestry.
The National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey was conducted in 2003
as the first comprehensive fishing survey to inform government, research and industry of
recreational and Indigenous fishing efforts and take. The report acknowledged the
inadequacy of Commonwealth legislation with regard to Indigenous fishing and
quantified the annual harvest by species in northern Australia. It estimated Indigenous
fishing take as including ―900,000 finfish, 1.1 million shellfish, 660,000 prawns and
yabbies, 180,000 crabs and lobsters and smaller numbers of other taxa‖ (Henry and
Lyle, 2003: 134).
The survey did not result in a National Indigenous fisheries strategy however Western
Australia has developed an Aboriginal fishing strategy, which is discussed in Chapter
four. This state initiative aims to include customary fishing activity into the overall
fisheries management framework and increase Aboriginal involvement in management
and industry (WA Govt, 2003a: 18, 19). While this provides a benchmark for other States
and Territories, a State-by-State approach will not address the specific management
requirements for bio-regions that cross State jurisdictions.
In 2004 a House of Representatives Standing Committee Inquiry delivered a report
titled Many Ways Forward: Report of the Inquiry into Capacity Building and Service
Delivery in Indigenous Communities. This addresses socio-economic profile issues, in
particular with regard to endemic social problems and service delivery, but does not
address the opportunities stemming from land ownership and the potential contribution of
natural resource management activity to community capacity. The relevance of this to
Goonj Arlan is that service delivery is a significant inhibitor to establishing long-term
ventures on family outstation country. The deficiencies of services in main communities
are amplified when those services are required by outstations that are inadequately
serviced by road and transport infrastructure. This situation demands a greater degree of
63
independence by outstation occupants otherwise people are driven back to main
communities, which are often characterised by social dysfunction.
In 2009 the Australian Government‟s Caring for our Country Program delivered the
Australian Government Natural Resource Management Monitoring, Evaluation,
Reporting And Improvement (MERI) Framework, which recognises the role of
Indigenous communities as key stakeholders. This inclusion is important to providing the
capstone for involving Aboriginal people in the broadest natural resource management
programs. The framework aims to develop the knowledge of evaluation concepts within
all stakeholder groups and integrate their participation in resource management
approaches.
The many government inquiries and strategies refer to increasing the involvement by
Indigenous people in sustainable management of Australia‟s natural resources. In the first
instance, recognition of the rights of Aboriginal people to access and use resources for
customary purposes is acknowledged. Rhetoric also promotes increased involvement in
advisory capacities through various committees and management systems. The intent that
Indigenous people benefit economically from resource use is reflected and some
strategies relate this to specific industries. However a common theme arising from this
review involves translating rhetoric into targeted outcomes through practical actions.
Specifically articulating actions at the Commonwealth capstone level of policy can better
enable outcome measurement and steer government funding and program development,
particularly in an inter-departmental environment. For disadvantaged Indigenous
community groups, tangible actions can guard program delivery against funds being
diverted at State and regional levels. Formulating agreed actions at the National level
holds government accountable to funding outcomes. Equally, this gives Indigenous
leadership benchmarks to measure the impact of programs against agreed objectives and
pursue further progress opportunities once objectives are achieved.
Opportunity for the people of Goonj Arlan stems from a number of these inquiries. In
a general sense, their right to access the resources of their custodial land and sea is
recognised for customary purposes at least. Indeed the role of Aboriginal people in
resource management is captured in government policy presenting opportunity for active
participation in custodial caring for country. In specific industries opportunity extends to
economic activity. In particular, enterprise development based on aquaculture is feasible
as are modest ventures involving wildlife use and use of resources for artifacts and art.
However to develop any opportunity into action requires government support to address
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diverse training, infrastructure development, research and facilitation needs. The
difficulty associated with delivering centralised services to remote outstations is an
inhibitor to development that the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation‟s planning must
consider.
3.2.2 Commonwealth Legislation Relating to Opportunity on Country
Commonwealth legislation mandates rights and regulations regarding Aboriginal
people and the environment. A review of relevant legislation identifies an emphasis on
allowing Indigenous people to exercise their customary rights, particularly their rights to
live on Aboriginal owned land in customary ways and access resources for traditional use.
Legislation that actively encourages Aboriginal people to extend their rights to economic
development is limited. Any commercial ventures must operate in accordance with non-
Indigenous specific legislation, which creates inequity for disadvantaged ventures due to
competition. In discussing the emerging markets associated with traditional knowledge
and native flora and fauna, Armstrong (2004: 7) proposed that market growth
―requires the legislative change to protect Indigenous property rights,
allow sustainable use and recognise a commercial right of Indigenous land
holders in wildlife.‖
An example of commercial vulnerability is the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation‟s
crocodile egg harvesting enterprise in the Northern Territory‟s Arnhem Land, which is
discussed in Chapter five. This enterprise is regulated under non-Indigenous specific
legislation and policy relating to crocodile exploitation and the export of products. Its
foundation involves collecting eggs from the wild and selling hatchlings to established
markets. While its operations are currently niche and appropriately sized, the impact of
any future developments in the crocodile industry negating the need for current clients to
source hatchlings from wild harvest could undermine the sustainability of this business.
Developing a model for the Bunyiol Bardi people of Goonj Arlan will need to investigate
how the commercial opportunities stemming from the natural resources can be managed
in a manner that mitigates threats from commercial competition in a legislative
environment, which does not discriminate between Indigenous and non-Indigenous
business.
The Fisheries Administration Act 1991 establishes Commonwealth bodies to manage
fisheries on behalf of the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. Advisory
committees may involve Aboriginal representation if regional matters relate to traditional
65
waters or customary practices. Aboriginal representation is not mandatory nor is there a
requirement for commercial fishing to accord with community expectations. The Act does
not address the impact of customary activity on fish stocks. Opportunity exists for
Aboriginal people to become increasingly involved in initiatives aiming to overcome this
legislative deficiency. Specifically scope exists for community involvement in developing
and implementing initiatives that properly integrate all fishing practices into management
systems. Western Australia‟s draft Indigenous fishing strategy aims to create opportunity
for Aboriginal people to be actively involved in fisheries management. This provides
scope for Goonj Arlan people to manage community customary fishing in the waters
adjacent to their family claim.
The Native Title Act 1993 mandates the rights of Indigenous people. Specifically it
supports participation, consultation and negotiation regarding the use, management, and
access to land and sea and the associated natural resources. The Act allows
Commonwealth Reserve management boards to be established, which include Indigenous
Land Council representation. Land ownership gives unique access to resources that could
support customary activity or niche businesses such as species harvesting or tourism.
Harnessing the legislation for development outcomes can involve lengthy deliberations
and negotiations. The results of deliberation may not address the concerns or expectations
of Indigenous claimants, particularly when responsibility is shared between Indigenous
people and other stakeholders. For example the collection of evidence from Traditional
Owners in Dampier Peninsula, in support of the Bardi and Jawi Native Title
Determination commenced in June 2001. The Federal Court did not give final
determination of the claim until 10 June 2005. Development opportunities stemming from
this decision will take further time and effort to identify and address. Now that the
determination is made, a regional Prescribed Body Corporate is to be established to
represent Traditional Owners in the management of the claimed land and sea. The Goonj
Arlan Aboriginal Corporation will be able to exercise its voice through this body. It is
important that the Corporation‟s planning include the Prescribed Body Corporate in the
broader management network and wins the Body‟s support for any caring for country
aspirations.
The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 provides for
the protection of the environment and ecologically sustainable development and use of
natural resources. It promotes cooperation between governments, the general public,
landholders and Indigenous communities. The Act recognises the contribution by
66
Indigenous people towards conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. In doing so it
includes Indigenous representation, alongside that of scientific, rural, and business
communities on the Threatened Species Scientific Committee. The Indigenous Advisory
Committee advises the Minister on the operation of the Act as it applies to Indigenous
knowledge. By itself, this Act supports Indigenous involvement in an advisory capacity,
and allows the use of Australia‟s biodiversity for customary purposes. It does not
establish criteria to ensure that Indigenous interests are afforded priority when
appropriate. It is focused on protection and conservation driven mainly by western
scientific consideration. This approach does not recognise support a role to be played by
Indigenous community groups in managing threatened species of customary significance.
Many local initiatives contribute to species protection. For example Kwan et al. (2001:
226) discussed the workshop held on Thursday Island in June 1998, which established the
community management principles for dugong and turtles in the Torres Strait. Stemming
from this was a vision statement enshrining community-based management to ensure ―the
long-term survival of those species as an essential component of Torres Strait culture,
identity and sea life‖.
Wildlife harvesting by Aboriginal people is permitted under the Environment
Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 for customary purposes. However
debate and inquiry have considered the relevance of commercial harvesting to the
conservation of species and habitats. Altman et al. (1995) proposed that the Native Title
Act 1993 recognises property rights of Indigenous people over wildlife species, creating
opportunities for them to gain commercial advantage from harvesting. This extends to the
circumstances where people may not have ownership rights of the land in which the
species live. Increased land ownership creates opportunities for Indigenous people to gain
commercial advantage from wildlife. In its submission to the 1998 Senate Inquiry into
wildlife use, the Northern Land Council proposed that these entitlements should include
sea territory to satisfy subsistence requirements and provide sustainable commercial
opportunities. These entitlements need to be developed into Goonj Arlan management
and use of resources on land and in the sea. The Bardi-Jawi determination does not give
exclusive rights to the people with regard to resources below high water. However the
geography places the area away from significant non-Indigenous activity except for
operations by an adjacent commercial pearling claim. This claim does not impact on the
immediate Goonj Arlan waters but could provide an opportunity for community
management to contribute to the environmental security of this commercial venture.
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The Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 was repealed
in November 2002 and subsumed by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity
Conservation Act 1999 however management plans approved under this former
legislation remained in force. The former act regulated commercial importation or
exportation of wildlife in accordance with international obligations. While it does not
discretely deal with activities conducted by Aboriginal businesses, it is critical to those
dealing commercially in wildlife products. In the Northern Territory the crocodile
products industry, which involves Aboriginal corporations, is regulated by this Act.
The Commonwealth Aboriginal Councils and Associations Act 1976 established and
regulated Aboriginal Councils and Associations until its replacement in 2007 by the
Corporations (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander) Act 2006. The Office of Register
of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Corporations administers the Act and
incorporated organisations. In many circumstances, Aboriginal communities have little
alternative to operating under the auspices of an Aboriginal corporation. This approach
alleviates much of the burden of business administration and is more suited to
community-based ventures. That said, it demands certain levels of committee acumen,
which are sometimes not properly acquired by corporation executives of management.
The Act regulates Indigenous management bodies and empowers Aboriginal
organisations to pursue social, land management and even enterprise activity as an
incorporated body or propriety. The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation will have the
opportunity to operate under this legislation as it develops and implements its longer term
planning. This will alleviate a number of regulatory business related liabilities associated
with incorporation and allow the family participants to concentrate on productive activity
rather than corporation administration in its early stages of development.
3.2.3 Opportunity through Changed Arrangements
The former Australian Government increased its influence on both Indigenous affairs
and land management by tying fiscal resources to specific outcomes. Shared
responsibility agreements between government departments and Aboriginal communities
are an example of this as is the recent intervention in the Northern Territory. The former
Australian Government changed Aboriginal management arrangements and allocated
funds to specific initiatives targeting Indigenous social and environmental outcomes. For
example, funding from the Envirofund element of the Natural Heritage Trust was direct
from Commonwealth level to activity. While this approach challenges State autonomy, it
arguably provides greater accountability to government funded programs. Similarly the
68
Tourism and Conservation Partnerships initiative funded by the Department of Industry
and Resources directly funded activities which link tourism to environmental outcomes.
In 2004/05 ATSIC was disbanded and its responsibilities were reallocated to
government departments. This aimed to establish greater accountability by government
and Aboriginal organisations while addressing stove-piped management, in particular at
Commonwealth level, which undermines a whole-of-government approach to Indigenous
affairs. Disbanding ATSIC removed a National Indigenous body from actively funding
and managing activities and replaced it with a system that parallels other government
functions. The changes transformed Indigenous influence at the National level to an
advisory capacity. The Ministerial Task Force on Indigenous Affairs, which was advised
by a Secretaries Group and a National Indigenous Council (NIC), effected this. Programs
formerly managed by ATSIC have been distributed between government departments.
This suited mainstream government management across multifunctional portfolios but
arguably reduces Indigenous influence over policy development and implementation. In
2008, the NIC was disbanded leaving policy makers without a National level Indigenous
body to inform them. This was the result of the current government‟s reform of
Indigenous policy and associated mechanisms.
The disbandment of the NIC led to the Australian Government establishment of a
National Indigenous Representative Body (NIRB) to fill a significant policy-making void.
Broad consultation has concluded and a steering committee has been convened to manage
to process for establishing the body.
The Council of Australian Government (COAG) Working Group on Indigenous
Reform addresses six target areas. Those areas relate to closing the gap on Indigenous
disadvantage and cover the following:
Closing the gap on the life-expectancy gap between Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander people and other Australians within a generation;
Halving the mortality gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
children and other children under age five within a decade;
Halving the gap in literacy and numeracy achievement between Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander students and other students within a decade;
Halving the gap in employment outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander people within a decade;
69
At least halving the gap in attainment at Year 12 schooling (or equivalent
level) by 2020; and
Provide all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander four year olds in remote
communities with access to a quality pre-school program within five years.
While these targets are not specifically related to the land and sea management theme
of this thesis, they are the capstone themes for Australian Government policy
development. Caring for country is not discreet from these target areas rather it provides
cultural purpose for people and can contribute to the National environmental objectives.
Caring for country can be a medium for attaining the ambitious goals articulated by
COAG. Undoubtedly, the role of Aboriginal people in environmental sustainability
programs and projects will be an important theme pursued by an established NIRB as it
advises COAG.
The changes since 2004 do provide some leverage to win support by initiatives
providing genuine capacity building opportunities for remote communities. The onus is
on communities to achieve determined objectives and on governments to fulfil agreed
obligations. When activities have social or environmental benefits and are supported by
good planning, government is arguably obliged to provide funding and support. To that
end, shared responsibility agreements offer some opportunity for communities, when
government will be actively seeking to support ventures that have good prospects of
success. The commitment of community leadership and the ability of government
regional facilitators to effectively support agreement development are enablers to
successful implementation. For Goonj Arlan, any model developed through collaborative
planning with the family group, needs to illustrate accountability in shared responsibility
agreements. A commitment by the family will support a case for a commitment to them
by government departments.
Shared responsibility emphasises mutual obligation. However mutual obligation for
Indigenous people must not be translated as a broad interpretation of that between two
parties. Martin (2001: 32) highlighted that
―mutual obligation lies essentially between the Indigenous individual and
their own particular Indigenous group or community, in the wider policy
framework the obligations lie between the individual and the wider society.‖
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This concept is important to agreement negotiation. Outcomes need to focus on local
benefits achieved through an intra-community sense of obligation rather than one towards
government or wider society.
Effective shared agreements can harness community strengths rather than focus on
weaknesses. Often government initiatives endeavour to provide panaceas to social and
economic inequities by targeting obvious deficiencies. Activities can benefit by
establishing a framework around existing conditions. Martin (2001) referred to social and
capital infrastructure involving community values and capacities. Shared agreements need
to harness this infrastructure and aim to develop improved conditions from an accurately
assessed base line. An assessment process could include qualitatively identifying the
committed and potential workforce by employment type, including CDEP, as well as
customary work. Another area of significance is governance, in particular the extant and
potential leadership existing through cultural standing, experience or personal attributes.
An assessment of leadership aims to identify the capacity that is likely to exist in
generations that are not immediately in the workforce age groups but have contributing
attributes for future community wellbeing. Assessment must be driven by the community
using facilitative support if it is to be accurate and embraced as a start point for
development. Goonj Arlan planning will need to capture its extant social and capital
infrastructure and assess its future needs. This will need to be developed into shared
agreements to attract government support for development.
Indigenous Coordination Centres (ICC) now manage the responsibilities exercised
formerly by ATSIC‟s regional representation. They are responsible for delivering
government programs on behalf of the Office of Indigenous Policy Coordination (OIPC)
in the Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs. An ICC
operates as a regional one-stop shop and is structured to promote a whole-of-government
approach. It has policy and service delivery functions supported by a mandate to engage
with Indigenous people, broker relations between State and Territory governments, and
monitor the performance of government programs. An ICC is also tasked with developing
Regional Partnership Agreements between Indigenous regional groups and government as
well as Shared Responsibility Agreements between communities and government
agencies.
The areas of an ICC relating to Indigenous activity on country are employment and
workplace relations, economic development, family and community services, and
environment and heritage. These functions deliver or facilitate community and enterprise
71
infrastructure support, business development programs and natural resource and cultural
heritage opportunities. To appropriately support Indigenous activity on country, ICC‟s
must operate in a way that reflects their whole-of-government structure. To do this
effectively natural resource management needs to be one of the ICC corporate outcomes
with related measurable performance indicators for each functional section. The multi-
facetted nature of natural resource based projects cuts across any discreet program
management processes that inevitably prevail in bureaucracies. Single line management is
inevitable in organisations with diverse functions, specialist areas of responsibility and
little redundancy in the human resource. The challenge to the ICC is to ensure that its
processes support an awareness of regional activities across all functional areas. For
instance, while housing and infrastructure is primarily driven by social imperatives,
natural resource based enterprises will have infrastructure needs for environmental
objectives. Similarly, environment and heritage functions that seek cultural and ecological
outcomes may support enterprises with economic objectives. Economic enterprises will
invariably have social outcomes in remote communities and could involve natural
resource use. Goonj Arlan will benefit from emphasising the multifunctional aspect of its
development when dealing with the regional ICC. Informing the ICC of development
planning through consolidated briefings could be an approach that wins support across all
functional areas representing different government programs.
3.2.4 The Natural Heritage Trust and Caring for Our Country
Program.
The recently closed Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) financed projects designed to
repair and replenish Australia‟s natural resources. While the Trust ceases to operate in its
previous form, its intent continues in current and new government funding arrangements.
Round one was managed directly from Commonwealth, through State governments, to
projects. Implementation has seen regional Natural Resource Coordination Groups
created to steer funding towards regional priorities. Funding approval from State offices
normally accords with the recommendations of the coordinating groups, particularly
regional boards. This arrangement was supported by Commonwealth and State/Territory
agreements on the Trust extension. The over-arching NHT objectives, which were
endorsed by the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, are reflected in these
agreements. They relate to biodiversity conservation, sustainable resource use and
management, and community capacity building (Cwlth and WA Govt, 2002: 6). All
funded activities accord with broad scale priorities at National or State-wide levels and
72
are delivered regionally. Theoretically this provided opportunity for Aboriginal
communities to access Trust funds, particularly if proposals meet community
development as well as State-wide or National environmental objectives. That said
Indigenous communities require the support of committed facilitators and regional
groups.
The Commonwealth/Western Australian Agreement specifically acknowledges that
―there are unique land management issues on the extensive areas under
Indigenous control and that dedicated assistance will be required to improve
the general standard of land management.‖ The requirement exists that the
regional coordinating group ―engages Indigenous people in the region and
ensures adequate representation of their interests‖ (Cwlth and WA Govt,
2002: 17-18).
In further support of the Indigenous case, enhancing knowledge, skills and abilities
relating to natural resource management was one of the four identified types of activities
supported by the NHT under capacity building (Cwlth and WA Govt, 2002: 29). This is
an important consideration for the Goonj Arlan project as much of the customary
management knowledge is dispersed amongst individuals who will not be directly
involved in the Corporation‟s activities. Capturing that knowledge in a usable form and
supplementing it with appropriate western management practices may be a branch of
activity supported by government funding.
Until 2009, Indigenous Land Management Facilitators were funded by the Trust to
advise Indigenous communities on opportunities and link them to the broader natural
resource management networks. However facilitators are few while their tasks are many
and varied. In Western Australia only three such facilitation appointments are funded. In
the Kimberley region, the facilitator is located with the Kimberley Land Council, which
despite its functional structure is essentially a representative organisation of which
resource management is only one of its interests. The effectiveness of the facilitator in this
situation has potential to be diluted and steered by Land Council objectives rather than
discreet community aspirations, or NHT imperatives. Regardless, the regional facilitator
will be an important element of the Goonj Arlan management network.
In a report into Indigenous engagement in NHT activity Worth (2005: 4) identifies
that programs
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―…demonstrated little actual involvement with, or consultation of,
Indigenous Australians. Indigenous stakeholders have been minor players in
terms of the funding processes and have had little economic or political
influence on most of the final regional investment plans.‖
For example, Worth (2005: 84) states that Envirofund allocation to Aboriginal managed
activities in Western Australia for the 2004-2005 rounds amounted to A$112062 out of
the total A$4543476 or 2.5%. Round 7 in 2005-2006 was drought recovery focused and
has approved A$ 45145 out of A$1153756 or 3.9% (NHT, 2006) to Aboriginal managed
activities. This poor representation can be attributed to a number of factors including
difficulties in accessing Indigenous groups due to the few dedicated facilitators. Another
contributing factor identified by Worth (2005: 74) is that
―Despite being required as part of the bilateral agreements to formally
consult with Indigenous communities, there is little evidence of Indigenous
representatives on formal NHT decision-making bodies.‖
In mid 2008, the NHT ceased and together with other natural resource management
programs was replaced by the Caring for Our Country Program. This is a whole of
government approach managed jointly by the Commonwealth Department of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Forestry and the Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts
The program is now the umbrella for all Commonwealth Government funded natural
resource management initiatives. 2.25 Billion dollars has been invested in the program for
the period 2008-2013 to address the following six areas (Cwlth Govt 2008: 3):
The National Reserve System;
Biodiversity and natural icons;
Coastal environments and critical aquatic habitats;
Sustainable farm practices
Natural resource management in northern and remote Australia; and
Community skills, knowledge and engagement.
Developing partnerships and training rangers are key aspects of this program however
successful funding application will still be outside the ability of many community and
outstation initiatives that do not have the level of governance required to competitively
bid. To that end, this new program does not remove the facilitator problem experienced
by NHT.
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The Working on Country program, which commenced in 2007, is now managed
under the Caring for Our Country Program. It specifically funds Indigenous projects
delivering environmental outcomes and building Indigenous knowledge. The objectives
of the program relate to protecting and managing environmental and heritage values
through contracted work activities on country and providing career pathways for
Indigenous people in land and sea management. The program budget of approximately 90
million dollars over five years currently funds a number of ranger initiatives in Northern
Territory, Western desert and Kimberley areas. In addition to Working on Country,
another 72 million dollars are budgeted against Indigenous tourism, partnerships,
protected areas and emissions trading (Cwlth Govt DEH, 2009).
Funding is also available under the Indigenous Heritage Program, which provides
one off grants to support to activities aimed at identifying, conserving and protecting
places of heritage importance. This scheme funded 3.06 million dollars across 49
activities Australian-wide in 2008/09 (Cwlth Govt DEH, 2009).
3.2.5 Other Government Initiatives
The Commonwealth Government has established a number of other programs over
recent years to support skills and enterprise development. An analysis of the effectiveness
of these schemes specifically against natural resource management based outcomes is
beyond the scope of this thesis. However the programs potentially provided resources to
address some of the prohibitive overheads associated with implementing initiatives.
Government facilitation is the key for Indigenous groups to access these programs but the
available human resource to enable this is limited.
The Department of Employment and Workplace Relations Indigenous Employment
Policy was implemented in July 1999 to target the disadvantage of Indigenous people and
their lack of employment. The Indigenous Employment Program replaced this in
2008/09. A number of program components have provided funding, incentive, training
and business management support to Indigenous businesses. Support to Indigenous
commercial initiatives includes the Indigenous Tourism Business Ready Program
allocating on $3.8 million over four years and recently extended to 2008/09; the Business
Development Program which provides financial assistance and business support; and
Indigenous Business Australia (IBA) which operates with a capital base of
approximately 77 million dollars and invests in a range of industries, usually through joint
ventures with industry partners and Indigenous communities.
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Other programs specifically targeting regional sustainable development are funded
from Commonwealth government departments. Until recently the Department of
Transport and Regional Services administered the Regional Partnerships and
Sustainable Regions programs to encourage regional self-reliance. These programs were
a potential source of support for Indigenous activities on country. The objectives of the
Regional Partnerships Program included funding projects to develop opportunities for
economic and social participation and support regional planning. The program committed
308 million dollars over four years to 2007/08 (Cwlth Govt, 2006a). Indigenous councils
were eligible to access funds for projects with community benefits representing
partnerships.
The Sustainable Regions Program assisted regional communities to address priority
issues. Projects ranged from service infrastructure through to employment development.
Sustainable Regions Advisory Committees comprising regional business, community and
local government representatives determined regional priorities and project
recommendations. Funding was authorised at Ministerial level to satisfy regional
imperatives. The priorities identified by the Kimberley Sustainable Regions Advisory
Committee were: infrastructure; local cooperative projects; Indigenous enterprise and
economic development; regional marketing; and new sustainable industry. Up to 12
million dollars were committed in the Kimberley to the end of 2006 with 2.8 million
being for Aboriginal specific initiatives (Cwlth Govt, 2006b).
3.3 INTERESTS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR INDIGENOUS
PEOPLE
3.3.1 Aboriginal Involvement in Natural Resource Management
Aboriginal participation in managing country is reflected in many Commonwealth
policies and initiatives. In addition to those already discussed, the Commonwealth’s
Oceans Policy acknowledges that ―Indigenous communities have an important part in the
development of integrated approaches to the planning and management of marine
resources‖ (Cwlth Govt, 1998b: 8).
This policy identifies a number of practical actions supporting communities pursuing
sustainable enterprise development; increasing Indigenous involvement in monitoring,
surveillance and enforcement; promoting capacity building, education and training to
support traditional and commercial activity; and increasing Indigenous involvement in
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management from Commonwealth level down. However, involvement is still not
reflected across a broad representation of Indigenous Australia.
Native title has arguably empowered some Aboriginal people to be active if they
choose and have the wherewithal to tackle the largely bureaucratic processes. Some
communities have taken the opportunity and converted policy into action through local
initiatives using or managing resources on their country. For example the Kowanyama
Natural Resource Office grew from concern over the impact of commercial fishing on
regional Barramundi fish stocks; and the activities of Indigenous ranger groups in
Arnhem Land create employment, develop skills and protect traditional knowledge
associated with resource management. Indeed a growing recognition has emerged that the
link to country can be beneficial for social and environmental reasons.
However policy and legislation is driven by non-Indigenous mindsets often failing to
produce strategies achieving widespread environmental management and community
development. Langton et al. (2005: 28) identify that
―while there is increasing recognition of the important role that
indigenous peoples and local communities could, and should, play in
sustainable biodiversity management, very few governments are ready to
allow the development of appropriate policy, legal and institutional reforms
necessary to delegate power to local communities and indigenous peoples
concerning access to, and control over natural resources.‖
Howitt and Suchet (2004) wrote that for
―indigenous peoples, the failure to incorporate even such basic elements
as subsistence production into national economic statistics, or to see 'caring
for country' and maintenance of indigenous cultural capital as 'productive
activity' reinforces their economic and social marginalisation.‖
This is mirrored by Altman (2003: 75) in discussing the Arnhem Land Outstation activity.
He assessed that
―Current Indigenous affairs public policy laments the extent of
Indigenous dependence on the state and the problems associated with
inactivity. Much of this discourse fails to recognise the lived reality of people
who are living on country and are actively engaged in customary economic
activity and associated landscape management. It also fails to recognise the
77
current and potential spin-off benefits of such activities for remote regions
and the nation.‖
Proper inclusion of Indigenous people in management approaches would be better
realised through policies and strategies not entirely based on western management or
scientific mindsets and definitions. The euro-centric management approach in any
discipline is underpinned by organisational structures, processes and business style
leadership. This does not necessarily accord with the more interdependent fabric of
Indigenous cultures, which do not neatly discriminate between the quadruple bottom line
elements underpinning contemporary government policies.
Bradley (2001: 297) describes the animation of landscape by the Yanyuwa people in
the southwest Gulf of Carpentaria founded on people „negotiating‟ with their environment
rather than managing it through controlling mechanisms and actions. Regardless of the
right that aboriginal people have to participate, or the mechanisms facilitating
involvement, the benefits are potentially social, environmental and economic. Aboriginal
involvement in natural resource management in Australia currently involves joint
management of National and conservation parks, representation on ecologically related
committees, customary use and management of resources on traditionally owned lands,
involvement in specific management projects, and commercial use of some resources.
However the extent of this activity varies greatly between projects, regions and
communities. Altman (2003: 69) stated that
―Today, there is growing scientific evidence that where Indigenous
people repopulate the landscape, or where human presence has been
maintained, ecological benefits result, not just for the natural and biological
landscape, but also for the cultural landscape.‖
From a social perspective, the customary link to country can be exercised through
land and sea management. The tie between country and Indigenous people is fundamental
to social wellbeing. Therefore it follows that involvement in planning and decision-
making as it affects country is culturally and socially important. Creating employment on
country can be meaningful and has potential to produce positive outcomes, in particular if
it harnesses or imparts customary knowledge. In discussing Indigenous people engaged in
pastoralism, Young (2001) cited the factors contributing to economic dependency as
including social coherence or disparities within the Indigenous group. The generational
demise of traditional social structures has led to an erosion of both knowledge and the
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sense of responsibility towards country. The cohesion of community commitment towards
land management and the derived employment is affected by this to varying degrees.
Altman (2003a: 75) suggested that growing outstations in Arnhem Land support a
development scenario creating employment opportunities and enhancing income. He
proposed
―an enhanced customary sector could enable not just higher (but still
sustainable) levels of wildlife harvesting, but also increased landscape
management activity. New industries might develop: industries based on
greenhouse gas reduction through reduced fire-related emissions and
associated carbon trading; enhanced pest eradication services, including
provision of disease monitoring and bio-security; and enhanced provision of
invasive weeds control services.‖
This development scenario could improve market engagement in niche exports and
import substitutes as well as promote a more active engagement by Indigenous people in
natural resource management.
Payment for environmental services (PES) is another concept providing an
opportunity to formalise through government programs what already occurs in many parts
of the Indigenous estate in Australia. Altman, Buchanan and Larson (2008: 36) identify
that
―In remote and very remote Australia labour markets and commercial
opportunities are often missing or are extremely limited. Governments have
been largely unsuccessful in addressing Indigenous poverty in these areas,
either through mainstream approaches based primarily on market
engagement through mining and the pastoral industry, or through state
subvention of service delivery. PES offers an alternative, sustainable
economic development option for Indigenous people living on the Indigenous
estate. PES effectively delivers economic benefits to Indigenous people living
on the Indigenous estate through the creation of linkages between the
customary sector and the state and/or market sectors which also deliver
national benefits at a relatively low cost. While it is likely that the mining and
pastoral industries will continue to play some economic role on the
Indigenous estate, the addition of PES to the economic mix would provide an
opportunity for Indigenous people to maintain diverse livelihood options and
develop alternate livelihood strategies—if adequately resourced.‖
79
This concept fits very neatly into outstation life where the contribution to maintaining
water resources, habitat and species populations is currently unrecognised by
governments.
Environmental outcomes can include enhanced habitat and species management as
well as education. Management aimed at mitigating the impact of human activity can
have an educative result. For example controlling access to indigenous heritage sites is
protective and culturally educative. Similarly community participation in species
monitoring may develop skills and enhance collective awareness of threatening processes.
Altman (2003b: 03) referred to the „caring for country‟ movement, which involves
community ranger activities on Aboriginal land. The programs undertake a range of
activities focused on wildfires, introduced species control and activities benefitting natural
resource management objectives while supporting an active customary economy.
Besides customary outcomes, market based economic benefits can also be derivable
from resource related businesses, particularly niche ones. Tourism is a potentially high
return enterprise harnessing a niche drawn from indigenous culture and land ownership.
Young (2001: 05) highlighted the importance of diversity to sustainability through
describing how many Aboriginal landowners have diversified beyond pastoralism to
―the development of small scale local tourism enterprises (often
ecotourism), arts and crafts, retail stores and perhaps other businesses that
support rural development.‖
She noted that practically this approach is still largely focused on single activities and
lacks support, especially from governments.
Altman (2003b) presented an argument that links an Indigenous active and often
overlooked customary economy directly to opportunities for Aboriginal involvement in
natural resource management. He argued that government and market place frameworks
fail to look beyond commercial and private use of natural resources and recognise
customary rights and interests. He proposed that efficient and sustainable use of resources
must recognise and accommodate Indigenous legal rights to customary use. By
harnessing the customary activity, Altman (2003b: 03) argued that
―[t]here is a suite of new NRM opportunities that could see an emerging
future match between customary activity in ecosystem services provision and
commercial imperatives.‖
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In contrast current economic policy is not structured to include people conducting
customary activity as they are not employed in mainstream jobs.
Properly managed, species harvesting can create conservation incentives and provide
market based economic return. Altman and Cochrane (2003) proposed that cooperative
frameworks involving wildlife users, policy makers and research institutions must
underpin such activity. They suggested sustainable development for remote community
needs to be matched by a commitment to ―decentralised cooperative management
regimes‖ and investigation of the ―means to divest commercial rights in wildlife to
Indigenous landowners or wider Indigenous interests‖ (Altman and Cochrane 2003: 11).
Policy that recognises the environmental benefits of indigenous participation must be
supported by research founded on a cooperative combination of western science and
indigenous ecological knowledge.
Regardless of the type of activity, Indigenous participation in Australia needs to be
encouraged and supported by cogent legislation and government policy that goes beyond
individual department rhetoric. A whole-of-government approach manages priorities such
as hotspots and threatened species, as well as pursuing Indigenous participation for
broader objectives, stands to broaden opportunities for accessing government programs.
This approach supports initiatives that provide environmental education through
participation and involve real jobs regardless of environmental significance at State or
National levels. While a local initiative may not meet immediate or medium term
objectives of higher land management policy, it could facilitate awareness by a
community of the impact of practices on the environment.
Government policy must also provide Aboriginal people with the choice to pursue
their individual and community aspirations. Policy that endeavours to promote a single
type of living fails to create an environment supporting productive and healthy lifestyles
in a range of scenarios. Choice may involve residing on traditionally owned lands to lead
customary lifestyles or not. Policy must not drive people into economic development or
land management but encourage and ultimately support those who elect to do so.
Aboriginal people not residing on traditional lands still have the right to exercise their
culture. Country and resources can be a key to this and Indigenous people living in urban
areas have little opportunity to practice their culture through simple activities such as
consuming customary foods. Similarly, policy catering only for mainstream employment
or remote large community living does not support the choice for outstation inhabitants.
While outstations create problems for service delivery, they provide an opportunity for
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people to live on family land and exercise their responsibilities towards it. In discussing
outstation habitation in Arnhem Land, Altman (2003a: 77) proposed that the
―recent past indicates that economic activity on country is economically,
ecologically and socially sustainable, enhances participants‘ well-being, and
helps maintain an important ecological and cultural asset. Customary activity
also connects with the market and generates biodiversity and landscape
management contributions. All this suggests that facilitating residence at
outstations is almost certainly preferable to residence in townships, where
economic opportunity is heavily circumscribed (especially in the customary
sector). State and private sector support for on country residence will
generate ecological, economic and social benefits for local, regional and
national interests.‖
3.3.2 Employment Opportunity and CDEP
Since 1977 the Community Development Employment Projects (CDEP) program has
been a critical scheme in remote Aboriginal Australia where employment opportunities
are limited. It delivers from an annual funding of approximately $490 million dollars to
37000 participants in 240 Indigenous organisations (Cwlth Govt, 2005: 02). The scheme
emerged during the political reforms of the 1970s when welfarism gave way to incentive-
based ideology, and has evolved with changing interventionist philosophies since.
However the scheme has been challenged by the realities of employment in remote areas.
Saunders (2001: 37) identified that
―strategies to attempt to coerce the unemployed and other jobless social
security recipients back to work will fail unless they also address the issues of
low wages, job security and unemployment‖.
These three issues characterise employment opportunities in remote Indigenous
communities, particularly outside the public sector.
The 2006 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Census (Cwlth Govt, 2006c) many
indigenous people identified that in the Lombadina, Beagle Bay, Djarindjin and One Arm
Point communities of the Dampier Peninsula, 216 people were in the labour force. This
represented 60.5% participation by people over the age of 15 years. Of this 201 were
employed with 164 or 81.6% of those employed under CDEP. Further, 91 or 45% of
employed people were working in the government sector. Government employment
largely satisfies service delivery in many remote communities and relies on CDEP.
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However, the intent of CDEP is to provide experience and skills enabling a transition to
real jobs. The reality is that the real jobs are scarce in remote communities and
outstations. Therefore CDEP employment is often the only opportunity. Government
employment in service delivery offers a degree of longevity to an individual. The
alternative is for people to leave communities and outstations for main population centres.
This often results in a drain of talent that would otherwise contribute to community
capacity and caring for country.
Notwithstanding the intent for CDEP to be an interim measure for individuals and a
pathway to real employment, it has been an essential aspect of community survival as the
Dampier Peninsula example illustrates. Unless employment opportunities develop in
remote communities, a CDEP type scheme will continue to be essential. Scope exists to
broaden CDEP past service delivery and basic community requirements. Consideration
needs to be given to using CDEP or its equivalent to part fund employment in natural
resource management with a regional or local focus, which is the case in the Indigenous
ranger program instigated by the Caring for Country Unit of the Northern Land Council.
Alternatively CDEP resources could be redirected to create new permanent positions in
land and sea management with related skills development providing opportunities for
individuals to progress in organisations with a natural resource management charter.
Managing CDEP must suit regional and local community needs. A key aspect of this
relates to what constitutes work. Work definitions are supported by broad objectives,
which specific CDEP projects must satisfy. Rowse (2001: 39) translated this to a high
degree of autonomy for CDEP managers. Welfare reform initiatives must continue to
recognise that community employment may be long-term. While not necessarily
recognised as real jobs in mainstream Australia, community employment is essential to
the sustainability of many Indigenous communities. Work contributing to community
sustainability is necessary to underpin other economic or environmental initiatives.
If CDEP fails to support long-term community sustaining employment, a real gap will
develop in community capacities. CDEP linked to activity supporting a customary
economy contributes to customary community aspects. This in turn supports the
maintenance of cultural values, which are socially critical. Work outside government
employment or commercial enterprise activity may not conform to the broader Australian
perspectives of work but may still contribute to the health of a community. This is
fundamental for small outstation and family based communities relying on self-sustaining
83
primary production and infrastructure maintenance using a workforce drawn largely from
family members.
Recent changes to CDEP in Northern Territory, as part of the Commonwealth
Government‟s intervention strategy, aimed to transfer CDEP participants across to
income support programs associated with approximately 3,000 existing jobs in 52
communities (Cwlth Govt DEWR, 2007). The transfer of CDEP resources highlights the
potential in tying natural resource management in its broadest sense to government
funded employment in remote regions. For example payment for environmental services
is an obvious area that warrants consideration.
In 2008, the Australian Government engaged with regions to review and reform
CDEP (Cwlth Govt FHCSIA, 2009). The outcomes of the review are to be in
implemented during 2009. The CDEP scheme will remain in a changed form in remote
areas where employment prospects are not supported by established economies. The
reformed CDEP will involve work readiness and community development aspects. Work
readiness is aimed at providing a service to prepare people and assist them in finding
sustainable employment. The community development aspect will support specific
community projects that are aligned with local employment opportunities. Skills
development is to be included in this.
Overall the reforms targeting Indigenous employment aim to facilitate access to the
broader employment programs available in Australia, of which CDEP is one. Where
CDEP ceases in an area, individuals will have access to community support services and
their CDEP payments will transfer to income support. A number of government jobs
involved in service delivery, which have been previously paid under CDEP, will be
transferred to paid employment and traineeships. This includes new ranger jobs in remote
areas including those formerly funded under NHT/CDEP in the Northern Territory.
On face value these reforms appear to be positive with regards to encouraging and
supporting people on country. However scepticism underpins the debate regarding the
ability of the reforms to deliver intended outcomes. On one hand they appear to typify the
interventionist reforms by creating employment in some areas of the workforce, while on
the other hand they potentially drive an element of the community to greater welfare
dependence. In a submission to the Senate Community Affairs Committee Inquiry into
the Family Assistance and Other Legislation Amendment (2008 Budget and Other
Measures) Bill 2008, Altman and Jordan (2008: 2) argue that the reforms will be
84
significantly detrimental to the employment opportunities in many communities. They
believe that
―…while governments may be able to increase the opportunities for
‗mainstream‘ work in remote areas, it is difficult to see how enough jobs
could be generated in limited and remote markets to engage the majority of
Indigenous working-age residents in non-subsidised jobs. Rather than the
stated aim of shifting CDEP participants into so-called ‗real jobs‘, the likely
result is shifting people out of active work through the CDEP scheme and
onto long-term income support.‖
Further they assess that changes will undermine existing enterprises that are reliant on
CDEP labour.
―The removal of subsidised CDEP labour is also likely to see the collapse
of many successful Indigenous enterprises in remote areas including
Indigenous ranger programs, arts and tourism ventures, community stores
and community service providers, with these enterprises lacking the capacity
to transform CDEP positions into non-subsidised jobs at award wages.‖
Aboriginal communities need to be provided with adequate resources to employ, train
and maintain a workforce for natural resource management related activities. To date
government funding of this type of venture is largely through CDEP and specific land-
care projects where resources are won through application and are available for limited
periods of time for specific outcomes. While CDEP has been a constant to date,
uncertainty has surrounded the availability of further state support for subsequent effort
under land-care grants. This has resulted in sporadic interest in land-care. Altman and
Kerins (2008a: 3) submit that
―A current funding void in environmental programs is the absence of
funding identified for investment into Indigenous governance associated with
land and sea management. Many Indigenous traditional owner groups are
disadvantaged in applying for funding through environmental programs
because they have no representative organisations or individuals who can
compete for the funding or administer grants. This means that many
Indigenous-owned lands and their critical habitats are left exposed to
threatening processes.‖
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In establishing caring for country initiatives, the people of Goonj Arlan may be able to
access government resources to support some training and infrastructure requirements. In
particular this will be the case for initiatives relating to managing access to country by the
wider Bardi community. However the long-term resourcing of salaries and infrastructure
necessary to transition the activity from a vocation to real employment will need to
investigate other avenues. Self-generated income from economic development will be an
important source however this may now require the added burden of award wages in the
absence of CDEP.
Another issue relates to the environmental priority of a region or location. The
environmental significance of an area may not accord with government priorities for
funding. Limited funding is prioritised towards the management of environmental
hotspots and threatened species. Many communities are located in areas that are not
significantly environmentally degraded, threatened by other non-Indigenous activities or
recognised priority regions for government. However regardless of priorities, community-
based activity could provide long-term jobs linking people to country with reasonable
levels of employment security. This type of employment needs to be supported by
guaranteed salary payment, which to date has been largely provided by CDEP, sometimes
with augmentation from other funding sources tied to specific projects. Recognition of
land management as real employment, attracting real employment conditions, requires the
creation of jobs and training programs.
3.3.3 Training to Enable Indigenous Involvement
Training delivery underpins the success of both public and private enterprises.
Campbell and Schwab (2001: 109) stated that
―policy makers and communities have wanted for a long time to find ways
to underpin CDEP more effectively through the provision of appropriate
education and training.‖
They identified that the key issues in funding training through CDEP relate to locations,
critical mass, resident skills and knowledge and aspirations. Indigenous activities
involving natural resource management are a potential medium to harness the natural and
human resources of remote locations. They can be characterised by access to natural
resources and a baseline of skill that is founded on customary links to country. This
baseline varies significantly but is a start point for development. For communities with
reasonable levels of traditional knowledge, training programs can emphasise the social
86
standing of Traditional Owners as holders of that knowledge. Programs developed
through community participation can empower Indigenous people to identify their own
learning needs and enhance current levels of customary or western knowledge. Philpot
(2001) described the Aboriginal Pastoral Company Directors‟ Training Program.
Developing this program identified the existing level of understanding of pastoral
operations and built on this through experiential and action learning. An understanding of
customary values, in particular with regard to the social powers of directors and kinship
pressures, was significant to management accountability knowledge.
Funding is available for Indigenous groups to engage with training consultants
through the Structured Training and Employment Projects (STEP) initiative, which is an
element of the Indigenous Employment Program. Consultancy approaches need to
capture the strengths of targeted communities and involve them in the process from the
needs analysis stage through to delivery. Developed training programs can assess the gap
between required competencies and extant skills. Many extant skills may be well outside
the recognised competencies of institutionalised training regimes. Training needs to be
structured to address the gap and be delivered in a culturally appropriate manner, with a
job focus. STEP does not emphasise this and would be well served by eligibility criteria
for tendering consultants.
The Office of the Registrar of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Corporations
(ORATSIC) provides a number of training resources for Aboriginal committees (ORAC,
2007). Resources include training packages and a series of fact sheets relating to
committee functions. Training is designed for organisations that are incorporated and
registered under the Act and involves regional based three-day awareness packages and a
certificate level course in business and governance at Queensland TAFE. Resource
marketing is conducted directly from ORATSIC to registered organisations. The training
initiatives are in infancy and remote communities and outstations have generally not been
included in the direct marketing process to date. ORATSIC is currently developing a
workshop for remote communities and investigating the delivery of certified training
outside Queensland. This practical training is an example of how tangible government
action can stem from intent. The future implementation of this initiative to broader remote
Aboriginal Australia will assist the integrity of corporation management. Training
delivery will need to be tailored to suit regional needs stemming from numeracy/literacy
and confidence/experience in organisational management. The levels of both of these vary
considerably across Australia.
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3.4 CONCLUSION: THE POLICY IMPACT ON GOONJ ARLAN
The government related objectives of this research aimed to identify the role of
Australian Government as it encourages Indigenous people to be active in managing
natural resources. Commonwealth policy and legislation acknowledge the role and rights
of Aboriginal people in this regard. This can be reasonably interpreted as intent to create
opportunity. A number of programs provide funding and other support to Aboriginal
people who chose to live and work on country. However this is not evolving into
widespread successful activity. Howitt and Suchet (2004) state that
―[i]n achieving ownership of land or resources, in succeeding in setting
up community-based enterprises, or managing community development
employment programs, indigenous communities are often set up to fail… the
terms of engagement are set externally to conform to the dominant verities of
development and environment discourse.‖
3.4.1 Considerations for Commonwealth Policy
Rhetorically, the intent to build capacity resonates in government policies, especially
in a neoliberal policy environment. However the same policies arguably drive capacity
building activities involving the environment towards end-states associated with western
derived criteria. This approach has resulted in discreet government programs dealing with
separate elements of perceived community dysfunction. It does not properly address the
interaction between contributing factors or the root causes of dysfunction. The approach
also inadequately captures the current levels of capacity that are based on cultural beliefs,
knowledge, experiences and social structures. Indigenous people need to be able to
identify opportunity a largely euro-centric paradigm underpinning current government
policy and programs. The academic debate will in time evolve this approach however
Indigenous people cannot afford to wait for these changes. They must harness their
strengths as well as existing government support to drive the debate towards outcomes
that include capacity building, which starts with extant states of collective capacity.
Policy needs to link capacity building, especially job creation and economic
development, to the broadest definition of natural resource management and to a cultural
imperative based on caring for country. Currently it focuses on Aboriginal involvement in
advisory capacities and economic development through certain industries, specifically
aquaculture, art and culture, and tourism. These are all positives but policy needs to
provide opportunity for Indigenous capacity to grow in all areas of natural resource use
88
and management. Critical to policy evolution is recognition of the contribution by
productive customary activity, or what Altman (2003b) termed the customary economy,
towards overall capacity. A permanent presence on the country of Goonj Arlan by
custodial family members would result in access management arrangements controlling
the broader community activity. This link between residency on country and natural
resource management is not captured in any tangible government program facilitating
permanent residency, through related employment or adequate service delivery.
Implementing land management related policy must look beyond just environmental
objectives. It needs to aim for social, economic and environmental outcomes that in some
cases may not accord with National or State level environmental priorities or definitions,
but provide opportunity for education and employment for Aboriginal people. For
example the recent determination regarding Native Title for the Bardi-Jawi people in the
Kimberley has provided ownership of country of varying degrees of environmental
significance and condition. The Dampier Peninsula is not included in the 15 identified
biodiversity hotspots determined by the Australian Government (DEH, 2006), although it
does contain wetlands of National significance (Graham, 2003) and valuable
communities. Opportunity exists to create land management related employment
regardless of the conservation significance of specific localities. This would fill an
employment void and contribute to the future condition of these less environmentally
significant areas. Goonj Arlan country does not include biodiversity hotspots or registered
wetlands of significance, but it is important country to the broader ecosystems of the
Dampier Peninsula including migratory bird habitation during certain months of the year.
It is also important in its general relevance to the Bunyiol Bardi people. This in itself is a
social consideration that warrants acknowledgement, as is the case for other family land
and sea claims in the region.
Government needs to support Indigenous participation in natural resource use and
management so that Aboriginal people may practice their culture regardless of their
chosen lifestyle. This includes those who live in urban population centres, large
communities located on Native Title or other forms of Aboriginal owned land, and family
outstations. In discussing the use of wildlife resources, Roberts et al. (1996: 164)
recognised that
―little effort has been expended on determining the subsistence activities
of urban Aboriginal populations who are largely disenfranchised by
conservation legislation.‖
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Appropriate policy accommodates the choices of all Indigenous people, particularly with
regard to how they exercise their customary responsibilities to country. Service delivery,
employment and governance development across all lifestyle scenarios are important
enablers to this objective. While outstation living is not dismissed in policy, it is not
actively encouraged. Outstations offer opportunities for families to live on country and
pursue unique aspects of Aboriginal life. For Goonj Arlan, service delivery is currently
inadequate and employment is non-existent. That aside, the Corporation‟s management
recognises the need to create an environment that mitigates these inhibitors to
development. Key issues needing to be addressed are improving the integrity of
corporation governance and establishing viable economic enterprise.
Philosophically, government support to Indigenous family outstations is comparable
to that for pastoralists but arguably of greater significance to collective social wellbeing.
Fargher et al. (2002: 41) discuss the 2002 National Land and Resources Audit data for the
Rangelands and identify that in
―1996/97 the gross revenue from rangeland pastoralism in Australia was
less than A$1 billion, or less than 0.2% (two tenths of one percent) of GDP in
that year. Also, the total variable and fixed costs associated with generating
the revenue was greater than the revenue…The analysis excludes economic
costs and benefits for indigenous, biodiversity and other existence values…
Rangeland Pastoralism enterprises cost the national economy A$215 million
in 1996/97.‖
It is unlikely that the balance between costs and benefits have altered since the 2002 audit,
which suggests that Australia is supporting a lifestyle choice for pastoralists, which is an
identifiable and important element of National character.
Outstations offer opportunity for localised land and sea management ventures. The
sense of commitment to family land may be stronger than for regional activities by larger
communities. Successful ventures are often easier to implement on a smaller scale.
Government policy statements need to recognise the importance of outstation living as an
aspect of capacity building and conduit for resource management, while providing
assurance of service and program delivery. Localised caring for country is the driver for
the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation to re-establish itself on country. This driver
needs to be harnessed by management in all activities with inhibitors being mitigated by
building simplicity into projects and keeping overheads low.
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The tenure and scope of funding for natural resource management activities involving
Indigenous people are normally associated with specific grants or projects. Armstrong
(2004: 4) identified that
―Currently, Indigenous land and sea management is primarily supported
by the Commonwealth government through a range of programs… These
programs do not currently represent a long-term, comprehensive and
sustainable approach to supporting Indigenous land and sea management.‖
Programs are often short-term and restricted. A research project conducted into
Indigenous engagement in land and sea management in the Northern Territory identified
just this; Putnis et al. (2007: 7) states that
―Over 90 percent of Indigenous land and sea management groups,
government and non-government organisations interviewed for this project
stated that the current dispersed and short-term funding environment is a
major barrier to the successful development of sustainable Indigenous land
and sea management organisations and programs.‖
In light of recent CDEP reforms, ongoing consideration is warranted regarding
redirecting funds from CDEP and other Indigenous programs in remote areas, towards
permanent job creation in long-term resource management ventures at a localised level.
This has potential to encourage family outstation and even larger community
participation. Training and infrastructure needs could be focused on land management
requirements. Outcomes based training would aim to progress individuals towards
established jobs. This concept recognises the responsibilities of Traditional Owners and
their contribution to their own cultural objectives and broader environmental ones. It is an
issue applicable to planning for Goonj Arlan because caring for country involves long-
term activity. Under current programs Goonj Arlan will be required to maintain activities
independent from government sources of income once it is established. Alternatives could
include enterprise or accessing funding from industry. However the latter is likely to
involve fixed tenures.
The 1998 Senate Inquiry into wildlife use did not result in tangible outcomes.
Consideration is warranted for wildlife use to be an aspect of policy development
specifically aimed at creating niche commercial opportunity for Indigenous people and
developing industries that are uniquely Australian. Practical regulatory frameworks to
protect Indigenous commercial activities from being undermined by sophisticated non-
Indigenous enterprises would be necessary. Differences in State legislation currently
91
restrict access to National markets and prevent growth of an industry involving wildlife
use. This needs to be addressed to enable the growth of niche enterprises and also allow
Aboriginal people who do not reside on country to access culturally significant products.
Funding is required to support enterprise establishment, income support, skills training,
management development and infrastructure purchase. The Indigenous Employment
Program includes a range of supportive schemes including wage assistance to alleviate
the salary burden of embryonic enterprises. However harnessing these initiatives requires
improved government facilitation and robust community governance. The presence of
both of these is limited in remote areas, where niche opportunities in wildlife use exist.
Appropriate funding is also required to ensure species and habitat management planning
supports individual ventures.
Notwithstanding the importance of regional influence and consultation in Australian
policy, the absolute devolution of responsibility to regional bodies can be
counterproductive to achieving National outcomes. Firstly another tier of bureaucratic
decision-making is introduced. Secondly, regardless of best intentions, regions will
comprise majority interest groups, who will influence the direction of effort and funding,
particularly if those groups are representative of committee membership. Thirdly many
regional areas have experienced a considerable human resource drain over recent decades.
This potentially affects the quality of decision-making. Processes to ensure accountability
must be increasingly robust. Government initiatives involving regional and local projects
with Indigenous and environmental objectives must be protected by enforced eligibility
criteria that support National interests.
Current arrangements and approaches fail to philosophically accommodate
fundamental cultural aspects. Research maintains a western scientific basis rather than
properly blending with customary management knowledge. Outcomes and processes do
not fully embrace the interdependence between Indigenous social order and resource
management. Most significantly, the contribution of customary practices towards the
overall economy is unnoticed, resulting in an overall perception of welfare dependency in
many communities. As long as this situation remains, the common ground between
Indigenous people‟s ownership of capacity building and government facilitation will not
be realised.
In summary, for activities involving Aboriginal people on country to be sustainable,
the government contribution needs to comprise the following:
Policies and legislation that
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acknowledge the rights of Aboriginal people to be active in the
management of country;
recognise that customary lifestyle can contribute to community, economy
and environmental objectives;
are aligned between States and Territories to support the development of
niche industry including wildlife-based ventures;
drive tangible programs linking capacity building directly to caring for
country initiatives;
allow Aboriginal people to choose how they become involved in caring for
country; and
create opportunities for Aboriginal people to actively care for country
outside the National environmental hotspots or other priority regions;
Tangible support of choice to include the delivery of services in centralised
and decentralised circumstances;
Appropriate funding of dedicated facilitation to support on-the-ground
projects;
Support to projects beyond the initial establishment requirements with scope
for open ended support for successful initiatives; and
Funding to support planning, skills development and infrastructure costs.
At a Commonwealth Government level, the intent to recognise the rights and roles of
Indigenous people towards the environment is reflected in policy and legislation. A
number of programs have been established to facilitate Indigenous activity however the
intent needs to go further by a stronger appreciation of the cultural differences
underpinning Indigenous society and management practices. This appreciation needs to
be translated into arrangements that create jobs and invest in activities based on natural
resource use and management in the broadest sense. The bureaucratic structures of
government would benefit from an executive decision-making capacity in Aboriginal
representation in whole-of-government matters. Such an inclusion would better facilitate
the integration of Indigenous concerns and needs into broader natural resource
management. In particular, it would improve the robustness of consultation and
facilitation down to regional and local levels of activity. In the meantime, on-the-ground
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initiatives must endeavour to mitigate the inhibiting aspects of policy through localised
management strategies and a selective nature for ventures.
3.4.2 Government Impact on the Goonj Arlan Model
A number of considerations stem from the assessment of Australian Government
policy and legislation that are relevant to the development of the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal
Corporation‟s activities. They relate to community, environmental and business aspects of
the outstation.
Firstly governance will underpin any long-term success that Goonj Arlan may
experience. Government training programs are accessible to develop the Corporation‟s
governance processes. Robust Goonj Arlan Corporation governance will be a deciding
factor in accessing government programs to support development aspirations. Remaining
incorporated as an Aboriginal Corporation under Australian legislation will enable access
to developmental training and alleviate the Corporation from many of the burdens
associated with mainstream business legislation. This will allow participants to focus on
productive activity rather than administration.
Poor service delivery is an inhibitor to development. Goonj Arlan country is remote
from main communities and outstation infrastructure is rudimentary. Occupants will rely
on a number of centralised services. In particular, access to education will determine the
ability of many members to reside on country. To mitigate this, the established outstation
will need to accommodate varying types of residency from permanent to visitation. The
adequacy of transport infrastructure supporting a market element of their economy is
another impeding service. Economic development will need to consider this and ensure
that enterprises do not have excessive overheads or demand regular access to distant
markets.
Shared responsibility agreements create an opportunity for the Corporation to
proactively access support across the whole-of-government. The existing social and
capital infrastructure needs to be accurately assessed through planning and developed into
agreements that are articulated across all functional areas of the regional ICC. This
approach will emphasise the link between community, country and business initiatives
and break down the inevitable departmental stove-piping typifying government programs.
Facilitated planning will be able to draw this information from family members and
develop it into products that are marketable to government.
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Government programs are accessible to support aspects of Goonj Arlan‟s vocational
training needs and governance development, caring for country initiatives, housing and
enterprise infrastructure development and wage assistance. However government support
is generally tied to limited tenures and specific outcomes. Enterprise development will be
an important aspect of Goonj Arlan‟s development to provide self-generated revenue.
Management networks will be critical to Goonj Arlan‟s long-term development. In
particular the established Prescribed Body Corporate as part of the Corporation‟s network
is an enabler for attracting regional Aboriginal support and provides a representative
voice in regional negotiations. The regional ICC is another key network member and any
dealings with this agency will need to emphasise the whole-of-government nature of
Goonj Arlan‟s activities. The Regional Indigenous Land Management Facilitator located
with the Kimberley Land Council can assist the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation in
accessing Indigenous specific and general land-care related support.
Goonj Arlan‟s enterprise development will need to consider the impact of remote
markets and sophisticated non-Indigenous competition on economic viability. This is the
reality in a non-discriminatory regulated business environment. Mitigating strategies must
be worked into enterprise design. The Corporation can investigate niche enterprises that
are underpinned by culture and access to resources. Low overheads associated with
infrastructure, market access and economy of effort in production processes are other
mitigating considerations. Accessing local Indigenous community markets will address
the problems arising from inadequate transport infrastructure and will target a specific
market with unique needs. Government promotion of certain industries, in particular
aquaculture, can be harnessed by the Corporation to facilitate training and development as
well as access to established and mature markets.
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4 WESTERN AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT
CREATING OPPORTUNITY ‘ON COUNTRY’
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The policy framework of the Western Australian Government as it relates to
Indigenous affairs involving natural resource management is reviewed in this chapter. It
argues that State Government policy encouraging and supporting Indigenous participation
in land and resource management needs consider strategies for practical implementation.
The chapter discusses the agenda of Western Australia‟s peak Indigenous advisory body;
reviews key State strategies linking Aboriginal people to environmental sustainability;
raises the proposal to broaden commercial outcomes of natural resource management
beyond non-consumptive enterprises; and explores the intended whole-of-government
approach to Indigenous matters. This is important to the research project due to the
demarcation between State and Australian Government management of environmental
and Indigenous matters. Opportunities and obstacles to Goonj Arlan development will
stem from State level management as much as National policies and programs.
The last chapter concluded that Indigenous community activity on country in
Australia is encouraged in principle at least by Commonwealth policies and strategies.
Changes to the Federal arrangements for dealing with Indigenous affairs have resulted in
the disbandment of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) and
the redistribution of its responsibilities and programs to mainstream government
departments. While the arrangements have undoubtedly altered the nature of Indigenous
influence from an executive to an advisory capacity, the changes aim to enhance
accountability. They could provide opportunity for committed communities considering
initiatives with both environmental and social objectives if they are able to access
necessary facilitative support. The membership of the Ministerial Task Force on
Indigenous Affairs represents a broad whole-of-government interest. With an emerging
National Indigenous Representative Body advising this task force and the Council of
Australian Governments, an outcome may be that Indigenous concerns will be reflected
across a broader inter-government department commitment. In particular, shared
responsibility agreements may provide an avenue for communities to access Federal and
State funding to achieve social and land management outcomes.
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Regardless of how the Commonwealth level shapes Indigenous affairs, State and
regional interests influence the practical delivery of programs and projects. This can
potentially hinder a Nationally conforming approach to dealing with fundamental issues
in regional and remote areas such as service delivery and job creation. Natural resource
management presents a feasible medium for creating employment on traditionally owned
lands if State and Territory governments to create policies and divert funding to
initiatives.
In 2001 a Statement of Commitment to a New and Just Relationship between the
Government of Western Australia and Aboriginal Western Australians was signed
between the State and ATSIC on behalf of Indigenous people. This statement has become
the cornerstone of Western Australian Government policy relating to Indigenous affairs. It
remains so despite the disbandment of ATSIC and sets out
―a set of principles and a process for the parties to negotiate a State-wide
framework that can facilitate negotiated agreements at the local and regional
level‖ (WA Govt, 2001:3).
The principles recognise the rights of Aboriginal people in government processes.
Importantly they specifically identify a need for regional and local approaches and the
commitment to improved governance, capacity building and economic independence
(WA Govt, 2001:4). The significance of this statement can only be assessed if its
principles cascade through the policy framework relating to Indigenous matters. It
provides the start point for government action to create opportunity for Indigenous
people to work on country.
4.2 THE INDIGENOUS AFFAIRS ADVISORY COMMITTEE AND
THE INDIGENOUS IMPLEMENTATION BOARD
In Western Australia an Indigenous Affairs Advisory Committee (IAAC) is
established in the Department of Premier and Cabinet to steer the intended whole-of-
government approach to Indigenous Affairs policy. The committee membership reflects
departments, which relate mainly to those areas of government dealing with social
disadvantage in Indigenous communities. For example, its standing membership
comprises areas such as police, health education, infrastructure and justice. This
composition risks overlooking a number of the strengths of Indigenous people as a
springboard for grass roots programs with capacity building potential. The IAAC could
benefit from its membership including Environment and Conservation, Industry and
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Resources, Local Government and Regional Development, and Arts and Culture to
provide a balanced agenda. Similarly Commonwealth representation on the committee
reflects service delivery and includes the State managers of Departments of Health and
Ageing; Family and Community Services; Education, Science and Training; Employment
and Workplace Relations and Transport and Regional Services. Community capacity does
not start from a zero or negative baseline. Identifying community strengths can create
opportunity, in particular in the form of meaningful job creation.
The IAAC coordinates a benchmark project in accordance with National level
guidance. The project identifies headline indicators describing the extant state of
Indigenous disadvantage and determines monitoring requirements to provide a measure of
change over a long-term. It also identifies strategic change indicators designed to steer the
whole-of-government approach. These indicators target specific areas of disadvantage
through informing government of the state of play and ongoing developments. Building
the strength of communities is one of the identified areas. The working groups largely
focus on areas of significant social deficiency mainly due to the social characteristics of
the targeted areas. One of the working group projects however is titled „Improving
Retention and Academic Achievement through Sports and Recreation‟. The positive spin
of this project can be reflected on other working group initiatives that recognise other
Indigenous strengths and interests. Natural resource management provides a focal area for
such a working group to investigate Indigenous participation, particularly job creation.
Recently in 2008/09, the Western Australian Government established the Indigenous
Implementation Board (IIB). The board comprises prominent Indigenous and non-
Indigenous members with experience in Indigenous affairs, government processes and
social matters. It is not intended to be a voice for Indigenous people rather a conduit to
inform government.
The Board‟s charter is to advise government in relation to establishing Aboriginal
ownership of matters such as delivery of services, culture, regional governance and
engagement. In doing so the intended method of operation is founded on engagement
with Aboriginal people and ensuring this engagement flows through to government
mechanisms at regional, State and Commonwealth levels. In particular it will provide
advice to the State Minister, to inform Cabinet at State level and Council of Australian
Governments (COAG) at Commonwealth. It will also advise the IAAC through the
Standing Committee for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs, which resides with
the Department of Indigenous Affairs. To date the new Board has been active in
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establishing the mechanisms for its operations and engaging with Aboriginal
communities, beginning in the Kimberley region.
The composition of the Board and its charter of implementation create opportunity for
Aboriginal people in Western Australia to directly influence policy development for the
first time. Establishing this independent body and chairing it with diverse and experienced
people is a progressive step to enabling Indigenous affairs to be managed in a more
streamline manner than traditional bureaucratic structures would normally facilitate.
4.3 STATE MANAGEMENT THROUGH STRATEGY
4.3.1 Significance of State’s Sustainability Strategy to Indigenous
Opportunity
The 2003 Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy guides the whole-of-
government approach towards
―meeting the needs of current and future generations through an
integration of environmental protection, social advancement and economic
prosperity‖ (WA Govt, 2003b: 4).
The strategy recognises the Indigenous role in its action planning, which is linked to
specific strategy objectives. It targets Indigenous community development as one its
goals. It also identifies natural resource management and recognises the need to involve
Indigenous culture and aspirations in achieving the objectives. The strategy emphasises
regional agreements to ensure that local and regional imperatives contribute to policy.
While regional and local contribution is essential, the strategy does not include any
mechanisms to safeguard against parochial planning driven by regional majority interests.
Inevitably, the risk exists for Indigenous interests to be afforded lower priorities to other
regional issues driven by more vocal and organised stakeholders.
A major private commercial opportunity referenced in the strategy relates to tourism.
Specific reference is made to the formation of the Western Australian Indigenous Tours
Operators Committee (WAITOC) as an accreditation mechanism for Indigenous tourism.
The strategy promotes the social and economic benefit of tourism (WA Govt, 2003b:
142) but does not extrapolate this to other commercial opportunities; even though it
recognises the importance of Indigenous culture and biodiversity conservation and
undertakes to examine how it ―can be directed into creative public and private
enterprises‖ (WA Govt, 2003b: 96). The rights of Indigenous people to access native
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biota for customary purposes is acknowledged but the strategy does not directly raise
potential commercial opportunity involving native foods for Indigenous communities.
Currently legislation only permits the customary consumption of native foods yet scope
exists to consider evolving this practice into economic enterprises providing products to
Aboriginal people to reduce the need for uncontrolled and unmonitored wild harvest.
While the strategy identifies Indigenous needs and supports active participation in
natural resource management, its action plan does not provide any significant practical
initiatives to harness the full potential of linking natural resource management in its
broadest definition to Indigenous communities and businesses. Reference is made to
improved governance, customary rights, the need for consultation and participation, and
business opportunities involving tourism, however the strategy is light in its dealings with
diverse activity across the broad interpretation of natural resource usage. It does not
emphasise genuine business opportunity stemming from wildlife use and management,
and meaningful employment opportunities for Indigenous people managing traditionally
owned country. Deriving a model for Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation needs to be
broad in its interpretation of Indigenous involvement in managing the natural
environment including wildlife use and resource management employment.
4.3.2 The Aboriginal Fishing Strategy as a Benchmarking Strategy
Western Australia‟s Department of Fisheries initiated a review into Aboriginal
fishing. The report, which is captured under the draft Aboriginal Fishing Strategy
completed in May 2003, still awaits parliamentary endorsement before being
implemented. The review is an important step in recognising Aboriginal traditional
fishing rights and practices as a discreet fishing management category. It acknowledges
customary imperatives and supports direct Aboriginal involvement in fisheries
management. Many of the recommendations, which have been based on wide
consultation as well as sound management acumen, require resource commitment from
government. The recommendations aim to build on extant community practices and
government procedures as well as existing political, economic and social structures. The
strategy aims to include traditional practices within a framework of planned sustainable
usage of fish and fish habitat (WA Govt, 2003a: 18) and facilitate greater Aboriginal
participation across the entire fisheries sector. This creates opportunities for people
occupying traditionally owned land that experiences broader community visitation and
fishing. Bardi people from the broader Dampier Peninsula community visit Goonj Arlan
but currently management controls and monitoring do not exist. Recognition of the
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impact of customary fishing on overall fisheries management presents opportunity for the
people of Goonj Arlan to actively contribute to the sustainability of fish stocks in their
adjacent waters.
Enduring principles underpin the strategy. These include primacy of sustainability and
biodiversity objectives; rights and responsibilities of Aboriginal people; conformity with
extant legislation; an integrated approach to fisheries management; and practical
implementation within existing political and social structures (WA Govt, 2003a: 21). The
report recommends basing consultation processes on existing Indigenous organisations
and networks. These principles must underpin the model for Goonj Arlan as it relates to
the management of coastal resources. Family consumptive activity as well as managing
community visitation and fishing, need to be driven by the need to sustain species
populations. This could involve rotating fishing locations, closing access during certain
seasons, ensuring fishing take accords with appropriate seasons, sizes and quantities and
even recording take to support monitoring.
Customary fishing is identified in its own right as separate from commercial and
recreational fishing. As such the review recommends a ―clear legislative and policy
separation of customary fishing‖ to better support sustainability requirements as well as
individual and community customary needs, which are currently satisfied largely by
recreational parameters (WA Govt, 2003a: 32).
Implementing the strategy is of particular relevance to many social objectives for
remote communities. Recommendations target employment and empowerment in
fisheries management, which in turn could enhance community awareness of processes
threatening fisheries and potentially influence fishing practices. For remote communities
including outstations, one of the most tangible recommendations relates to establishing
Aboriginal fisheries wardens and trainee fisheries officer programs. These schemes are
intended to impart fisheries related skills as well as contribute to community capacity
building by developing embedded community leadership and management. Many of the
associated skills are transferable to other community and employment scenarios. To that
end the initiative could be improved by inter-departmental cooperation and resource
sharing between government fisheries, agriculture, quarantine, customs, Indigenous
affairs, and conservation and land management agencies, as well as local government and
other natural resource management focused organisations. Personal skills empowering an
individual with the ability to enforce regulations and promote community awareness are
generic in their application to other areas of community activity.
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An Aboriginal fisheries warden initiative in the East and West Kimberley is
recommended. Targeting outstations such as Goonj Arlan for recruitment of wardens
potentially disperses the conduit that could deliver fisheries management education to the
wider community. While the aim is to provide wardens with some training in fisheries
compliancy to support evidence collection and illegal fishing reporting, it could go further
in augmenting existing customary responsibilities of Traditional Owners. The concept
also serves as a means to ensure that community interests are included in the integrated
fisheries management process and involves Traditional Owners in a practical way. By
way of comparison Adams and Dalzell (1995: 4) observed that in Fiji, Honorary Fishing
Wardens are nominated in areas registered by clans owning fishing rights for subsistence
fishing. Wardens are unpaid but the appointment carries standing in the community. This
empowers the community and provides a medium for appropriate management of fishing
stocks that are harvested for consumptive purposes.
If a scheme were to look past targeting illegal practices, it could add validity to the
allocation of funds to on-the-ground projects relating to community education through
participation in scientific monitoring or data collection activities. Participation in
monitoring activities supports fisheries management as well as community awareness.
Government could consider funding community participation regardless of the specific
fisheries priority. Enhanced awareness of fisheries management translates to enhanced
awareness of natural resource management in general and need not be dismissed because
of an individual department‟s priority lists. Synergy can be achieved through inter-
departmental consideration as intended by the whole-of-government intent of recent
policy.
The strategy recommends a survey of customary fishing supporting the National
Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey of 2003. Community involvement is
essential to a survey with an important outcome being community ownership of the
information. Ownership supports community level awareness and management, and is
potential capital in its relevance to commercial fishing activity.
Finally, the strategy aims to enhance the existing commercial opportunities and
protocols for Indigenous fishing by recommending the establishment of an Indigenous
Fishing Fund by Western Australian Government. This is intended to assist in purchasing
fishing authorisations on the open market. It mitigates the financial inequities that many
Indigenous enterprises face. Commercialism for Indigenous activities will often be
balanced against social outcomes. The strategy recognises the importance of this balance
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and highlights the need to resource initiatives that are working, have potential to grow
from modest economic return, but are primarily satisfying social imperatives.
4.4 NATURAL HERITAGE TRUST AND WESTERN
AUSTRALIAN RANGELANDS NATURAL RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT STRATEGY
In 2002, the Commonwealth and Western Australian Governments entered into an
agreement to implement the Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) Extension. While the NHT
has ceased and the Commonwealth Government‟s Caring for Our Country Program has
commenced, the intent of the agreement remains in place with regard to funding
initiatives with environmental objectives. The over-arching objectives of this agreement
relate to biodiversity conservation, sustainable resource use and management, and
community capacity building. The agreement divides commitment into Commonwealth,
Commonwealth/State, and State-wide/within State activities. Notably, the latter involves
proposals developed from consultation between State and regional levels while the former
two types of activities are developed through working groups at Commonwealth or
Commonwealth/State levels. All funded activities must accord with broad scale priorities
at National or State-wide levels and are delivered regionally. This provides opportunity
for Aboriginal communities to access Trust funds in particular if activities meet
community development as well as State-wide or National environmental objectives.
In accordance with Australia‟s decentralised natural resource management posture,
recognition is given in the agreement to the role of local governments in proposal
development, in particular as they interface with regional bodies involved in developing
regional strategies. The agreement specifically acknowledges that
―there are unique land management issues on the extensive areas under
indigenous control and that dedicated assistance will be required to improve
the general standard of land management‖ (WA and Cwlth Govt, 2002: 17).
It also states the requirement that the regional natural resource management group
―engages Indigenous people in the region and ensures adequate representation of their
interests‖ (WA and Cwlth Govt, 2002a: 19). In further support of the Indigenous case
for accessing funds, enhancing knowledge, skills and abilities relating to natural
resource management (WA and Cwlth Govt, 2002a: 29) is one of the four identified
types of activities that can be supported by the Trust under capacity building. Others
relate to accessing data, research and development and market based approaches. The
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difficulty for Aboriginal people relates to their influence over the recommendations made
by regional bodies, which may primarily represent majority or influential stakeholders
with interests in direct conflict to Aboriginal landowners.
As raised in Chapter three in the report into Indigenous engagement in NHT and the
jointly delivered National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality (NAP) activity in
2005, Worth (2005: 8) identified that
―overall, the NHT and NAP programs have demonstrated little actual
involvement with, or consultation of, Indigenous Australians. Indigenous
stakeholders have been minor players in terms of the funding processes and
have had little economic or political influence on most of the final regional
investment plans.‖
In Western Australia, less than 5% of the commitment from NHT and NAP supported
Indigenous managed activities. One of the contributing factors to this relates to difficulties
in accessing Indigenous groups. To overcome this, Indigenous Land management
Facilitators were established under NHT specifically to advise Indigenous communities
and link them to the broader natural resource management framework. However their role
can be diluted if they are located in a larger regional organisation with other agenda, as is
the case in the Kimberley region.
The Trust offered a potential funding source for a range of caring for country
initiatives in Western Australia similar to those in other areas of Australia such as
Arnhem Land. This has been recognised in new arrangements with funding supporting
specific Indigenous ventures. For instance the existing but small sea ranger program that
is currently operating out of Dampier Peninsula is being developed into new
employment. This group is working alongside other groups to support conservation
outcomes for turtles and dugongs. The role of a ranger group directly supports a number
of the stated outcomes of the Trust agreement (Cwlth and WA Govt, 2002: 56, 57)
including conservation of biodiversity hotspots; improved management of important
migratory shorebird sites; weed and pest control; minimising pollution impacts; and
developing community awareness and involvement.
The Rangelands Natural Resources Coordinating Group produced a draft Strategy for
Natural Resource Management in the Rangelands Regions. This important strategy
targets an integrated approach and sets out „Resource Condition Targets‟ to be achieved
in twenty years. These are supported by five-year „Management Action Targets‟ for
maintaining, protecting and enhancing natural assets. The strategy proposes partnership
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groups and determines priorities to guide government investment. While it is focused on
the natural asset, its determinations consider economic, social and environmental issues.
Investment in the strategy‟s development and ultimately many of the initiatives
stemming from its proposed actions was primarily through the NHT extension. The
agreement between the Federal and Western Australian Governments requires
Commonwealth accreditation of all regional plans (Rangelands NRM Coordinating
Group, 2005: 21) with standards and targets being guided by the National Framework
for Natural Resource Management Standards and Targets, which has been agreed to
by the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (Rangelands NRM
Coordinating Group, 2005: 28).
There is no doubt that consultation with Indigenous people has contributed to this
strategy‟s development. It recognises the fundamental importance of culture and
heritage in the resource target conditions and Indigenous involvement throughout the
action targets across land, water and sea scapes. The need for involvement relates to
regional planning through to localised activities. However the extant capacity of
communities dictates the role they can assume, their development needs and the viable
sustainability of their involvement in managing natural resources on traditionally owned
or occupied land. To that end, the realistic involvement in the long-term objectives may
be restricted by limited capacity relating to short-term strategy objectives. In mitigating
this, the plan aims to establish Indigenous traineeships and ranger programs as a priority.
Further it states the need to develop management plans for Aboriginal owned land by
2010. These objectives require substantial funding and need to be State government
driven projects that are implemented at regional and local levels. They must not merely
involve a small number of trial community cases but rather deal holistically across the
Rangeland communities regardless of the environmental priorities associated with
discreet community locations. The associated allocations of funding need to be decided
at State rather than regional level, probably with a single overall government
department or working group leading a whole-of-government approach. For example
there may be scope to achieve training and coordination synergy with the proposed
Aboriginal Fisheries Warden scheme. While NHT and related funding in Western
Australia is managed from the Department of Agriculture, the Departments of
Indigenous Affairs and Environment and Conservation have a definite leadership role to
play in these initiatives.
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In acknowledging the ―growing number of community-based initiatives in NRM,
particularly for the management of wildfire, invasive weeds and feral animals‖
(Rangelands NRM Coordinating Group, 2005: App VII pp1, 2) the strategy emphasises
the requirement for adequate funding. It presents the case for public funded CDEP
resources to be redirected through ―Commonwealth – State transfer mechanisms to
State land management agencies or community-based sub contractors.‖ This transfer
would provide focused resources to local initiatives and potential community capacity
building through long-term meaningful employment on traditionally owned land.
Other issues stemming from the strategy include access to traditional foods and
integrating traditional management practices. The strategy identifies (Rangelands NRM
Coordinating Group, 2005:138) a major management issue as Aboriginal people having
access to traditional food sources. Consideration needs to be afforded to broadening
access beyond customary use towards the commercial opportunity stemming from
species harvesting or even farming.
The strategy acknowledges that key to addressing management is the
―integration of Aboriginal land management with modern day
management approaches to natural resources, capturing and recording
traditional knowledge and increasing general community knowledge and
appreciation for Aboriginal heritage‖ (Rangelands NRM Coordinating
Group, 2005: 84).
Establishing protocols for sustainable harvesting and Indigenous engagement in
research are two identified actions creating opportunity for family or larger community
activities on country to be State funded. Integrating customary and scientific knowledge
in these areas needs to underpin derived protocols and practices. This approach is in
accordance with the principles of investment identified in the strategy, which include:
―Investments made under the NAP and the NHT should encourage
fundamental management changes rather than just a focus on repair/
rehabilitation projects; and Investments made under the NAP and the NHT
should provide the leverage necessary to effect major change. As such,
investment decisions will be influenced by both the scale of the outcomes
likely to arise from the investment, and by the rate of change in the underlying
resource condition anticipated from the investment‖ (Rangelands NRM
Coordinating Group, 2005: 198).
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4.5 A WHOLE-OF-GOVERNMENT APPROACH
Government intended support to Indigenous economic development varies between
departments. For example the Department of Environment and Conservation is cognisant
of the importance of small ventures to conservation and social outcomes over economic
ones. On the other hand the Department of Industry and Resources sees economic
viability and sustainability as underpinning eligibility criteria for support. For Indigenous
development in the Kimberley, the Department of Industry and Resources is very much
focused on tourism and pastoral enterprise over other niche endeavours. The Department
of Local Government and Regional Development considers the sustainability of an
enterprise based on its self-reliance and the integrity of its governance and management as
the key ingredients. This department interprets the major obstacle to developing
Indigenous enterprises as poor governance. The ability of a corporation to display sound
management inevitably influences the amount and type of government support it attracts.
However a whole-of-government approach must cross between departmental
boundaries and recognise the overall benefits of a potentially successful venture
regardless of its long-term sustainability or economic return. A short-term project could
well deliver transferable skills to participants, in particular in terms of leadership and
management. A commercial venture with small profit margins, or even resulting losses,
could create long-term meaningful employment if it involves natural resource
management on traditionally owned land. Similarly a family outstation venture with little
social benefit to a broader community could contribute to environmental aspects.
An example of whole-of-government policy is the Aboriginal Tourism Strategy For
Western Australia 2006 – 2010. Tourism in Western Australia recognises the niche
products associated with Indigenous tourism. This strategy aims to enhance the
opportunities for Aboriginal operators to benefit from the growing tourism sector in
Western Australia. The whole-of-government approach to this policy is evidenced by the
government departments involved in the strategy‟s development which include:
Department of Indigenous Affairs;
Department of Industry and Resources (Aboriginal Economic Development);
Department of Education and Training;
Department of Local Government and Regional Development;
Department of Premier and Cabinet;
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Department of Culture & the Arts;
Department of Environment and Conservation;
Office of Indigenous Policy Coordination;
Indigenous Land Corporation; and
Tourism Western Australia.
The implementation plan for the Strategy is supported by achievable actions aimed at
enhancing the capacity of operators and creating employment opportunities through
training and mentorship. Each of the government stakeholders has assigned actions to
drive the whole-of-government approach beyond development through to
implementation.
The cultural link existing between people and country, results in tourism acting as a
medium for land and sea management. Caring for country is an important element of this
strategy with one of the objectives framed as ―Aboriginal people being able to maximise
sustainable use of their lands and waters for tourism development‖ (WA Govt 2006a:
12). Capacity building is also an aspect of this objective and access to information is
critical to ensure that sustainability includes the preservation of culture and habitats for
current and future tourism ventures. This element of sustainability relies on landowner
participation in developing any tourism venture. Enhancing decision-making capacity, as
it relates to tourism, is a stated action under this objective.
Despite the strategy‟s inclusive intent, implementation alongside mainstream tourism
development is impeded in some regions by a lack of participation by Traditional Owners.
Indeed in the Kimberley region, some Aboriginal groups are critical of WA Tourism‟s
failure to embrace and accommodate Aboriginal community concerns regarding broader
mainstream tourism development. In the Broome area for instance, tourism development
is not adequately consulting Aboriginal groups and threatens Native Title imperatives.
Such a situation could potentially derail the implementation of the strategy despite the
consultation underpinning its development.
4.6 REGIONAL VERSUS STATE MANAGEMENT
In Western Australia, the direct conduit between government and the regions for
matters relating to development is the Regional Development Council, which represents
the nine Regional Development Commissions and local governments. The Council‟s
charter involves promoting development, formulating policy and facilitating cooperation
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between commissions and government agencies. The Regional Development
Commissions, which are formed and directed under the Regional Development
Commissions Act 1993, channel resources to specific outcomes involving job and career
development, economic development, infrastructure services, regional investment and
agency coordination.
Development Commissions have limited resources to allocate to a broad range of
initiatives including Indigenous activity on country. For example the Kimberley
Development Commission is responsible for an area of 424517 square kilometres,
comprising four local government areas and nearly 200 Aboriginal communities. Notably
47.3 % of the region‟s resident population is Aboriginal and the Commission recognises
in its corporate plan the importance of increasing the Indigenous participation in the
regional economy. In particular, the plan focuses its interests on Indigenous activity
involving tourism, art and culture, aquaculture and retail. Due to the importance of
Aboriginal matters to the region the Commission‟s board includes membership of the
Executive Director of the Kimberley Land Council.
An initiative managed by the Kimberley Development Commission is the Kimberley
Regional Development Scheme, which is aimed at funding activities that achieve social
and economic development outcomes. In 2003/04 the Kimberley Regional Development
Scheme allocated over 260,000 dollars to a range of regional projects. 24% of this
(63,250 dollars) was allocated to projects directly involving Indigenous economic
development. The Kimberley Land Council was granted 25,000 dollars to develop
Indigenous industries based on wild harvest of plant and animal resources and the
Mamabulanjin Aboriginal Corporation was allocated 33,250 for Indigenous Tourism
Improvements & Promotion in the Broome environs. In addition to the scheme, the
Commission allocated approximately 35,000 dollars to regional activities of which 17,500
dollars went to Aboriginal projects (KDC, 2004b: 38). For the period 2004/05 the
Regional Development Scheme funded 400,000 dollars for projects building capacity and
infrastructure. One of the seven funding objectives related specifically to Indigenous
groups, although regional leadership and governance, including Indigenous community
leadership, were also targeted. The 2007/08 approvals for the scheme included those from
2006/2007. Some 784,400 dollars were allocated with 49% (383270 dollars) directed
towards Aboriginal initiatives (KDC, 2008: 22).
Limited funds that are essentially allocated by higher tiers of government are difficult
to prioritise while balancing the perception of equity. While the total vote of the scheme is
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reasonable, the allocated amounts are generally not sufficient to sustain long-term projects
or produce major development outcomes. The total resources available to Commissions
provide little flexibility to seriously fund major capital development or capacity building
activities while ensuring a degree of fairness and equity underpins the allocation process.
This raises the debate of fairness and equity versus practical implementation of projects
against true regional priorities. While the need to spread funds across a number of diverse
sectors appeases broad interest groups, larger amounts allocated to fewer projects would
arguably result in more tangible regional outcomes. The greater needs probably relate to
developing regional leadership and governance, in particular for remote Indigenous
groups. Developing regional leadership would inevitably improve social and economic
circumstances. However the allocation of a few thousand dollars to isolated projects is
unlikely to have a community impact beyond minor infrastructure works, project
consultancy costs or limited and isolated skills development. While the scheme provides
some funding muscle to Commissions, fiscal allocation may achieve more significant
outcomes if it was used to augment more substantial ventures being funded directly from
State or Commonwealth Government departments with input from regions into the
allocation priorities. Alternatively, State and Commonwealth Government management
delegated with adequate resources to a regional level would ensure greater effectiveness
in delivery of services and other community outcomes. However this approach challenges
the rezone d‟être of government bureaucracies and demands a high level of broader
community faith in the accountability and capability of regional bodies.
The value of the Regional Development Scheme allocations is an example that
prompts the need for consideration of the effectiveness and capability of regional level
coordination in addressing regional needs. Sanderson (2009: 8) refers to the ―Claytons
approach to regional coordination with the Regional Development Commissions.‖ He
assesses that
―… things like education, health, housing, communications and culture
that are key to wellbeing, cannot simply be wished on regions by well
meaning people who live in other places and control the purse strings in
financial management silos that never quite come together to generate
outcomes at the point where they are supposed to be focused. They have to be
set up, managed and shared by people who are connected to the grassroots
and are empowered by the shared vision. In my view, this has not been the
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driving characteristic of past COAG processes, nor is it the character of the
present COAG process which bares close resemblance to those of the past.‖
This view highlights the foundation of intent for regional level coordination. That is
for regional initiatives to effectively harness the grassroots empathy, knowledge and
purpose for tangible outcomes, they must be supported with quality staff and appropriate
levels of resourcing, policies and frameworks that are focused on regional level
implementation. Organisations charged with regional coordination must be able to
implement. This requires higher levels of government to think regionally in designing
policy and discussing initiatives in functional areas that are traditionally managed at
Commonwealth and State levels. Sanderson implies that regions need to be capable of
assessing the service and cultural requirements and subsequently accessing established
funding and programs to deliver against those assessments. Otherwise the potential of
their effectiveness cannot be realised through wide spread practical outcomes.
4.7 WILDLIFE USE CHALLENGES CONSERVATIVE POLICY
At present, Western Australia lacks a strategy to deal specifically with conservation
through commercial use of native species. The Department of Environment and
Conservation remains absolutely conservative in its approach to species management and
such a strategy creates a significant dilemma to policy makers. On one hand, successful
conservation outcomes are being realised elsewhere through commercial activities. On the
other hand, the destruction of species threatens the very fabric of conservative thought
regardless of the validity of supporting research. The concept is also at odds with broader
public perceptions of what constitutes conservation.
The debate for commercial use proposes that it provides opportunity for remote
Aboriginal communities as it ties the cultural needs to economic development and has
potential to achieve conservation outcomes if properly managed. The argument against is
that contemporary hunter-gatherer practices will in many cases exploit species to an
untenable level. If management practices are realistic and deliver appropriate control
frameworks, which include monitoring and reporting, then that point need not be reached.
Appropriate long-term monitoring would facilitate changes to allowable quota and
harvesting techniques. This is the experience of commercial estuarine crocodile
harvesting in the Northern Territory, which has not had a detrimental impact on estimated
populations, has resulted in an increase in allowable harvesting quota, and is driven by
conservation imperatives. The success of this initiative is surely translatable to other
species. Scope exists for Goonj Arlan people to harvest some species for the aquarium
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and pet industry in particular hermit crab species. This is discussed in Chapter six.
Harvesting supported by appropriate management planning offers another source of
modest but independent income while providing further incentive to manage the
associated habitat.
Monitoring commercial wildlife use is far more practical than monitoring customary
harvesting. It follows that associated reporting and monitoring requirements could be
transferable to customary practices if communities were given the opportunity to develop
their awareness through commercial activity. If management integrates customary
practices into program development and implementation, and is introduced to responsible
communities through shared agreement mechanisms, exploitation could be controlled or
at least constrained. Consumption of species for customary purposes could be a by-
product of commercial activity and by providing greater accessibility to products than
hunting and gathering, practices could lessen the direct impact on unmanaged wild
populations. Such an industry would need to focus on modest Indigenous enterprises
rather than large scale mainstream activities, which would eventually undermine the
commercial feasibility of any Indigenous interests. This arrangement would probably
require supporting legislation to protect Aboriginal enterprises from sophisticated
competition.
4.8 CONCLUSION: THE STATE IMPACT ON GOONJ ARLAN
A number of considerations emerge that relate to creating opportunities for Aboriginal
people living on country in Western Australia. Opportunities to participate in commercial
and environmental activity are not at odds with State or Commonwealth policies, which
emphasise the importance of Indigenous involvement to improve social, economic and
environmental conditions.
Western Australia‟s intended whole-of-government approach is not truly realised in
Indigenous affairs as they relate to natural resource management and capacity building.
Stove-piped departmental agenda still provide the basis for decision-making regarding
project funding. For example, economic development management is very much focused
on economic sustainability and self-reliance as opposed to considering the broader social
capacity contribution of remote ventures. Similarly, funding for conservation and land
management is driven by bio-regional priorities rather than balancing these with long-
term social outcomes linked to education in less environmentally critical locations. Goonj
Arlan is a potential model challenging this mindset. A Goonj Arlan model that integrates
community, business and environmental effort demands a whole-of-government review
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of applications for funding. This philosophy will need to underpin Corporation planning
and subsequent structures.
State level policy is not detailed in its practical dealings with Indigenous participation
in natural resource management. While policy undoubtedly emphasises the importance of
participation, customary rights and the relevance of Indigenous knowledge to biodiversity
conservation, it does not present tangible and practical actions to achieve this intent. It
does not make the specific link between caring for country and meaningful employment
to attract government effort and funding. That link is fundamental to the development of
the Goonj Arlan model. This will demand that planning and implementation of the
outstation development emphasise the importance of networks that include government
agencies. Working those networks will aim to heighten local and regional awareness of
outstation activity and Corporation commitment. This awareness will enhance an
understanding of development aspirations when the Corporation seeks to access
government support and recognition.
At the State advisory level, the outcomes of the Indigenous Affairs Advisory
Committee would benefit from a broader standing membership that is not only
representative of departments focused on social disadvantage. Membership inclusion
from departments involved in managing Australia‟s natural resources can influence the
Committee‟s agenda positively through including initiatives built on the strengths of
communities rather than their disadvantage. For example the Department of Environment
and Conservation is critical to the development of initiatives with potential to create
employment based on Indigenous land management that builds on extant community
capacities. Similarly the Department of Industry and Resources has staff capacity focused
on Indigenous economic development. Committee membership would bring issues and
opportunities to the forefront of the agenda rather than being introduced on a case-by-case
basis. The establishment of the new Indigenous Implementation Board offers real
opportunity for the broader requirements and aspirations of Aboriginal people to be
represented at State and Commonwealth levels of government.
A notable development in Western Australian policy is the draft Aboriginal Fishing
Strategy. This strategy does make the link between resource management and Aboriginal
opportunity. It identifies practical employment initiatives in remote coastal communities
that could provide community capacity building and augment existing fisheries
management arrangements protecting marine biodiversity and habitats. It goes further by
identifying the relevance of associated skills to other government initiatives and broader
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community activities. Practical employment for participants of Goonj Arlan caring for
country initiatives may be able to benefit from this policy. This would ratify the
environmental objectives of the Corporation and provide skills that are relevant to other
aspects of the Corporation management.
A similar approach is required to increase participation in Indigenous land manager or
ranger initiatives on traditionally owned land, however presently such schemes involve a
small number of participants in Western Australia, primarily due to the alignment of
initiatives to regional conservation priorities. This inevitably translates to aligning scarce
funding to conservation hotspots or specific species and does not address the broader
quadruple bottom line benefits stemming from employment and education schemes
regardless of the environmental priority of a region or location. The concept of a
regionally funded Indigenous land manager or ranger program broader than what
currently exists warrants consideration for its potential social, economic and
environmental worth. Such a scheme could provide long-term employment in remote
areas, in particular on traditionally owned land. This could be a whole-of-government
initiative attracting funding from a number of involved departments. Funding could be
transferred from extant programs that are not currently focused specifically of caring for
country. There is scope to work the Goonj Arlan model into a regional land and sea
management activity once established. Land care activities need to be developed first
through other sources and then avenues investigated to formalise and expand these into a
program aligned with current activities in One Arm Point.
Broader community and environmental interests are not often recognised until
planning and funding is managed at regional level. However at that level, decision-
making is potentially affected by the regional bias of vocal interest groups and inadequate
fiscal resources to share equitably across regional priorities. Not withstanding the
importance of regional influence over government programs, matters of significant social
inequality, as is the case in a number of remote Aboriginal communities, need to be
managed and funded centrally from the highest levels of government. At State level,
funding allocated by whole-of-government decision-making is needed to provide
employment opportunity directly linking Aboriginal people to country.
Altman (2003a: 4) identified that
―Indigenous people are beginning to recognise that wildlife management
based on sustainable customary harvesting does not occur independently
from more general natural resource management.‖
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Further he assessed that there is a
―growing recognition that expanding wildlife harvesting from the
customary to the commercial and the use of new technology require
assessments of ecological sustainability and economic viability that need to
be added to the Indigenous tool kit in the longer term.‖
His argument proposed the need for interactive „hybrid institutions‟ combining
Indigenous and western practices to effect integrated resource management. In Western
Australia, government effort to achieve this is limited. While various government
departments fund some programs and consult with Aboriginal groups in developing
policy, the practical integration of customary practices into management plans is isolated.
Land management organisations do not adequately include Aboriginal people in
practically implementing initiatives and are often focused on minimising the impact of
tourism on specific culturally sensitive locations. For example, the Ngauwudu
Management Plan for the Mitchell Plateau region of the Kimberley is a priority however
it is unclear what management planning will be funded for land recently acquired by the
Bardi-Jawi claim in Australia‟s northwest.
Western Australian Government policy does not broadly seek opportunities for
integrated practices and mechanisms that recognise the custodial responsibilities of
Aboriginal people, or impart additional skills to them and support them through
established relationships with scientific institutions. This situation creates some focus for
a mature Goonj Arlan Corporation. A network that includes the regional Prescribed Body
Corporate, as well as research alliances, may facilitate Goonj Arlan‟s involvement in
developing hybrid management practices. Goonj Arlan could serve as a location and
organisation to trial or research such practices in a customary Aboriginal environment.
This has potential to attract direct support and provide benefit to caring for country
objectives.
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5 CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter identifies the factors contributing to a venture undertaken by Indigenous
people, in order to derive a Conceptual Model for application by other communities. This
is done through a case study of an existing and successful enterprise established by the
Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation (BAC) in Maningrida in the Northern Territory. A
review of this case identifies the key factors contributing to successful enterprise, which
will later be applied to the framework used for planning by the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal
Corporation. The case study involves an enterprise based on crocodile egg harvesting and
the selling of hatchlings. This form of sustainable harvesting of native wildlife creates
business opportunities for remote Indigenous communities living on traditionally owned
land. The rationale behind the industry is that potential economic and social incentives
lead to a commitment to conservation. The success of the egg harvesting venture has
encouraged the Corporation to investigate other commercially viable activities including
the use of species such as long-necked turtles, trepang and mangrove mussels.
The key government policies and legislation contributing to successful enterprise are
discussed. The roles and relationships of stakeholders are identified including,
communities, government agencies and research bodies, and the characteristics of the
Corporation‟s management and enterprise activities are assessed. These characteristics are
developed into a Conceptual Model of considerations for subsequent application in
planning by the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation.
The business planning underpinning this case study enterprise is aligned to the
theoretical framework for participatory planning detailed in Chapter one. Planning to
establish and develop the crocodile egg business recognised the socio-economic,
environmental and governance considerations affecting the remote community initiative.
Planning was driven by the Corporation‟s management as means to encourage
participation and ownership by a diverse community comprising numerous language
groups. It also progressively evolved the crocodile enterprise in parallel to the evolving
community understanding of the project‟s problems and opportunities. The components
of the Conceptual Model described in this chapter reflect an alignment with the theoretical
framework.
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5.1.1 Sustainable Harvesting in Australia
The profile of harvesting Australian native species as a sustainable enterprise has been
raised through debate over its viability and value. This is due to the associated
commercial and conservation potential, in particular for enterprises involving Indigenous
people living in remote regions on traditionally owned country. Chapter three discussed
the 1998 Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport References Committee
Inquiry into the commercial use of Australian native wildlife. The role of Aboriginal
communities in commercial ventures attracted attention during the inquiry and the
potential social benefits eventuating from well managed activities were acknowledged.
Market leverage can be gained by Indigenous enterprises linked to knowledge of species
and traditional land ownership. Well established and managed joint ventures combining
western business practices with Indigenous natural resource management knowledge,
offer commercial gain to participants, social benefit to Indigenous communities and
conservation enhancement to species and habitats.
In the far north of Australia, Aboriginal coastal people have access to abundant
natural resources that are often harvested for consumptive purposes. It is feasible that a
number of these coastal resources could support commercial industries managed by
remote communities. An industry surrounds the commercial use of crocodiles including
sustainable harvesting by Aboriginal people. The population of Crocodylus porosus in
the Northern Territory has increased by 50% since 1984 to an estimated level of around
60,000 to 65,000 animals by 1998 (NT Govt, 2005: 9). Presumably, it has continued to
increase since then. Extensive monitoring has identified that managed commercial
exploitation has not had a detrimental impact. Natural population controls manage
numbers within supportable limits for specific habitats. Webb (1996: 182) identified that
despite harvesting, an increase in non-hatchlings that occurred in the Adelaide River
between 1971 and 1994 resulted from natural population control. A decrease in juvenile
numbers and an increase in adults suggest that the larger crocodiles were preying on or
excluding the smaller animals. Scientific research supports the sustainability of crocodile
harvesting and identifies a high mortality rate in wild crocodiles despite an assessed
increase in many populations. Webb and Manolis (1993) predicted that less than one per
cent of animals between five years and maturity actually survive to breed.
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5.1.2 Crocodile Egg Harvesting by the Bawinanga Aboriginal
Corporation
The Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation (BAC) based at Maningrida in central
northern Arnhem Land commercially harvests crocodile eggs annually from locations in
the Liverpool, Tomkinson, Cadell and Blyth Rivers (see Figure 5.1 for river locations and
Table 5.1 for recent harvesting quantities). Harvesting is authorised by an annually
renewed licence issued by the Northern Territory Parks and Wildlife Commission. The
BAC is allowed to collect up to 2200 eggs each season under this permit. The harvest
attracts royalty payments for traditional landowners and is conducted by Indigenous
rangers. The allowed harvesting season is between October and June however it is
normally completed by mid January to benefit from the warm weather enhancing
incubation and hatchling survival.
Figure 5-1 The region serviced by the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation.
Crocodile eggs are harvested from the mouths of the Liverpool, Tomkinson, Cadell
and Blyth Rivers.
In October, a search for nests is conducted using the Corporation‟s own helicopter.
Nests are located with GPS and marked with a panel to assist location from the ground. In
December, small groups of up to four rangers travel to the vicinity of the nests by boat,
disembark and approach them by foot. The female crocodiles are distracted while
approximately fifty eggs are collected from each nest. The inherent risk of this is very
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high. It results in minimum time on-the-ground and a reduced likelihood of over
harvesting. This collection technique serves as a form of self-regulation, which enhances
the environmental integrity of the process. Survival of the embryo is threatened by
movement so eggs are marked on collection and placed in an identical position inside an
insulated box. They are transported to the BAC incubation facility at Maningrida.
Government endorsed management plans require compulsory reporting of harvesting
to support species monitoring by government agencies. Details to allow reporting are
recorded by the collectors. These details are shown in Appendix 1.
At Maningrida, eggs are stored in an incubation facility for up to sixty days and
managed by the Indigenous rangers. During incubation, monitoring records are
maintained in the form of Incubation data sheets shown in Appendix 1. This information
assists project management and satisfies further mandatory reporting requirements.
Approximately 80% of collected eggs survive the process. On hatching, animals are kept
for two weeks before being packed and transported to markets in Darwin and Queensland
where they are sold for approximately forty to fifty five dollars each. Profits are used to
pay royalties to owners and support ongoing funding requirements of the venture.
Table 5-1 Historical collection data for the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation’s
crocodile egg harvesting enterprise. Source: The Regional Land Management
Coordinator of the BAC.
Year Eggs Harvested Eggs Infertile Eggs
Dead/Rotten
Hatchlings
1998/99 1118 46 568 504
1999/2000 1452 42 703 707
2000/01 1566 Not recorded Not recorded 1124
2001/02 1829 63 Not recorded 646
5.2 POLICY AND LEGISLATION
5.2.1 Legislation/Policy and Wildlife Harvesting
Government legislation and policy establish the legal parameters guiding Indigenous
economic development opportunities. Outcomes are largely reliant on policies driven by
non- Indigenous interests. Howitt and Suchet (2004) referred to the exclusion of
subsistence production and cultural capacity in interpretations of National productivity as
evidence of the economic and social marginalisation of Aboriginal people. This extends
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into commercial enterprises, which for Indigenous people are often challenged by
competition from larger and commercially experienced companies.
Chapter three discussed the Commonwealth level legislation and policy as it affects or
supports Aboriginal management of natural resources. To emphasise the role of
government factors some key aspects as they relate to the crocodile egg harvesting project
are raised. Importantly the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act
1999 satisfies Australia‟s obligations towards the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) signed at Washington on 3 March
1973. The Act supports the Northern Territory jurisdiction over principles and
procedures relating to management plans for listed threatened species and ecological
communities. It also provides for financial or other assistance for research and legislates
the requirement for monitoring to be an aspect of management planning for threatened
species.
The Northern Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000 and the
Commonwealth‟s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
provide specific regulatory legislation controlling commercial exploitation of native
species. The former establishes the Parks and Wildlife Commission/Service as Northern
Territory‟s authority charged with administering the Acts. The latter regulates enterprises.
The most significant legislation supporting Indigenous opportunities in the Northern
Territory is the Commonwealth Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976,
which is mirrored by the Northern Territory‟s Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern
Territory) Act 1982. This transferred considerable expanses of land and coastline to
Indigenous ownership. The Act established the framework for Indigenous Land Councils,
which are charged with protecting the interests of Traditional Landowners in relation to
land use and assisting communities in commercial development.
Commonwealth legislation is supported by the Community Development Economic
Projects (CDEP), which is an important aspect of the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation.
CDEP is augmented by National Heritage Trust funding to provide the salary base to
support modest ventures including crocodile egg harvesting.
5.2.2 Northern Territory Management Policies
The Northern Territory Government‟s progressive approach towards sustainable
harvesting is detailed in its Strategy for Conservation through the Sustainable Use of
Wildlife in the Northern Territory of Australia. This policy aims to enhance
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conservation through the development of sustainable programs. Its objectives specifically
include ensuring ―that Aboriginal people can maintain traditional uses of wildlife and
have the option to develop commercial uses on a sustainable basis‖ (NT Govt, 1997: 01).
It broadens the focus of Indigenous harvesting beyond customary consumption and
creates the formal government intent to support Indigenous commercialism.
The strategy‟s guiding principles (NT Govt, 1997: 02) consider enhanced wildlife
conservation as the primary aim and focus on activities that are not detrimental to habitat
or biodiversity. Cooperation between landowners and regulatory authorities underpins the
achievement of conservation objectives. Landowners are the key economic and social
beneficiaries of sustainable harvesting outcomes and initiatives must be supported by
adaptable and scientifically informed management plans. Plans involving monitoring,
reporting and reviewing processes are necessary for specific species and types of
commercial enterprise. The success of the Northern Territory‟s crocodile industry is used
as an example in the strategy document (NT Govt, 1997: 03). While the industry is larger
than the contribution by Aboriginal communities, an important issue is the incentive
derived from paying royalties to landowners. This translates to landowner recognition of
the value of crocodiles and encourages their contribution towards species and habitat
conservation.
Integrated management is necessary to achieve the strategy‟s objectives. The diverse
nature of commercial activities involves varied stakeholders, often with conflicting
agendas. This is inevitable when western business interests overlap with customary
Aboriginal lifestyles. Government policy steers stakeholders towards integrated
management, however it needs to evolve into regulatory legislation and tangible funding
to support specific plans that adequately back a sustainable and fair industry.
The Northern Territory Parks and Wildlife Service administers the management
program for Crocodylus porosus via the Management Plan For Crocodylus Porosus In
The Northern Territory 2005-2010. The plan‟s goal (NT Govt, 2005: 15) ―is directed at
the long-term sustainable utilisation and conservation of crocodiles and their habitats
throughout the Northern Territory.‖ The Service issues annual permits, in accordance
with section 43 of the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1998, that allow
commercial harvesting of crocodiles or eggs from the wild and trade in crocodiles
between the Northern Territory and other states. Permits mandate reporting to support
species monitoring. Overseas export of Crocodylus porosus is facilitated by the
Commonwealth’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999,
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which requires animals to be bred in captivity or collected from the wild in accordance
with an approved management program, such as the Northern Territory one. This satisfies
Australia‟s obligations to CITES, in which crocodiles are listed.
The Northern Territory‟s management program identifies allowable harvesting
techniques and authorises egg harvesting during the nesting period from October to June.
Hatchlings, juveniles and adults can be harvested (NT Govt, 2005: 14-16) and quotas
accord with recommendations from scientifically informed monitoring. Collectors must
report to the Service on harvest takings to facilitate quota reviews in response to
population changes. Harvesting quotas for Crocodylus porosus (shown at Table 5.2) are
based on a population estimate of 60,000 animals. Quotas allow for 25,000 eggs to be
harvested annually. Notably monitoring has not identified an impact on population sizes
stemming from harvesting and the quota has been increased from 15,000 eggs allowable
under the 1999 plan.
Table 5-2 Allowed commercial harvesting quotas for Crocodylus porosus in the
Northern Territory. Source: Northern Territory Crocodile Management Plan
2005-2010 (2005: 16).
Target
specimen
Conditions 2005 Annual
Quota
Eggs Eggs may be collected from October to June and
incubated under artificial conditions 15,000
25,500
Hatchlings <0.4 m 500
Juveniles 0.4-2.2 m 500
Adults >2.2 m 575
The Northern Territory‟s Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries (DPIF) are
responsible for monitoring the business performance of commercial crocodile ventures.
Companies provide monthly stock holding returns to the Department and are audited
annually.
5.3 ROLES OF STAKEHOLDERS
The stakeholders involved in the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation (BAC) crocodile
egg enterprise include community groups, government departments and agencies,
academic institutions and commercial industry. A consolidated network that links
communities to government decision-making underpins management. While the
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relationship between the BAC and other non-Indigenous commercial interests is currently
related to markets, the commercial involvement in establishing the initial industry was
significant. Figure 5.2 shows the networked relationships between the stakeholder groups
as they impact on current operations by the BAC.
Strong management and customary link
Secondary management and customary link
Strong management link related to policy and funding
Aspect specific link ( eg training, salaries, species management)
Strong advisory link
Secondary advisory link
Legend
Bawinanga
Aboriginal
Corporation
Djelk Rangers
Northern Land
Council
Charles Darwin
University
NT Parks and
Wildlife Service
Other NT /Cth
Government Agencies:
Educat ion &T raining
Primary Industries
Indigenous Affairs
Wildlife
Management
Internat ional
Pty Ltd
COMMUNITIES: MANINGRIDA & OUTSTATIONS
Figure 5-2 The networked relationships of the main stakeholders involved in the
Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation’s crocodile egg harvesting enterprise
5.3.1 Indigenous Communities in Central Northern Arnhem Land
Maningrida provides the service centre for central northern Arnhem Land. It was
established as a government administered settlement in 1957 and has evolved to become
the centre for regional Aboriginal economic development. In 1972-73, a lack of
satisfaction with government imposed programs, together with social tensions stemming
from clan coexistence, drove many people to pursue hunter-gatherer lifestyles on
traditional lands (Hughes, 1996). Maningrida is the centre of the Bawinanga Aboriginal
Corporation (BAC). It services 34 outstations, which represent fourteen of the major
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language groups in Arnhem Land. The populations of Maningrida and regional
outstations vary seasonally with the wet attracting more people to the town centre.
―Social organisation and relationships based on kinship were and still
are one of the most important organising institutions in Australian Aboriginal
culture; but are also important in processes of Indigenous cultural
recognition‖ (Dousset, 2002: 01).
Language groups provide a basis for social identification. The diversity of language
groups in the Maningrida region is a potential obstacle to economic development. The
indicative dispersion of the main language groups throughout the Maningrida region is
illustrated in Figure 5.3. Outstations are occupied by people with traditional links to the
land. The challenge for the BAC management is to satisfy the interests of this diverse
community.
Figure 5-3 The main language groups serviced by the Bawinanga Aboriginal
Corporation. Source: The Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation.
This region has historically been the buffer between eastern and western Arnhem
Land clans, which once maintained very distinct cultural and societal orders. Tribal
movement, trade and the impact of Macassan and European arrival have driven a
diffusion of cultural aspects, in particular kinship, through the central northern areas. The
moiety system is an example of this. The system is a complex form of social organization
Kunbarling
Nakkara
Rembarrnga
Kuninjku
Ndjebbana
Djinang,
Wurlaki
Yolngu
Gurrgoni
Gunnartpa
Burarra
Kunibidji
Kune, Dalabon
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in which all people, and most natural phenomena, are divided usually into two categories.
Categories act as intermarrying divisions requiring people to marry someone of the
opposite moiety. They describe kin relationships and dictate behaviour. Land
management responsibilities stem from moieties with relationships expressed in terms of
kinship with the land. The two moieties of Dhwa and Yirritja, which were originally an
eastern Arnhem Land order, have diffused through the central regions to western Arnhem
Land. Members of two clans, one Dhwa and the other Yirritja, are related to the land and
each other. Yirritja territory is the father‟s country to members of a Yirritja clan, who are
the owners, and the mother‟s country to a Dhwa clan, who are the managers of that
territory. The managers are owners of a Dhwa piece of land on which they control hunting
and food gathering rights.
5.3.2 The Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation
The Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation (BAC) was established in 1973 primarily to
support Aboriginal people living outside Maningrida on traditional lands (Finlayson et al.,
1997: 02). It has evolved significantly and now drives regional Aboriginal economic
development. An elected executive committee representing the broad land ownership of
the region administers it, in accordance with the Commonwealth‟s Aboriginal Councils
and Associations Act 1976. The BAC manages a number of commercial projects and
employs some 400 people (Finlayson et al., 1997: 02). Profits earned from the ventures
are returned to communities to enhance economic self-reliance. Management of
sustainable harvesting of crocodile eggs by the BAC involves negotiating access and
royalties with landowners, administering the Community Development Employment
Program (CDEP), managing training requirements, securing funds for equipment and
facilities as well as ensuring government management plans are satisfied by harvesting
activities and techniques. While many of the day-to-day responsibilities are delegated to
specific functions within the BAC, executive committee awareness and acceptance of
responsibility is effective.
The BAC administers CDEP salaries for the region (Altman and Johnson, 2000). This
state-reliance prevents absolute economic independence however the BAC remains aware
of its importance to preserving customary lifestyle. The Corporation‟s role is underpinned
by a social objective focused on developing meaningful employment opportunities that do
not threaten the fundamentals of traditional ways. Commercial harvesting activities utilise
traditional knowledge and involve modest operations that do not attract excessive external
participation or stretch the capabilities that are available in this remote region.
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The BAC is a traditional landowner‟s representative body and actively liaises directly
with government departments. This role is important to investigating other opportunities
for sustainable harvesting, which has involved direct discussions between the BAC and
the Northern Territory Parks and Wildlife Service.
5.3.3 The Djelk Ranger Scheme
The Djelk Rangers group is one of the Aboriginal ranger programs established and
funded by the Northern Land Council‟s (NLC) Caring for Country Unit (NLC, 2006). It
conducts a broad range of environmental projects ranging from weed control to
sustainable harvesting. As the producing element of the Bawinanga Aboriginal
Corporation‟s (BAC) crocodile egg harvesting activity, rangers collect and incubate the
eggs for subsequent sale to markets. They are the main recipients of training in accredited
resource management with a broad skill base being well established throughout their
ranks.
The Djelk Rangers‟ employment is meaningful due to the direct impact of their
activities on land and resource management. The program experiences a relatively high
turnover of participants, however a core number of committed individuals at all levels
have longevity in the organisation. This contributes to organisational effectiveness. The
turnover mainly involves people with participatory skills so this eases the potential
training liability associated with coordination and management appointments.
The Community Development Employment Program (CDEP), with some
augmentation from the Natural Heritage Trust, pays ranger salaries for between twelve
and twenty members. A female ranger element is part of the Djelk Ranger initiative and
activities accord with accepted male and female work in customary society.
5.3.4 The Northern Land Council
The Northern Land Council‟s (NLC) role in the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation
(BAC) sustainable harvesting venture is twofold. It provides funding and support for the
Djelk Rangers as part of the “Caring for Country” strategy. It is also responsible for
negotiating agreements between the BAC and landowners regarding land access and
royalty payments. Profits made by the BAC are distributed to landowners by the NLC.
Due to limited Council staff, the BAC management effects negotiation with landowners.
The Caring for Country unit, which was established in 1995, promotes Aboriginal
commercial enterprises that have environmental outcomes. Its most significant
achievement has been the establishment of Aboriginal ranger groups, including the Djelk
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Rangers, in order to combine western and Indigenous land management practices. Ranger
groups provide a structure to facilitate the maintenance of traditional knowledge within
Indigenous communities and an opportunity for meaningful employment (NLC, 2006).
Government funding for the program is primarily through the Commonwealth‟s Natural
Heritage Trust with other support being provided by research bodies, such as Charles
Darwin University.
The NLC is also the agency that negotiates Indigenous community involvement in
broader land and resource management activities. A current focus is on enhancing
Indigenous involvement in decision-making regarding marine and coastal areas (NLC,
2006).
5.3.5 Parks and Wildlife Service of Northern Territory
The Parks and Wildlife Service is the Northern Territory Government‟s regulatory
body that authorises sustainable harvesting. It administers parks and wildlife related
legislation and is the lead agency in implementing the strategy for the sustainable use of
wildlife. It is responsible for setting priorities and driving this strategy to mature into
viable industries that support conservation. The Natural Heritage Trust is a source of
funding for the Service to direct towards scientific research, species monitoring programs
and management planning.
The Service is responsible for managing monitoring programs, including analysing
mandatory reports provided by individuals and businesses, as well has independent
population surveys. Permits for harvesting are issued annually by the Service. Raising the
crocodile industry involved significant scientific and market research, which informed the
Northern Territory‟s management planning for crocodile species. The Service is
responsible for developing plans to support other species being investigated for
commercial use. Management planning takes time, which can potentially deter business at
the community level. Open rhetoric between the Service, the Northern Land Council
(NLC) and the BAC is an example of cooperative management that helps to counter this.
The Parks and Wildlife Service are faced with a difference between State and
Territory policy/legislation as it matures its wildlife strategy. Many States do not share the
Northern Territory‟s enthusiasm for sustainable harvesting, particularly when products are
for human consumption. In addition legislation involving handling foodstuffs places
difficult demands on Aboriginal businesses to meet standards in slaughtering and
packaging. The Service is actively working through these issues with other States to
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increase market opportunities. The BAC is working with the Service as it investigates
other harvesting opportunities including shellfish, trepang, magpie geese and long-necked
turtles.
5.3.6 The Key Centre for Tropical Wildlife Management
Until 2005, Charles Darwin University‟s Key Centre for Tropical Wildlife
Management was the main research body supporting sustainable harvesting in the
Northern Territory and played a major role in satisfying research imperatives of
management plans. A link with the Parks and Wildlife Service was achieved by the
membership of the Service‟s Wildlife Director on the management board of the Key
Centre and Centre‟s Director on the Service‟s board. While this arrangement was not
formalised or driven by the charter of the Key Centre, it existed through personal
networks and ensured that research directly informed government policy and priorities.
The Centre was established after the commencement of crocodile harvesting in the
Northern Territory and did not play a role in developing the initial management plan.
However it was involved in the monitoring process and the university continues to
research other harvesting initiatives.
Recent organisational changes have seen many of the responsibilities of this centre
being rolled into the School for Environmental Studies. In addition, the Northern
Territory Government now has mature arrangements with an adjunct established in the
School for environmental studies. The direct link between the Parks and Wildlife Service
and institutional scientific research remains.
5.3.7 Wildlife Management International
The Director of Wildlife Management International (WMI) is a key player in the
international promotion of sustainable harvesting and was instrumental in establishing
commercial crocodile harvesting in Maningrida. This role involved market and scientific
research as well as consultancy to commence the harvesting program and develop the
current incubation operation. WMI was also a major player in monitoring crocodile
populations until 1998. Its contribution was important to the development of the viable
enterprise currently being conducted by the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation (BAC).
While WMI is no longer intimately involved in the Maningrida management, it is one
of the markets. WMI maintains a sense of obligation towards the BAC venture and
consequently is likely to maintain its market commitment regardless of any competition
that may evolve in the industry.
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5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAC MANAGEMENT
5.4.1 The Executive Committee Structure and Its Interaction
The Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation‟s (BAC) executive committee of
management is regulated by the Corporations (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander)
Act 2006 formerly the Aboriginal Councils and Associations Act 1976. The traditional
diversity of the region‟s population creates problems for management in representing
community interests. Appropriate consideration of the broad social interests must
underpin the BAC management‟s decision-making. For sustainable harvesting initiatives,
consideration must be given to environmental issues, including those unique to a specific
area. Management must understand the impact of decisions on each element of regional
diversity.
As discussed in Chapter two, it is evident that management structures of some
effective Aboriginal organisations remain discreet from the societal structure and
maintain a link to traditional values through interaction with community leadership. The
BAC achieves this interaction within its executive committee. The committee comprises
six elected Traditional Owners and the Chief Executive Officer. Election occurs on an
annual basis to ensure a consistently broad regional representation. Kinship links
throughout the region enhance the influence of elected members on the broad community.
This allows the committee to maintain an appropriate level of clan representation.
Importantly, traditional values are considered in decision-making, which is of particular
significance when dealing with natural resource management.
All decisions require consensus from executive committee members. While this is a
potential obstacle to development in many businesses, it is effective for Aboriginal
corporations, which are not markedly focused on economic outcomes. An inherent link
between the committee and community leadership means that a unanimous decision in the
BAC translates to unanimous leadership agreement and ultimately recognition by each
community of the consideration that has been afforded to them. It is a characteristic of
this form of management that decisions are not regularly questioned. The potential
obstacle to development is actually positive as once decisions are made, community
support remains behind them. An example of this involves the early commencement of
the crocodile-harvesting project. The BAC experienced problems stemming from the
totemic significance of the crocodile to a specific clan. For some years, the question of
clan ownership of the crocodile and associated royalty payment threatened the
development of the venture. Notably, the clan involved was not from the region serviced
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by the BAC. Support for crocodile harvesting was unanimous from the BAC management
and their communities. Ultimately a meeting was held at Ramingining in 1998. The
project was supported and the concerned clan was advised of the finality of this outcome.
The BAC enjoys business, social and environmental credibility with regulating
authorities. It established a very effective relationship with the Northern Territory Parks
and Wildlife Service. At Director level, the Service supports planning proposals by the
BAC due to the consideration of conservation imperatives and the historical success of
other commercial activities.
Responsible management of the crocodile project has resulted in positive
consideration by key appointments in the Service of other proposed harvesting ventures.
The BAC activities usually involve consultation with the Service prior to formal
application. Submissions are well researched in terms of market opportunity and are
supported by thorough business planning, which is consolidated by the Regional Land
Management Coordinator. Credibility with the Parks and Wildlife Service can win
support and ultimately funding. This relationship provides an avenue to directly influence
decision-making with regard to government priorities for commercial harvesting. The
BAC must guard this credibility in particular with regard to species and habitat
conservation. A commitment and proactive approach to self-regulation of harvesting will
facilitate this. The Regional Land Management Coordinator in the BAC maintains an
informal but direct relationship with Charles Darwin University. This provides another
informal avenue for the BAC to gain visibility and influence government planning due to
the management relationship between the Parks and Wildlife Service and the University.
The interaction between the BAC and the Northern Land Council (NLC) is limited by
staffing levels within the NLC and the need to prioritise its effort. The BAC on behalf of
the NLC conducts the task of contract negotiation with landowners. While this
arrangement is effective locally, it does present potential problems in dealing with the
distribution of royalties to those entitled through kinship, in accordance with the Native
Title Act 1993, who do not reside in Arnhem Land. While this scenario has not been
presented, potential exists for complications to arise from the inability of the BAC to
satisfy legal imperatives beyond its geographical constraints.
The quality of Indigenous and non-Indigenous leadership in the BAC and the Djelk
Rangers contributes to commercial viability. Longevity of leadership equates to corporate
knowledge and maintains organisational credibility with external agencies and
community leaders. Indigenous leadership is manifested in traditional ownership and key
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appointments within the Corporation. Leadership development is achieved through formal
training and mentoring in daily duties and individuals are selected for leadership
appointments based on their performance during training courses. Organisational skills,
subject knowledge, leading by example and teamwork are the key observable aspects of
leadership within the Djelk Rangers. The prestige associated with ranger employment
enhances the leadership role of senior members, which in turn encourages participation by
others.
Leadership by non-Indigenous staff is typified by a focus on the social aims of
programs, a willingness to develop Indigenous involvement and ownership of activities,
strong rapport skills and an understanding of community sensitivities. Key non-
Indigenous staff possess entrepreneurial qualities and actively seek commercial
opportunities.
5.4.2 Commercialism in a Hybrid Economy
The Indigenous economy has been discussed in previous chapters of this thesis. It
comprises commercial, cultural and social aspects. Successful ventures involving
customary practices inevitably satisfy social, economic and environmental objectives. The
primary intent of the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation (BAC) commercial harvesting is
to achieve social outcomes. The economic benefit secured is distributed back to
communities through landowners and increases economic self-reliance. In order to ensure
sustainability, environmental imperatives associated with species and habitat conservation
underpin harvesting techniques. The maintenance of the country‟s environmental health
creates further social benefit stemming from traditional ownership and involvement in
land and resource management.
For Indigenous enterprise, markets can be remote from communities. Indeed, markets
that are characterised by large and fluctuating demands are normally beyond the
capabilities of remote Indigenous corporations to supply. The BAC supplies crocodile
hatchlings to a small but reliable market network in the Northern Territory and
Queensland. Demands from these markets are consistent and well within allowable and
viable harvesting levels. A sense of mutual obligation exists between the BAC and its
markets. While harvesting levels declined in the last season, the niche nature of the
industry has ensured that activities are not threatened by competition.
To remain viable, the Indigenous harvesting activity needs to focus on the initial
stages of wildlife processing. A market demand for hatchlings negates excessive
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overheads for the BAC that would probably render the enterprise unviable. The current
process comprises collection, incubation and rearing of hatchlings to two weeks maturity.
Skill sets are embedded in the Djelk Rangers and quantities of food required to sustain
animals are affordable for the remote venture. If markets required matured specimens,
additional animal husbandry training and rearing costs associated with a ranching
scenario would possibly be prohibitive. Similarly markets demanding foodstuffs would
probably present insurmountable difficulties associated with food handling and packaging
regulations. The BAC has focused this enterprise on the stage of wildlife processing that
exploits traditional land ownership and customary collection practices. While higher level
skills have been introduced to enable incubation, the foundation is essentially based on
traditional techniques. Longer term development to a further level of production may not
be beyond the scope of the BAC however the maintenance of simple processes is cost
effective from technology, training and animal husbandry perspectives.
The BAC does not aggressively hunt markets through advertising. They result from
word of mouth around the niche industry involved in sustainable harvesting. Markets for
crocodile hatchlings are limited in Australia, as are the suppliers. A relatively new
Queensland customer was established when the market approached the BAC for supply.
This subtle marketing strategy allows the BAC to focus its efforts on the production side
of their activities rather than diverting excessive effort towards a complicated marketing
program.
Contractual arrangements between markets and the BAC are informal, which suits the
low-key nature of its operations. This allows freedom of action by the BAC to supply
markets on its terms without unnecessary liability during seasons of poor harvest.
Informality is workable due to the BAC longevity in the industry; however scope exists
for competition to develop. The Corporation could benefit from investigating
opportunities to establish longer-term security in the industry. This could be achieved
through the negotiation of formal contracts with established markets before competition
arises.
Indigenous wildlife harvesting satisfies customary imperatives due to the importance
of hunting and wildlife consumption to Aboriginal people. Crocodile egg harvesting is
conducted with limited technology, employing largely traditional collection techniques.
The reporting of collection and egg incubation requires learned skills however the
interaction with the animal underpins the process. This customary link, regardless of the
species, contributes substantially to the overall process. It underpins the meaning of
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employment in the program, which enhances resulting social benefits. While other
commercial activities managed by the BAC provide a fiscal incentive, sustainable
harvesting employment provides participants with self-esteem. The enthusiasm for the
crocodile egg management displayed by a number of the Djelk Rangers, together with the
commercial success, has led to investigation of long-necked turtle harvesting amongst
other species. Turtle management has involved in the learning of limited animal
husbandry skills by some of the rangers, including the inducement of female turtles to lay
eggs.
The development of the crocodile egg project has been reliant on state support. The
use of the Djelk Rangers as the producers translates to a dependence on state funding to
pay salaries. However this does not undermine economic self-reliance. Indeed when one
considers the salaries paid to the rangers to collect eggs in a harsh environment, with
limited technology, while being constantly threatened by crocodile attack, wages paid are
well below a realistic market rate. To assess and pay a market wage for such work would
undermine the economic viability of the enterprise and fail to recognise the social value of
this employment. Employment involving natural resource management, in particular in a
setting that uses traditional knowledge, is meaningful employment targeting
disenfranchisement of Indigenous people and creating self-esteem.
An example can be drawn from the experiences of missionaries running industries
which employed Indigenous workers in the 1960‟s-70‟s. Equity concerns stemmed from
changing government policies. This led to increased demands by workers, which in turn
amplified market pressure and exacerbated other management problems. Enterprises such
as the peanut, mango and crocodile industries at Kalumburu in northwest Australia
suffered greatly and became unviable. Aboriginal people grew dependent on government
grants for a large part of their lifestyle and were deprived of a direct working relationship
with the land and its resources.
Government funding was required to purchase incubation equipment used by the
BAC (shown in Figures 5.4) and provide training. This was a worthwhile investment
bringing social benefit in the form of learned skills. While the direct Aboriginal
participation is limited to landowners, rangers and management, the project has
community ownership, which creates collective benefit. Other areas requiring state
funding relate to training in broader management and literacy skills as well as provision
of scientific research to support sustainability and management planning.
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Figure 5-4 Crocodile egg and turtle egg incubation equipment at Maningrida.
5.4.3 The Iterative Development of a Simple Commercial Venture
Commercial enterprise by the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation (BAC) is
characterised by simplicity, iterative development and diversification. Activities are
simple as they gradually evolve within the availability of resources and involve the
progressive development of skills sets, commonly based on customary practices. The
modest nature of enterprises and diversity between projects means that the commercial
survival of the BAC is not reliant on a single activity that could be threatened by future
competition. While state support will always be an available fallback, the BAC is well
committed to enhancing the economic independence of the region‟s Aboriginal
population. Commercial viability is fundamental to this commitment.
The crocodile enterprise at Maningrida evolved iteratively in line with available
funding, market viability in a fledgling industry and skill levels of participants. Had the
enterprise developed too quickly, then shortfalls in these factors would have inevitably led
to a short-term project. Webb et al. (1996) described the types of enterprises supporting
the crocodile industry, which include the stages of development experienced by the BAC
venture. The project began with non-Indigenous businesses harvesting crocodiles on
traditional land and paying royalties to landowners. This developed into paid Aboriginal
employees conducting harvesting for non-Indigenous businesses and royalty payments
being distributed. The third stage involved the BAC conducting its own commercial
harvesting of eggs and crocodiles, which evolved into a capability to harvest eggs,
incubate them and sell hatchlings rather than adult crocodiles and products. This final
stage is well suited to the BAC due to the limited overheads associated with maintaining
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hatchlings for only a few weeks. The next stage of ranching is considered to be well
outside the current resources and animal husbandry skills of this community-based
activity. However the BAC could gradually develop towards ranching as members of the
community acquire appropriate skills.
While other harvesting ventures being considered are not currently supported by
complete market research or scientifically informed management plans, the BAC is
pursuing them in a controlled manner. It is conducting its own market research and
seeking to win priority for further state funded scientific research. The BAC effort is
assisting the Parks and Wildlife Service to identify and overcome legislative parameters
that inhibit developments. The commercial aim is to diversify harvested species and
markets.
5.4.4 Training to Support the Venture
Considerable training is required to establish, maintain and develop Indigenous
enterprises. Skills to support commercial crocodile egg harvesting include competence in
literacy/numeracy, egg incubation operations and hatchling management. Sophisticated
boating skills are needed to operate craft shown in Figure 5.5, which are equipped with
navigation and communications equipment. Management skills allow Indigenous
employees to assume business and environmental management responsibilities. A
relatively high turnover of participants in various programs exacerbates the training
liability confronting the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation (BAC). Limited resources are
available for visiting teams to conduct accredited training.
At the time of the research, The BAC employed a Training Coordination Officer to
enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of training that supports employment specific
needs. This appointment was established with limited funding initially for three months
to produce tangible results. Despite the educational qualifications and experience of the
incumbent, training accreditation was still required to be conducted by an external agency
to satisfy Northern Territory Government requirements. Accreditation translates to
accountability of public funds, however does not necessarily align with the requirements
of remote areas. Flexibility would be an outcome of authorising the Training
Coordination Officer to accredit certain competencies. Given the repetitive nature of
skills, the Training Coordination Officer could assess and accredit training in line with
government criteria. This would release Darwin based staff from travelling regularly to
remote areas, which in turn would free up government funds and effort. Some of this
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funding could be directed to enable the Training Coordination Officer to meet
accreditation specific responsibilities.
Figure 5-5 The Djelk Ranger’s workboat. Crews receive training in watermanship
and sophisticated navigation and communications equipment.
All training conducted by the BAC, or for the Djelk Rangers by visiting teams, is
outcome based and aligned with job specific criteria. Competencies are drawn from job
descriptions and performance indicators are developed to support the competencies. For
instance, a literacy and numeracy package for Djelk Rangers addresses the need to
compile the reports shown at Appendix 1 that relate to egg collection and incubation data.
This satisfies mandatory reporting requirements that contribute to species monitoring.
Other coursework to support broader ranger development includes compilation of a
“Walk Observation Proforma” aimed at enhancing observation, interpretation and literal
explanation skills. Resource Management Certificate courses are conducted and assessed
by the Northern Territory University. The accredited levels take individuals from
participation, through coordination, to management and budgeting standards. Some
examples of units of competency for these courses are shown at Appendix 1. Individuals
are selected for employment based on their acquired skill levels on completion of these
courses. Courses are expensive to run and involve Darwin based instructors delivering
training in remote locations for relatively small numbers of students. They are essential
though to facilitating the employment of Indigenous people in management appointments.
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The Northern Territory Government‟s Department of Education and Training (DEAT)
provide funding for training. This is managed by the Jobs and Education Centre at
Maningrida, which operates as part of the BAC. Funding only supports outcomes based
training and any decline in outcomes translates to a loss of funding. The Training
Coordination Officer must win funding from a government department (DEAT) that is
not necessarily focused on the social intent of employment schemes in remote Indigenous
communities. The CDEP, on the other hand, does not support employment opportunities
completely by recognising and funding training to support successful employment
outcomes. A government program that promotes employment opportunities as complete
packages and assigns funding to all aspects of a business venture would be more
effective.
5.4.5 Evaluating Commercial Activities to Satisfy External Scrutiny
The Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation (BAC) is not formally measuring success.
Subjective assessment of viability appears to be the driver for development. This supports
the social intention of commercial enterprise. Government funding is unlikely to increase,
however wider Australian expectations of increased Indigenous self-reliance are.
Objective evaluation would support the BAC in seeking future agreement for proposals.
Evaluating commercial harvesting activities needs to consider ecological, economic
and social impacts. Mandatory monitoring supporting target species harvesting facilitates
external scrutiny of ecological impacts. This has led to the increase in Northern
Territory‟s harvesting quotas for crocodiles. Economically, the BAC is very reliant on
state support. The business management of the Corporation is annually audited facilitating
public awareness of business integrity. While a simple balance between public financial
input and business profit creates a perception of financial inefficiency, it does not
acknowledge the broader whole-of-government efficiencies stemming from the social
objectives of Indigenous commercialism.
Achievement of the social objective of the BAC enterprise brings improved domestic
conditions that would otherwise attract additional public funding. A social impact
assessment of central northern Arnhem Land is beyond the scope of this research.
However such an assessment would probably identify improvements in health and
domestic living stemming from esteem, ownership and meaningful employment. A social
impact assessment that discriminates between employment types is likely to validate the
hypothesis that employment involving wildlife and country creates greater social benefit
than other employment in remote communities. This would support a case for
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government funding of economic development based on sustainable harvesting or other
natural resource based initiatives.
5.5 CONCLUSION: A BUSINESS MODEL FOR CARING FOR
COUNTRY
A number of key principles underpinning Indigenous peoples‟ participation in
managing natural resources were identified in Chapter two. These are:
The relevance of customary knowledge;
The importance of the Indigenous sector to participation;
The social objective of development;
The opportunities stemming from niche activity;
The importance of monitoring to adapting practices; and
The importance of state support to establishing and maintaining initiatives.
These principles are reflected in the conduct of the Bawinanga Aboriginal
Corporation‟s (BAC) crocodile egg harvesting. This case study enables these principles to
be developed further into a Conceptual Model that may be applied to other indigenous
activities and trialled in the planning and implementation of a conservancy model by the
Bunyiol Bardi people of Goonj Arlan in Western Australia.
BAC management is successful due to factors stemming from the Northern Territory
Government‟s approach towards conservation initiatives using resources, management by
the executive committee and those characteristics of community management supporting
the enterprise. The key considerations for aboriginal activities involving natural resources
are captured in the Conceptual Model shown as Fig 5.6. This model is described in detail
here and summarised as a checklist presented as Appendix 2.
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Corporation Executive
Management
Traditional Owner InvolvementConsensus Decision MakingCredibility with Regulating
AuthorityLiaison Network
Leadership
Government Factors
Sustainable PolicySpecies Management Plans
Government Funding
Enterprise Characteristics
Social ObjectivesNiche Markets
Traditional PracticesState Support
Progressive DevelopmentDiversity
Job Specific TrainingExternal Evaluation
Indigenous initiatives
involving Natural
Resource
Management
Outcomes
Modest Economic ReturnCommunity Capacity
Conservation Incentives
Figure 5-6 A conceptual model for viable indigenous activity based on the
crocodile egg harvesting venture in Maningrida
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5.5.1 The Contribution by Government
In Chapter three it was argued that Commonwealth Government policy and legislation
provides the broad basis and intent to involve Indigenous people in Natural Resource
Management. As evidenced by this case study, specific legislation is necessary to support
specific initiatives. For example the Environment Protection and Biodiversity
Conservation Act 1999 is critical for enabling managed harvesting of Australian native
species while satisfying international conservation responsibilities. Indigenous
opportunity is greatly enhanced by land ownership resulting from the Native Title Act
1993 and State/Territory related legislation. However a National approach promoting
niche development opportunities is needed. National legislation and policies supporting
and promoting sustainable commercial harvesting as a means of Indigenous community
business do not exist.
If all Australian governments created sustainable harvesting policies based on
conservation requirements and government effort drove this industry, greater opportunity
and viability would arguably result in sustainable business. Australian Government policy
initiatives targeting Aboriginal participation in specific types of activity create the
opportunity for well managed organisations to attract tangible funding, research and
effort.
Management plans are essential to guide practices of wildlife-based activities. They
require Australian Government endorsement and need to involve Indigenous landowner
and scientific agency participation in their development. Clear harvesting quotas as well
as reporting and monitoring requirements must guide any harvesting. Reporting and
monitoring practices need to accommodate the abilities of Indigenous participants.
Government funding is required to support plan development, initial equipment
purchases, Indigenous training needs and staff employment. To that end, business
submissions for funding approval from Indigenous corporations to the lead regulatory
authority need to present whole funding requirements to gain support. While the lead
authority will not be the only involved government agency, it can set priorities to be
communicated and incorporated into the programs or priorities of other government
departments. For example, if the lead authority identifies crocodiles as the primary
sustainable harvesting focus, then departments responsible for primary industries and
education and training need to reflect this in supporting programs.
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5.5.2 Characteristics of Executive Committee Management
Broad Traditional Owner interaction with, or representation on, the executive
committee is essential for appropriate Indigenous management. This protects traditional
values and ensures that the wider interests of regional Indigenous communities are
considered in decision-making. It contributes to community ownership of commercial
activities and a sense of self-reliance.
Consensus decision-making by a corporation‟s executive level management results in
acceptance of decisions by communities and clans. This is effective for Indigenous
enterprises not focused on economic outcomes. It reduces the likelihood of activities
being plagued by subsequent dissent once decisions are made.
Corporations need to strive for business, social and environmental credibility with
regulating government authorities. This can be achieved through well considered
proposals that reflect a modest requirement for state support, a commitment to
conservation in harvesting objectives, and a commitment by management to pursue
community participation.
Formal and informal liaison between corporation management and all stakeholders
enhances an understanding of Indigenous commercial activities and encourages external
support and involvement. It attracts support and funding from government, markets and
research agencies. A consistent and wide liaison network increases a corporation‟s
influence over the decision-making of other stakeholders. The government‟s lead and
regulating agency, key scientific research agencies advising government and the major
commercial businesses involved in industries are of particular importance to a liaison
network supporting natural resource based activities.
Quality and longevity of Indigenous and non-Indigenous leadership needs to underpin
organisational structure. Skills in project coordination, strong subject knowledge, a
willingness to lead by example and a sound sense of teamwork are the key aspects of
leadership required in the production areas of a venture. At this level, maximum
Indigenous participation in leadership is critical. Throughout a corporation, leadership by
non-Indigenous staff needs to be typified by a focus on the social aims of programs, a
willingness to develop Indigenous community involvement and ownership of activities,
strong rapport skills and an understanding of cultural sensitivities. Entrepreneurial
qualities are needed to actively search for economic development opportunities.
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5.5.3 Characteristics of Effective Enterprise
Successful commercial harvesting by Indigenous people involves social, economic
and environmental objectives. As community managed enterprises are primarily about
meaningful employment to enhance self-reliance, the social objective becomes the
primary focus. Maintaining a focus on the social objective, as the benchmark for
enterprise, assists corporations to develop initiatives within available resources and
prevents the pursuit of unsustainable economic growth. It maintains a community
ownership of initiatives, which is essential for economic and social independence.
Markets are able to harness the niche nature of industry to maintain competitiveness.
A niche profile stems from traditional land ownership and knowledge of native wildlife. It
addresses the limitations associated with community remoteness from markets that could
otherwise result in competition rendering an enterprise unviable. A niche industry also
allows management to focus on creating new ventures rather than market research and
advertising. It can result in markets approaching a corporation as opposed to a corporation
actively hunting customers.
The maintenance of traditional practices and knowledge in an Indigenous commercial
harvesting activity is important to support the social intent of worthwhile employment and
community involvement. Traditional practices are in themselves a form of self-regulation
and can guard against over harvesting or habitat damage. The introduction of over
sophisticated practices and technology could threaten social and environmental
imperatives.
Progressive and achievable development of niche commercial initiatives allows
growth within the availability of financial resources and skills. Skills can be based on
blending customary practices with government endorsed requirements, such as harvesting
limits and reporting, to create meaningful employment. Development may involve
introducing equipment and skills to enable limited animal husbandry. However for remote
enterprises, sustainable harvesting activities are best limited to the early stages of wildlife
processing. Keeping mature, large animals or complying with food handling or packaging
regulations is likely to threaten economic viability. Indigenous corporations are better
served by diversifying in enterprise.
Indigenous commercial activities involving wildlife use are reliant on state support.
Species and habitat management planning, scientific research, salaries, training and
technology are all aspects of the industry that are beyond the ability of many Indigenous
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corporations to carry entirely. Governments have conservation and social obligations to
commit funding and effort in support of Indigenous interests and the establishment of
viable industries. Corporations need to focus on influencing how state support is delivered
rather than the amount. For instance, a focus on market rate salaries would probably
render an activity unviable whereas channelling funds towards education and training
would bring collective benefit to communities.
Resources available to support training and education are limited. Training to support
a specific venture needs to exploit traditional knowledge and focus on job competencies.
In particular, numeracy and literacy training needs to concentrate on workplace situations
such as report writing. Training in business and resource management is essential to
increase Indigenous involvement in project coordination and corporation management.
Indigenous ownership of ventures is threatened without this training. The need for
accredited training satisfies government accountability however it places additional
burdens on training delivery in remote areas and increases funding requirements. The
inclusion of a Training Coordination Officer in a corporation‟s management structure
provides a single focal point to identify synergies and guide training providers to meet
community needs. Local priorities are best served if a corporation manages state funds
allocated to training.
Corporations can benefit from external evaluation, particularly of the social benefits
of initiatives, to support the credibility of an Indigenous enterprise involving commercial
harvesting. Mandatory auditing of business practices satisfies accountability requirements
of a corporation‟s management. Similarly, obligatory harvesting reports, together with
government monitoring programs, facilitate a public awareness of environmental impacts.
The social evaluation of benefits arising from such ventures would be a valuable tool to
support proposals from Indigenous corporations to government departments. Evaluations
specifically linking community, domestic and health benefits to employment involving
caring for country and natural resource use would help establish policy frameworks that
provide niche opportunities for communities living on remote and traditionally owned
land.
5.5.4 APPLYING THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Wildlife harvesting is a potential niche industry for indigenous people living on
traditional country. However access to resources in itself will not result in viable
enterprises for enthusiastic communities. Legislation and government policy need to
actively support activity through intent that translates into realistic funding and effort.
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Market and scientific research must underpin economic and environmental sustainability.
Most importantly community ownership and management must focus on the social
benefits stemming from meaningful employment that exploits the cultural link between
people and country.
The derivation of the Conceptual Model from a review of literature and the
Bawinanga case study is an important stage in the research underpinning this thesis. The
Bunyiol Bardi people of Goonj Arlan in Western Australia have subsequently applied the
model to the planning for the family venture. The research specific to Goonj Arlan
involves an understanding of the geography, available natural resources, the people and
the economic and caring for country opportunities that exist. This information is applied
to futures planning for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation using a Participatory
Planning Framework, which is discussed in the next chapter. The data collected through
this process is presented in Chapter seven and a model for an Aboriginal Conservancy
based on Goonj Arlan is developed and presented in Chapter eight. The Conceptual
Model is revisited with the developed Goonj Arlan model benchmarked against its
considerations.
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6 A PLANNING FRAMEWORK FOR COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT AT GOONJ ARLAN
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this chapter is to present a model for community development planning
used by the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation. The key characteristic of this
framework is that it was developed and implemented through close consultation with and
participation by the people of Goonj Arlan. This accords with the theoretical framework
of the research, which identifies the need for a staged approach to planning that involves
interactive consultation between stakeholders in order to understand the problem and
implement agreed strategies. Due to diversity in stakeholder aspirations, expectations and
motivations, the planning framework employs soft systems processes to achieve
collective and mutual understanding while encouraging participation and fostering
ownership.
The planning framework itself aims to foster Aboriginal family leadership in the
planning process and capture critical elements of information relating to the
environmental nature of the country, aspirations of the people and extant human capital,
and the needs and opportunities for economic and community development.
Community development requires long-term planning to identify the existing and
required capital in terms of human and other resources, to meet the expectations of
diverse stakeholders. Effective consideration of relevant factors allows information to be
captured and developed into action plans for implementation. Planning systems
supporting indigenous communities have been historically driven by paternalism and
have often imposed initiatives rather than involved communities in identifying
opportunities. Nailon (2000: 57-60) wrote about the efforts by the Catholic Church and
communities to resist paternal government action in the Dampier Peninsula in the
Kimberley region of Western Australia. She described how in 1917, the Chief Protector
of Aborigines submitted a report on the community of Lombadina advising that it should
be closed as a branch of the Beagle Bay Mission due to its unsuitable location, which
limited skills development and affected health conditions for Aboriginal people.
Lombadina had been initially established to accommodate the Christian spiritual support
for people living in the area. Government‟s intent to relocate inhabitants was at odds with
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strong advice from Church, prominent people and communities, which emphasised the
absolute cultural and spiritual importance of country to Aboriginal people.
Community development for Australian Aboriginal communities has been plagued
with poor social outcomes. Often initiatives are not sustainable beyond the involvement
of key people. No single initiative has been a panacea for the problems of remote
communities however successful ventures have often involved extensive community
engagement and embraced the cultural uniqueness of the link between people and
country. Many initiatives involving country that attract government support involve large
communities and high profile projects. The trochus shell aquaculture hatchery project in
the Kimberley region has been established through collaboration between government,
non-government agencies and the Aboriginal community of One Armed Point. It has
developed with ―excellent capacity for commercial development and the establishment of
an economically viable and sustainable enterprise‖ (Lee et al., 2004: 4).
Supporting initiatives driven by single Aboriginal families are often reliant on
accessing limited resources. As proposed on a number of occasions in this thesis, the
contribution that families can have towards community development and caring for
country is potentially significant due to the importance that family land holds in
Aboriginal society and the strength of kinship links. Regardless of the number of
participants, community development that is focused on caring for country can involve
management practices including customary access control, harvesting, fire regimes and
monitoring the country‟s condition. Similarly, meaningful employment can stem from
activity on family country that allows people to exercise their custodial responsibilities.
Moran (2004: 353) stated that while the planning process for Mapoon ―fostered a
high degree of participation, the process was heavily reliant on outside facilitators and
little capacity building occurred.‖ By contrast, application of participatory planning for
Goonj Arlan sought to develop the capacity of those involved through facilitating an
awareness of the existing collective capital, identifying the issues affecting the future and
promoting collective problem solving. Future development of the human capital was a
stated aspect of the planning process as well as an identified outcome captured in the
subsequent action plan.
Through participatory planning, the people of Goonj Arlan have identified a number
of opportunities that exist for them to embark on projects to support social, environmental
and economic objectives. Significant to this process was the need to identify expectations,
capture the existing capital, consider the relevant factors, determine the gaps and develop
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an action plan for the future. The skill sets of the family are not currently based on
systematic long-term planning know-how that can attract subsequent support from
government and industry. Through collaboration with the family, facilitated planning was
an enabling aspect of the process. The resulting outcome was the formulation of a Futures
Plan targeting an agreed family vision.
6.2 A FRAMEWORK MODEL FOR PARTICIPATORY
PLANNING
6.2.1 The Process Model
The Participatory Planning Framework underpinning the Goonj Arlan project
comprises three steps (Fig 6.1):
Developing a Participatory Planning Framework;
Collecting data; and
Developing and implementing the Futures Plan.
Each of these stages involves specific inputs and results in outcomes that ensure a
consultative and participatory process. The ongoing consultation between the researcher
and key family leadership was essential to maintaining family ownership of the process
and ensuring that family aspirations drove process development and outcomes. This
planning environment was complex because each adult member of the family group is a
board member of the Aboriginal Corporation. The lifestyles and personal circumstances
of each differ resulting in different expectations and intentions regarding their
participation in Goonj Arlan development. Despite this, they share a common belief in
their custodial responsibilities and the over-arching leadership driving the family is
effective.
The planning framework is discussed in detail to qualify the critical inputs and
required outcomes of each step. It is important to note that each stage involved briefing of
key family members to confirm that the inputs were relevant and outcomes agreed. While
the collection of data is reflected discretely as a single step, data collection was ongoing
throughout the process as stakeholder interviews occurred during framework development
and plan formulation.
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Step 1: Develop Planning
framework
Planning aim
Conceptual
Model
Planning
asp irat ions
Rapport and
trus t
Regional
background
Consultat ion
Collect ion
design
W orkshops
Site
assessments
In terv iews
Step 2: Collect Data
Workshops
Site
assessments
Inteviews
Aim and
objectives
Community
aspirat ions
Knowledge
Country
Human capital
Business
opportunities
Development
needs
Consultat ion
Step 3 The Futures Plan
Aim and
Objectives
Community
aspirations
Knowledge
Developed
plan
Brief plan
Implement
planConsult at ion
Figure 6-1 A model for participatory planning used at Goonj Arlan
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6.2.2 Participatory Planning Framework Step 1: Develop the
Framework
The first step to develop a planning framework established the environment to
encourage participation by family members and identify the key motivators and leaders in
the group to drive the planning. The inputs of this step were:
The aspirations of the family with regard to planning;
Consultation in deriving the planning framework;
Building rapport and trust between family and researcher; and
Developing background knowledge of regional matters and Indigenous
activity on country.
The aspirations of family members with regard to the planning, as distinct from the
ultimate planning outcome, needed to be identified early. The main aspects of this
involved identifying who wanted to participate in developing the framework, who wanted
to participate in planning, who were the main leaders and decision makers in the family
group and what planning activities did people want to participate in. This information was
soon identified through engaging with the key family leader John Jacky and providing an
introductory brief to the family regarding what may be possible to achieve at Goonj
Arlan. It was soon apparent that framework development would involve the key family
leader and researcher with feedback to the wider family group occurring when major
developments were identified. The key leader was the conduit to pass information during
the planning process and he mitigated the constraints arising from non-residency in the
region.
Before maturing the planning framework into a usable process, a high level of trust
had to be developed between the family group and researcher. Aboriginal people have
been subjected to generations of changing and often dysfunctional government policy,
which has not consistently delivered wide spread improvements to Aboriginal
communities. This has resulted in fragmentation and gradual degradation of Indigenous
culture, and has also created an underlying distrust and lack of belief in imposed
initiatives. Government processes alone cannot undo this situation. The first stage in any
facilitated program is to evolve trust and respect between the facilitator and community.
These values develop from reinforcing community ownership of the problem and the
solution. Aboriginal culture is traditionally based on consultation at various community
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levels. Rules guiding social behaviour are complex. Collectively these rules provide the
basis for consultation between landowner and manager, relations, man and woman, and
adult and child. Berndt and Berndt (1988: 40-45) described the social divisions that
comprise the Aboriginal tribe as local descent group, religious unit, clan, horde, family,
sex division, alternate generational divisions and moieties. All of these divisions involve
interactions contributing in different ways to the collective. Social order achieves
collective outcomes for customary land and sea ownership and management. As Berndt
and Berndt (1988: 139) described
―The Aborigines ownership was both personal and social. They were
linked to it, or part of it, personally, but with their patri-kin they held the land
collectively in trust.‖
Trust arrangements imply cooperation, negotiation and especially collective effort. The
kin-based concept reinforces the importance of family in customary society. As a result,
the family unit is suited to consultative governance as a basis for caring for country. Local
level implementation is reliant on people interacting and negotiating effectively.
Culturally sensitive facilitators contribute to local capacity building outcomes.
The development of mutual trust when working with Aboriginal groups is difficult to
achieve on a fly-in-fly out basis. Without trust, access to country and candid feedback
during discussions and workshops can be restricted. This was mitigated for Goonj Arlan
by developing a relationship with the key family leader who was residing in Perth for his
children‟s education. Importantly, John Jacky approached the researcher in the first
instance for assistance with developing Goonj Arlan. This approach evolved into Goonj
Arlan being the focus of this research. Trust was developed through open engagement,
which initially discussed personal matters such as family and professional background.
From this stage an understanding was developed regarding mutual interests in the project
theme. Finally this led to an agreement that Goonj Arlan would be the research site and
from the outset, the project aim clearly stated that the research outcomes would deliver a
Futures Plan for Goonj Arlan by consulting closely with the family group.
The relationship from this point was considered a partnership between researcher and
community leadership. The next stage was to establish rapport with the family group and
local communities in the Dampier Peninsula. John Jacky readily achieved this through
personal introduction to community leaders and family members during the first field trip,
which occurred via an organised meeting in Broome. This allowed the researcher to be
formally introduced to family members in order to speak with them about their initial
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aspirations, as well as the research aim and objectives. Family ownership of the project
and caring for country were emphasised as fundamental aspects. Once introductions were
established and an escorted visit to country conducted, I was left alone to live on country
for a two-week period. On completion, the family members were satisfied that their
country would be respected and that fieldwork would be conducted safely despite the
remote and sparse conditions. Subsequent visits to country did not require invitation,
however personal visits to regional leaders were conducted each trip on arrival and on
departure.
Ongoing consultation was essential to maintain family interest and the necessary trust
between the family group and researcher. Limited research funding meant that the time
spent in location with family members was constrained to specific field trips. This could
have potentially resulted in the family not receiving regular feedback of research
developments. Consistent and regular interaction with John Jacky was conducted in Perth
to counter this and this involved discussions on research developments, which were then
communicated to other family members residing in Broome and Djarindjin. John Jacky
was also able to keep other regional Aboriginal organisations across developments in the
family plans. This approach maintained ownership of the project by the Aboriginal family
group and ensured that support was provided during fieldwork. This liaison highlights the
importance of consultative relationships between researcher and community when project
management cannot support long-term residency with Aboriginal participants.
Background knowledge was an important input into this step of the planning
framework. This knowledge related to two themes: the broad issues involving indigenous
people and their activities on country; and specific regional issues of Aboriginal
community dispositions and relationships, Indigenous organisations, government
programs and businesses involving Aboriginal people. It was important to establish the
context of the project to support engagement with stakeholders throughout planning.
The outputs of this step in the framework were:
A Conceptual Model for Indigenous activity on country;
The planning aim; and
A design for collecting data.
The Conceptual Model is described in the previous chapter. It is an important aspect
of the planning framework as its development provides an understanding of issues and
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considerations relating to activity on country by indigenous people. The model itself is a
benchmark to assess the model subsequently derived for Goonj Arlan.
The planning aim derived through consultation with family leadership, was to develop
a Participatory Planning Framework to enable the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation to
investigate how it can engage with family country. The objectives to support this were to:
Investigate how the family can care for country;
Investigate what business opportunities could be pursued;
Identify how family members can participate in the future of Goonj Arlan;
Involve family members in the planning process; and
Develop a Futures Plan for Goonj Arlan.
With the planning aim identified, methods to collect the information required
designing. Again this involved consultation with key leaders. The necessary information
related to knowledge of country, the family extant and required capacity, and business
opportunities. Collection involved site survey, workshops and interviews/discussions with
stakeholders. The workshop design was a planning model in its own right and a major
source of data. Its design is discussed in detail separately in this chapter.
Site survey of Goonj Arlan country collected data to inform an understanding of the
significance of the country and what detrimental impact results from natural and human
activity. This information was later used to determine what management arrangements
could be integrated into caring for country activity. The data also provided an initial
baseline to assess the impacts of future management activity. Data also related to
opportunities for commercial activity involving natural resources. Data was collected in
line with the following themes:
An inventory of species and habitat
The existing infrastructure on country;
Community activity and the impact of that activity;
The cultural significance of country; and
The impact of natural processes.
Interviews with neighbouring outstation owners, businesses, government agencies and
Indigenous sector agencies, yielded information relating to avenues of support, business
development and regional leadership aspirations/support. This informed the development
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of management networks to be evolved, which support outstation establishment as well as
the structures and feasibility of business and caring for country activities.
A Workshop Model for Goonj Arlan
Family futures planning for Goonj Arlan involved capturing community information
relating to social, environmental and economic expectations. It assessed existing capital of
the human resources, infrastructure and country and identified gaps and associated
mitigating measures. Collected information underpinned subsequent task analysis and
action plan development. The facilitated planning Workshop Model used for Goonj Arlan
is shown at Figure 6.2 and was a major aspect of the Participatory Planning Framework.
In itself it is a model for facilitated planning facilitating the collection of important human
information and maximising participation by family members. The workshop process is
presented here as a discreet model and each of its stages is discussed. Information
collected from the Goonj Arlan workshop process is covered in Chapter seven.
Workshop delivery used a species or natural phenomenon as the base theme for
planning. This captured the cultural link between people and country and reinforced the
most important theme of the process. The Bardi word for bird is Gudabul. The Gudabul
known as the Terek Sandpiper (Tringa terek) was used as the vehicle for workshopping,
in particular in reinforcing to participants the need to remain focused on the aim. This bird
is a trans-equatorial migratory species that breeds in Siberia from May to July and is
found on the Kimberley coast, including the environs of Goonj Arlan, from August to
April. Despite the many threats and distractions it faces during its migration, the Gudabul
preserves its species by maintaining a focus on its aim. The message taken from this by
the participating family members was that like the Gudabul, the custodians of Goonj
Arlan now and in the future must maintain a similar focus for custodial survival. The
Gudabul continues to be raised in discussions well after the workshops were conducted.
Prior to conducting the workshops, the overall process was described to participants.
The process comprises the following seven stages:
Where do we want to be?
Who will be involved?
What have we got already?
What are the choices?
What will guide us?
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What do we need to do?
What is our future?
Workshopping was conducted for the first five stages. Information captured from this
process was then collaboratively applied to the final two stages with a consolidated
Futures Plan being produced.
Who will be
involved?
Stakeholders
and Networks
W hat have we
got already?
Exis ting and
Required Capital
W hat are our
choices?
Courses of
Action Analysis
Where do we
want to be?
Vision, Aim
Object ives
What will
guide us?
Guiding
Principals
W hat do we
need to do?Action Plan
W hat is our
future?A Futures Plan
Planning OutcomesPlanning Stages
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Figure 6-2 Workshop model to maximize participation
Stage 1: Where do we want to be?
The purpose of the first stage of the workshop was to capture the individual and
collective expectations of the family group. The outcomes were an agreed vision
statement and set of objectives.
The following questions prompted individual contributions to the forum:
What would it mean if another family occupied Goonj Arlan country?
What would it mean if children never visited Goonj Arlan again or had to ask
permission to visit?
What would it mean if natural and man-made actions destroyed the mangrove
habitat, reefs, and dunes?
What would it mean if the shellfish, turtles and fish stocks disappeared?
What would it mean if a family arrangement at Goonj Arlan could be
established to look after country, create jobs, give healthy lifestyle options and
support family exercising custodianship?
Some of these questions were provocative at the outset as they immediately raised the
potential threats to custodianship. An established relationship between facilitator and
family ensured that people were not discouraged from participating and these sensitive
questions prompted immediate involvement and discussion.
Participants were then asked to individually answer the following questions:
What does Goonj Arlan mean to you?
What is the most important aspect of Goonj Arlan to you?
Imagine you have been away from country for 15 years and just returned
today. How would you like to see Goonj Arlan in terms of country, family and
business?
From these two activities, the elements of a vision statement and a set of objectives
were captured and later refined into the aim of a Futures Plan. While workshopping this
stage was underway, children of the Goonj Arlan family group were asked to draw what
the country meant to them. Drawings were later used to design a logo for the Goonj Arlan
Aboriginal Corporation.
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Stage 2: Who will be involved?
The second stage of the Workshop Model aimed to identify stakeholders and
determine the peak-working group to drive project implementation. Stakeholder
categories include family, community, Aboriginal groups, government agencies and non-
government organisations.
The following questions were asked of participants to draw out the broadest
information:
Who are the people and agencies needing or wanting to be involved and why?
Is there any one else who may be interested?
Who could provide funding?
Who are the key people in each stakeholder group to deal with?
How can these different groups be consulted and involved?
How would each family member like to become involved in Goonj Arlan?
Identifying the stakeholders supported the next stage of the planning process, which
determined the networks and additional stakeholders to support specific aspects of
activity.
The second outcome of this stage identified a family working group to drive the
project. Asking participants, “Who from the family will be in the key working group to
drive Goonj Arlan from this point on and what will the key functions of that group be”,
captured this information? This established the working group early in the planning
process and created a situation where a manageable sized group could carry planning
forward without the need to refer constantly back to the wider family. An acceptance was
established that input from this working group equated to family input and ownership.
Importantly the need was reinforced to keep the wider family informed, in particular the
elected corporation executive committee.
Stage 3: What have we got already?
Ascertaining what assets and resources are available is an important part of any
planning process and is necessary to underpin community development. This information
can be used alongside task analysis to determine gaps in capital that need to be addressed
to implement a plan. Capturing extant capital was the third stage of the workshop. For
Goonj Arlan this information relates to the following categories of capital: human,
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organisational, infrastructure, natural and financial resources. To capture this data the
following questions were asked of Goonj Arlan participants:
What skills exist amongst family members?
What organisational structures exist that could support Goonj Arlan?
What networks exist that could support Goonj Arlan?
What infrastructure and assets exist?
What aspects of country are assets?
What financial capital exists?
Human resource assessment involves examining the tangible and intangible aspects of
capital. First and foremost in the process was the need to capture the qualities and
attributes that are essential to supporting the collective vision and objectives. This
recognises the fundamental importance of values and attributes to outcomes. Participants
for Goonj Arlan were simply asked to identify what personal attributes are required
within the collective group to ensure they meet their vision. In support of this, the
question of values was explored further and essential values identified to support a
cohesive approach to development.
Workshopping captured the diverse range of extant skills amongst Goonj Arlan
family members including skills, knowledge and attributes applicable to management,
supervision, administration and trades. Capturing the extant skills led to identifying
deficiencies that would need to be addressed by subsequent action planning.
Identifying the existing embryonic and developed networks is an important aspect of
capital. This together with the information captured in the previous workshop stage
informed the assessment of management networks.
For any project focused on custodianship, an assessment of what the country offers is
critical. Information obtained from workshopping needs to be supported by a natural
resource inventory and impact assessment. Key aspects of country that were considered
for Goonj Arlan include remoteness, customary knowledge, neighbouring interests,
community use of country, natural processes, species and habitat and regional leadership,
Stage 4: What are our choices?
Opportunities and associated issues were determined in the next stage of the
workshop. This allowed courses of action to be developed and a preferred course of
action to be chosen. The background project research from the first step of the
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Participatory Planning Framework was essential to allow opportunities to be analysed
appropriately. The opportunities for Goonj Arlan were discussed under the categories of
caring for country, community sustainment and management, and business.
In order to identify the related issues the following questions were asked of
participants:
What are the things that prevent people being on country?
Are there broader community issues that impact or may impact on
development?
What issues are associated with community, caring for country and business?
What customary knowledge exists and what is required to be captured?
Are there issues that may arise due to conflict between stakeholders?
Once identified, issues were prioritised and likely treatments identified. Priority
assessment accorded with the following criteria:
Priority 1: impacts to the point of preventing development or sustainability;
Priority 2: impacts significantly on development or sustainability; and
Priority 3: likely to slow development or result in a less than preferred option
Courses of action were then developed and a preferred option chosen once values,
resources, options and constraints were determined. The courses of action that were
considered by Goonj Arlan people were as follows:
To re-establish the outstation for lifestyle only;
To re-establish the outstation with enterprise; and
To re-establish the outstation with enterprise and caring for country activities.
Advantages and disadvantages of each option were discussed together with specific
aspects, including permanent and non-permanent residency, management, the
requirements of each potential activity, funding, general support, and social,
environmental and economic returns.
Stage 5: What will guide us?
A set of guiding principles is necessary to keep a project aligned and sustainable.
Principles set an agenda of a project and guide individual and collective behaviour. The
purpose of this stage of workshop planning was to develop some guiding principles to
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underpin community management. Broad areas underpinning principles include: aim;
values and a code of conduct; principles of management and decision-making; economic
development and distribution of return; access management; and infrastructure
management.
Non-Workshop Stages.
The final two stages of planning were not conducted through workshopping. However
in describing the process to workshop participants, these stages were included in the
model in order to show family members the purpose and intended outcome of their
workshop involvement. This was considered important so that participants could visualise
the process as a whole, including outcomes. These last stages are aspects of step three of
the Participatory Planning Framework to be described later in this chapter. However in
describing them to workshop participants they were presented as:
Stage 5: What do we need to do? and
Stage 6: What is our future?
Stage 5 was described as identifying what is needed to address the issues identified
previously, in particular what development needs are necessary in terms of skills,
knowledge and attributes as well as infrastructure. To maintain consistency throughout
the process, it was explained that needs would be looked at as they relate to community,
caring for country and business. Stage 6 was described as developing all of the captured
information into a Futures Plan to guide corporation management towards the agreed aim
and objectives.
Site Assessment Design for Resource Inventory
The workshop process described above was important for family participation and it
consolidated data relating to family capacity and aspirations. Goonj Arlan development is
also reliant on knowledge of the usable resources as well as the processes impacting on
the health of the country. An inventory of resources located in the area informed the
planning process of the environmental vulnerability and ecological significance of
country. An understanding of the natural processes and human interaction with the
country contributed to an assessment of the vulnerability of ecosystems and potential
management strategies that could be introduced. Data relating to existing and emerging
industries in the region enabled potential business opportunities to be identified.
Designing data collection identified the following data sets and collection methods:
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Natural resources located on country:
Marine species: species were identified through first hand observation
during field trips and discussions with community members;
Floral species: species were identified through first hand observation
during field trips; transects were taken to determine the distribution of wild
Gubinge;
Bird species: species were identified through first hand observation during
field trips;
Topography and habitat distribution: topographical features and habitat
natures/distribution were determined through studying topographical
mapping confirmed by walking terrain; literature provided knowledge of
geological structures;
Water: hydrographic data was collected by the Western Australian
Department of Environment and Conservation;
Processes and activities affecting country:
Weather: data relating to weather tides and extreme events was sourced
from The Bureau of Meteorology and Western Australian Department of
Planning and Infrastructure;
Erosion: areas subject to erosion were identified and assessed during field
trips;
Non-endemic species: species were identified through first hand
observation during field trips and discussions with local residents;
Human activity: activity was identified through first hand observation
during field trips and discussions with custodians;
Cultural sites: data of registered sites was sourced from the Western
Australian Department of Indigenous Affairs and confirmed by custodians.
Businesses:
Cash crop: interviews were conducted to ascertain the avenues of support
available to Aboriginal communities involved with Gubinge production,
the viability of production, the accessibility of markets and profitability;
interviews were conducted with involved research agencies, facilitators of
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Aboriginal Gubinge business and owners of existing businesses;
Seed collection: interviews with established seed collection and
distribution companies were aimed at ascertaining the appetite for
companies to source seeds from Aboriginal communities, the associated
issues and skill requirements; species endemic to country were identified
through observation;
Fresh produce: discussions were held with members of local communities
to identify a qualitative demand for fresh produce; workshopping included
identifying existing horticultural skill-sets amongst family members;
Tourism: interviews were conducted with existing Aboriginal tourism
operators; literature review of Indigenous tourism and attendance at
tourism seminars aimed to identify suitable products, avenues of support
and overheads associated with tourism;
Wildlife use: discussions were conducted with local communities to
identify species of interest; interviews were conducted with government to
ascertain the government interest in wildlife-based businesses;
Aquaculture: interviews were conducted with the Indigenous sector
supporting Indigenous aquaculture ventures to identify viable operations,
markets and avenues of support.
6.2.3 Participatory Planning Framework Step 2: Collecting the Data
Step 2 of the Participatory Planning Framework involved collecting the information to
inform the development of a Futures Plan. The inputs for this stage of planning were the
outcomes from the previous step: the collection designs. These were:
Workshop design;
Site assessment design;
Identification of interviewees; and
Consultation.
The collection designs suited the non-residential nature of the project. They enabled
field trips to focus on specific data sets and brought the family group together for ongoing
briefing and consultation. The methods used provided the family with visibility of
tangible developments in the planning process. Regular consultation and engagement with
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the key family leader in Perth ensured that shortfalls in data collected during field trips
could be rectified. This was particularly the case for data relating to human capital.
The outcomes of this stage of planning were:
An agreed aim and objectives for the futures plan;
An understanding of aspirations of family members for the future; and
Detailed knowledge of:
The country;
The human capital;
Business opportunities; and
Development needs.
6.2.4 Participatory Planning Framework Step 3: The Futures Plan
Step 3 of the Participatory Planning Framework involved consolidating data and
analysing it to evolve a Futures Plan. The inputs of this stage of the framework were the
outcomes of the previous step. They were:
An agreed aim and objectives of the development;
An understanding of aspirations of family members for the future; and
Detailed knowledge of:
The country;
The human capital;
Business opportunities; and
Development needs.
The outcomes of this planning step were:
A developed futures plan;
Briefing the plan;
Implementing the plan;
The Futures Plan development involved analysis of the captured information to
determine gaps in capabilities and consolidate an action plan for implementation. Task
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analysis was conducted against the broadest functions of the chosen course of action. For
Goonj Arlan the following functions were analysed:
Community: leadership, governance, infrastructure, subsistence activity and
family commitment;
Caring for country: management, infrastructure, access management, pest
eradication and control, customary knowledge, assessments and data
collection, and monitoring programs; and
Business: management, cash crop, seed collection, aquarium trade aquaculture,
organic produce, species farming and tourism.
Each of these functions were analysed against the following criteria:
Threats and mitigating strategies;
Skills and training needs;
Management requirements;
Infrastructure needs;
Setup and ongoing costs; and
Sources of funding and support.
This analysis provided the basis of a plan detailing the specific actions required
against each of the analysed functions in the planned course of action. Specific actions
must be practical tasks within the available resources and capacity at the time. A stepped
approach to the action plan was favoured because this allowed participants to appreciate
the progressive results of their efforts through measurable or observable achievements at
each action stage. Actions need to be directly linked to the information provided in
previous stages of the planning process. This strategy supports ownership and verifies to
participants that logical analysis has underpinned the action plan.
Consolidation developed the entire process into a Futures Plan. An appropriate plan
guides community participants in their actions, supports leadership and decision-making
mechanisms in the long-term implementation, and adds credibility to project management
when seeking support from external stakeholders.
The components of a plan need to enshrine the agreed community vision; demonstrate
the logical analysis underpinning implementation; and demonstrate a community
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commitment to sustainable activities. The Goonj Arlan Futures Plan comprises the
following elements:
A descriptive background to the project;
A description of the methodology used in developing the plan;
The community vision and objectives;
An assessment of existing capital stemming from the human, customary,
infrastructure, organisational and natural resources;
A summary of the issues affecting community development and mitigating
strategies;
Principles to guide plan implementation and sustainment;
A description of the chosen course of action and each of its elements;
The task analysis; and
The action plan.
Briefing the plan verifies broader family and regional leadership support and is
essential for gaining program support from government agencies. It is also essential for
attracting support from industry if that is being pursued. At the time of writing this thesis,
briefing was not complete however key targets for briefing had been identified as part of
the overall planning framework. It is intended that a consolidated brief of the Futures Plan
will be developed. This brief will be tailored for targeted audiences to emphasise certain
aspects and illustrate the planning rigour that the Corporation has undertaken. The
briefing targets are:
Prescribed Body Corporate with emphasis on returning to country and land
and sea management to gain regional leadership acknowledgement and
support;
Government through regional ICC and Indigenous support organisations with
emphasis on shared responsibility to access infrastructure and training related
programs;
Industry to access corporate support for specific infrastructure and training
needs; and
Key businesses to promote the Corporation as a reliable supplier of markets.
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The development of a Futures Plan needs to support straightforward implementation.
This has been achieved for Goonj Arlan by task analysis leading to a tangible action plan
that specifies outcomes, development requirements and sources of support. The
Corporation is able to implement its plan by working through these identified actions,
which are link back through the planning process to the agreed aim and objectives.
6.3 THEMES OF THE PARTICIPATORY PLANNING
FRAMEWORK
Indigenous communities living in remote areas do not necessarily have the planning
skills to develop long-term initiatives and attract government or industry support. They
do have existing capital and vision of where they want to be. Small communities are
compelled to compete for support against large, high profile community ventures that
may be driven by government programs.
Community development needs to be supported by thorough planning that looks
beyond the immediate project implementation and considers all factors relevant to social,
economic and environmental objectives. Planning for Goonj Arlan was typified by
consultation and participation. The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation agreed that a
strong and achievable vision, supported by detailed objectives underpinning community
expectations, is the foundation and enshrines collective ownership in the community‟s
future. An emphasis on identifying the existing capital and enabling development of the
human resource supports succession of leadership and governance, which contribute to
community longevity.
The Participatory Planning Framework used for Goonj Arlan aimed to encourage
community ownership of the process design and implementation. It comprised three
steps: designing the planning framework, collecting the necessary information and
developing an agreed plan for subsequent implementation. Each of these steps required
specific inputs to enable the realisation of specific outcomes. Collaborative analysis has
led to the development of an action plan for implementation and a consolidated Futures
Plan to underpin sustainable community development for Goonj Arlan.
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7 PREPARING THE PROJECT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The research site of Goonj Arlan outstation, its settings and natural resources present a
range of opportunities for development based on Indigenous culture and traditional land
management practices. Themes arising from data collection, as they apply to the
establishment of an Aboriginal family initiative based on caring for country, are presented
in this chapter. Data was collected using the Participatory Planning Framework, which
was described in the previous chapter, and informs the development of a Futures Plan for
the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation. It was collected via workshop, site survey and
interviews and relates to the knowledge of country, business and human capacity. Data
sets comprise a complex array of social, environmental and economic aspects. They
provide an understanding of the geography, ecology and infrastructure characterising the
research site as well as the capacity of the custodial family group. Data also relates to key
issues of potential business opportunities. Subsequent development of a corporation
model and Futures Plan uses this data to satisfy community, environmental and business
imperatives.
In line with the theoretical framework, the implementation of the derived Participatory
Planning Framework captured the necessary data while facilitating a progressive
understanding of the planning considerations associated with Goonj Arlan. The use of soft
processes, in particular workshops and discussions, enabled participants to understand the
potential roles and expectations of others. This led to the collaborated formulating of a
vision for the future. Soft systems also facilitated collective consideration of the
opportunities and the potential obstacles to achieving agreed objectives. The progressive
capturing of relevant planning data and subsequent consideration of it meant that the
entire planning process was a learning experience for participating family members.
7.2 A DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH SITE
7.2.1 Geography
The research site is located on the east coast of Dampier Peninsula in Cygnet Bay.
The Aboriginal outstation occupies approximately 5 acres of land located at 16°40′15″S
and 123°01′53″E. The Aboriginal family claim extends beyond this with custodial interest
in land and sea between the eastern-most point of Rumble Bay (16°36′25″S and
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123°01′16″E) and Deep Water Point (16°41′47″S and 123°04′21″E). Deep Water Point
pearling leases are adjacent to the southern boundary of the country. In addition a
proposed Marine Protected Area boundary is adjacent to the southern extreme of family
country.
The region experiences a wet-dry topical climate (Gentilli, 1972). The dry season
(southern winter) is warm whereas the wet (southern summer) is hot and humid. The
average maximum temperature during the dry season (June to August) is 32°C, with an
average minimum temperature of 18°C. During the wet (December to February) the
average maximum temperature is 36°C, with an average minimum temperature of 25°C.
Warm, torrential rain brought by thunderstorms and tropical cyclones falls during the wet
season. Tropical cyclones occur between December and February. The prevailing winds
of the dry season are southeast trade winds with speeds of up to 28 kph recorded at Derby
the nearest meteorological station in 2006. Wet season winds are more variable, being
associated with thunderstorm activity during the prevailing northwest monsoon
conditions. The most extreme winds are generated by tropical cyclones with wind speeds
up to 48 kph being recorded in 2006 data.
The country of Goonj Arlan falls into the broader Dampierland region. Graham
(2001) identified that the coastline comprises Quaternary marine deposits abutting coastal
plains with vegetation consisting of mangroves, coastal dune communities, grasslands and
mixed species of woodlands including Eucalyptus, Acacia, Melaleuca and Terminalia
species. A number of threatened floral and fauna species are found in the broader
Dampierland region and the mudflats are frequented by trans-equatorial migratory bird
species. Significant data gaps exist across the Dampierland region including vegetation
and ecosystem mapping, systemic fauna survey; floristic data; ecological habitat
requirements of fauna species; the conservation status of many fauna and flora taxa; and
the effects of threatening processes.
Inlets and streams are shown in Fig 7.1 together with other topographical features.
The effects of the streams and inlets vary. In the southern areas they feed into mudflats to
the west of Deep Water Point, which are inundated during the wet season but dry during
the rest of the year. A gully stream exists to the immediate west of the outstation but it
does not affect the built on area. To the immediate southeast of the outstation inundation
occurs through an inlet landward of the beach. Access to the Goonj Arlan outstation from
the Cape Leveque Road is limited during the wet season due to estuaries in the southern
extreme of Rumble Bay flooding the main east-west access track.
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A single dune system to a mean elevation of 15m runs immediately shoreward of the
beach. Coastal shrubs and grasses on the front of the dune and woodland to landward
cover this. The woodland is typically 3 to 4 m high and relatively open underfoot.
The locations of mengels and mudflats are shown in Fig 7.1. This habitat typifies
much of the environment below the high water mark. The tidal range determined from
data recorded at Derby averages up to 11.5 m for the Equinoctial spring tide. The neap
range is 4.5 m (Semenuik, 1982: 50). At extreme tides, the mudflats extend from 200 m
out to 900m from the back of the beach. Approximately 14 km of coastline extends
through the family claim with 9.2 km of this covered by mangrove habitat. The remaining
4.8 km is sandy beach although further beach extends behind all except 2.8 km of the
mangrove areas. Semenuik (1982: 50) states that swell wave action is negligible to King
Sound because the islands of the Buccaneer Archipelago to the north protect it. The main
drivers of environmental change are therefore water level fluctuation and change in the
wind regime.
A number of fringing reefs are exposed to varying degrees at low tide. These are
shown in Fig 7.2. The most significant is at 16°39′15″S and 123°02′51″E which is
constantly above water at its highest point. At extreme low tides the exposed reef in this
location is approx 800m x 980m however the entire reef extends 1200m from the
mangrove point and is approximately 2200m between its extremities. Another reef is also
exposed at low tide and stretches for some 3650 m between points at 16°36′48″S and
123°02′43″E and 16°38′45″S and 123°02′28″E. Smaller rock areas at other points along
the coastline are habitat to marine life including turtles, fish, crabs and invertebrates.
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Figure 7-1 Topographical features of Goonj Arlan
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Figure 7-2 Approximate distribution of reef and photographs showing their
typical forms.
The outstation is built to the west of a sizable sand bowl that extends approximately
750 m along the coast between 16°40′15″S and 123°02′07″E and 16°40′38″S and
123°02′23″E. At its deepest, the bowl extends 230 m back from the beach. A vein of red
ochre is located to the south of the bowl at 16°40′42″S and 123°02′30″E. Tidal action is
eroding this ochre as it lies below the high water mark. Fig 7.3 comprises photographs
showing the ochre vein and sand bowl.
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Figure 7-3 Ochre and sand bowl at Goonj Arlan
An understanding of the geography immediately presents land management issues to
be factored into planning. Vegetation species may offer business opportunities based on
species harvesting and seed collection. Diverse habitat supports significant biota, which
may require management activity such as access control. Watercourses feed wetland areas
supporting diverse biota as well as underground water sources. Reefs are populated by
species hunted and fished by local communities and may benefit from access
management practices. Features such as ochre and the sand bowl contribute to the
country‟s cultural character and are subjected to erosive natural elements. These are
factors to be considered in planning together with information relating to human activity
and business development.
7.2.2 Native Species
Woodland, grasses, shrubs and mangrove habitats typify vegetation in the Goonj
Arlan area. It offers two opportunities for business development: seed collection from
native plants and cash crop production from Gubinge (Terminalia ferdinandiana).
Specific plant species identified in the area during this research are listed in Table 7.1.
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Table 7-1 Flora species of Goonj Arlan identified during research fieldwork.
Common Name Scientific Name
Cockatoo Grass Alloteropsis semialata
Burr Grass Cenchrus echinatus
Button Grass Dactyloctenium radulans
Large Bluegrass Ischaemum australe
Swamp Grass Leptochloa neesii
Wild Passionfruit Passiflora foetida
Braid Fern Platyzoma microphyllum
Prickly Saltwort Salsola tragus
Rat‟s Tail Grass Sehima nervosum
Pigeon Grass Setaria apiculata
Flinders River Poison Tephrosia rosea
Winged Spinifex Triodia intermedia
Mimosa Bush Acacia farnesiana
Canelabra Wattle Acacia holosericea
Poverty Bush Acacia translucens
Parrot Pea Crotalaria cunninghamii
Chinese Lantern Dichrostachys spicata
Dogwood Fleuggea virosa
Tea tree Melaleuca minutifolia
Featherflower Verticordia verticillata
Broome Pindan Wattle Acacia eripoda
Whitewood Atalaya hemiglauca
Ghost Gum Eucalyptus bella
Rusty Bloodwood Eucalyptus ferruginea
Scraggy Cabbage Gum Eucalyptus flavescens
Ironwood Erythropleum chlorostachys
Gutta-Percha Tree Exoecaria parvifolia
Wild Gardenia Gardenia sp.
Coastal Paperbark Melaleuca asophila
Pandanus Palm Pandanus spiralis
Gubinge Terminalia ferdinandiana
White Mangrove Avicennia marina
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Figure 7-4 Photographs showing typical frontal dune vegetation, mangrove and
woodland habitat of Goonj Arlan
Fig 7.4 shows typical shrub, woodland and mangrove habitat. A survey was
conducted to ascertain the natural abundance of Gubinge on outstation country. Ten
transects were taken on bearings from a centre point located at the outstation bore. Each
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was 20 m wide and between 250 and 700m long. Plants were counted in transects
indicating a distribution of 64 plants in an 111,000sqm area (1 plant/1734 sqm). Results
are shown at Table 7-2.
Table 7-2 Transects made to ascertain wild Gubinge distribution
Transect
bearing (ºMag)
Length of transect
(metres)
Distance of trees from centre point
(metres)
020 700 30, 40, 280, 570, 570, 590, 640, 670, 680
050 600 210, 6 trees between 220 and 225, 300, 400
90 500 75, 80, 230, 240, 245, 250, 260, 340, 350
120 500 70, 120, 250, 350, 370
180 500 35, 90, 180, 270, 280, 320, 450, 470
225 500 70, 140, 170, 180
245 250 Nil
250 500 120, 230, 250, 260, 320, 340
280 500 200, 220, 225, 310, 320, 360
340 500 30, 65, 200, 280, 310, 350, 350, 500,
Bird populations are varied and prolific. The region hosts communities of trans-
equatorial migratory bird species, which frequent the mudflats from August to April prior
to migrating to the northern hemisphere for breeding between May and July. Species
observed during field trips are listed in Table 7.3. The presence of migratory species
requires managing, as they are reliant on the coastal habitat for feeding and breeding.
Managing the habitat to accommodate community fishing and hunting, while protecting it
for migratory and other species indicates a need for effective access management.
Coastal and marine species are culturally significant to communities for consumption.
Species observed during research fieldwork are listed in Table 7.4. Local communities
consume many of species. In particular mud crabs, oysters, turtles and trumpet shells are
highly sought after and vulnerable species. Access control, rotation of collection sites and
recording details of takings are strategies that could be developed into management
practices. Land hermit crabs are a potential source of income from the pet industry and
the small Trochus shell may be marketable to the aquarium industry. Both of these
commercial opportunities would require the establishment of specific species
management plans.
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Table 7-3 Bird species identified at Goonj Arlan during research fieldwork
Common Name Scientific Name
Black kite Milvus migrans
Brahmany kite Haliastur indus
Australian magpie Gymnorhina tibicen
Little crow Corvus bennetti
Australian magpie lark Grallina cyanoleuca
Pied butcher bird Cracticus nigrogularis
Blackfaced cuckoo shrike Coracina novaehollandiae
Little friar bird Philemon citreogularis
Crested pigeon Ocypaps lophotes
Misletoe bird Dicaeum hirundinaceum
Yellow white-eye Zosterops luteus
Willie wagtail Rhipidura rufiventris
Redtailed black cockatoo Calyptorhynchus magnificus
Red-collared lorikeet Trichoglossus rubritorquis
Galah Cacatua roseicapilla
Little corella Cacatua sanguinea
Red winged parrot Aprosmictus erythropterus
Australian bustard Ardeotis australis
Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres
Eastern curlew Numenius madagascariensis
Hutton's Shearwater Puffinus huttoni
Silver gull Larus novaehollandiae
Terek sandpiper Tringa terek
Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos
Knot Calidris canutus
Pied oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus
Reef heron Egretta sacra
Little egret Egretta garzetta
Australian white ibis Threskiornis molucca
Straw necked ibis Threskiornis spinicollis
Roseate tern Sterna dougallii
Black necked stork Xenorhynchus asiaticus
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Table 7-4 Marine species identified at Goonj Arlan during research fieldwork
Common Name Scientific Name
Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus Porosus
Green Turtle Chelonia mydas
Tropical Edible Oysters Saccostrea commercialis and S. echinata
Trochus Shell Trochus pyramus
Giant Triton Shell Charonia tritonis
Land Hermit Crab Coenibita variabilis
Mangrove Whipray Himantura granulata
Mangrove Jack Lutjanus argentimaculatus
Spangled Emperor Lethurinus nebulosus
Estuary Cod Ephinephelus coiodes
Fingermark seaperch Lutjanus johnii
Queensland School Mackeral Scomberomorus munroi
Baramundi Lates calcerifer
Brown Mud Crab Scylla olivacea
Green Mud Crab Scylla serrata
Blue Swimmer Crab Portunus pelagicus
Northern Mulloway Protonibea diacanthus
Queenfish Scomberoides ommersonnianus
Blue Threadfin Eleutheronema tetradactylum
Yellowfin Bream Acanthopagrus latus
Salmon Catfish Arius thalussinus
Black Tipped Reef shark Carcharhinus melanopterus
Leopard Whipray Himantura undulata
Sea Mullet Mugil cephalus
Threadfin Salmon Eleutheronema tetradactylum
7.2.3 The Threats to the environment
The Goonj Arlan area is vulnerable to a number of natural processes including strong
winds and storm surge, which threaten some areas of exposed frontal dune in particular.
However much of the coastline is well protected by extensive mangroves and vegetation
covered dunes. The area‟s location on the east coast of Dampier Peninsula provides
protection from the direct affect of cyclone wind tracks, however storm surge effects are
evident from the presence of debris deposits at the at the base of the frontal dune systems
on exposed beaches. This needs to be factored into management practices that may locate
access tracks to the beach, signage or fencing to protect vulnerable dune systems. It is also
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a consideration when establishing programs to monitor the effects of natural processes,
including sea level rise, on the health of the country
Semeniuk (1982: 59-60) explained the erosion processes occurring in the south
eastern region of King Sound region. Sheets of sediment are eroded at all tidal levels.
Erosion sequences are prevalent in the stratigraphy of the salt/mud flats that are exposed
and dried out during periods of neap tides and can be seen in the inland mudflats in the
Goonj Arlan area. Cliff erosion results from the retreat of coastline, particularly along the
seaward edge of mengel flats. This type of erosion is not prevalent in mengel flat areas in
the Goonj Arlan country. It does however occur in some frontal dune areas probably as a
result of the effects of tidal action combined with longshore transport of sediment. A
small stretch of coastal dune at 16°37′47″S and 123°02′07″E suffers from obvious cliff
erosion. Tidal-creek erosion is evident in the area where tidal ruts have eroded channels
behind the beach into lower areas. A localised area of mangrove decline is at 16°39′26″S
and 123°02′15″E. This is possibly due to sand migration along the shore or the effects of
freshwater underground seepage, as the affected area is in proximity to a natural water
course.
Sea level rise is a concern for the entire eastern coastline of Dampier Peninsula, which
is of low elevation 500 to 1000m landward from the beach. The Goonj Arlan area is
below 10m elevation with some higher features around 20m.
Non-natural threatening processes include the presence of human activity and
introduced species. Weeds, feral cats, pigs and cattle are found in the area. While some
rubbish is washed onto the beaches, it is not in significant quantities to be a major aspect
of any caring for country activity. Most impact stems from community visitation for the
purposes of hunting, fishing and crabbing. Visitors largely come from the communities of
Lombadina, One Armed Point and Djarindjin. Community visitors on fishing trips use
unmanaged tracks for four wheel drive vehicles to access the beach. Evidence of vehicle
access on the vulnerable dune areas can be seen in Fig 7.5. This use is affecting the
integrity of the dunes in some locations. Rubbish is also left behind at fishing spots and
damage to exposed reef systems results from walking and unmanaged harvesting of
marine fish and shellfish species.
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Figure 7-5 Vehicle access to the beaches of Goonj Arlan are resulting in
degradation of the dunes in some areas
The effects of human activity on the region are restricted to specific locations. A high
rate of visitation is prevented by the remoteness of the stretch of coastline and its isolation
during the wet season. While fishing and crabbing visits to country are organized, they are
relatively infrequent. During ten weeks of fieldwork on country only four fishing visits
were observed from local communities. Anecdotal evidence suggests that visits increase
during some seasons, particularly when the salmon are running, however it is unlikely
that the increase in activity is significant. Access via two existing tracks can be controlled
and programs could be instigated to manage locations used for fishing and harvesting.
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The main locations visited in the area for harvesting and fishing are indicated in Fig
7.6. Little community fishing occurs in the southern locations while the adjacent country
in Rumble Bay is favoured for salmon fishing and crabbing. Local communities target
species for consumption as well as income. The main species targeted for consumption
are edible tropical oysters, all fish species (with salmon favoured), triton shell and mud
crab. Opportunistic but infrequent hunting of turtle occurs. Advice from local
communities is that species are taken outside their approved seasons and no control exists
with regard to size, sex, species or number in catches. The fishing techniques used are
throw, scoop and drag/haul net, hooks, spear and handline. Spearing and handline fishing
techniques prevent over-catching and are favoured by locals. In addition to marine
species, income has been acquired on occasions from wild Gubinge and some eucalypt
species for arts and craft products including spears.
Figure 7-6 Locations at Goonj Arlan used for community customary activity
involving coastal resources
7.3 THE PEOPLE OF GOONJ ARLAN
The people of Goonj Arlan are Bunyiol Bardi Aboriginal people: the Jacky and
Phillips family. Their custodial claim to country stems from the paternal grandfather.
Customary Activity 1. Fishing 2. Crabbing 3. Oyster Harvesting 4. Triton Shell Harvest 5. Camping 1
2
1
2
2, 4
1, 5
1, 2, 3
1, 2, 5
1, 2, 4
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While the claim is clear with regard to the extent of coastline, the landward extent is not.
The coastline habitats are the resource rich environs that are the focus of family interest
and are the most vulnerable. Community leaders support the family claim, however it is
yet to be formalised with an established Prescribed Body Corporate in the wake of the
recent Native Title determination. The southern area of Deep Water Point was originally
included in the family claim however this was handed to pearling interests by family
members and is now a formalised pearling lease. The family group has recognised the
need to return to country to exercise their custodial responsibilities and prevent the loss of
control over other areas without broad family agreement.
The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation was constitutionally established in 1994 in
accordance with Australia‟s Aboriginal Councils and Associations Act 1976. The
Corporation currently lists 22 family members with an elected governing committee of
eight. Only those individuals who are over 18 years of age are listed as members.
The outstation was first established and occupied continuously by the family from
1994 to 2000. Since 2000, the Corporation has been essentially ineffective in its focus on
Goonj Arlan‟s future. That said they have maintained representation in the regional
negotiations and discussions affecting the northern region of the Peninsula. The initial
move back to country in 1994 was conducted with very little government funding or
support. Planning underpinning the occupation was rudimentary and the outstation was
developed in a piece-meal fashion to support a lifestyle choice for a few members only.
No long-term planning was conducted and dysfunction evolved from an inability to
access essential services such as education and health. Only one member of the family
was living in Goonj Arlan with her children when the outstation essentially closed and
occupants returned to main regional population centres.
Family members cite the key reasons for the move from country back to larger
communities as the following:
A lack of planning to support longevity and development of outstation
activity;
The need for children‟s education;
Poor living standards in terms of housing;
Isolation from regional health services for emergencies;
Separation of marriages; and
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Poor financial opportunity.
The family extends beyond the immediate custodians and members are seeking
different outcomes from Goonj Arlan, which range from opportunity to visit and connect
with country through to permanent residency to meet custodial responsibilities. The
expectations of the family were identified during the workshopping process and are
covered later in this chapter. All family members are currently residing away from their
country. Residency is in Djarindjin, Broome, Port Hedland and Perth. This situation is
impeding progress as until recently the main leader has been residing in Perth for his
children‟s‟ high school education. His motivation is critical to the wider family
participation and without him in location permanently progress is slow. That said, the
family recognise his role and take his lead when he is able to visit. His leadership has
ensured family participation in the planning.
The collective level of education in the family is high with a number having
successfully completed year twelve. There is a good level of numeracy and literacy,
which will support the effective management of an established and operational
corporation. Several members have well-established skills in building trades.
The wider family is affected by some of the social dysfunctions that plague
Aboriginal communities, including domestic abuse stemming from substance and alcohol
use. However there is a core element of family in all generations who maintain strong
family and community values and display effective leadership. The ability of these people
to drive the project and influence others has been obvious during the conduct of research
and planning. Key family members also acknowledge the requirement for leadership to
underpin succession planning.
The achievements of some family members are recognised by the broader Bardi
population of the Dampier Peninsula and the wider Broome community. This has led to a
diverse and supportive network for Goonj Arlan to harness. The details of this network
were identified through workshopping and are covered later in this chapter.
Regardless of networks or credibility, the implementation of any activity is subject to
the regional decision-making processes. The Indigenous Coordination Centre liaises with
regional zones through the Kallari Region CDEP Incorporated, which is the regional
CDEP body. The region is divided into four zones: north, central, town and south. A
committee of five representatives manages each zone with Goonj Arlan falling under the
north zone. Consensus decision-making underpins zone management in the Peninsula for
matters relating to service delivery. This can be prohibitive as was shown in financial year
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05/06 when a 1.7 million dollar CDEP surplus was equally divided between zones and
within zones. This diluted the impact that the surplus could have had if it was channelled
into major projects.
7.4 CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE AND KNOWLEDGE
The Goonj Arlan claim contains five cultural sites registered with the Western
Australian Department of Indigenous Affairs (WADIA 2006a) as shown in Fig 7.7. These
sites are most likely meeting, fishing and hunting locations; however local knowledge of
their significance has disappeared. The locations on the beach are still favoured fishing,
crabbing and shellfish collection sites to local communities.
Figure 7-7 Registered Aboriginal sites by name and site identification numbers.
Source: Register of Aboriginal Sites, Government of Western Australia
Department of Indigenous Affairs
A single location at 16°40′37″S and 123°02′08″E contains stone flakes, indicating tool
making. Local knowledge of this was unable to be found. The flakes are typically shaped
as the one shown in Fig 7.8 and are made of a stone material not naturally found in the
immediate location of the flakes or elsewhere in the frontal dune system.
Site Information 1. Ngililnga Site ID 14638 2. Maldjin Site ID 14645 3. Djuwan Site ID 14637 4. Lambilambon Site ID 14644
5. Gunjadlin Site ID 14643
5
4
3
2 1
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Figure 7-8 Example of Aboriginal artifact found at Goonj Arlan
Local customary knowledge is limited. Current custodians of the country have very
little detailed collective knowledge of family genealogy, stories of country, Bardi
language, knowledge of seasons for harvesting species, and use of bush foods and
medicines. However some detailed knowledge remains with Bunyiol Bardi elders in the
local communities of One Armed Point and Djarindjin. Knowledge of harvesting seasons,
locations and quotas of take, and understanding when the country is suffering are
considered by the custodians as important aspects for their ability to care for the country.
The family intends to harness and record this information through oral collection
processes.
7.5 INFRASTRUCTURE
Access to the Goonj Arlan outstation is serviced by a seasonal four-wheel drive track
running laterally from the Cape Leveque Road, which runs north-south along the Dampier
Peninsula. During the wet season an alternative track provides mobility around the flood
plains running into Rumble Bay to the north. Other tracks existing in the location are the
ring road around the outstation and two small tracks leading to the beach immediately east
of the outstation.
The outstation and its facilities were initially established without substantial town
planning. Buildings are rudimentary structures with limited security and functionality for
long-term occupation to support a reasonable standard of living. The infrastructure
includes accommodation, ablution, communal and workshop facilities. A ring road
connects the structures and underground power cables feed from a diesel generator site,
which is the only means of power. A water supply is provided by a bore, located at
16°40′12″S and 123°01′44″E, which feeds from an artesian water source that is only 10.5
m below ground level. A second disused bore is located between the outstation and the
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beach at 16°40′29″S and 123°01′59″E. Currently the outstation is not occupied and all
facilities have fallen into considerable disrepair.
Due to the lack of proper planning, the infrastructure locations and designs do not
mitigate any environmental impact. Of main concern are the following:
Ablutions are pit type and located in a gully;
No refuse plan exists and garbage is deposited anywhere;
Car bodies and old building materials are strewn around the outstation;
Tracks to the beach area permit four-wheel drive access onto the beach in two
locations;
Fuel storage facilities are not appropriately established to prevent or mitigate
the consequences of a spill; and
Alternative energy sources were not properly developed for the original site,
which relies entirely on Diesel generation.
7.6 BUSINESS IN THE PENINSULA
7.6.1 Gubinge as a Cash Crop
Gubinge (Terminalia ferdinandiana) or Billygoat plum is endemic to the Dampier
Peninsula. Research is currently underway to establish an industry based on the use of the
Gubinge fruit. This developing industry is underpinned by collaborative development
involving communities across northern Australia, including the Dampier Peninsula,
government, Kimberley TAFE, and Charles Darwin University. The Bunyiol Bardi
people are well placed to benefit from Gubinge on the Dampier Peninsula. The plant
grows naturally at Goonj Arlan and has been harvested in the past by other Aboriginal
corporations with permission from the family.
Gubinge is marketable for its high vitamin C content, which can be up to 4,600
milligrams per hundred grams. By comparison citrus fruits produce approximately 50
milligrams per 100 grams. Wild Gubinge will produce an annual yield, which is
marketable, however collection is extremely time-consuming. Another Aboriginal
Corporation harvested Gubinge previously from Goonj Arlan with some royalties being
paid to the Goonj Arlan Corporation. This harvest was quite destructive to trees due to the
indiscriminate methods used. Irrigated Gubinge plantation can produce considerably
higher yields and are harvestable in two to three years from planting. The costs of
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establishing a plantation are limited to irrigation infrastructure only as seedlings can be
propagated from wild harvested seeds.
The Gudumul community on the Dampier Peninsula has been active in the industry
having produced and sold some seven tonnes of Gubinge. It supplies its produce to an
established company in Sydney, which in turn distributes it in powder form to the United
States for production as a nutritional supplement. Gubinge is also usable in other products
such as condiments, which are marketable locally. Scope therefore exists for a number of
communities to establish a consortium to access the US markets. Further research is
currently targeting how an industry can be established and sustained with horticultural
research focused on improving the quality, consistency and quantity of plantation yields.
7.6.2 Seed Collection
Opportunity exists for Aboriginal people in the area to become involved in seed
collection from native plants. Seed collection may be viable as an element of a family
corporation‟s business diversity. The accessible markets are seed suppliers for
revegetation projects and nurseries. A number of species in the Kimberley region are in
demand however access to them for established distributors is limited. This provides
opportunity to leverage from traditional land ownership and the availability of high
demand species.
Scope exists for a business to supply seeds directly to customers or to an established
supplier for distribution. The latter is a suitable option for businesses aiming to target the
revegetation market. Seed suppliers listed in Table 7-5 in Western Australia identified a
demand as well as a number of issues relating to community enterprises. One of the key
inhibitors to seed supply for revegetation purposes relates to provenance. Increasingly
science has driven revegetation projects towards the use of seeds harvested from the area
in which revegetation is occurring. This ensures the integrity of the biodiversity in the
revegetated location. In particular contracts with the resource sector are demanding that
suppliers factor provenance requirements into their produce.
Markets are often unreliable. In particular revegetation can involve demands being
requested by companies without necessary lead times to allow collection. This drives
suppliers towards seed storage, which can affect the quality of the seed over long
durations. Also collection is required to assess demands by species and quantities in
advance. This can result in wasted seed when requests do not align with the species or
quantities collected. Often when communities make the effort to collect seed that is not
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subsequently marketable, the lack of incentive can undermine their motivation to persist
with the business. KIMSEED is a major commercial seed provider based in Western
Australia that has actively engaged with indigenous communities in Australia and
overseas in Africa and the Middle East. The experience of this operation is that
indigenous ventures struggle to meet demands due to short lead times and storage
limitations. Seed suppliers listed below were contacted and were not positive with regard
to Aboriginal communities in the north participating in seed collection as a business. Only
three companies responded that they would be interested in sourcing seeds on a case-by-
case basis from Indigenous businesses. The remaining companies approached did not
indicate either way.
Collection and packaging skills are easily learned. A number of seed supplying
companies provide training to communities embarking on this type of business.
Equipment can be basic for small ventures involving little more that a blanket and storage
containers. However for major activities seed collection may require engineering based
equipment, which would involve a liability for maintenance and operation. Goonj Arlan
operations would be better suited to commence at a small scale while necessary
production and marketing skills are developed. Selling native seeds at local markets could
be a simple initial option.
Table 7-5 Seed supplying companies approached
Seed Company Potential Client
Top End Seeds Yes
South West Native Seed Supply No
Forest Products Commission of Western Australia Seed
Centre
No
Seed World Australia Pty Ltd No
Ellison Horticultural Pty Ltd No
Royston Petrie Seeds Pty Ltd No
Nindethana Seed Service Yes
Kimseed Pty Ltd Yes
Australian Tree Seed Centre CSIRO Division of Forestry
and Forest Products
No
Ghems Revegetation Environmental: GHEMS Holdings
Pty Ltd
No
D Orriell - Seed Exporters No
Dendros Seed Supplies No
Rally Revegetation and Environmental Services No
Landcare Services No
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7.6.3 Fresh Produce
Organic produce for commercial sale to local communities is in demand.
Communities are reliant on produce purchased in Broome, however much of the food
consumed is tinned and processed. The need for healthy and fresh food products exists in
many remote Aboriginal communities to mitigate dietary related illnesses. The coastal
communities have access to seafood and the local demand for fresh vegetables creates an
immediately accessible market. A successful venture existed for fresh bread where Beagle
Bay was supplied by daily made bread from a neighbouring Aboriginal outstation.
An alternative market exists in Broome where organic produce is sold from the
weekly community markets and supermarkets. This produce is highly sought after by
Broome locals and visitors with supplies selling quickly. Overheads for modest
production are minimal. Goonj Arlan has accessible water and a skills base to support the
growing of fresh and organic produce. Kimberley TAFE runs horticultural courses.
The water supplies of Goonj Arlan are another possible source of income. Local
restaurants in Broome may provide a market for locally bottled fresh water from the
outstation bores. Bottling water would require limited skills development and produce
could be easily stockpiled or distributed to meet modest local demands.
Fresh fish and crabs could be provided to local community stores to supplement the
diets of those unable to travel to fishing sites themselves. Alternatively fish and crabs
could be used for in-kind payment for other services relating to maintaining infrastructure.
The provision of fresh seafood by Goonj Arlan to local communities has potential to
reduce the visitation and subsequent uncontrolled take of species undersized or out of
season. It could contribute to fish stock population management and monitoring.
7.6.4 Tourism
Indigenous tourism is a niche business opportunity supporting culture and country if it
is appropriately planned and managed. As covered in earlier chapters a number of
Australian Government initiatives recognise the potential for tourism by Aboriginal
people. In Western Australia the Indigenous Tourism Strategy provides resources to
support the development of the industry. Successful enterprises throughout the Dampier
Peninsula range from bush camp and elite accommodation to interactive products
involving Aboriginal culture and country (WAITOC, 2006). Madaar is a Bunyiol Bardi
outstation that provides a product based on accommodation, fishing, crabbing and
Aboriginal stories. Another venture to the immediate north of Goonj Arlan provides
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tourists with a guided opportunity to crab in the estuaries of Rumble Bay. Beagle Bay is a
historical centre for the region providing more mainstream tourists the opportunity to
appreciate the missionary and community history of the region.
However engagement with the tourism industry can conflict with the intent of
Aboriginal outstation lifestyle. Tourism linked to the mass market can threaten outstation
integrity due to a loss of control over who accesses country and what activities they
conduct on it. Tourism is seasonal and when dealing with the public, certain commitments
are expected between client and service provider. These situations may be at odds with
Aboriginal culture and the expectations of people occupying country.
Zeppel (2006:280) presents key features of indigenous ecotourism on tribal lands as
the following:
Involves travel to natural destinations;
Minimizes impact on environmental and cultural aspects;
Builds environmental and cultural awareness;
Provides direct financial benefits for conservation;
Provides financial benefits and empowerment for local people;
Respects local culture and sensitive to host countries; and
Supports human rights and democratic movements.
While current ventures in the Dampier Peninsula offer exposure to Aboriginal people
through accommodation or specific activities such as crabbing, an Aboriginal tourism
product does not currently exist in the region that gives visitors the opportunity to
participate in country management related activities and live with people on an Aboriginal
outstation. An example of successful tourism in the region engaging tourists with an
outstation is Barramundi Moon to the south of Goonj Arlan on Madaar land near
Goodenough Bay. Discussions with the owners of this venture have highlighted a demand
for simple accommodation and experiences involving living with Aboriginal people on
their country. This particular product delivers comfortable accommodation, exposure to
Bardi culture through stories and food, and an opportunity to observe people managing
their family country. To date the outstation has supported corporate and government
workshops as well as individual customers.
The Goonj Arlan family is looking to take this a step further by developing a product
offering visitors the opportunity to participate in community life without significant
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burden on the Corporation. People could participate in the daily activities to support the
Corporation‟s community, caring for country or business objectives. Marketing to a
regular client base, for specific activities during block periods of the year will reduce the
overheads of marketing, product development and manpower. This niche product is
potentially marketable to schools, youth development organisations and overseas tourists
looking for products that blend cultural, social and environmental experiences. This
approach negates the need for extensive tourism facilities and services to meet the
demands of mainstream and high effort tourism. It potentially provides a regular and
reliable annual income if key groups are networked into a regular cliental.
7.6.5 Wildlife Use
Opportunity stemming from commercial use of wildlife is constrained by current
Australian legislation and policy however there is little doubt that wildlife harvesting and
farming has potential for Aboriginal people residing on remote and traditionally owned
land to benefit from royalty payment or production. The Bawinanga case presented in
Chapter five is an example of progressive development from royalty payment to mature
production. Skira (1996) described the significance of mutton-bird hunting in Tasmania to
the social and economic benefit of Bass Strait communities. In this example commercial
harvesting activities, alongside consumptive practices, have contributed to the
conservation of the mutton-bird species.
Markets are varied and fickle. Embryonic industries founded on Aboriginal effort are
often consumed by larger, sophisticated non-Indigenous competition, as legislation does
not protect Indigenous business in an environment of free trade and commercial equality.
Despite external competition, scope exists to harness the niche opportunity stemming
from the consumption of traditional foods by Aboriginal people. Currently, Aboriginal
people have little opportunity to access their traditional foods if not residing on country.
The populations of many popular food species in the area have dwindled to unsustainable
levels. Discussions with members of local communities indicate that two terrestrial
species that are important to the diet of Bardi people in the Dampier Peninsula are the
Australian bustard (Ardeotis australis) and goanna species. The latter will be particularly
vulnerable to the threat from cane toad spread into the region. A venture involving species
farming could contribute to conservation through reintroducing animals back into the
wild, as is done through Project Eden at Shark Bay in Western Australia, and could also
provide a traditional food source to regional communities or indeed Aboriginal people
living further away from their country.
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Such a project necessitates an over-arching State Government approach identifying
the commercial use of wildlife as an element of conservation strategy. As previously
described in the Northern Territory commercial harvesting of native species is supported
by government policy as well as scientifically based and government approved species
management plans. Currently Western Australia does not have such strategy or
government intent.
Wildlife projects would require full time occupancy of an outstation and the
acquisition of species-specific animal husbandry skills. Research and development may
be required to commence from a low base line depending on targeted species.
Government endorsed species management plans would need to be developed to support
any commercial use. Despite this, an established Aboriginal corporation in partnership
with research institutions and government agencies, particularly the Department of
Environment and Conservation and the Department of Fisheries, could explore the
opportunity.
7.6.6 Aquaculture
Indigenous aquaculture offers varied opportunity to Aboriginal people in the Dampier
Peninsula. The Kimberley Aquaculture Aboriginal Corporation (KAAC) supports
Indigenous communities in the Kimberley region to embark on aquaculture ventures.
KAAC is a non-profit conduit for communities with access to suitable land and high
quality water resources to support aquaculture. It works with communities and
government to assist in identifying opportunities, impart skills and access markets for
produce distribution. It has supported a number of communities in the region in
embarking on community projects. Discussions with key appointments in this
organisation indicate a strong willingness and capacity to support other communities
regardless of scope or size. KAAC is associated and collocated with Munbana
Aquaculture Hatchery and Discovery Centre, which is an established hatchery for diverse
species. Species supported by KAAC include:
Tiger Prawns (Penaeus monodon),
Barramundi (Lates calcarifer),
Tropical Edible Oysters (Saccostrea commercialis and S. echinata),
Freshwater Prawns/ Cherabin (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), and
Aquarium fish.
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KAAC is involved in a number of projects including the establishment and operation
of the Bardi Ardyaloon hatchery at One Arm Point. This community enterprise produces
trochus shell for sale, reseeding of reefs and development. In Rumble Bay an oyster farm
is another evolving project that aims to support the edible oyster demand of local markets
in the Kimberley. It involves the community, KAAC and Department of Fisheries WA.
This project will train community members, establish facilities and undertake research
and development into the viability of black lip and rock oysters. It aims to produce over
3000 oysters per production cycle. While the trial is located at Rumble Bay it is targeting
a major industry development. Whether it is an appropriate activity for an establishing
community such as that at Goonj Arlan is a moot point and may best be considered in the
context of family group skills and experience.
Aquaculture can be a demanding and resource intensive industry. Stock losses can be
debilitating and lead times between commencing operations and marketable production
can be discouraging for communities. Discussions with KAAC emphasise that many
species bred for consumption require significant infrastructure and production cycles can
be long in duration and expensive in costs. In the event that a batch of stock is lost,
associated expenses can be difficult to overcome. A lost batch of stock can also be
detrimental to the motivation and aspirations of a participating community.
A more appropriate starting point for Goonj Arlan may be provided by the aquarium
trade, which offers an opportunity for communities to access the aquaculture industry
with modest overheads. Skills can be progressively developed and produce can be raised
for markets in rudimentary facilities, in short periods of time and at low costs. The loss of
stock is not significant because production cycles are relatively short. The freshwater
aquarium trade for goldfish, Siamese fighting fish and freshwater native species can be
immediately accessed through local markets in Broome or by providing stock to Munbana
for subsequent distribution. Skills can be developed quickly through exposure to
freshwater species and if successful, the transition to marine species can be relatively
straightforward. Marine species currently being produce or researched by Munbana
include varieties of clownfish, dotty backs, cardinal fish, sea horses, grammas, gobies and
roundheads.
Opportunities exist to access the aquarium trade through wild harvest of some species.
This would require preparation and implementation of species management plans. Species
existing on Goonj Arlan that may be attractive to industry include land hermit crabs
(Coenibita variabilis) and trochus shell (Trochus pyramus). The Northern Territory has a
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management plan for aquarium fisheries. The plan recognises the expansion of the
aquarium industry and the importance of wild capture of diverse species. Hermit crabs are
included in this plan as are a number of sponge, plant and shellfish species endemic to
Goonj Arlan. An application to government is currently under consideration for
commercial export of land hermit crabs by the Western Australian based operator who
introduced the species to the pet industry.
Aquaculture courses are conducted by Kimberley TAFE to meet specific community
requirements. The director of the Kimberley TAFE Aboriginal Economic Development
Section and management staff of KAAC, state that training can be delivered on country
with simple infrastructure requirements being constructed during the courses.
7.7 SOURCES OF SUPPORT
Sources of support to assist the establishment of a family outstation conducting
conservation and business related activity include the following:
Government: Previous chapters have discussed the specific programs
accessible by Aboriginal people conducting activity on country. Of particular
relevance to this project are:
Indigenous Business Australia;
Indigenous Coordination Centre and Shared responsibility agreements;
Caring for Our Country Program including Working on Country Program;
CDEP;
WA Tourism; and
Indigenous Employment Policy;
Volunteer: Indigenous Community Volunteers (ICV) is a non-profit
organisation that sources the relevant skills in volunteers to assist and teach
community members in a wide range of administrative, trade and professional
skills;
Business: Corporate business is a key source of support for establishing
initiatives. A number of companies will be approached to win funding for
implementing the Goonj Arlan project. Important elements to winning
corporate support are tangible actions and identifiable outcomes in project
planning. A project that can be broken into discreet fundable elements can
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attract corporate interest within the means or interests of approached
companies. Recent Traditional Owner agreement regarding the development
of a Kimberley Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Precinct ceremony at James
Price Point will potentially offer development funding to access;
Tertiary Institutions. Tertiary institutions are an important source of research
and development. Aboriginal corporations creating partnerships with research
institutions gain leverage to access grants for specific projects. This project has
been managed through such a partnership, and has created opportunity for
further research in specific disciplines. TAFEWA is also an important provider
of training to Aboriginal corporations. A wide range of courses deliver
administrative and trade skills as well as governance competencies; and
Aboriginal Organisations: Mutual support between Aboriginal organisations
underpins a cultural aspect of this project, provides opportunity for
collaborated effort and avenues for funding and other support. Key
organizations/bodies include:
North Australian Indigenous Land and Sea Management Alliance
(NAILSMA)
Kallari Region CDEP;
Mamabulanjin Aboriginal Corporation;
Munbana Aquaculture Hatchery and Discovery Centre/Kimberley
Aquaculture Aboriginal Corporation;
Prescribed Body Corporate for northern Dampier Peninsula region; and
Aboriginal Economic Development section of Kimberley TAFE.
7.8 DATA COLLECTED FROM WORKSHOP
Workshopping involved family considering the opportunities arising from their
country and the human capital they collectively bring to the Corporation. The workshops
used much of the data already presented in this chapter together with the Conceptual
Model derived previously to make decisions underpinning the subsequent formulation of
the Futures Plan. The data drawn from this process is presented here under the headings
representing the first 5 stages of the Workshop Model described in Chapter six.
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7.8.1 Workshop Stage 1: Where do we want to be?
Custodianship of country and future generations were the base elements identified by
the family to underpin the aim and objectives of the Corporation‟s Futures Plan. The
collective vision for Goonj Arlan was determined as establishing a long-term sustainable
Aboriginal Corporation that provides the family with the opportunity to exercise
custodianship of family country for future generations. The supporting objectives were
developed under categories of community, caring for country and business as follows:
Community:
Establish and maintain a family community on country that involves
permanent and temporary occupancy as well as supporting visitation;
Create employment opportunities for family and other community
members;
Attract government and non-government support to establish and maintain
a long-term venture; and
Establish and maintain community infrastructure to support long-term
occupancy by up to 5 people and visitation by up to 25 people.
Caring for Country:
Identify and manage threatening processes on family country;
Develop and implement family and customary knowledge of country;
Conduct long-term monitoring of the health of the country;
Establish long-term networks with environmentally focused organisations;
Manage customary use of natural resources by Aboriginal communities;
and
Attract support from government and industry to enable long-term caring
for country programs.
Business:
Establish diverse and niche enterprises that provide income and contribute
to community development;
Establish long-term niche markets and business networks;
Investigating future opportunities for economic development based on
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niche and diverse enterprise; and
Attract support from government and industry to develop enterprise
projects.
7.8.2 Workshop Stage 2: Who will be involved?
A large and extensive informal stakeholder group supports Goonj Arlan. This is
presented in Table 7.6, which also shows objective categories that stakeholders relate to.
Table 7-6 Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation stakeholders
Organisation Contact Objective
Mumabalanjin Community
Prescribed Body Corporate Community, Country
Kimberley Land Council Country
Kullari Regional CDEP Inc Community, Enterprise
North Australian Indigenous Land and
Sea Management Alliance (NAILSMA)
Country
Patrick Dodson and Paul Lane Enterprise
Kimberley TAFE Community, Enterprise, Country
Work base Community, Enterprise
Pigram Graders Community, Enterprise, Country
Neighbouring Outstations Community, Enterprise, Country
Nirrumbuk Aboriginal Corporation Community, Enterprise
Deep Water Point Pearl Farm Community, Enterprise, Country
Education including: Catholic Education
University of Western Australia, Notre
Dame University
Community, Enterprise, Country
WA Government Community, Enterprise, Country
Noel and Kim Bridges (Kim Bridges and
Associates)
Enterprise
Commonwealth Government incl. and
ICC, DEWR
Community, Enterprise, Country
Department of Health Community
AFL Sports Ready Community
Gundawa – Aboriginal Sports and
Recreation
Community
Additional stakeholders identified to support specific business projects and caring for
country activities include Indigenous Community Volunteers, Department of
Environment and Conservation, Environs Kimberley, Munbana Aquaculture Hatchery
and Discovery Centre, Western Australian Indigenous Tour Operators Committee
(WAITOC) and Forum Advocating Cultural and Ecotourism (FACET).
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7.8.3 Workshop Stage 3: What have we got already?
The family identified the following personal attributes as required within the
collective group to support the agreed vision:
Leadership;
Acceptance of expected values;
Communication skills;
Administrative skills;
Networking ability;
Coordination skills; and
Work ethic.
A list of agreed values to underpin the Goonj Arlan community was developed and
incorporated into guiding principles of the Futures Plan. The values are:
Respect;
A sense of community;
A sense of humour;
Humility;
Integrity;
Commitment; and
Patience.
Workshopping captured a diverse range of extant skills amongst Goonj Arlan family
members including skills knowledge and attributes applicable to management,
supervision, administration and trades. The list of resident skills is shown in Table 7.7.
Each skill is related to the broad objective categories it best services.
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Table 7-7 Existing Skills for Goonj Arlan
Skill/Knowledge Relevant Objectives
Management Community, country and enterprise
Administration Community, country and enterprise
Liaison and coordination Community, country and enterprise
Conflict Resolution Community, country and enterprise
Hospitality Enterprise
Plumbing Community and enterprise
Education Community, country and enterprise
Permaculture Community and enterprise
Information technology use Community, country and enterprise
Environmental management Community, country and enterprise
Customary knowledge Community, country and enterprise
Plant operations Community and enterprise
Fencing construction Community, country and enterprise
Alternative energy systems Community, country and enterprise
Animal husbandry Community, country and enterprise
Pastoral management Community, country and enterprise
Water craft handling Community, country and enterprise
Writing skills Community, country and enterprise
Health and safety management Community, country and enterprise
First aid Community
Environmental health management Community and country
Team supervisory skills Community, country and enterprise
Problem solving Community, country and enterprise
Communications Community, country and enterprise
Horticulture Community, country and enterprise
Dietician Community, country and enterprise
Wellbeing lifestyle development Community
Painter Community and enterprise
Mechanic Community, country and enterprise
Innovative practical skills application Community, country and enterprise
Capturing the extant skills enabled deficiencies to be identified. These deficiencies are
integrated into subsequent action planning. Skills deficiencies for Goonj Arlan exist in the
broad areas of:
Detailed and consolidated customary knowledge;
Formal training in specific governance related functions;
Formal training in land and sea management at project level; and
Project specific skills for planned enterprises.
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Goonj Arlan is currently an Aboriginal Corporation registered in accordance with the
Aboriginal Councils and Associations Act 1976. This provides the base organisation for
future community development. Identifying the existing embryonic and developed
networks and the information captured in the previous workshop stage has informed the
assessment of networks at Table 7.6. Fundamentally, the basis of organisational capital is
well founded for future development initiatives.
Current infrastructure servicing Goonj Arlan has been detailed previously in this
chapter. It includes roads and tracks, water bores, buildings and electricity infrastructure.
Some of the existing infrastructure is shown in Figure 7.9. The development requirements
for Goonj Arlan relate to refurbishment of current infrastructure, transport and project
specific infrastructure. Town and landscape planning for a permanent residency of up to
five people, as well as transient accommodation for up to 25 people, is needed to address
the long-term requirements of community infrastructure.
For any project focused on custodianship, an assessment of what the country offers is
critical. Information obtained from workshopping needs to be supported by a natural
resource inventory and impact assessments. The family custodial claim for Goonj Arlan is
based on advice from elders who provided evidence to the Native Title Tribunal for the
Bardi-Jawi claim. The family claim is for custodial land and sea management purposes
not just occupancy. The custodial claim protects the rights for all Bardi people to access
the resources of this country for customary purposes and ensure the health of the country
is maintained.
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Figure 7-9 Existing infrastructure at Goonj Arlan
Key aspects of country to be considered were identified through this stage of the
workshop process. They include the following:
Remoteness from main population centres with limited access routes assists
caring for country activity;
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Customary knowledge is still held throughout the Bunyiol Bardi community
and must be captured and protected;
Deep Water Point pearling leases are adjacent to the southern boundary of the
country. Land and sea management would help protect this industry‟s interests
from existing and future threats relating to bio-security;
A proposed Marine Protected Area boundary is adjacent to the southern
extreme of family country;
The coastal areas are used by local Aboriginal communities for fishing and
harvesting marine species, however activities are confined to a few locations
which are manageable;
The environment is used by diverse species, many that are vulnerable to
human impact, including turtle and trans-equatorial migratory bird
populations;
Access to Goonj Arlan from the main Cape Leveque road is all season by four
wheel drive;
Underground water is available from two established bores;
The main communities of Djarindjin, One Armed Point and Lombadina are
potential markets and sources of CDEP labour;
The neighbouring outstations provide the opportunity for partnership and
access to government resources; and
Bunyiol Bardi kinship networks provide the opportunity for joint ventures for
specific enterprises as well as an opportunity to establish a Bunyiol council for
the management of local interests and culture.
The issues stemming from country related factors include the following:
The need to complete Natural Resource and Impact Assessments;
The importance of affiliation with an established Bunyiol Bardi network or
council;
The need to capture and consolidate customary knowledge;
The need to ensure that community and enterprise developments do not
adversely impact on the health of the country;
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The requirement to manage community activities on country;
The importance of incorporating management into research and monitoring
projects being conducted by government agencies, environmental bodies and
research institutions; and
The importance of education programs based on customary knowledge to
community sustainability.
7.8.4 Workshop Stage 4: What are our choices?
The opportunities for Goonj Arlan are:
Caring for country through industry and government supported projects;
Community projects including people development, corporation management,
subsistence horticulture, and infrastructure management;
Business projects including cash crop, seed collection, aquaculture, organic
produce and niche tourism.
Table 7.8 details the issues analysis for Goonj Arlan conducted during this stage of
the workshop process. Priority assessment accord with the following criteria:
Priority 1: impacts to the point of preventing development or sustainability;
Priority 2: impacts significantly on development or sustainability; and
Priority 3: likely to slow development or result in a less than preferred option
In discussing courses of action, the family decided to pursue a model based on
formation of an Aboriginal conservancy comprising the three activity elements of
community, caring for country and enterprise. The main advantages of this option were
identified as the following:
The option provides choice of how individuals can participate;
Conservation focuses custodial responsibilities;
Enterprise provides a degree of economic independence as well as leverage for
accessing government and industry support; and
The three elements of the model support the development of future generations
towards culturally significant values.
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Table 7-8 Issues affecting development
Issue Management of issue Priority
Local opportunities for
mainstream education are
limited
Many corporation functions do not require participants to
live on country
Family networks can support children‟s needs
1
Finance availability for set up
costs needs to be secured Submit applications for government funding to support
infrastructure, training and labour requirements
Cost/Benefit analysis must look beyond initial setup costs
Industry will be approached to support development
Community self-sustainability projects are essential
1
Outstation infrastructure
requires refurbishment, in
particular water and electricity
Some permanent occupancy of the outstation is required
Infrastructure design needs to incorporate security
measures
Aboriginal organisations must be briefed and involved
1
Communications to support
health and safety are required Satellite telephone/CDMA communications needed
Funding submissions must include communications needs
2
Transport essential for business,
community and conservation Transport to be included in funding submissions
Transport management plan to be developed
1
Family living in main
population centres and country
will affect some people
On and off country aspects incorporated into projects
Resources for reunion travel required
1
Health service delivery Health needs supported by accessing health clinics and
government programs
Reliable transport and communications are essential
Individuals on the outstation need regular first aid training
An all weather airstrip is located at Lombadina
Emergency management plan to be developed
Guiding principles to support healthy lifestyle options
3
Employment and family
commitments of some members
prevent the immediate full time
involvement
Members have shown a commitment for involvement over
the past three years of planning and research
Projects allow members to be active in different ways that
suit individual choice
1
Uncertainty of sustainability
exists and potentially impacts on
the motivation of family
members and potential
stakeholders
Family members must continue to be involved in planning
and development
Stakeholders need to be briefed on plan
Funding to be sourced to setup activities in the next three
years
2
Negative or counterproductive
attitudes of some family
members could impact on
development
The ethos and values are based on collective agreement
Guiding principles support personal development
Meaningful employment to empower participants
Induction process for participants to be developed
3
Some community skills are
lacking to support specific
projects
Personal development to be based on attitudes and values.
Skill deficiencies are identified and training needs to
emphasise train the trainer
Skills development factored into funding applications
Priorities are business management and caring for country
3
Detailed customary knowledge
is not known to many family
members
Customary knowledge to be captured and learned
Plan to capture and teach knowledge to be developed
Knowledge included in induction package
2
7.8.5 Workshop Stage 5: What will guide us?
Workshopping framed Goonj Arlan‟s guiding principles, which are shown in Table
7.9. These guiding principles are intended to underpin planning, management, decision-
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making and general lifestyle on the outstation. The family see them as providing a
benchmark for behaviour for those visiting country and actively involved in the
Corporation.
Table 7-9 Guiding principles for Goonj Arlan
Principle
1 The Vision provides the aim that guides all decision-making and activities. Participants are
to maintain their focus on the aim. The vision is to ‘establish a long-term sustainable
Aboriginal Corporation that provides the family with the opportunity to exercise
custodianship of family country for future generations’
2 The core values are:
Respect Integrity
A sense of community Commitment and work ethic
A sense of humour Patience
Humility
3 All participants are to behave in line with the agreed values. Anyone breaching these values
will be counseled by the executive committee and if their conduct does not improve their
access to country will be restricted.
4 Goonj Arlan is an Aboriginal Corporation in accordance with the Corporations (Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander) Act 2006 formerly the Aboriginal Councils and Associations
Act 1976.
5 Economic return from activities will be distributed to participants and project development
as determined by the Executive Committee. Only members directly contributing to the
Corporation management or projects will personally benefit from individual payments.
6 Diversity and niche are to characterise business activities being undertaken. Activities that
are successful will be reinforced however the intention is to spread success across a number
of simple activities to support sustainability.
7 Where possible, individuals will be responsible for supervising specific projects and
answerable to the Executive Committee.
8 Activities will involve on and off country participation in Corporation management and
specific projects.
9 Access to Goonj Arlan and its environs is to accord with the following principles:
Family members have absolute access;
Bardi community people have access for customary purposes and are expected to
inform the Corporation of their visits;
Bardi community business activities on family land and sea interests are only to be
conducted on agreement with the Prescribed Body Corporate and the Bunyiol Bardi
council if established; and
Visits by government agencies and Aboriginal organisations will be encouraged.
10 Outstations are to be alcohol and drug free.
11 Decision-making relating to corporation matters is to be by consensus from the Executive
Committee.
12 Equipment is only to be used for the purposes of Corporation operations or tasks that support
the wellbeing of the community. This is particularly the case for transport assets, which are
to be managed centrally and are not to be used for personal use.
13 Open communication is to underpin conflict resolution internally or between the Corporation
and other groups.
14 Personal development is to be encouraged for all members and supported by the Executive
Committee where it benefits community, caring for country or business.
15 Healthy country is to underpin all activities conducted. Outstations and country are to be
clean and litter free and activities are not to harm the environment.
16 Changes to these principles are only to be made on consensus decision by the Executive
Committee.
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7.9 APPLYING THE DATA
The data collected through the implementation of the Participatory Planning
Framework relates to caring for country, community and business aspects of Goonj Arlan
as an establishing Aboriginal corporation. The geographical and ecological data has
informed consideration of the land and sea management needs of the country as well as
business opportunities arising from natural resource use. Researching the potential
businesses that Dampier Peninsula communities can become involved in allows the
family group to assess their capacity for each type of business based on extant skills and
infrastructure.
Participatory planning has allowed the Bunyiol Bardi family group of Goonj Arlan to
use this data to inform subsequent formulation of a Futures Plan. Workshopping has
facilitated an understanding of their collective capacity and identification of development
needs in terms of human capacity and infrastructure. Collective analysis of the data has
produced a collective vision and objectives to steer Goonj Arlan towards becoming an
outstation that supports community development, enables active custodianship of family
country and incorporates business ventures contributing to outstation development and
independence. The formulation of the Futures Plan from this vision is presented in the
next chapter. It is the concluding step of the Participatory Planning Framework used by
the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation.
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8 FORMULATING THE PLAN
8.1 INTRODUCTION
This thesis proposes that the role of Aboriginal family outstations in caring for
country is understated in planning and management processes. The research was directed
to deriving a more direct model for community development based on successful ventures
elsewhere and involvement of the family group in planning. The contribution of
outstation occupancy and associated activity can involve management practices including
customary access control, consumptive harvesting, fire management regimes and
monitoring the country‟s condition. These practices can impact on localised outcomes.
They can also contribute to the collective awareness and focus of communities towards
the health of country.
Literature review combined with an assessment of successful activity by the
Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation has supported the derivation of a Conceptual Model
comprising considerations contributing to management of ventures involving aboriginal
people and country. Data specifically relating to the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal family
outstation, which was incorporated into planning, has also been discussed. This chapter
presents a “Futures Model” for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy and
assesses this against the Conceptual Model. The Futures Model is aimed at the people of
Goonj Arlan undertaking initiatives on family country that integrate community, business
and caring for country objectives. In order to achieve agreed outcomes, the family has
identified that it needs to establish a community with ingrained collective values
supporting their custodial responsibilities.
The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy is a model for a proposed
venture that has been developed to provide the forum for people to return to their family
land. It provides the opportunity for meaningful employment, healthy lifestyle and most
importantly appropriate management of land and sea. Key to this model is the philosophy
that the family-level link to country is strongest and that activity on family country creates
greater purpose for the future of many Indigenous people. For the Goonj Arlan case,
family leadership, a clear vision and a commitment to development for future generations
support this philosophy.
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It must be emphasised that the Futures Model is not the subject of this thesis. Rather it
emerges from the application of the Participatory Planning Framework, which is aligned
to the theoretical framework of the research. The Participatory Planning Framework has
been developed and implemented against the elements of the theoretical framework as
derived in Chapter one. The Futures Model for Goonj Arlan reflects the principles
developed in Chapter two and accords with the components of the Conceptual Model
developed from the Bawinanga case study described in Chapter five. That said the Futures
Model is the appropriate end-state for the research as it consolidates the agreed outcomes
of participatory community planning at a micro level.
8.2 FOUNDATIONS FOR GOONJ ARLAN SUSTAINABILITY
8.2.1 A Family Vision and Objectives
Re-establishing the Goonj Arlan outstation is based on two sets of aims and
objectives, which are micro and macro in their relevance, but inextricably linked. They
target outcomes in line with government policy as well as family interests. At a
government level, policy objectives target broad conditions to create an environment that
attracts development interests and supports long-term investment of resources and
finance. The review of policy presented in Chapters three and four illustrates that the
Australian Government‟s strategic concern is for broad policy focusing on National
frameworks and guidance to create opportunity and deliver services. Policy at regional
levels is more specific in its selection of discreet objectives to support regional priorities
but can be influenced by interest groups with specific agenda.
At the regional level funding may support the development of specific industries or
initiatives that contribute to the regional interests and the growth or at least maintenance
of a population base. Economic development is important in its contribution to achieving
this in rural areas, which risk losing community leadership to the more opportunistic
environment of cities. In the Kimberley, development policy recognises the need to
support economic interests of Aboriginal communities. The Kimberley Development
Commission’s Corporate Plan identifies the need to support regional Indigenous
economic opportunities in its strategic initiatives with emphasis on tourism (KDC, 2004a:
17).
Increasingly regional interests drive State Government policy and initiatives. For
example the establishment of regional sustainability committees drove the planning and
allocation of Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) and National Action Plan (NAP) funding
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along regional needs. Key findings of a recent review into natural resource management
have included that “partnership between the Australian Government and state and
territory governments has been instrumental in leading regional delivery of NRM‖, which
accords with regionally based planning (Keogh et al., 2006: 6). Regardless of policy,
specific development is often driven in the first instance by individual, family or
community aspirations. Business development for Indigenous people is supported by
broader desirables that steer government policy to support the social and environmental
outcomes of regional economic development. In the Kimberley, little NHT effort has
been aimed at practical on-the-ground activity involving Aboriginal people. This is
largely the result of under-representation of Aboriginal interests on State and regional
NHT committees (Worth, 2005: 74). Despite this the practicality of delivering
government programs does not prevent Indigenous communities from having aspirations
and vision, in particularly with regard to land and sea management.
The vision for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation is clearly articulated by the
custodial family as ‘establishing a long-term sustainable Aboriginal Corporation that
provides the family with the opportunity to exercise custodianship of family country for
future generations’. This is supported by the following broad objectives, which are
described in detail in the previous chapter, relating to community, caring for country and
business:
Establish and maintain a family community on country that involves
permanent and temporary occupancy and creates meaningful employment;
Ensure the long-term health of the country by using customary and western
management practices and involving key land and sea management
organisations; and
Establish diverse and niche enterprises that provide income to the support
development and long-term sustainment of the Corporation.
These family objectives clearly target social outcomes through a healthier and more
meaningful lifestyle. They directly link people to country and facilitate a higher degree of
self-determination than currently exists. The identified aim and objectives for Goonj
Arlan place enterprise development in perspective. Economic return is secondary to social
outcomes. Social outcomes are not discreet from environmental ones as the opportunity to
exercise customary responsibility towards country is fundamental to social wellbeing.
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8.2.2 People: the Principal Foundation
Recent changes to Australian Government Indigenous affairs policy places emphasis
on mutual obligation. Chapter three proposed that mutual obligation for Aboriginal people
has a family and immediate community focus rather than a sense of obligation towards
government. To that end, the perception of obligation for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal
Corporation is one of obligation towards kin and country. The delivery of government
programs relating to shared responsibility agreements or basic services needs to accept
this local sense of obligation and acknowledge that the community capacity building
outcomes are achievable regardless of the location, priority or size of a community.
Deliverables must relate to sustaining the community first as the foundation to subsequent
land management or economic development initiatives. However government programs
are focused on larger communities and main population centres. For example the
Aboriginal Communities Strategic Investment Program is intended to provide essential
municipal services to remote communities that are 200 people or more (WA Govt,
2006b). Similarly the Aboriginal and Remote Community Power Supply Program uses
200 people as its benchmark for targeted communities (WA Govt, 2002: 11).
Community development is the fundamental basis for sustainable occupancy of Goonj
Arlan. It is primary to economic development or land management although the latter
provide focus and purpose. This demands a whole-of-government approach to program
and service delivery as economic development cannot be pursued in isolation from the
delivery of normal community services. Infrastructure and service requirements for
housing, administration and education are not discreet from those required to embark on
caring for country or business initiatives.
Effective governance is the start point for sustainability. There are many definitions of
governance however,
―[f]undamentally, it is about power, relationships and accountability:
who has influence, who decides, and how decision makers are held
accountable. The concept may usefully be applied in different contexts–
global, national, and local; societal and institutional‖ Plumptre and Graham
(1999: 3).
Governance provides vision to development through achievable and progressive
objectives, guards against embarking on unfeasible projects and ensures accountability,
which is essential to establishing management networks and winning state and non-
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government support. Effective governance maintains a focus on the social aim that needs
to underpin all activity. The elements of governance that are fundamental to sustainability
for Goonj Arlan are leadership and a culturally appropriate management framework that
blends customary and non-customary ideals.
In his address to Leadership Victoria, Pearson (2003) stated that leaders ―take peoples
hopes of a better future, and formulate a coherent vision by which these hopes can
become reality‖. Effective leadership is founded on vision, commitment and a set of
values that is supported by personal attributes. For Aboriginal people, leadership is also
linked to community standing stemming from family ownership or management
responsibilities towards country. As a result of the impact of European settlement and
contemporary society on customary life, Aboriginal families and communities are
increasingly drawing on leaders who are not necessarily aligned to customary
interpretations of leadership. The successful passage through traditional lore is not
necessarily a criterion to successful leadership of community or family development in
contemporary Aboriginal society. While critical to the fabric of customary social order, it
does not necessarily follow that family leaders are individuals who have successfully
undertaken traditional ceremonies and learning. For Goonj Arlan, many potential leaders
were not given access to attend lore due to the effects of relocation through government
policy initiatives or through a changing maternal and even paternal approach to child
rearing. This in no way results in less regard for initiated men in the family group. Rather
it compels an acceptance of the need to harness leadership developed through diverse
experiences and opportunities.
Goonj Arlan leadership draws from individual development and experience in a non-
customary environment. Key members driving the project have diverse backgrounds.
Some are related by marriage only and stem from other areas of the Kimberley. Some
have developed practical management skills through employment in mainstream
disciplines including education. Some have personal drive stemming from a commitment
to hands on trade related employment and small business. Others are simply accepting of
their custodial responsibilities.
It is an imperative for Goonj Arlan to identify future leaders who will contribute to
outstation sustainability. These future leaders will be best developed through mentorship,
which is a concept underpinning customary development through the passing of
knowledge and values from older to younger. Klinck et al. (2005: 112) identify that from
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―an Aboriginal perspective, informal mentoring has also had a long
history, developing around shared societal values. Prior to contact with
European culture, First Nations people had tribal customary practices for
providing mentor-like guidance for children and youth.‖
A hybrid of this is the need to extend mentoring beyond the criteria of age and
traditional knowledge because experience for contemporary Aboriginal people is not
necessarily linked to these. Goonj Arlan development needs to be supported by
succession planning to provide personal development to future generations. Key to this is
recognising the leadership potential and nurturing it through a combination of customary
and mainstream experiences. For some of the younger family members, external
education opportunities and involvement in competitive sport have created a solid
grounding in their personal traits, which are applicable to effective leadership.
Workshopping has developed a set of values to underpin Goonj Arlan. The family
recognise that values must be realigned to ensure sustainability. Caring for country
provides the medium for this realignment and guiding principles place the development
and acceptance of values as the priority. The following essential values were identified by
the family:
Respect;
A sense of community;
Sense of humour;
Humility;
Integrity;
Commitment;
Work ethic; and
Patience.
The available human resource was assessed during the planning process to identify
the extant capital and deficiencies. This process captured a broad skill base that can be
drawn on to support discreet objectives and projects. Capital can be grouped into the
categories of management, supervision, administration and trades. Current deficiencies
relate to specific project skills, which are readily acquirable through existing training
regimes or avenues of mentoring including the Indigenous Community Volunteer
210
program. Addressing the deficiencies will enable the human resource skills base to be
tailored to undertake specific tasks in support of a range of community, caring for country
and enterprise objectives.
8.3 THE CORPORATION CONSERVANCY MODEL
Participatory planning by the Goonj Arlan family group has resulted in the
development of a model for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy. This
model, which supports the custodial focused vision and the three objectives of
community, caring for country and enterprise, is illustrated in Figure 8.1, with each of the
functional areas broken down in detail in Figures 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4.
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The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy
GACC
Caring for
CountryEnterpriseCommunity
Living oncountry
Self Sufficiency
Projects
Education and
Development
Cash Crop
Organic
Produce
Native Seed
Collection
Assessment
Access and
Activity
Management
Exotic SpeciesControl
Monitoring
Customary
Knowledge
SupportResearch
Tourism
Aquaculture
Wildlife
Figure 8-1 Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy Functions
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Community Activities
Community
Living on
country
Self SufficiencyProjects
Education and
Development
Consumptive Harvesting
Corporation Governance
Connecting with Country
Transport Management
Vegetable Garden
Animal Husbandry
Infrastructure Maintenance
Experience
Mentoring
Customary Knowledge
Mainstream Education
Figure 8-2 Activities comprising the community function for Goonj Arlan
213
Caring for
Country
Assessment
Exotic Species
Control
Monitoring
Customary
Knowledge
Support
Research
Access
Management
Climatic Affects
Human Impact
Health of Country
Cultural Significance
Rubbish Prevention
Visitation and Facilities
Species Take and Locations
Vehicle Access Management
Weeds
Feral Animals
Foods and Medicines
Family Geneology
Stories and Language
Seasons
Knowledge of Change to Beaches/Reefs/Waterways
Recording Fishing Take
Knowledge of Change to Populations
Knowledge of Change to Vegetation
Conduct Fieldwork
Establish Partnership with Universities/ CRC
Provide Facilities to Research
Provide Customary Knowledge of Country
Caring for Country Activities
Figure 8-3 Activities comprising the caring for country function for Goonj Arlan
214
Enterprise
Cash Crop
Organic
Produce
Native SeedCollection
Tourism
Aquaculture
Wildlife
Gubinge Plantation
Existing Distributor
Consortium
Local Communities
Broome Markets
Revegetation Industry
Local Nursery Market
Aquarium Industry
Existing Distributor
Freshwater Species
Predictable Schedule
Outstation Product
Regular Client Base
Limited Overheads
Future Project
Partnership with Research/Government Agencies
Species Significant to Community Consumption
Business Activities
Figure 8-4 Activities comprising the business function for Goonj Arlan
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8.3.1 Supporting a Choice of Lifestyle
The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy is to be governed by an
Executive Committee established and regulated under the Corporations (Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander) Act 2006. The model is intended to accommodate a choice of
community lifestyle to support the different family needs identified during planning.
Permanent occupancy is the first lifestyle aspect that is essential to the model. Facilities
and activities will need to support an element of permanent residency on country to
oversee project operations and ensure custodial recognition by the wider Bunyiol Bardi
community. Planning has identified the need to establish infrastructure and services to
support up to five permanent occupants at the existing outstation. Future developments
include the building of outstation infrastructure on the northern extremes of custodial
family country, however this will be driven by the successful implementation of the
model based on the existing outstation location. The key responsibilities of permanent
residents will be managing the initial establishment of the conservancy model, managing
Executive Committee interaction with local neighbours and communities, and providing
day to day management and supervision of projects across all three objectives.
The second lifestyle aspect involves those residing in main population centres but
choosing to be actively involved in the Corporation‟s activities. These people can be
drawn on for skills expertise to support specific projects on or off country. On country
they may apply trade skills to assist in infrastructure building and maintenance or
participate in production. Off country they may contribute to produce distribution and
management functions such as marketing or financial accounting.
The third lifestyle category involves those who do not wish to be actively involved but
choose to simply visit their traditional country for spiritual purposes. The model supports
this category and facilities are planned to support the needs of up to 25 transients.
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Figure 8-5 A proposed logo for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation
Conservancy designed by children of the custodial family during workshopping
8.3.2 Community Activity
Community specific activity involves functions and projects to support sustainable
living on country. Work supporting community functions is essential to outstation
longevity. It supports day-to-day functions as well as personal development of
participants to enable them to assume their custodial and Corporation management roles.
From a day-to-day perspective community activities will satisfy the following:
Harvesting natural resources for consumption;
Self-sufficiency projects including horticulture and infrastructure maintenance;
and
Corporation governance including decision-making, bookkeeping, Executive
Committee management functions, legislative compliancy requirements and
liaison.
Community activities will also aim at long-term sustainability of the Corporation and
community. Importantly activities will target the following:
Mentoring through engagement with family and community leadership and
external volunteers to impart the values of Goonj Arlan to participants;
Development of education programs designed to capture and deliver
knowledge of Bardi language, family genealogy, customary land and sea
management, leadership and management of Aboriginal corporations; and
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Long-term planning for Goonj Arlan‟s future.
Community activity must be recognised as fundamental to implementing and
sustaining the developed model. This activity is as critical to Goonj Arlan as each of the
caring for country and enterprise initiatives. To that end, funding applications to
government and industry will highlight the need for support to implement programs that
develop the skills and attributes needed for the day-to-day and more strategic
requirements of a functional community.
8.3.3 Caring for Country
Caring for country underpins community health in this instance. The family link to
country is a spiritual one and ensuring healthy country meets custodial imperatives. This
aspect of the Corporation comprises a number of functions and relies on networking with
external stakeholders including the regional Native Title Prescribed Body Corporate,
Aboriginal communities with societal access entitlements, research and development
institutions and government agencies.
The Corporation provides a medium to drive natural resource assessments that will
contribute to satisfying the current gaps in regional ecological data. Broad assessment has
been conducted as part of this project and the outstation will be able to provide facilities
and a workforce to support assessment research relating to specific species and
communities. Important data can be collected as part of outstation life or during formally
managed research field trips on site. An established relationship with government
environmental agencies and universities will support negotiated integration of Goonj
Arlan into specific research projects. This involvement provides mutual benefit to
researchers and custodians and could serve as an example of cooperation, which other
family groups may benefit from.
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Figure 8-6 Photographs of the Goonj Arlan custodians on country
The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy will be able to access
government coast and land care programs to build infrastructure and establish
management arrangements targeting community access to areas and natural resource
usage. In a sense, related activities will need to translate to co-management arrangements
with government agencies. Zann (1999: 586) identified that co-management in which the
Samoan Government (through the Fisheries Extension Service) “assists villages to
manage there own resources was pivotal to” establishing inshore fisheries and
environment management programs. Johannes (2002: 333) described the introduction of
community activities in Oceanic states that enable
―systematic data gathering by trained community members to determine
the impacts their management measures are having on their marine
resources.‖
Zann (1999: 573) discussed the application of surveys to capture data processed by
the Samoan Department of Statistics related to household fish consumption, catch and
effort. Similarly a National census of agriculture collected data relating to subsistence
fisheries. This information was important to determining an inventory for inshore
fisheries. A simple data collection program will be developed for Goonj Arlan to capture
data on community access patterns as well as harvests by date, species, sizes and
219
locations. Longer term data collection relating to take will inform access management
practices and allow the people of Goonj Arlan to maintain appropriate population levels
of crabs, shellfish and fin-fish species at each of the locations used by local communities.
For example oyster collection occurs in specific locations, which will be managed
through access controls ensuring populations are not over-harvested and have time to
regenerate in each location. In the immediate implementation of the model, access
management will focus on the following:
Limiting access to the country on marked tracks;
Preventing vehicle use on beaches;
Preventing rubbish being left by visitors;
Locating fish cleaning facilities back from the beach;
Establishing ablution facilities;
Maintaining populations of shellfish and crab species at harvest sites;
Preventing the take of fish out of season and that are undersized;
Erecting signage; and
Managing the hunting of turtles.
Apart from the environmental benefits, projects eradicating feral animals and weeds
will provide meaningful employment to family members and potentially for the broader
community under government funded programs. This is one of the activities conducted
under the Northern Land Council‟s Caring for Country Unit Indigenous Ranger Program,
which includes species eradication projects in established land and sea management
activity (NLC, 2006).
Customary knowledge of Goonj Arlan and its environs is critical to family
custodianship in particular as it involves management of resources. In discussing the basis
of Aboriginal economy, Berndt and Berndt (1988: 112) identified the connection
―between the sequence of the seasons and the supply of food. And
pervading both of these aspects, linking them in a different dimension, are the
myths and rites which the Aborigines‘ view sustain and renew for the benefit
of human beings‖.
Much of the customary knowledge remains with only a few elders residing in local
communities in Djarindjin and One Armed Point. Family strategic planning has
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recognised the importance of capturing, consolidating and imparting this knowledge,
where appropriate, to support caring for country and community activities. The
knowledge requirements identified are family genealogy, stories of country, Bardi
language, knowledge of seasons for harvesting species, and use of bush foods and
medicines.
Knowledge of harvesting seasons, locations and quotas of take, and understanding
when the country is affected detrimentally by natural or human activity are as important
to management practices as western scientific knowledge. Combined traditional and
western knowledge can contribute to monitoring programs supporting long-term land and
sea management. This is supported by the prospect of Goonj Arlan providing a base for
ecological scientific research. An established Goonj Arlan Conservancy will have
capacity to support scientific research due to its location with regards to proposed Marine
Protected Areas, its containment of a number species and communities of interest, and
associated gaps existing in data sets.
8.3.4 Diverse and Niche Enterprise
Enterprise activity is inextricably linked to sustainability. While initial establishment
of Goonj Arlan will be possible through the support of government programs and
industry, sustainability requires a degree of economic self-reliance. This is to be achieved
through enterprise. Many Aboriginal economic development initiatives involve large
communities conducting single major projects. Goonj Arlan business is to involve family
and diverse engagement in niche enterprise. While success in a business will be
reinforced, the fundamental business approach is to diversify in a number of low effort
niche activities, with emphasis on distributing products through existing regional
arrangements. The business opportunities to be pursued at Goonj Arlan are cash crop,
organic produce, seed collection, tourism, aquaculture and species farming. If a particular
enterprise fails, diversity will still generate income and importantly not undermine the
motivation of participants. Working through existing distributors allows family effort to
be focused on production rather than marketing.
A focus on moderate return to support the social and environmental objectives is to
underpin sustainability of Goonj Arlan. This focus will mitigate a corporate temptation to
chase unsustainable business growth in a single venture.
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Cash crop from Gubinge
Cash crop plantation will be the main income generator and will involve the
horticultural production of the native species Gubinge (Terminalia ferdinandiana), which
is endemic to the area. Goonj Arlan intends to harness the opportunity stemming from the
collaborative development being undertaken by Kimberley TAFE and the communities in
the Dampier Peninsula and support the research and development that is required to
develop this industry fully. This collaborative approach will reduce overheads associated
with marketing, crop establishment, and infrastructure and skills development.
The Goonj Arlan plantation will involve up to 200 plants along the access and ring
roads of the outstation. This approach will negate the need for land clearing and facilitate
easy harvesting. Costs for establishing the plantation are limited to irrigation
infrastructure only as seedlings can be propagated from wild harvested seeds collected
from Goonj Arlan country. To mitigate the overheads associated with marketing, it is
intended to distribute produce through the existing distribution network operating from
Broome. Scope exists to establish a consortium with other local Gubinge producers.
Organic Produce as a By-product of Community Activity
Organic produce for commercial sale to local communities is a simple offshoot from
community sustaining activity. A significant need for healthy and fresh food products
exists in local Aboriginal communities. Excess produce will be sold to markets in local
communities on the Dampier Peninsula and an alternate market is already established in
Broome. The effort to grow and harvest organic produce is significant but base skills
exist amongst family members already. Additional skills development is readily attainable
through extant courses conducted by Kimberley TAFE.
Infrastructure requirements are simple if produce quantities remain modest. Quality
water for irrigation is readily available. Organic produce will negate the costs and long-
term impact of phosphate based fertilisers, which is a consideration according with the
caring for country objective. Some storage facilities will be required to maintain supplies
prior to sale however this can be mitigated by ensuring produce is harvested just prior to
sale. A vehicle and trailer will be necessary for transporting produce to markets in local
communities.
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Seed Collection as an Opportunity Activity
Seed collection is an unreliable option for Goonj Arlan due to provenance demands
and uncertainty of markets. However, seed collection provides an option for opportunity
business. Associated skills for collection of seeds are simple and produce preparation
does not demand significant effort or equipment if operations are maintained at a modest
scale. If Goonj Arlan can avoid the burdens of storage it could participate in this industry
through either opportunity demands from established distributors involved in revegetation
or the provision of seeds to the nursery industry or local community markets in Broome.
Packaging, marketing and distribution are all functions that could be conducted off
country. To that end, while the industry is not a potentially significant one for the
Corporation, it provides opportunity for family members who are not residing on country
to participate. The key to this enterprise is to target specific species and regular
distribution customers unable to source species due to inaccessibility to country.
Distribution that avoids provenance constraints probably steers Goonj Arlan towards local
community markets.
Niche Tourism
The tourism product that will be developed and marketed by Goonj Arlan is the
experience of living on an Aboriginal outstation and participating in conservancy
activities. The intention is to provide this product at specific times of the year for small
tourist numbers and for limited activities. This approach negates the need for extensive
tourism facilities and services to meet the demands of mainstream tourism. It supports the
custodial vision of the family and potentially provides a regular and reliable annual
income. The Corporation will market the product through WAITOC and scope exists to
link into other regional Indigenous operators.
A tourism product will be developed probably for initial marketing to Catholic
Education in Western Australia. This client exploits an established network brought to the
Corporation by the principle family leader. His employment with Catholic education is
underpinned by mutual respect and longevity. The product aims to provide the
opportunity for students from independent schools to live with Aboriginal people on
traditionally owned land. The tourism experience will be cultural and environmental with
students participating in community-based activities such as infrastructure maintenance
and consumptive harvesting; caring for country activities such as data collection or weed
eradication; and business activities such as Gubinge harvesting and aquaculture. The
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initial market exploits an existing business network, involves low overheads for
marketing and delivery, and provides a unique experience for participants. Successful
engagement with Catholic Education has potential to result in a regular commitment as
well as attracting other customers. Other markets could include ex-service organisations,
youth development organisations and potentially overseas tourists looking for tourism
products blending social and environmental experiences. Collaboration with other
WAITOC operators will assist the marketing process and enable Goonj Arlan to
endeavour to draw on the extant tourism base and infrastructure node of the Broome
region.
Aquaculture with Low Overheads
The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy intends to develop aquaculture
activities progressively by targeting the aquarium industry. Species selection will accord
with progressive development of skills, corporate confidence and infrastructure. The key
to successful niche aquaculture on a small scale is to embark on activities that are low in
overheads, fast in production, provide modest returns, and are not characterised by a large
economic impact from stock loss. Initial projects will involve easily managed freshwater
species. As skills and confidence develop, other fresh water native species will be raised.
Scope exists to further develop skills and infrastructure to breed saltwater aquarium
species, which provide greater return, but demand higher standards for skills and
infrastructure as well as commitment.
Skills will be acquired through established programs jointly delivered by KAAC and
Kimberley TAFEWA. It is intended to distribute products to markets through the existing
networks of Munbana Aboriginal Corporation, in order to reduce overheads associated
with marketing and allow the Corporation to harness Munbana‟s experience and
knowledge.
Wild harvest of land hermit crabs (Coenibita variabilis) is another feasible
commercial initiative. The species is endemic to the Goonj Arlan area and provides an
immediate source of revenue. Business could involve distribution of collected crabs
through Munbana, providing stock to an existing and approved commercial operator in
Perth, Western Australia or submitting an application for a commercial operator‟s license.
Another course of action is to allow the Perth based operator to conduct his own
collection on Goonj Arlan country and pay royalties to the Corporation. This option has
not been discounted, however if pursued it is likely to be confined to the early stages of
development.
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Wildlife Projects in the Longer Term
Wildlife projects demand significant overheads in terms of infrastructure, animal
husbandry skills and research. To that end, wildlife farming or wild harvest will not be
considered for Goonj Arlan until the conservancy matures. It is intended that activities
will be developed as separate projects in conjunction with government agencies,
supported by discreet business planning and funding. The Corporation is interested in
investigating opportunities for commercially farming goanna and bustard species. The
intended market would be for local Aboriginal consumption and if manageable
reintroduction into the wild.
An approach to developing this concept into tangible business would be to establish it
through government funded collaboration with a research institution. This would provide
the necessary research framework to support subsequent endorsement of species
management plans. Goonj Arlan could provide the medium for introducing this type of
conservation strategy to Western Australia‟s conservation management frameworks.
8.4 REVISITING THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL
The model developed for Goonj Arlan is still to be implemented. Its development has
been based on researching the principles and considerations underpinning successful
management. To recap, the assessment of the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation,
combined with a review of related literature, resulted in the development of a Conceptual
Model comprising considerations for successful activity on country. While the targeted
Bawinanga activity specifically involved wild animal harvesting, the broader literature
indicates that the considerations are transferable to other initiatives involving natural
resources.
As presented in Chapter five, the factors contributing to successful and sustainable
initiatives can be grouped under three functional areas. They are the contribution by
government to activity; characteristics of executive committee management; and
characteristics of activity. Each of these functional areas comprises specific
considerations. The considerations for successful activity comprised in the Conceptual
Model are as follows:
The Contribution by government:
Policy;
Management Plans and
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Funding;
Characteristics of Executive Management Committee:
Traditional Owner Involvement;
Consensus decision-making;
Credibility with regulating authority;
Liaison network; and
Leadership;
Characteristics of Activity:
Social objectives;
Niche markets;
Traditional practices;
State support;
Progressive development;
Diversity;
Job specific training; and
External evaluation.
An assessment of the Goonj Arlan model against each of these considerations will
validate the model against the lessons learned from other initiatives.
8.4.1 The Contribution by Government
Policy
The Native Title determination for the Bardi-Jawi claim is the single most significant
determination creating opportunity for Goonj Arlan. The Corporation must now
implement tangible initiatives drawing from Australian and Western Australian
Government policy. While policy is not specific in promoting outstation activity
involving caring for country, the theme of shared responsibility provides opportunity to
leverage from traditional ownership of country.
Western Australian policy fails to make the formal link between conservation and
wildlife use, however it does support tourism based initiatives, land-care and capacity
building. Goonj Arlan planning aims to harness a number of programs to address specific
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identified actions. If the Futures Plan can be progressively implemented in line with the
collectively agreed actions, Goonj Arlan may be a model for evolving policy towards
outstation specific initiatives.
Species Management Plans
Species management plans are legally essential to Goonj Arlan‟s initiatives involving
commercial use of wildlife. Development and submission of a management plan
application for land hermit crab collection will need to be guided by approved plans for
other collection operations in Western Australia. The potential development of species
farming for Aboriginal consumption would need to involve collaboration with
government and research organisations to fund and inform the development of any
species management planning. Importantly the family recognise that monitoring will be
an important element of any activity involving species use for commercial gain. Their
intended caring for country strategy includes monitoring as a function supporting broader
species and habitat management not just related to commercial wildlife use.
Government Funding
Government funding is critical to the initial implementation of the Goonj Arlan
project. It will also be important for maintaining specific elements including community
capacity building for governance and workforce employment related to caring for
country. This has been considered during planning and factored into actions and targets.
The role that the state plays for Goonj Arlan is assessed in more detail below against the
characteristics of activity.
8.4.2 Characteristics of Executive Committee Management
Traditional Owner Involvement
The management of the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation is underpinned by
custodial membership of the elected Executive Management Committee. This is a family
corporation with planning focused on family claimed land and sea. The custodians
initiated the project through an approach to the researcher to investigate opportunities for
development. From this approach their consistent involvement included collaborative
design of the planning framework, participation in data collection and the development of
the proposed model. Prior to this the custodians established the original outstation, which
they managed independently for some years.
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The family‟s claim for country affects the interests of the wider regional Bardi
community accessing the area for consumptive fishing and harvesting. Goonj Arlan‟s
Executive Management Committee recognises this and has developed guiding principles
to ensure this access continues. As custodians of the country they are responsible for
managing the access and use of resources, not preventing people from their customary
rights to visit and live their chosen lifestyles.
Research and planning has also involved informing the immediate neighbours living
as custodians on adjacent country of intended activity. Indeed the neighbours support the
family‟s return to Goonj Arlan and are willing to support this through collaborated effort
and advice in specific activities including aspects of business. For example, one
neighbour has indicated a willingness to consider developing a consortium for cash crop
and access to the local CDEP labour market. Another neighbouring elder has raised the
proposal to establish a Bunyiol Bardi counsel to share experiences and manage the
interests of the Bunyiol community in the region.
Traditional owner involvement and support is achieved through the Executive
Committee‟s relationship with future representatives of the Prescribed Body Corporate. In
accordance with the Native Title Act 1993 a prescribed Body Corporate is to be
established to manage the Native Title determination regionally. This body has not yet
been formed however the individuals earmarked for representation have been supportive
of Goonj Arlan‟s intentions. It is planned that once the Prescribed Body Corporate is
operating the Goonj Arlan Executive Management Committee will brief the body and
seek formal endorsement. This will ensure broader Traditional Owner recognition and
participation in the process, which further ensures that kinship beyond the family group is
acknowledged in the development process.
Consensus Decision-making
Consensus decision-making has underpinned strategic planning for Goonj Arlan.
From the outset the Executive Committee recognised the importance of caring for family
country to their ancestors and future generations. The developed plan grew from
participatory planning with each stage being typified by consensus agreement before
moving onto the next. The first step to this was identifying the collective goal for Goonj
Arlan supporting the individual needs and expectations of all family members. The
derived goal is the aim that has guided all planning and provided a benchmark for
subsequent discussions and collective agreement. Consensus decision-making has also
been captured in the guiding principles for the Corporation.
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Credibility with the Regulating Authority
Goonj Arlan planning has considered the need for establishing credibility across its
varied functions. At the Corporation level this is reflected in identifying a training need
for Executive Committee members in Aboriginal corporation governance as well as
business office skills. To date the management of the Corporation has been ad hoc
however the committee recognises that this is an issue needing to be addressed if
government funding and broader community support is to be attracted. In particular
credible governance needs to be recognised by the Indigenous Coordination Centre in
Broome and Prescribed Body Corporate in the northern Dampier Peninsula. Robust
governance is also necessary to attract support from industry and markets. Good
governance indicates reliability to satisfy business and market demands. Similarly, robust
governance underpins appropriate social development for the community. Goonj Arlan‟s
guiding principles target improved social conditions and focus effort on achievable
practical activities. The collective skills currently existing in the family group are a sound
basis for establishing a robust governance framework for Goonj Arlan.
The Corporation‟s foundation of caring for country is the first step in establishing
environmental credibility. It is planned to apply this initially through coast-care related
initiatives supported under Coast-care and Indigenous Land-care programs. Successful
and appropriate activity that is funded from extant government programs and addresses
access management and community activity on country will provide a benchmark for
Goonj Arlan to broaden its caring for country activities. A willingness to facilitate and
participate in species and habitat monitoring projects is the next stage planned for the
Corporation's land management focus. The planned economic activities all have
environmental aspects involving external agencies in their development:
Cash crop aims to access research and development being undertaken by
Charles Darwin University and TAFEWA;
Tourism activity will provide a product allowing tourists to participate in land
and sea management activities;
Native seed harvesting will be conducted under government regulatory
conditions; and
Aquaculture will be developed with the support and guidance of the
Kimberley Aboriginal Aquaculture Corporation.
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All of these initiatives provide the opportunity to enhance the reputation of the
Corporation with a diverse mix of organisations and agencies.
Liaison Network
Formal and informal liaison to support the Corporation‟s development and
management is a contributing aspect to successfully implementing and conducting
outstation activities. Effective liaison provides opportunity and develops an organisation‟s
rapport and credibility with other stakeholders. Networks are not inanimate linkages.
They are born on human interaction resulting in levels of mutual trust and return.
Goonj Arlan is well placed to harness extant networks and develop new ones.
Planning has identified mature individual relationships that can form the basis of
collective organisational networks. Once matured, each of these networks will be based
on mutual interaction over a number of years and will have potentially resulted in a high
degree of trust between individuals and organisations. This trust will assist in attracting
support for Goonj Arlan implementation at each stage. The networks comprise
government agencies, academic institutions, education organisations, the Indigenous
sector and potential industries.
Leadership
Leadership is critical to the establishment and maintenance of Goonj Arlan.
Indigenous leadership has underpinned planning from the outset. Initially custodial
members of the Phillips/Jacky family established Goonj Arlan outstation under difficult
circumstances. As previously described, the outstation project was commenced under
little more than a socially focused government program to allow families from centralised
communities to live on country. This program provided basic infrastructure and CDEP,
but no support to properly plan and manage a sustainable future. The move and
subsequent residency was done so by family members with a vision for a better lifestyle
for them and their children. This base level vision is a key element of the family
leadership. The family‟s commitment to make the situation work for a number of years,
despite the lack of practically based and accessible government support mechanisms, is
also an indication of resident leadership. While the initial outstation concept was
unsustainable, the vision and commitment are capital for community capacity.
Planning has identified a number of individual skills inherent in the family group.
Many of these skills are applicable to longer-term management at the Corporation and
practical activity levels. These skills are enhanced by individuals‟ experience in
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management and coordination roles to provide a solid base for further leadership
development.
The strong values base of some key family members has been translated into the
Corporation‟s guiding principles. The family recognise that leadership requires depth.
This can be realised in two ways. Firstly key leaders require knowledge and development
to apply their leadership to achieve practical outcomes. Secondly, leadership needs to be
developed in future generations. Not every family member has the attributes to lead the
Corporation so individuals need to be identified based on their character as it aligns to the
values of Goonj Arlan. Once identified the Corporation can then invest effort into their
development for future roles. This concept is difficult to apply but is aligned with the
customary Aboriginal philosophy of mentoring and developing younger people to meet
the demands of adulthood and leadership in customary life.
Indigenous leadership external to the family group has also contributed to planning
and will be critical to implementing and sustaining Goonj Arlan. In particular, leaders
resident in the Prescribed Body Corporate, communities of Djarindjin and Lombadina as
well as neighbouring family outstations, the Indigenous Sector and Kimberley TAFE are
all important in the support, recognition and role modelling they provide to the Executive
Committee and members of Goonj Arlan.
Non-Indigenous leadership has been accessible during the planning stage and it is
intended by Goonj Arlan to access this during implementation. During the planning stage
non-Indigenous leadership has been accessed through assistance in planning and support
from key appointments in supporting government agencies, particularly ICC and conduits
to industry through TAFE and Indigenous support bodies such as the Munbana
Aboriginal Corporation. Implementing and managing the project intends to draw on non-
Indigenous leadership through Indigenous Community Volunteer programs, government
agencies and industry.
8.4.3 Characteristics of Activity
Social Objectives
The social objectives of Goonj Arlan have driven planning and will underpin
implementation. The objectives identified during workshopping were grouped under
community, caring for country and business however their delineation is not discrete.
While the objectives have been separated for ease of explanation, the interfaces between
family objectives and those of country and business are significant. The community
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activity must be robust to ensure the health of the country for future generations.
Similarly, the community relies on economic development to sustain itself. The family‟s
vision is clearly aimed at exercising chosen lifestyles that meet customary obligations as
custodians of the country. The guiding principles are focused on developing and
supporting a robust family community managed by an Executive Committee decision-
making framework. To that end, succession planning is an important outcome stemming
from opportunity arising for people to develop.
An important social objective is to provide family members with a choice regarding
their individual involvement in the Goonj Arlan Corporation. This choice relates to how
Goonj Arlan becomes part of their lifestyles as opposed to what they do for the
Corporation. This is a strategic characteristic of the planning and creates an opportunity
for participation regardless of individual circumstances. Goonj Arlan does not demand
that all family members leave their current lifestyles to take up permanent residency on
country. This would probably affect the sustainability of the small outstation. People will
have the opportunity though to leave centralised communities in order to connect with
country and family and lead healthy lifestyles away from the distractions and in some
cases harmful influences of the larger communities. The model provides the opportunity
for family members to become active as they chose, develop new skills and strengthen
their links to country.
Niche Markets
The business element of the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation is primarily based
on a major enterprise involving cash crop. Planning has underlined the necessity to build
redundancy into business. The main activity and the supporting ones are all niche in their
products and are link into established or developing industries:
Gubinge is endemic to the region and markets are limited but reliable;
Organic food produce as a by-product of community activity meets a local
market demand both in Aboriginal communities and Broome;
Tourism for Goonj Arlan provides a potentially niche product based on
specific consumer groups being given the opportunity to participate in a
unique cultural and environmental experience;
Native seed collection provides a niche opportunity stemming from access to
species;
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Aquarium based aquaculture accesses a potentially high return industry with a
modest capital, infrastructure and skills liability; and
Harvesting wild species such as hermit crabs is feasible due to immediate
access to the species in marketable quantities and access to established
markets.
Entering emerging and niche markets provides leverage in the future while using
extant networks provides opportunity do this. With all of the proposed enterprises, niche
primarily stems from access to country and associated resources. The fact that these
activities are to be undertaken by an Aboriginal community provides another dimension
to the project that potentially attracts local interest.
Traditional Practices
Customary lifestyle underpins the reason for the family to embark on developing
Goonj Arlan. Custodianship provides a reason and opportunity for the family to be on
country and exercise their responsibilities. This is fundamental to the social objective and
creates a basis for all planned activities whether they meet the needs of country,
community or business. Custodianship is about ensuring the country is healthy for future
generations. Linking lifestyle into caring for country activities contributes to this. Caring
for country allows custodial family members to manage both community access to
country and use of its resources. Access management will accord with custodial practices
for visitors with species to be taken only during their respective seasons. Shellfish and
crab collection will be managed between locations to allow population regeneration.
Enhancing the customary knowledge held by the family group is an important aspect
of the project implementation. Much knowledge exists within the broader regional
community however a need exists to ensure that Goonj Arlan family members capture
and develop their knowledge as it applies to custodianship of country. This objective is
included in the Futures Plan.
Progressive Development
Progressive and achievable development of Goonj Arlan is based on existing skills
and infrastructure to establish a degree of residency and economic return. The intention is
to progressively develop economic ventures supporting the development of skills and
providing diverse choice to family members regarding participation. The first stage
involves establishing robust governance, permanent residency by key participants, access
management to fishing and crabbing locations and the foundations of a Gubinge
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plantation. The skills to undertake these actions exist now in the family group. The
resources required are readily accessible through government programs. Achieving this
stage will significantly enhance the confidence of the collective group.
The skills and resources required for diverse enterprise and more sophisticated caring
for country projects will be acquired in accordance with futures planning. For example, it
is intended to conduct leadership development to support governance and succession
planning. Aquaculture skills and infrastructure will be readily acquired through existing
funded programs. Networks will be enhanced to support enterprise development as well
as caring for country initiatives involving habitat and species monitoring.
State Support
The development of Goonj Arlan as a conservancy is reliant on state support to
mitigate the overheads associated with workforce, infrastructure and training. For Goonj
Arlan to be sustainable, this support needs be accessible beyond the initial
implementation stage.
Goonj Arlan will need to access workforce support through CDEP and specific land-
care programs. Until an economic return is realised through the Gubinge project,
government will be the only source of payment for a workforce, which will be largely
family members. Some members may forgo established employment to participate in
Goonj Arlan at a far lower rate of remuneration than their current circumstances.
Infrastructure requirements will be met largely through current housing and works
programs. Town planning will be funded through the Indigenous Sector and infrastructure
for business activities will be developed during established training courses. Training will
access specific courses to support governance and enterprise needs. The Futures Plan
identifies specific training needs and the courses available to meet those needs, with
Aboriginal assistance schemes potentially alleviating costs associated with training. The
Australian Government‟s Indigenous Employment Policy’s Structured Training and
Employment Projects scheme will enable ongoing training to be conducted by an
established Corporation to address the development of specific commercial or caring for
country activities.
Diversity
With the exception of Gubinge and an established tourism product, the business
activities the Corporation has decided on are unlikely to be viable as standalone economic
endeavours supporting long-term requirements. However all activities provide a degree of
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redundancy and risk mitigation by ensuring that reliance is not on a single product. They
also provide a range of opportunities for individuals to choose how they will become
involved in the enterprise aspects of the Corporation.
Diversity for Goonj Arlan is not isolated to enterprise. The caring for country and
community focused activities also provide choice. If an element of enterprise fails, those
involved can still be applied in other aspects of the Corporation. Individuals will develop
intangible skills in any project, which are transferable to other work. In particular the
acceptance of Goonj Arlan‟s guiding principles through participation is important to the
employability of an individual in any aspect of the Corporation.
Job Specific Training
Training has been factored into the Futures Plan, which recognises existing skills and
develops new ones specific to governance and activities. The family group has a sound
collective level of numeracy and literacy to support the identified training needs. The
training needs analysis has determined the requirements for individual and collective
training in the areas of leadership, management, natural resource management,
horticulture and aquaculture. All of these competencies can be acquired through
established courses conducted regionally. Current capacity building programs funded by
government can support additional enhancement of leadership. Importantly the collective
training to be undertaken by the people of Goonj Arlan is focused on the competencies
required to implement and sustain the outstation in its entirety.
External Evaluation
External evaluation will be important to the Corporation‟s reputation and credibility
with supporting agencies. In the first instance evaluation needs to be tied to government
support stemming from shared responsibility agreements during the implementation of
the Futures Plan. Evaluation allows the Corporation to identify its achievement of stated
benchmarks and satisfies government scrutiny of resource use. These two conditions will
provide leverage to access support under other government programs. Achieving these
conditions also illustrates a commitment that could attract interest from non-government
organisations including industry.
Specific caring for country targets are very important indicators for the region‟s Bardi
leadership representation, as they provide a measure of the family‟s commitment to the
country. A balance between economic development and appropriate management of
traditionally owned country will be readily observable by regional Aboriginal leaders.
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8.4.4 A Goonj Arlan Model Enabling Custodianship
The development of the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy is founded
on a family sense of custodial responsibility. This underpins the Corporation‟s vision,
which is supported by social, environmental and economic objectives. The social
objectives relate to activity that is intended to sustain the community through generational
change. Significant to this is the integration and realignment of collective values and the
recognition of succession planning supported by personal development. The people of
Goonj Arlan recognise that the longevity of their custodial efforts relies on developing the
sense of responsibility of future generations towards their country.
Access to lifestyle choices underpins the sense of community for this family. The
social and employment demands of members are diverse. Projects that allow people to
participate on and off country aim to attract community involvement.
Environmental objectives provide an opportunity to participate in active land and sea
management involving customary practices and integrating western scientific processes.
Projects are aimed at reducing the impact of community activity on sensitive coastal areas
as well as protecting endemic species from the impact of introduced ones. Monitoring the
country‟s health contributes to long-term management and demands a degree of
permanent residency as well as the enhancement of customary knowledge held by the
family group.
While the overheads of proposed economic activities are significant particularly with
regard to the human resource, the initiatives support rather than drive this family venture.
They harness the opportunities stemming from custodianship and use the resources of the
country.
Goonj Arlan is a model for small family based initiatives allowing people to return to
country in order to exercise the most fundamental custodial relationship. The model is
based on the vision and objectives of the people at the family level and draws on the
collective existing capital. It allows family members to participate to the extent that they
wish to as individuals. The matured model, which is supported by an enabling Futures
Plan, has been derived from collaborative planning driven by the people of Goonj Arlan.
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9 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The thesis presents a study in communication and participatory planning involving
indigenous people and caring for country. It has involved a review of literature largely as
it relates to case studies of indigenous people and their involvement with natural
resources, as well as the role of government in creating an environment that encourages
and supports participation. Participatory planning has captured the capital of the subject
family-based community and integrated aspirations and capacity into a model supporting
community, business and environmental objectives. While the outcome of the research is
currently a model, the intention to implement that model is real and initial stages are
underway. It is intended that this thesis provide the basis for subsequent writings to
monitor the implementation of the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy‟s
Future Plan.
The research outcomes provide tools that can be applied to community development
involving people with cultural links to country and natural resources. They are relevant to
groups that have custodial responsibility towards caring for traditionally owned land and
are characterised by social structures combining kinship and customary social orders.
This chapter discusses the applicability of the research covered in this thesis. It
assesses the suitability of the research design and provides comment on the relevance of
the project to the wider body of literature relating to Indigenous people and natural
resource management. An assessment of the achievement of the research objectives is
made and the opportunities for future research stemming from this project are identified.
9.2 REFLECTIONS ON RESEARCH METHODS
The research design aimed to produce a practical outcome based on considerations
relating to aboriginal people and natural resource management. This practical outcome
necessitated participation in community planning by the researcher. Experiences
stemming from this participation, combined with observation, informed planning for a
family based initiative. In summary the design detailed in Chapter one began with
literature review to ascertain broad concepts relating to how indigenous people can
contribute to the management of natural resources in a largely euro-centric environment.
These concepts were developed further through a case study assessment to derive a
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Conceptual Model comprising considerations underpinning successful community-based
initiatives. The derived model was then applied to the development of a plan for a family
group‟s community venture.
Overall the design was appropriate for the project. However, the development of
considerations, which were subsequently applied to Goonj Arlan, would have been
strengthened by more than one case study review. First hand review and observation of
the Bawinanga experience was invaluable. It facilitated a greater appreciation of the
demands endured by community activities in remote areas, as well as an understanding of
the key aspects of appropriate governance driving practical and sustainable ventures.
Encounters with participants in the Bawinanga model allowed the identification of factors
contributing to successful activity. The opportunity to observe business initiatives from
other communities in operation and discuss strengths and weaknesses with participants
would have consolidated the conceptual framework. Unfortunately limited resources did
not support travel to other remote areas. Research funding was allocated to conducting
fieldwork to establish the necessary rapport with the main targeted community of Goonj
Arlan. To mitigate this, positive and negative international case studies were reviewed
through literature and discussions were held with Dampier Peninsula based tourism
operators, which is currently a major industry being pursued by Aboriginal groups in that
area.
Emphasis was placed on establishing rapport with the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal family
group prior to collecting data through workshops and discussions. This ensured that
family members were proactive in their participation and open in their discussions with
the researcher, particularly during facilitated workshops. However this approach had
potential to involve the researcher in driving the family Corporation down a collective
path, which would have undermined community ownership of the project. The approach
also presented the opportunity for the researcher to become emotively engaged in the
family discussions, which could have affected the objectivity of data collection. Such a
situation can be a challenge to observatory/participatory type research and requires a
disciplined mindset to remain divorced from the outcome. In this instance, as a long
serving Army Officer I have had significant experience in hostile environments
characterised by the need for objective decision-making in highly demanding and often
emotionally charged circumstances. My experience mitigated the potential risks to the
family ownership of the problem and objectivity of assessment, stemming from research
design.
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Limited resource availability to fund field trips meant that data collection had to occur
during specific periods of the year. Hence day-to-day engagement with the family group
could not occur. Field trips were expensive due to the remoteness of the main research
site and limited infrastructure on country to support group occupancy. Vehicles needed to
be hired for up to a month at a time and were required for researcher and family group
transportation to country from main population centres. Additionally all provisions and
camp stores including generators and water needed to be transported to the research site
and returned on completion of each trip. Logistic management of the field trips for groups
of people was significant and limited the availability of funds for more regular visits.
The research design aimed to ensure that field trips occurred during the periods of
most frequent visitation to country by family and broader community to lessen the logistic
liability. It also ensured that family engagement underpinned the fieldwork. It is unlikely
that another field trip in 2007 would have generated new data however it would have been
useful in further consolidating the family ownership of the project. The senior Aboriginal
member‟s residency in Perth facilitated proxy engagement with the family group. His
status as the principal leader overcame the obstacle of remoteness. It also facilitated his
participation in the higher-level engagement with government agencies and the University
of Western Australia.
One key organisation that was not actively involved in the research was the
Kimberley Land Council. This is a key Aboriginal organisation involved in the Native
Title determination for the Bardi-Jawi people. It is also involved in investigating
opportunities for regional Aboriginal people to be active in caring for country. Despite
numerous formal and informal approaches, the Kimberley Land Council was not
forthcoming in providing data relating to genealogy for Goonj Arlan or participating in
interviews. This is viewed by the researcher as a significant shortfall in the data collection
relating to networks. Informal discussion was conducted between the researcher and the
Kimberley Land Council‟s Public Affairs Officer, however detailed assessment of how
Goonj Arlan can leverage from current Kimberley Land Council initiatives was not
possible. This raises the question of how such a peak body can be approached. Leverage
from a peak research body would probably facilitate access. For example the Tropical
Savannas CRC is actively involved with Land Councils in projects ranging from fire
regime management to species protection. This avenue was not pursued as immediate
access to country and communities was achieved directly through Goonj Arlan family
members. However, early access to key appointments in the Kimberley Land Council
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may have yielded important data and provided information of alternative management
networks to support planning.
At the time of completing this research, the Prescribed Body Corporate (PBC) for the
Dampier Peninsula had not been formalised. This meant that the Futures Plan could not
be discussed formally with the regional peak representative body for Native Title. That
said likely future members of the body are aware and supportive of the broad intention for
Goonj Arlan. This can translate to PBC endorsement once established and the Goonj
Arlan Aboriginal Corporation is able to brief its intentions in detail. However from a
research perspective, formal endorsement by the PBC would have confirmed broader
community acceptance and ownership of the plan, which is a consideration included in
the derived Conceptual Model and applied to Goonj Arlan.
The project and ultimate implementation of the derived Futures Plan would have
benefitted from a more consolidated assessment of the natural processes affecting the
research site. A detailed assessment of the geomorphic structure of beaches, the impact of
extreme climatic events and the oceanographic affects of tides, surges and waves would
provide a benchmark for subsequent monitoring programs. This information could be
consolidated with customary knowledge to derive a model for an integrated monitoring
program of coastal habitat that employs Aboriginal people in the data collection. The
collection task is included in identified actions of the Futures Plan.
All interviews conducted to collect data were semi-structured. This was an appropriate
approach for this project as data collection was focused on specific elements of
information relating to policy, industry or management. Most interviews were conducted
with key personnel in organisations, rather than against a sizable population, in order to
ascertain the main themes for subsequent collaboration.
Initial data collection involving Aboriginal people was best conducted via informal
discussions. This ensured that the flow of information accorded with the confidence of
each participant. In the main participants were extremely forthcoming with information
and as discussions developed, branches to themes were investigated. Themes emerging
from informal discussions were engineered into the workshop design. The workshops
were delivered once the necessary levels of rapport were established between the
researcher and participants. This approach supported the research well as it maintained a
fluid environment allowing issues to be explored as they arose.
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9.3 REVISITING THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The research outcomes have validated the theoretical framework for participatory
planning, which was presented in Chapter one. To recap, the framework was derived in
the context of small micro communities based on the indigenous family group and
comprised the following five elements:
The integration of socio-economic, environmental and governance
considerations into a participatory planning framework;
The use of collaborative planning as a means to drive community participation
and community ownership of the process and outcomes;
The use of “soft systems” including consultation and facilitated workshopping
to capture the differing perspectives and bring diverse stakeholders together to
collaborate agreed strategies;
Designing a planning framework around the stages of:
Interactive consultation between stakeholders to develop an understanding
of the problem;
Collaborated strategy development; and
Implementation of agreed strategies.
The use of facilitated participatory planning as a learning experience for
participants to understand the problem and the interacting dynamics.
9.3.1 Collaboratively Developing a Planning Framework
From the outset, the development of the Participatory Planning Framework was
conducted in close consultation with the people of Goonj Arlan. This proved to be
essential as the people were able to take outright ownership of the process, which ensured
it met their expectations and facilitated their progressive understanding of the associated
complexities. This in turn strengthened the collective interest and involvement.
Collaboration ensured that the outcome of framework development met the cultural
needs and the relationship dynamics of the family group. For example, the framework
was intentionally designed to investigate a range of lifestyle options so that the
expectations of all family members could be accommodated. In addition, the family
agreed to meet periodically for formal facilitated planning but to allow the ongoing data
collection to be managed through the senior elder who resided in Perth. This arrangement
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suited the geographical limitations to the project and ensured that collective consideration
was effective.
9.3.2 Planning Framework Structure
In line with the theoretical model, the derived Participatory Planning Framework
addressed the three stages of understanding the problem, collaborating strategies and
implementing agreed strategies. This was achieved primarily using soft systems processes
when collective consideration was required and was highly reliant on facilitation.
The processes involved in understanding the problem were hard systems research of
relevant factors and soft systems consideration of the collected data. Firstly research was
required to be conducted by the „facilitator‟ to identify the socio-economic, environmental
and governance factors impacting on the community. The community could not do this
research, however the data was presented objectively and considered by the community in
workshops and discussions. This soft systems consideration was effective in turning data
that had been collected through hard system research into community considered
solutions. This process also served as a learning medium for participants.
Soft planning systems were critical to achieving collaborated outcomes during the
planning. In particular the use of workshops was valuable in developing discussions
relating to the expectations of different stakeholders. Facilitation was able to assist
community members to identify the synergies between expectations and this ultimately
led to an agreed vision and objectives.
The importance of objective facilitation cannot be understated. A risk of “social
engineering” can result in small community planning if facilitation presents a facilitator-
biased viewpoint. This does not accord with the theoretical framework, which demands
community ownership of process development and implementation. Similarly, vocal
participants can risk diluting the influence of other community members who deserve
equal contribution towards collective outcomes.
Implementing the outcomes of the Participatory Planning Framework could well
require facilitation depending on the management prowess of the participants. The
implementation stage of the Goonj Arlan project is embryonic however a number of
distractions have appeared early and have periodically drawn implementation away from
the agreed aim and objectives. Such distractions can easily impact on community
motivation. Facilitation in this instance has been effective in working with leadership
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using soft systems processes to rationalise the distractions and encourage the community
to maintain their focus on the aim.
9.3.3 The Complex Nature of the Planning Environment
The research emphasised the extreme complexity of the planning environment that
indigenous communities face. The theoretical model identifies that socio-economic,
environmental and governance considerations are associated with participatory planning.
In a remote indigenous setting, these considerations are exacerbated by significant state
involvement, cultural imperatives, family dynamics and geographic dislocation. For
example the research showed that the governance considerations alone for the case study
community involve family order; local Aboriginal community structures; local, regional
State and National Indigenous sector influences; local and regional government
imperatives and Australian Government involvement. In addition, diverse stakeholder
influences stem from industry, business and environmental groups.
This complexity highlights the relevance of soft systems planning and the importance
of objective facilitation. Using governance considerations as an example, soft systems
processes allowed the community to collectively develop an understanding of who the
governance stakeholders are, what their effects are on the community and how they can
support or inhibit outcomes.
9.4 RELEVANCE TO PARTICIPATORY PLANNING
The outcomes of the research have relevance to the broader discipline of participatory
planning involving remote indigenous communities. The primary contribution to this is
the provision of a planning framework and the considerations associated with its
development and application. The individual elements or entirety of the framework have
utility to other research involving community initiatives where soft planning systems
predominate useful approaches. The aspects and considerations related to the relevance of
the framework are discussed in this section.
Remote communities do not always have the planning skills to develop long-term
initiatives and attract government or industry support. However, they often do have
existing social capital and a vision of where they want to be. Small communities are
compelled to compete for support against large, high profile community ventures that
may be driven by government programs.
Community development needs to be supported by thorough planning that looks
beyond the immediate project implementation and considers all factors relevant to social,
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economic and environmental objectives. Planning for Goonj Arlan was typified by
consultation and participation that developed the planning framework and derived agreed
vision, objectives and strategies. Planning emphasised identifying the existing capital and
enabling human resource development. This type of participatory planning supports
succession of leadership and governance, which contribute to community sustainability.
The Futures Plan for Goonj Arlan is underpinned by community ownership
throughout the process. In this respect the planning process is similar to that applied
elsewhere. For example ownership from initial planning through to implementation and
monitoring has been critical to community-based resource management of protected areas
in the Philippines where project design recognised that
―Participatory planning and implementation at the barangay level,
supported by appropriate government line agencies and local government
units, were part of a conscious effort to achieve an enduring and self-
sufficient system‖ (Pomeroy et al., 1997: 99).
The Participatory Planning Framework developed for Goonj Arlan aimed to
encourage ownership of the process design and implementation. It comprises three steps:
designing the planning framework, collecting the necessary information and developing
an agreed plan for subsequent implementation. These steps are aligned to those of the
theoretical framework. Each of these steps required specific inputs to enable the
realisation of specific outcomes.
The establishment of rapport between researcher, facilitator and community is
essential to effective participatory planning. The development of trust for Goonj Arlan is
intentionally described in detail in Chapter six as it underpins the criticality of effective
communication avenues to planning. In this case the researcher doubled as the planning
facilitator. The development of trust established a foundation for open and frank
discussion that led to the development and subsequent implementation the Participatory
Planning Framework. However collective trust does not evolve quickly or easily. For
facilitators of participatory planning it will often involve the establishment of key
relationships in the first instance. Trust-borne and objective relationships are essential for
effective planning facilitation.
The planning framework developed for Goonj Arlan comprises considerations and
tools with utility for other community initiatives. It ascertains the aim of the problem,
considers all relevant factors, designs courses of action, develops the preferred course and
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then tests it against established considerations. The Participatory Planning Framework is
presented again at Figure 9-1.
The process aims to establish participant ownership of the framework design and
implementation. Each of the three steps involves community inputs derived largely from
soft systems processes. The outputs of each step determine the inputs for the next making
the framework a process that takes participants through readily identifiable stages of
development. The soft systems approach develops progressive and collective
understanding of the planning problem while exposing participants to learning
experiences in planning. Hence the framework is a medium for personal development, in
particular for those who may take carriage of management roles in a corporation.
The first step of planning develops a planning framework that meets the cultural and
social needs of community participants. Establishing the environment to encourage
participation is necessary from the outset. Identifying key motivators and leaders in a
group supports the collaborative nature of planning. Some information related inputs of
this step might be derived from hard systems analysis however they must be presented
objectively for community consideration.
Outputs of this step relate specifically to designing a planning framework. A
conceptual understanding of the principles associated with the situation needs to be
consolidated. This may include cultural, psychological, environmental, physical, social,
political or economic aspects. A planning aim provides a benchmark to keep subsequent
effort on an agreed path. Maintaining a collective focus on the aim mitigates the risk of
meandering down distracting planning paths that may not accord with a collective vision.
Generic gaps in data sets must be identified early and methods to address these gaps need
to be designed in detail.
The second step of planning involves collecting data sets for subsequent analysis.
Implementing the collection designs developed from the first step aims to cover gaps in
information to thoroughly appreciate all factors associated with the problem. Soft systems
centric workshops are a valuable means of gathering information on human capital and
aspirations. They also provide a means of reinforcing collective ownership of planning
and provide planning experience to participants. Hard systems centric site assessments are
necessary to ascertain existing natural and unnatural physical conditions. However even
this type of data collection can involve soft systems processes. For example the health of
watercourses can be determined by discussions drawing on local and traditional
knowledge.
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Step 1: Develop Planning
framework
Planning aim
Conceptual
Model
Planning
asp irat ions
Rapport and
trus t
Regional
background
Consultat ion
Collect ion
design
W orkshops
Site
assessments
In terv iews
Step 2: Collect Data
Workshops
Site
assessments
Inteviews
Aim and
objectives
Community
aspirat ions
Knowledge
Country
Human capital
Business
opportunities
Development
needs
Consultat ion
Step 3 The Futures Plan
Aim and
Objectives
Community
aspirations
Knowledge
Developed
plan
Brief plan
Implement
planConsult at ion
Figure 9-1 A model for participatory planning
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Who will be
involved?
Stakeholders
and Networks
W hat have we
got already?
Exis ting and
Required Capital
W hat are our
choices?
Courses of
Action Analysis
Where do we
want to be?
Vision, Aim
Object ives
What will
guide us?
Guiding
Principals
W hat do we
need to do?Action Plan
W hat is our
future?A Futures Plan
Planning OutcomesPlanning Stages
Figure 9-2 Workshop model
A workshopping model was developed during the research to capture the human
aspirations and capital and also to expose participants to the stages of planning. It is
presented again as Figure 9-2. The model facilitates group consideration of collective and
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individual aspirations, the existing human capital, infrastructure and country, identified
gaps and associated mitigating measures. This information can be formally drawn from
participants to build on data sets derived through background research. The use of a
species or natural phenomenon as the base theme for planning can contribute to the
context of workshop delivery as it captures the cultural link between people and country
and reinforces the most important theme of the process.
The outcomes of each workshop stage are interactive with the overall steps of the
Participatory Planning Framework and directly involve participants in the progressive
development of a final plan for implementation.
The use of collected information builds on the conceptual understanding of the
planning environment to produce a detailed picture of all factors to be considered in
subsequent analysis. Factors relevant to community-based land and sea management
initiatives could include community intentions, the natural environment, community
capacity, economic issues and development requirements.
The third and final step of the Participatory Planning Framework involves
consolidating data and analysing it to evolve a plan for subsequent implementation. All
relevant factors require analysis and assessment in detail to ascertain their impact on and
contribution to achieving the agreed aim and objectives. This analysis need not be a
standalone action in the planning. It can run parallel to all stages of planning with actions,
recommendations and decisions being identified along the way. The resulting set of
considerations can then be captured and developed into a mature plan.
Plan development involves deriving courses of action to be considered to the point
that a preferred course can be chosen. The analysis of associated tasks and derivation of
action plans aligned with identified objectives produces clear decision points and targets.
This approach supports implementation in a deliberate manner. As actions are completed,
progress is measurable. This is particularly important for community initiatives that
require ongoing collective participation. Task analysis is conducted against the broadest
functions of the chosen course of action.
A resulting plan can be drawn from the analysed actions to guide collective effort
towards the agreed vision. Implementation is supported by logical analysis based on
collaborative involvement of the participating group.
This planning process has been applied to a single family community for this research
to illustrate its utility for other community based ventures. Its relevance to the wider
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discipline of participatory planning stems from its development based on the theoretical
framework. To that end the Participatory Planning Framework is a model that can be used
in part or in its entirety for other community research initiatives where soft systems
predominate the planning methodology.
9.5 RELEVANCE TO OTHER BODIES OF LITERATURE
While the principal theme of the research is participatory planning, it also contributes
to other bodies of literature in a number of areas. Firstly it contributes to the broad
academic discussion regarding how indigenous people can participate in managing
natural resources in a manner that harnesses their cultural link with country. Secondly it
contributes to the current debate regarding the value of family outstations to
environmental objectives. Thirdly it presents a case for aboriginal development to look
beyond the single project, large community venture and build diversity and niche into
activities. Finally the model derived for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation is
intended to mitigate the weaknesses of government policy, which is a challenge to
developing initiatives in Australia and elsewhere.
9.5.1 Contribution to the Broader Literature Review
Goonj Arlan is a practitioner‟s example of the key tenets of Australian Aboriginal
participation in natural resource management. Its broader application to aboriginal
communities is founded on the underlying principles. These have been derived from
evaluating literature and reinforced through analysis of the Bawinanga Aboriginal
Corporation case and the experiences of Goonj Arlan planning. The principles include:
The relevance of customary knowledge to sustainability;
The importance of the Indigenous sector;
The social imperative of Aboriginal collective activities;
The relevance of niche to mitigate liabilities stemming from remoteness and
sophistication of management;
The significance of monitoring sustainability through integrated customary
and scientific practices; and
The fundamental importance of state support.
The Goonj Arlan case supports the broader literature, which argues that knowledge
held by local inhabitants of an area, as it relates to the condition of habitats and species
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populations, can contribute to modelling the impacts of natural and unnatural processes.
The application of this knowledge can also contribute to community wellbeing through
employment and the more intrinsic benefits of community participation. However
participation requires an Indigenous sector to provide the resources and facilitative
mechanisms that enable individuals and communities to make choices. The sector is the
mechanism for indigenous communities to work towards social and economic aspirations.
Indigenous organisations increasingly involve land and sea management mandates that
aim to align opportunity with caring for country initiatives.
State support is essential to mitigate the inhibitors of remoteness, low employment
and community dysfunction. Whether support is drawn from specific programs or general
government services, indigenous communities rely on the state for resources and
facilitation. The formulation of government policy that is inclusive of indigenous rights
and aspirations is fundamental to service delivery and community development. This
thesis has argued the relevance of government to indigenous caring for country initiatives.
However a paradigm shift needs to acknowledge a broad definition of caring for country
and support that definition beyond the centralised major project type of initiative. The
value of outstation living to social wellbeing and land management is not readily seen as a
medium for employment or sustainable activity in a contemporary setting.
Aligned with the Indigenous sector is the Indigenous economy, which comprises
interacting market, state and customary elements. The research develops a case for this
type of economy to involve people in an informal way at a family group level. The levels
of state, market or customary involvement vary with activities and with the aspirations or
needs of participating groups. However the Indigenous sector remains important in
providing access to government, sustaining community governance, and facilitating the
planning and implementing of initiatives.
The social agenda of community activities can attract participation and guide leaders
towards balanced outcomes. The significance of social outcomes to remote communities
does not necessarily place economic development at the forefront. The social imperative
is evident in many indigenous community-based projects and indeed has driven the
planning for Goonj Arlan. However the social agenda needs to be supported by the hybrid
economy to underpin sustainability.
The development of the underlying principles into a Conceptual Model for viable
indigenous activity provides a basis for community initiatives. Figure 9-3 presents the
model, which groups considerations into categories of Corporation Executive
250
Management, Enterprise Characteristics and Government Factors. The model has
applicability for benchmarking existing initiatives as well as providing the baseline for
planning new or evolving ones. It presents the interaction between the three categories to
result in outcomes that are not exclusive of each other. Modest economic returns underpin
self-reliance without driving ventures towards economically unsustainable objectives.
Community capacity building promotes appropriate governance, succession of leadership,
choices for lifestyle, cultural integrity and community wellbeing. Finally conservation
incentives can encourage appropriate participation and contribute to healthy landscapes
and communities.
The Conceptual Model was generated from a specific enterprise case study and was
benchmarked against the planning outcomes for Goonj Arlan, to identify its broader
utility. The emphasis of each consideration will vary with each case, however as an
example the following considerations were specifically important to Goonj Arlan:
Traditional Owner involvement and ownership of the planning process and
outcomes encouraged participation and produced relevant results.
An established diverse yet targeted liaison network is important to attaining
credibility and support from government, indigenous, industry and community
agencies.
Leadership is critical to sustainment and succession in leadership requires
nurturing.
Government funding is essential to infrastructure development and service
delivery. Mitigating strategies are important to address shortfalls in service
delivery and other categories of state support.
Government policies must be inclusive of community rights and aspirations.
Policies delivering localised outcomes need to be harnessed to initiate
community and enterprise initiatives. Key to achieving this is the ability to
demonstrate appropriate commitment and governance.
Social objectives underpin aspirations of planning and sustainability of
outstation development. Activities and projects aim to create opportunity for
participants to engage with traditionally owned country across generations.
Niche markets offer diverse opportunities for participation and enterprise
choice and design aim to mitigate some of the inhibitors stemming from
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remoteness and lack of services.
Progressive development supports immediate commencement of activities
based on extant capacity and the subsequent broadening of initiatives in line
with capacity building. A progressive approach enables targeted development
of all aspects of capacity from management acumen to specific trade skills.
Corporation Executive
Management
Traditional Owner InvolvementConsensus Decision MakingCredibility with Regulating
AuthorityLiaison Network
Leadership
Government Factors
Sustainable PolicySpecies Management Plans
Government Funding
Enterprise Characteristics
Social ObjectivesNiche Markets
Traditional PracticesState Support
Progressive DevelopmentDiversity
Job Specific TrainingExternal Evaluation
Indigenous initiatives
involving Natural
Resource
Management
Outcomes
Modest Economic ReturnCommunity Capacity
Conservation Incentives
Figure 9-3 A conceptual model for viable indigenous activity
252
As the Futures Plan for Goonj Arlan is implemented and the Corporation matures, the
principles and considerations of the Conceptual Model will provide reference points for
assessing the impact of each activity on social capital and environmental sustainability, in
particular. As the intent to integrate customary practices into overall management systems
evolves into practical implementation, the impact of customary activity on conservation
will be measurable.
Monitoring Goonj Arlan‟s progress and activities will potentially contribute to
literature as academic debate involving Aboriginal participation informs government
policy development. A monitoring design using this research as the start point will
support an assessment of the sustainability of species populations and habitats as well as
the impact of the Goonj Arlan development on social wellbeing.
The establishment of monitoring sites with ecological and environmental targets will
provide data to inform further research on the impact of sea level rise and community
activity on populations and habitats. The coastline of Goonj Arlan is important to broader
community activity. The diverse habitat supports specific consumptive and lifestyle
needs. Locations along the coastline are suitable for use as monitoring sites with Goonj
Arlan providing a collection source. Data sets could relate to diverse impacts of natural
and unnatural processes on the region including:
The effects of sea level rise and community activity on mangrove habitat;
The impact of habitat decline on marine species populations in particular those
used for consumptive purposes;
The health of reef environments;
The impact of environmental changes on community activity; and
The effects of habitat and ecosystems on migratory bird populations
Data collection provides opportunity for meaningful employment for Goonj Arlan
members. Designing collection plans and methods in collaboration with scientific
researchers integrates customary and western practices and creates further opportunity for
the Corporation‟s executive to develop management prowess. Collection could involve
physical measurement or assessment as well as articulating familiarity with country into
usable assessments of environmental condition.
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A baseline for measuring the social benefits arising from the project is also captured,
in the research to date. This provides a start point for future development of a quantitative
social assessment framework. To date the research has captured the following information
to underpin an assessment framework:
Existing infrastructure;
Individual and collective aspirations;
Individual and collective skills;
Individual values and attributes;
Collective liaison networks;
Individual personal domestic circumstances; and
Current employment.
Futures planning identified the collective vision and goals for the Goonj Arlan people.
It also identified the actions required to attain the aspired end-state. To that end, research
has captured a social start point and a measurement framework can be developed to
determine the glide path to the end-state.
Pomeroy et al. (1997) conducted quantitative evaluation of 100 sites in the central
Visayas region of the Philippines over an eight-year period to ascertain the factors
contributing to successful and long-term community-based systems. They measured
success against the achievement of the community project objectives of incomes and
living standards, improved management of resources and increased capacity for decision-
making and program implementation. Social impact indicators used by Pommeroy et al.
(1997: 102) included:
Overall well-being of the household;
Overall well being of the resource;
Local income;
Access to resources;
Control over resources
Ability to participate in community affairs;
Ability to influence community affairs;
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Community conflict;
Community compliance with resources management; and
Amount of traditionally harvested resources.
These indicators provide a sound set of criteria to assess the social impact of Goonj
Arlan development. The inclusion of the criteria related to human capital, particularly
skill sets and attributes, as well as the scope of enterprises/activities undertaken by the
Corporation, would enable social mapping of the community capacity as it develops.
An approach to assessing the social health of a community against its ability to
develop goes beyond an assessment of the standard of living. It looks at community
functionality supporting capacity building. A framework of criteria is necessary to
quantify social conditions, however to measure the social factors as they impact on
community development requires a start point and desired end-state. In the case of Goonj
Arlan, the task analysis underpinning futures planning identifies actions to be taken to
achieve the agreed objectives. This provides a glide path for development to be measured
against as it qualifies decision points and triggers aligned with stages of development. An
assessment can attribute or dismiss any social catalyst associated with the achievement or
non-achievement of each identified action.
Determined actions associated with futures planning may be the lodgement of
submissions for government support; the establishment of a liaison network to support a
specific enterprise; the delivery of specific services; the building of infrastructure; the
training of an individual in a specific skill; or the commencement of a community
initiative. Regardless, collaborative planning turns aspirations into agreed goals and
objectives. Futures planning takes these goals towards an agreed action plan that is the
glide path for measuring development. Identifying the social factors impacting on that
development path places another dimension on assessing community capacity beyond the
measurement of standards of living.
9.5.2 The Family Outstation Contribution
Encouraging indigenous people to be active on country is based on the assumption
that caring for country potentially creates meaningful opportunities in remote areas.
Further to this is the hypothesis that strong family links to family land presents stronger
incentive through custodial activity than larger community-based programs.
Hill et al. (2008: 21) determined that
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Northern Australia is emerging as a powerhouse for sustainability
innovations, led by Indigenous peoples‘ unique approaches to sustainability,
and catalysed by strong drivers associated with the global cultural and
natural significance of the region, the threats from climate change, and the
poor socio-economic outcomes from conventional mining and agriculturally-
based development. New economic frameworks focused around concepts of
Indigenous culture and country are demonstrating early signs of success.‖
The environment for outstation activity to develop into widespread recognized activity as
it contributes to sustainability of country and communities is emerging and this in its self
creates opportunity.
However service delivery to family outstations is difficult and funding of small
initiatives is not readily captured in various government programs. As Altman (2003a)
identifies though, the outstation activity presents real contribution to the management of
natural resources and environments. In discussing the need for outstation policy, Altman
(2006: 14) addresses the Australian Government‟s mainstreaming towards centralising
communities and urbanisation. He argues that
―There is a real danger that recentralisation will see a cost to the nation
in terms of the conservation benefits foregone without a peopled landscape.
There is also a danger that in the quest for cheaper service provision for the
state, livelihood opportunities for Indigenous residents of outstations will
decline with recentralisation. Associated problems might be the exacerbation
of housing and infrastructure shortfalls in the larger communities and a re-
ignition or heightening of social tensions in townships.‖
The people of Goonj Arlan have experienced this very issue having returned to
country previously and subsequently re-centralised in main communities. The associated
impacts of this on some family members and the management of country to sustain
broader community hunting and fishing practices is evident and has driven the family‟s
desire to establish a sustainable outstation existence.
The key inhibiting policy factors identified are service delivery and a fundamental
acceptance that outstation activity can contribute to environmental outcomes. Importantly
the priority of environmental objectives cannot be viewed in isolation when formulating
policy involving aboriginal people and caring for country. The national environmental
importance of a specific location often negates government support of a local initiative if
the environmental significance is low. Policy that encourages healthy lifestyles through a
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caring for country manifestation looks beyond stove-piped conservation or community
imperatives.
An example of caring for country activity that can have broader implications is access
control. The concept of managing visitation and fishing activity is absolutely aligned with
customary practices. In the Dampier Peninsula, visitors to another family‟s country
generally seek permission if the owners of that country are present at the time. However if
a location is unoccupied, visitation is uncontrolled. The residency of landowners on their
claimed country can provide an opportunity to not only manage visitation but also the
activity that visitors conduct. Managing fishing locations, species taken, vehicle access
and foot movement can have positive impacts on health of country. Management can also
have an educative impact on the broader community and encourage similar practices in
neighbouring outstations. As a case study, an established Goonj Arlan Conservancy will
provide evidence to the ongoing debate regarding the impact of outstation living on
country and communities.
Altman (2006: 15) discusses this debate and Goonj Arlan model is relevant to his
statement that
―Such futures might see Indigenous people living on the land they own,
moving between larger and smaller communities, and pursuing livelihoods in
a hybrid economy that includes payment for the delivery of environmental
services, participation in the customary or non market sector, and the pursuit
of commercial opportunities. These possibilities also need to be explored.‖
The Goonj Arlan model (Fig 9-4) is aimed at providing opportunity for its people to
participate in a range of lifestyles choices and activities. The diversity underpins the need
to meet lifestyle choices for the broader family group. Family members have different
aspirations for their custodial roles and different domestic circumstances. They also have
different interests for work opportunities. The model has been developed though the
Participatory Planning Framework and comprises activities to support the functions of
community, business and caring for country.
Some members choose to be active in a corporation management role while others see
their utility in practical activities. If collectively harnessed, the model can meet the
expectations of individuals to participate in management roles or community, business or
caring for country activities. Planning has guided the model to have an overarching intent
that meets custodial responsibilities across generations. Discreet activities are entwined in
that intent and contribute economically to the Corporation, socially to the community or
257
environmentally to the country. The purpose of each activity is not discreet which aligns
with the customary interaction between social, economic and environmental objectives.
The model meets the need for people to occupy country or live in larger population
centres. It also enables people to move between country and other communities.
Individuals can remain on country in management or activity related roles or support
activities from elsewhere through business actions or engaging with the Indigenous sector
for service delivery. The outstation economy is able to interact with customary and
mainstream markets or support the outstation or neighbouring communities with
subsistence-based products. It supports the delivery of environmental services in a range
of land and sea management initiatives. The model also contributes to developing the
community capacity in terms of values, leadership and skills.
The model depends on sound leadership and the outstation longevity will rely on
leadership succession. Education and development is recognised as being key to involving
younger family members in the establishment and sustainment of the outstation as a
conservancy. This aspect of community activity involves and integrated approach to
western and customary education. Skills development associated with management and
practical activities can be delivered through government programs. The community view
education for children as essential, particularly numeracy and literacy. However
mentoring and customary knowledge are equally important. Mentoring through
engagement with family and community leadership and external volunteers diversifies
role models. Apart from contributing to practical outcomes, consolidating and imparting
knowledge of Bardi language, family genealogy and customary management practices
enhances identity and sense of purpose.
258
The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy
GACC
Caring for
CountryEnterpriseCommunity
Living oncountry
Self Sufficiency
Projects
Education and
Development
Cash Crop
Organic
Produce
Native Seed
Collection
Assessment
Access and
Activity
Management
Exotic SpeciesControl
Monitoring
Customary
Knowledge
SupportResearch
Tourism
Aquaculture
Wildlife
Figure 9-4 A model for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy
9.5.3 Diverse and Niche Activity
Literature relating to indigenous people and their activities on country is typified by
case studies of single venture initiatives. Examples reviewed as background to this project
included, amongst others, the Communal Areas Management Program for Indigenous
259
Resources (CAMPFIRE) projects of southern Africa; the community management of
coral reefs by the Miskito people in Nicaragua; legislatively enshrined traditional fishing
tenures in Oceanic states; Aboriginal pastoralists in northern Australia; Indigenous
tourism in Australia; the management of shellfish fisheries in British Columbia; and
environmentally focused land and sea care initiatives involving Traditional Owner
involvement in the management of specific vulnerable resources or places.
Niche underpins the types of ventures that aboriginal people can embark on,
particularly in remote areas. Indigenous ecotourism is not only viewed with significant
potential in Australia but offers opportunities globally. Often traditional ownership or
access and knowledge of traditional lands offer a niche that protects ventures against
competition. Zeppel (2006) writes about the sustainable development and management of
indigenous ecotourism in the Pacific Islands, South America, Africa and South-east Asia.
He draws out the niche aspects of these case studies and states that
―Key aspects of [i]ndigenous ecotourism include a nature-based product,
[i]ndigenous ownership and the presentation on [i]ndigenous environmental
and cultural knowledge‖ (Zeppel, 2006: 11).
Development of a Futures Plan for Goonj Arlan entailed preparation of a model that
combines diverse and niche considerations as essential ingredients to a corporation with
longevity. Diverse community effort involves activities that aim for community
management, community capacity building, business development and caring for country.
Diversity is important to sustainability as it provides choice to participants regarding how
they will become involved and ensures that business success is not reliant on a single
initiative or product. Choice is built into the Corporation‟s model shown at Fig 9-4.
Diversity extends beyond business activity in the model. It is embodied in Corporation
management and individual activities across business, community and caring for country
functions.
The Goonj Arlan plan is also for niche activities to underpin commercial activity. The
niche stems from land ownership, access to the natural resource base contained in the
country and cultural knowledge of its management.
Indigenous landowners may have accessible commercial Species that are endemic to
traditionally owned land, may provide commercial opportunities for indigenous
landowners. Access to commercially sought after native floral species, or the
environments they thrive, in can monopolise markets for landowners. Consortium
arrangements distributing produce through centralised distribution points can mitigate the
260
burden of finding customers and accessing markets. Gubinge is the example to be
harnessed by Goonj Arlan. The species is readily nurtured in a plantation setting in the
region, which is largely Native Title. It earns sound returns and is centrally distributed to
overseas markets. Other flora offers scope for native seed distribution for nurseries and
revegetation although the latter presents liabilities associated with meeting demands and
provenance.
Culture and land ownership provide the foundations for access niche Tourism
ventures that involve tourists in unique experiences that can combine natural and cultural
experiences. Small ventures that have a limited footprint in terms of overheads and
operations can attract a customer base that does not impact on country or outstation
activity. The Goonj Arlan model includes tourism concepts that involve tourists in the
outstation lifestyle. The experience offered is one of participation, particularly as it
applies to Aboriginal community and caring for country.
Indigenous aquaculture ventures can harness coastal people‟s knowledge and ability
with marine species. Aquaculture for consumptive species can involve significant
overheads in equipment and management however the aquarium industry offers a niche
market that is suited to smaller operations. Equipment and management overheads can be
streamlined and some species can be readily harvested from the wild. Hermit crabs are a
targeted wild species for Goonj Arlan. The local aquarium trade in Broome even offers
markets for simple aquaculture operations producing freshwater native and exotic species.
Other ventures not specifically stemming from native species, Aboriginality or land
ownership can still access niche markets. The demand for fresh organic produce in local
markets and regional communities is high.
At the higher end of operations, native species breeding for consumptive and
conservation purposes offers opportunity for Indigenous people to contribute to regional
customary needs as well as the protection of vulnerable species. Such operations require
sophisticated practices and for Goonj Arlan will not be addressed in the immediate future.
However a mature Corporation could align with research institutions and government to
participate in developmental breeding programs for bird and reptile species that are in
decline in the area but still favoured for consumptive purposes by local Aboriginal people.
9.5.4 Mitigating Weaknesses in Government Policy
Governments set the environment and conditions at each level to recognise the rights
of indigenous people and fund programs that facilitate lifestyle choices. Communities in
261
remote localities have unique inhibitors to accessing state support, which affect choices.
The review looked at Commonwealth and State level government policy and identified
that for initiatives in remote Western Australia, a number of deficiencies exist to readily
support communities manage natural resources in the broadest sense. These include:
The dominance of western criteria in community-based policy initiatives
relating to land and resource management;
A lack of recognition by programs to work from a baseline that relates to
extant community capacity;
The lack of linkage between capacity building and the broadest definition of
natural resource management;
The emphasis of environmental effort towards fields of significance and
locations of environmental priority;
The lack of lifestyle choice stemming from programs;
The short tenure and scope of funding; and
Inadequate facilitation and service delivery.
Governments continue to evolve policies however associated bureaucratic processes can
be lengthy. It is necessary to establish mitigating strategies in planning to address
deficiencies. Strategies evolve through the planning process to address issues as they
arise. Effective strategies seek to harness the skills, networks and existing conditions in
the immediate term while developing capacity for sustainment through skills
development, network enhancement, funding and infrastructure development. This
concept has supported the derivation of the model for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal
Corporation Conservancy. Application of the planning models has considered the
identified deficiencies to ensure that they do not become insurmountable inhibitors to the
Corporation‟s future. The focus of the conservancy development towards a broad
mandate at a family custodial level has mitigated many of these deficiencies.
The dominance of western criteria in policy limits the access to funding intended for
large communities, however by linking into the regional Indigenous sector, the
Corporation aims to win support for their broad caring for country approach. In particular,
recognition of the family custodial commitment to country by the regional Prescribed
Body Corporate (PBC), will translate to leverage when dealing with government
organisations that manage training and infrastructure related programs. The Indigenous
262
sector is an important conduit to government support. It is established by government
policies and frameworks and is the means for communicating funding needs to
government departments.
The Futures Plan is based on extant capacity linked directly to an analysis of
deficiencies as they relate to specific Corporation functions and initiatives. To that end,
any future allocation of public and industry resources will have greater relevance and
affect than if the baseline was unknown. Articulating this to industry and government
through the representational PBC provides justification to win support for implementing
the Futures Plan in the first instance. The identified actions contained in the Futures Plan
link funding and support to specific outcomes relating to capacity development. The
provision of support from the public and private sectors demands a degree of
accountability to be demonstrated by the recipients. A well determined baseline combined
with progressive development actions aimed at achievable objectives enables the use of
externally provided support to be justified.
The model addresses natural resource management in its broadest sense. It does so by
linking community development to caring for country at the most fundamental level: the
family outstation. While much literature argues the environmental benefits stemming
from outstation living generally, the Goonj Arlan model incorporates this lifestyle with
activity that is more readily recognised as caring for country. The model carries the
outstation concept beyond a perception of consumptive and customary existence. This in
turn supports a justification to access programs normally aligned to large communities or
priority areas. Activities such as access management and species or habitat monitoring are
readily identifiable as caring for country initiatives. Establishing alliances with
government departments or research institutions for specific projects will further raise the
Corporation‟s profile as a contributor to environmental management. Integrating these
initiatives into the broader family community activity, which includes governance and
business development, presents a holistic approach to caring for country. This broader
approach is intended to enable whole-of-government support to be accessed to achieve
what is essentially a localised custodian driven venture.
Choice underpins the model‟s design. Even if government programs fail to support
diverse choices of lifestyle, the integration of caring for country into community activity
creates that choice within the Corporation‟s structure. Along a similar vein, the inclusion
of enterprise in the model also addresses choice and provides an alternative to state-
dependence. Planning identified the short tenures and specific agenda of government
263
funded programs and enterprise will enable a degree of self-reliance as the Corporation
matures. Further opportunity to access both government and industry support could
evolve if the Corporation displays good governance and self-reliance while being
supported by a large cross section of family participants.
Government facilitators are few and generally focus on specific programs. The
Futures Plan has intentionally targeted activities that are low in skills, funding and
infrastructure overheads. This means that facilitation requirements will be specific to
actions identified in the Plan. The broad management network to be developed by the
Corporation will support facilitation. The Indigenous Sector will be the primary conduit
to access facilitation relating to infrastructure and community development. It will also
support the facilitation needs for enterprise related skills development. Caring for country
will harness the relationships with the regional Bunyiol Bardi population as well as
networks with government and university departments that have been established during
this research.
Service delivery will be a significant inhibitor to Goonj Arlan‟s implementation and
longevity. Services such as water, electricity and transport are addressed by infrastructure
demands. Alternative energy sources such as solar systems at Chile Creek and Madaar
will be investigated as the basis of power generation. Education and health services are
difficult to overcome in remote centralised communities, let alone satellite outstations.
Main stream education is particularly valued by many family members and is only
available off country in Broome or even further afield. The model aims to address this
through providing choice of involvement to family members and using kinship networks
so that children can still enjoy necessary education opportunities while adults contribute
to the conservancy.
The intent of the Australian Government to enhance opportunities for Indigenous
people on country exists however the practical application of that intent is deficient.
Goonj Arlan‟s model is based on the existing strengths of the family group, the resources
of country and the opportunities of emerging enterprises. By integrating community and
business with caring for country, the model harnesses the existing capital and uses
consolidated networks to develop its capacity to undertake diverse activities in the future.
9.6 ACHEIVEMENT OF THE OBJECTIVES
Overall the immediate objectives of the research project were achieved. The research
aim was to develop a Participatory Planning Framework for indigenous community
264
initiatives based on sustainable management of natural resources, and apply it to produce
a model for commercial development of an Aboriginal family outstation on Native Title
land in the Kimberley region of Australia. This model is used to address sustainable
management and use of natural coastal resources by the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal
Corporation. Its development rests on addressing social, economic and environmental
aspects and is based on a cultural link between people and country. The research drew
from global and Australian experiences of indigenous people.
The aim was supported by four research objectives.
Objective 1: To identify the principles and considerations underpinning
successful Aboriginal participation in natural resource management. This was
achieved through literature research and interviews. Key principles provided
the foundation to develop the conservancy model through subsequent
objectives.
Objective 2: To ascertain governments‟ roles in supporting indigenous
economic development and involvement in natural resource management. This
objective was achieved through a review of existing and recent policies at
different levels of Australian Government. Initially over-arching Australian
Government policies and legislation were reviewed together with Western
Australian specific ones. Importantly the principles derived previously were
used for comparative assessment to identify opportunities as well as the
deficiencies of governments‟ support for indigenous matters on country. The
case study used in the Northern Territory for the subsequent objective also
enabled an assessment for the Northern Territory specific legislation and
policy. This was an important contribution due to the unique policy
development the Northern Territory has experienced with regard to
conservation through wildlife use.
Objective 3: Study the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation as a case study in
order to develop a Conceptual Model comprising considerations underpinning
a successful Aboriginal venture involving natural resources. This objective
was achieved through fieldwork that studied one of the successful initiatives
being undertaken in Arnhem Land. It evolved the key principles determined
previously into an applicable model to underpin planning for Goonj Arlan.
Objective 4: Develop a model that enables the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal
265
Corporation in Australia‟s Dampier Peninsula to care for family claimed
country. Interviews, literature review, workshops and resource assessment
enabled the development of the Model for the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal
Corporation Conservancy. This model aims to address caring for country,
community and business aspects of a working family group community.
9.7 IMPLEMENTATION AND FUTURE RESEARCH
Work with the Bunyiol Bardi Aboriginal people has delivered a Futures Plan for the
development of the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy, which aims to
achieve social, economic and environmental objectives through a model founded on
traditional custodianship of country by the family group. The pathway to this outcome has
involved the principles of community ownership and participatory planning. The next
stage in the project is the implementation of the plan in accordance with the target actions
derived and detailed in the Futures Plan at Appendix 3. Implementation commenced in
2008 with key family leadership returning to country to establish infrastructure and
harness the opportunities stemming from current research activity into Gubinge. Funding
applications will be submitted in 2009/10 to support the commencement of caring for
country initiatives once infrastructure is supportive of permanent residency. Permanent
residency on country will be the catalyst for the Corporation to strive towards its
identified objectives.
The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy is a potential vehicle for future
research opportunity. The conservancy‟s objectives are aimed at providing an avenue for
Indigenous people's participation in environmental based research. Chapter six identified
that data gaps exist across the Dampierland region relating to biodiversity. Once
established, Goonj Arlan will potentially provide a research base to support ecosystem
surveys and mapping, terrestrial and marine species monitoring, coastal habitat
monitoring, and research into the impact of climate change and sea level rise. Corporation
members are postured to be actively involved in research design and data collection.
Scope exists for research initiatives to integrate local customary knowledge with western
science and use the outstation and Corporation as a facilitating research site. The
Corporation will be in a position to contribute to the development of integrated criteria for
data collection for specific localised research and also for use in similar research
conducted elsewhere.
Integrating customary knowledge of the health of country into monitoring initiatives
is viable. However customary knowledge needs to be consolidated in the first instance.
266
Chapter eight stated that customary knowledge needs to be captured as it relates to family
genealogy, stories of country, Bardi language, knowledge of seasons for harvesting
species, and use of bush foods and medicines. A separate research project could be
instigated to formalise these elements of knowledge into an education program for Goonj
Arlan people, which is an aspiration they have identified in their planning. When family
return to country and some members enjoy long-term residency, their own knowledge of
country will develop and can be integrated into monitoring frameworks.
Another important research opportunity relates to leadership development. The thesis
has emphasised that effective leadership is critical to plan implementation and
Corporation sustainability. However leadership development must be appropriate to
family needs to address Corporation and community specific capacity deficiencies.
Development must also harness the existing leadership capital. Scope exists to instigate a
research project to quantify the leadership capital, identify the specific needs and deliver a
culturally appropriate development program with immediate and long-term objectives. An
important aspect of this will be to target succession requirements that address leadership
beyond the current generation.
The Corporation‟s future interest in wildlife-based projects creates opportunity for
species research. In particular species management planning will be necessary to ascertain
population benchmarking, quotas for wild collection and monitoring requirements.
Animal husbandry skills will need to be developed for specific species, particularly if
captive breeding programs are to be pursued. While this is a future interest for an
established Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy, it presents unique
opportunities for collaborative research.
Finally a research project based on long-term monitoring of the social benefits of
Goonj Arlan is feasible. The establishment and development of the Goonj Arlan
Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy could be monitored against key indicators of
community capacity. The base line exists from participatory planning and criteria to
measure the Corporation‟s impact on the environment and capacity of the family group
can be derived. Quantifiable data linking community functionality to an outstation
existence that integrates customary life with economic development and conservation
would be an important contribution to academic discussion and policy development.
267
9.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Research underpinning this thesis was aimed at participatory planning however the
implementation of the Goonj Arlan Futures Plan is ongoing. Actions required for the
Corporation to strive towards the agreed vision have been determined and a number of
aspects have been implemented concurrently with the planning process. To that end, it is
important to qualify what has occurred to date on the ground and make an assessment of
the likelihood of successful implementation.
Designing and implementing the planning process has been a forum for collective
development of the Executive Committee of the Corporation. The process acted as a
medium to develop committee members‟ ability to turn aspirations into an agreed vision
and supporting plan. The many stages of this process have resulted in an improved
confidence in planning, an understanding of the opportunities to be pursued and an
acknowledgement of the existing collective capital of the family group. The Corporation
now have a clear pathway comprising objectives and discrete actions that are aligned with
measuring progress. The planning process emphasised their individual roles and
responsibilities in the future of their country, which is an important aspect of leadership
development. Regular collective visits to country to conduct research also emphasised the
roles and responsibilities of family leaders. The collective visits with children reinforced
to individuals the healthy lifestyle choice that can stem from country and the importance
of preserving custodianship for future generations.
Equally important was the need for identifiable outcomes to be achieved while the
planning process was underway. Three specific actions occurred during the research.
Firstly individual relationships with external stakeholders were developed into an
embryonic management network. Goonj Arlan leaders have been involved with on-going
liaison and negotiation with government agencies, the Indigenous sector, training
institutions and businesses. The focus of this interaction to date has been on winning
support for initial infrastructure development, informing regional leadership of intentions
and linking into existing enterprise markets. Of significance are the engagements
engendering regional leadership support for the intended return to country, access to
current research and development for Gubinge, and access to government housing and
works programs to clean up the outstation and re-establish some services.
The second action has involved initial refurbishment of the outstation. At the
commencement of this research the site was overgrown and in disrepair. Engagement
with government and the Indigenous sector has focused on accessing essential services on
268
site, specifically electricity and water, which will hopefully be available prior to
permanent occupancy. The outstation ring road has been graded and surrounding grass
areas cleared. The next immediate stage is to clear the rubbish, building materials and car
bodies that litter the area. The Corporation is also investigating upgrading the security of
existing buildings.
Thirdly, the commencement of enterprise will begin with the collection of Gubinge
seeds. Collection will result in the family group propagating seedlings in Broome for
transportation and planting once irrigation infrastructure is established. This is an
important action as seed collection can only occur during the wet season meaning each
season this is delayed translates to a year lost of potential earnings for the Corporation.
The propagation of seedlings in Broome is necessary until permanent residency on
country can be established.
The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation is well placed to achieve the aspirations of
the family group and is likely to progress the planning through to a workable conservancy
model. The factors underpinning this statement are:
The custodial link between people and country has driven the family through
the planning phase;
Planning has been collaborative from the outset with all stages of the process
ensuring family ownership;
The resulting plan is founded on extant capital and analysis of the
development needs;
Resident leadership is strong and backed by experience in varied management
environments;
Planning recognises the importance of developing depth in leadership; and
The Goonj Arlan model is based on the considerations captured in the
Conceptual Model.
The biggest detractors from progressing the plan to an established conservancy are
having permanent residency on country and the delivery of services to the outstation.
These are mutually dependent. Government will not consider provision of services to an
unoccupied outstation, however the services are necessary to attract residency. Mitigating
strategies are incorporated in the Futures Plan to address this dilemma and a commitment
by family leaders on the first instance is essential.
269
While research outcomes are applied to a localised initiative, the models presented
have potential elsewhere in Australia and overseas. The Conceptual Model is founded on
principles derived from consideration of indigenous initiatives globally and in Australia.
It comprises considerations stemming from these principles as they are manifested in a
case study in the Northern Territory.
The Participatory Planning Framework has utility for communities with cultural links
and responsibilities to traditionally owned or regarded land and sea. The framework
captures the collective capital, which includes intangible attributes directly relating to
indigenous social structures and experiences. Applying the framework requires facilitative
support that ensures ownership and steerage by community leaders.
The Outstation Model integrates custodial responsibility towards country and
harnesses the unique opportunities arising from land ownership. To that end, the models
target community strengths and deficiencies that typify indigenous people more broadly
than Goonj Arlan. The cultural link between people and country is the fundamental basis
and the strength of that link at a micro level is emphasised.
270
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APPENDICIES
Appendix 1: Data Related to the Djelk Ranger Activities.
Appendix 2: Considerations for Initiatives Involving Natural Resource Management
by Indigenous Communities.
Appendix 3: The Futures Plan for The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation
Conservancy.
APPENDIX 1. DATA RELATED TO THE DJELK RANGER ACTIVITIES.
1. DJELK RANGER EGG COLLECTION AND INCUBATION DATA SHEETS.
Djelk Rangers are required to compile data sheets to record information relating to
crocodile egg collection and incubation. Numeracy and literacy training is focussed on
compiling these records. The following format shows details recorded by rangers when
eggs are collected from nests and moved to the Maningrida incubation facility.
Djelk Ranger Egg Incubation Data Sheet – First Recording for Each Nest.
Date Nest number
Where collected
GPS
Collected by
Recorder Nest temperature
Number of eggs
collected
Number of infertile
eggs
Total number of eggs placed in incubator
Crate numbered properly
Comments
The incubation process involves routine monitoring and recording of the status of eggs.
The following format shows details that are recorded by rangers as part of their routine
incubation duties.
Djelk Ranger Crocodile Egg Incubator Data Sheet
Date Record sheet number
Recorder Number of eggs on last
check
Nest number Number of rotten eggs
Number of
hatchlings
Number of eggs remaining
this time
Comments
2. UNITS OF COMPETENCY FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT COURSES.
Certificate in 1 in Resource Management – Core Competencies
Competency Supervised Hours
Prepare for Work 10
Participate in Workplace Communications 30
Provide Basic First Aid 10
Meet Workplace Health and Safety Requirements 10
Plan Daily Work Routines 10
Understand Different Work Cultures 30
Develop Understandings of the Interrelationship of Land, Language and Kinship 30
Develop Skills in Participatory Planning 20
Apply Sound Land Management Principles 40
Certificate in 1 in Resource Management – Elective Competencies
Competency Supervised Hours
Operate 4x4 vehicle in Off-Road Conditions 40
Assist with Routine Maintenance of Machinery and Equipment 20
Use Firearms to Humanely Destroy Animals 40
Use Hazardous Substances Safely 10
Act in an Emergency 10
Driver Training and Licensing 40
Introduction to Aboriginal Language and Literacy 40
Drive Light Rigid Vehicle 40
Work as a Guide 90
Participate in Animal Harvest 40
Participate in Plant Harvest 40
Participate in Sea Harvest 40
Participate in Erosion Control 35
Participate in Feral Animal Control 40
Participate in Quarantine Work (Animals) 35
Participate in Quarantine Work (Plants) 35
Apply Literacy and Communication Skills to the Study of Country 20
Demonstrate Understandings of Social Organisations and Services in the
Community 20
Understand the Legal Process 30
Develop Understandings and Skills in the Protection of Sites of Significance 40
Develop Understandings of Traditional Burning Practices 30
Develop Understandings of the Western Economy 20
Certificate in 2 in Resource Management – Core Competencies
Competency Supervised Hours
Meet Workplace Health and Safety Requirements 10
Act in an Emergency 10
Plan Daily Work Routines 10
Process Financial Transactions 25
Plan to Coordinate Resources 40
Understand Legislation Affecting Land Managers 40
Collect Data 20
Develop Understandings of Western Cultures 20
Certificate in 2 in Resource Management – Elective Competencies
Competency Supervised Hours
Access the Internet 20
Process Accounts Receivable and Payable 30
Maintain a Cash Receipting System 15
Provide Basic First Aid 10
Conduct Erosion and Sediment Control Activities 40
Use Hazardous Substances Safely 10
Drive Light Rigid Vehicle 40
Coordinate Animal Harvest 40
Coordinate Plant Harvest 40
Coordinate Sea Harvest 40
Coordinate Feral Animal Control 40
Coordinate Feral Plant Control 40
Coordinate Quarantine Activities (Animals) 30
Coordinate Quarantine Activities (Plants) 30
Understand Concepts of Land Rights 20
Undertake Basic Research Activities 25
Develop Understandings of Basic Principles of Ethnobotany 25
Develop Understandings of Basic Principles of Ecology 30
Develop Understandings of Basic Principles of Geography 30
Develop Basic Navigation Skills 20
APPENDIX 2. CONSIDERATIONS FOR INITIATIVES INVOLVING
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT BY INDIGENOUS
COMMUNITIES.
GOVERNMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Sustainable Policy Policy must satisfy an overarching conservation objective.
It must promote Indigenous commercial development and participation.
It must highlight the need for cooperation between landowners and other
stakeholders.
Species
Management Plans
Management plans are required for specific targeted species.
They require Commonwealth Government endorsement for listed species.
Indigenous landowner and scientific involvement in development is necessary.
Plans need to identify harvesting quotas and reporting/monitoring criteria. The
latter must consider abilities of Indigenous participants.
Government
Funding
Government funding needs to support plan development, initial equipment
purchases, Indigenous training needs and staff employment.
Corporation business submissions need to identify whole funding requirements
to gain support.
Priorities set by the lead government department need to be reflected in the
programs of other government departments.
The CDEP addresses the economic overhead burden associated salary
payments.
CONSIDERATIONS OF INDIGENOUS CORPORATION MANAGEMENT
Traditional Owner
Involvement in
Indigenous
Corporation
Management
Traditional owner interaction with or representation on the management
committee necessary.
This protects traditional values/community interests and achieves community
ownership of activities.
Consensus Decision
Making
Consensus decision making by corporation management results in community
acceptance of decisions.
Credibility With
Regulating
Authority
Corporations need business and environmental credibility with regulating
government authorities.
Proposals need to have conservation credentials and promote community
participation.
A Wide and
Consistent Liaison
Network
Formal and informal liaison between corporation management and all
stakeholders is essential.
Liaison enhances understanding, encourages external support and attracts
funding.
Liaison facilitates influence over stakeholder decision making.
Liaison networks need to target the state/territory government’s lead and
regulating agency for sustainable harvesting, the key scientific research agency
advising government and the major commercial business in the industry.
Indigenous and
Non-Indigenous
Leadership
Indigenous and non-Indigenous quality leadership with longevity in the
corporation is essential.
Indigenous leadership is required at the production level and needs to possess
project coordination skills and subject knowledge, lead by example and
encourage teamwork.
Non Indigenous leadership needs to focus on the social aims of programs,
develop Indigenous involvement and ownership of activities, have strong
rapport skills and understand cultural sensitivities.
Entrepreneurial qualities are required to actively seek economic development
opportunities in close consultation with Indigenous leaders.
CONSIDERATIONS OF ENTERPRISE CHARACTERISTICS
The Social
Objective Needs to
Drive Ventures
A social objective is the primary objective of community managed Indigenous
commercial enterprise.
The social objective needs to be the benchmark for decision making regarding
the development and growth of a venture.
Initiatives need to develop within available resources and skills.
Enterprises should not be distracted by unsustainable rapid economic growth.
Enterprise Should
Supply Niche
Markets
Niche markets help to maintain competitiveness which would otherwise
threaten remote ventures.
Niche industry stems from traditional land ownership and knowledge of native
wildlife.
Ideally corporations want markets to approach them so that effort does not have
to be channelled towards marketing.
Traditional
Practices Need to be
the Basis
The maintenance of traditional practices and knowledge supports the social
intent of worthwhile employment and community involvement.
Traditional practices can be environmental self regulation.
State Support is
Required
State support is essential for species and habitat management planning,
scientific research, salaries, training and technology.
Corporations should try to influencing how state support is delivered rather than
the amount.
Salaries paid through state support are often not comparable to market rates.
The social benefit counters this inequity. Payment of such rates would threaten
the economic viability of a business.
Progressive
Development and
Diversity
Characterise
Ventures
Progressive and achievable development allows growth within available
financial and human resources.
The first stage of a developing Indigenous harvesting venture is royalty
payment.
The second stage is to develop the skills of Indigenous participants to conduct
harvesting in an environmentally responsible manner using traditional skills.
The third stage is to introduce equipment and skills to enable limited animal
husbandry.
Remote enterprises should focus on the early stages of wildlife processing
rather than ranching or food processing due to associated prohibitive overheads.
Diversifying in species harvested supports a broad enterprise not threatened by
a collapsing industry for one species.
Job Specific
Training and
Education
Training must be outcomes based and job competency specific.
Training in business and resource management is essential to increase
Indigenous involvement in project coordination and corporation management.
Government funded training must be accredited which creates difficulty in
remote areas.
The inclusion of a Training Coordination Officer provides a single focal point
to identify synergies and guide training providers to meet community needs.
Government funding allocated to training should be managed by the
corporation.
External Evaluation
Should be Pursued.
Mandatory auditing of business practices satisfies accountability requirements
of a corporation’s management.
Mandatory harvesting reports and government monitoring programs support
environmental evaluation.
A social evaluation that links specific employment type to social outcomes
would assist the development of sustainable harvesting ventures.
Social evaluations could link domestic and health benefits to meaningful
employment involving wildlife.
Appendix 3:
THE FUTURES PLAN FOR THE GOONJ
ARLAN ABORIGINAL CORPORATION
CONSERVANCY
Respect for Country, Ancestors, Community and Self
The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy
PO Box 920
Broome
Western Australia 6725
1
Contents
Background................................................................................................................... 2
Methodology Underpinning this Plan ........................................................................ 3
Vision ............................................................................................................................. 4
Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 4
Human Resource Capital .......................................................................................... 10
Capital Stemming from Country .............................................................................. 11
Infrastructure Capital ............................................................................................... 12
Networks ..................................................................................................................... 13
Issues ........................................................................................................................... 14
Customary Knowledge .............................................................................................. 14
Guiding Principles...................................................................................................... 15
Business and Conservation Project Descriptions .................................................... 17
Task Analysis .............................................................................................................. 20
Cost Benefit Analysis ................................................................................................. 21
Action Plan.................................................................................................................. 21
Annexes:
A. Family skills and knowledge
B. Skills and knowledge requirements
C. Networks to be developed
D. Issues impacting on GACC objectives
E. Task analysis
F. Cost benefit analysis
G. Action plan
2
Background
1. Recent recognition of Native Title under the Bardi-Jawi claim has created an
environment for communities and families to embrace economic and social
development opportunities stemming from custodial responsibilities. Goonj Arlan is the
family outstation of the Phillips and Jacky Family; a Bunyiol Bardi family with
custodial claim to a stretch of coastline lying between Rumble Bay (16°36′23″S and
123°1′18″E) and Deep Water Point (16°41′28″S and 123°4′50″E) on the East Coast of
Dampier Peninsular. Figure 1 shows the approximate area of family claim, which
includes 5 sites of cultural importance.
2. Goonj Arlan outstation was previously established on unallocated crown land
with limited infrastructure. It was occupied by family members from the period 1994 to
2000. The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation (GAC) was constitutionally established
in accordance with the Aboriginal Councils and Associations Act 1976 in 1994.
3. GAC currently consists of 22 family members with a governing committee of
eight. Occupancy of the outstation ceased due to numerous social and planning factors.
These include: difficulty in service delivery, in particular education; and the lack of
long-term planning to support the outstation. The outstation was formed by family
members to support lifestyle choices and planning did not consider the real needs of
community, business and caring for country. Despite this the outstation was established
with commitment and initiative.
4. As a result of the Native Title determination the family has decided to redevelop
Goonj Arlan to meet custodial responsibilities over the long-term. This decision has led
to joint planning between the University of Western Australia (UWA) and the Executive
Committee of GAC. Research and planning underpins this “Futures Plan,” which aims
for sustainability. Fundamental to this plan is that appropriate management of Goonj
Arlan and its environs involves community, business and caring for country aspects.
5. This plan covers the forming and development of the Goonj Arlan Aboriginal
Corporation Conservancy which aims to exercise custodial responsibilities for caring
for country.
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Figure 1: Approximate boundary of Coastline of Family Custodial Significance
Methodology Underpinning this Plan
6. Planning has involved 2 years of joint investigation by the Phillips/Jacky family
and the Geography Department of the University of Western Australia. Research has
looked at issues relating to Aboriginal Economic Development and involvement in
Caring for Country. An assessment of the natural resources on country and a series of
workshops established the following:
Family aim and objectives;
Human and other resource capital;
Opportunities stemming from Country;
Factors impacting on re-establishing and sustaining the outstation;
Guiding principals; and
Courses of action development and selection.
7. Research has been developed into this plan, which includes an assessment of
actions to be undertaken in the immediate and longer term.
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Vision
8. The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy (GACC) is an
established and long-term sustainable Aboriginal Corporation providing the
Phillips/Jacky family with the opportunity to exercise custodianship of their family land
for future generations.
9. The bird or „Gudabul‟ known as the Terek Sandpiper is a trans-equatorial
migratory bird species. It breeds in Siberia from May to July and is found on the
Kimberley coast including the environs of Goonj Arlan from August to April. Despite
the many threats and distractions during its long, annual migration, this Gudabul
preserves its species by maintaining its focus on its aim. This philosophy underpins the
development and implementation of this Futures Plan. Like the Gudabul, the custodians
of Goonj Arlan now and in the future must maintain their focus on the agreed vision and
objectives.
Objectives
10. GACC is driven by the following three objectives:
a. Community:
Establish and maintain a family community on country that involves
permanent and temporary occupancy as supports visitation;
Create employment opportunities for family and other Aboriginal
community members;
Attract government and non-government support to establish and
maintain a long-term venture; and
Establish and maintain community infrastructure to support long-
term occupancy by up to 5 people and visitation by up to 25 people.
b. Caring for Country
Identify and manage threatening processes on family country;
Develop and implement family and customary knowledge of caring
for country;
Conduct long-term monitoring of the health of the country;
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Establish long-term networks with environmentally focussed organisations;
Manage the customary use of natural resources by Aboriginal communities;
and
Attract support from government and industry to enable long-term caring for
country programs.
c. Economic enterprise
Establish diverse and niche enterprises that provide income to the GACC and
support development and long-term community;
Establish long-term niche markets and business networks;
Investigating future opportunities for economic development based on niche
and diverse enterprise; and
Attract support from government and industry to develop enterprise projects.
11. Functionally, GACC is shown in Figures 2 to 5.
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The Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy
GACC
Caring for
CountryEnterpriseCommunity
Living oncountry
Self Sufficiency
Projects
Education and
Development
Cash Crop
Organic
Produce
Native Seed
Collection
Assessment
Access and
Activity
Management
Exotic SpeciesControl
Monitoring
Customary
Knowledge
SupportResearch
Tourism
Aquaculture
Wildlife
Figure 2. Goonj Arlan Aboriginal Corporation Conservancy Functions
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Community Activities
Community
Living on
country
Self SufficiencyProjects
Education and
Development
Consumptive Harvesting
Corporation Governance
Connecting with Country
Transport Management
Vegetable Garden
Animal Husbandry
Infrastructure Maintenance
Experience
Mentoring
Customary Knowledge
Mainstream Education
Figure 3. Activities Comprising the Community Function for Goonj Arlan
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Caring for
Country
Assessment
Exotic Species
Control
Monitoring
Customary
Knowledge
Support
Research
Access
Management
Climatic Affects
Human Impact
Health of Country
Cultural Significance
Rubbish Prevention
Visitation and Facilities
Species Take and Locations
Vehicle Access Management
Weeds
Feral Animals
Foods and Medicines
Family Geneology
Stories and Language
Seasons
Knowledge of Change to Beaches/Reefs/Waterways
Recording Fishing Take
Knowledge of Change to Populations
Knowledge of Change to Vegetation
Conduct Fieldwork
Establish Partnership with Universities/ CRC
Provide Facilities to Research
Provide Customary Knowledge of Country
Caring for Country Activities
Figure 4. Activities Comprising the Caring for Country Function for Goonj Arlan
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Enterprise
Cash Crop
Organic
Produce
Native SeedCollection
Tourism
Aquaculture
Wildlife
Gubinge Plantation
Existing Distributor
Consortium
Local Communities
Broome Markets
Revegetation Industry
Local Nursery Market
Aquarium Industry
Existing Distributor
Freshwater Species
Predictable Schedule
Outstation Product
Regular Client Base
Limited Overheads
Future Project
Partnership with Research/Government Agencies
Species Significant to Community Consumption
Business Activities
Figure 5. Activities Comprising the Business Function for Goonj Arlan
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Human Resource Capital
12. GACC comprises diverse skills, knowledge and experience in areas of
management, supervision, administration and trades. Annex A lists the skills and
knowledge existing in the family against the broad GACC objectives.
13. Key attributes, knowledge and experience identified as critical to GACC long-
term management are:
Leadership;
Acceptance of expected values;
Communication skills;
Administration;
Networking;
Coordination; and
Work ethic.
14. Agreed values underpinning the GACC ethos are:
Respect;
A sense of community;
Sense of humour;
Humility;
Integrity;
Commitment and work ethic; and
Patience.
15. A number of deficiencies in skills and knowledge exist within the family group.
These are detail in Annex B together with mitigating strategies. Deficiencies relate
broadly to the following:
Detailed and consolidated customary knowledge;
Formal training in specific Governance related functions;
Formal training in land and sea management at project level; and
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Project specific skills for planned enterprises.
16. Some of the agencies, organisations that will be approached to access support for
skills training and development include: Government (DEWR and ORAC), Indigenous
Community Volunteers, WA TAFE, Kimberley Aquaculture Aboriginal Corporation and
Indigenous Business Australia.
Capital Stemming from Country
17. The country intended to be managed by GACC is shown at Figure 1. The family
custodial claim is based on advice from elders who provided evidence to the Native Title
Tribunal for the Bardi Jawi claim. The family claim is for custodial land and sea
management purposes not sole occupancy. Occupancy is proposed for Goonj Arlan
initially with the future development of a second outstation in the vicinity of Maldjin being
considered for a later date. The custodial claim will protect the rights for all Bardi people
to access the resources of this country for customary purposes and ensure the health of the
country is maintained.
18. Key issues of country include:
Remoteness from main population centres with limited access routes assists caring
for country activity;
Customary knowledge is still held throughout the Bunyiol Bardi community and
must be captured and protected;
Deep Water Point pearling leases are adjacent to the southern boundary of the
country. Land and sea management would help protect this industry‟s interests
from existing and future threats relating to bio-security;
The proposed Marine Protected Area boundary is adjacent to the southern extreme
of GACC related country;
The coastal areas are used by local Aboriginal communities for fishing and
harvesting of marine species however activities are confined to a few locations
which are manageable;
The environment is used by diverse species, many that are at risk including turtle
and trans-equatorial migratory bird populations;
Access to Goonj Arlan from the main Cape Leveque road is all season by 4WD;
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Underground water is available from two established bores;
The main communities of Djarindjin, One Armed Point and Lombadina are
potential markets and sources of CDEP labour;
The neighbouring outstations provide the opportunity for partnership and access to
CDEP resources; and
Bunyiol Bardi kinship networks provide the opportunity for joint ventures for
specific enterprises as well as an opportunity to establish a Bunyiol council for the
management of local interests and culture.
19. Requirements stemming from country include the following:
The need to complete the underway Natural Resource and Impact Assessments;
The importance of an established Bunyiol Bardi network or council;
The need to capture and consolidate customary knowledge;
The need to ensure that community and enterprise developments do not adversely
impact on the health of the country;
The requirement to manage community activities on country;
The importance of incorporating management into research and monitoring projects
being conducted by government agencies, environmental bodies and research
institutions; and
The importance of education programs based on customary knowledge to
community sustainability.
Infrastructure Capital
20. Current infrastructure servicing Goonj Arlan includes:
All weather to 4 WD access roads;
Two bores;
Buildings: Communal area, generator shed, three rudimentary sheds ablution block,
water tower;
Access tracks from Goonj Arlan to beach areas; and
Access tracks to Maldjin during dry season; and
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Electricity cabling to serve current infrastructure
21. Infrastructure development needs include:
General clean up of outstation and refurbishment of shelters and sheds;
Electrical power generation refurbishment and the development of alternative solar
systems;
Water pumps and piping refurbishment;
Town planning to improve community layout, (including using environmental
systems, improving living conditions for permanent residents, establishing
communal living facilities and establishing transit accommodation for up to 25
people);
Town planning for an outstation site for up to 5 people in the Maldjin area;
Acquire community transport supported by a management plan for the life of type
of the asset; and
Establish infrastructure for enterprise and community self sustainment projects
(largely irrigation, fencing and limited construction).
Networks
22. GACC membership brings with it a broad and diverse human and organisational
network. While many of these are informal, the relationships exist for them to be
formalised. A consolidated list of people and organisational contacts and the GACC
objectives that they relate to is at Annex C.
23. These contacts are required to be formally developed into networks supporting
GACC activity. This is to be achieved through the formal presentation of this Futures Plan
and ongoing engagement by the GACC executive committee.
24. Additional stakeholders to be established relate to enterprise markets and caring for
country projects. These include:
Community
Indigenous Community Volunteers
Caring for country:
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Department of Environment and Conservation
Environs Kimberley
Enterprise:
Munbana Aquaculture Hatchery and Discovery Centre
Western Australian Indigenous Tour Operators Committee (WAITOC)
Forum Advocating Cultural and Ecotourism (FACET)
Issues
25. Issues impacting on GACC objectives are covered in Annex D. Statements relating
to the management of each issue are included as well as a priority grading. Grading
accords with the following broad assessments:
Priority 1: Issue prevents the establishment of GACC and long-term sustainability
Priority 2: Issue impacts significantly on the achievement of GACC objectives
Priority 3: Issue slows the progress of GACC establishment and development.
Customary Knowledge
26. Customary Knowledge must be captured and consolidated as it underpins the ethos
and objectives of GACC. Priorities for capturing knowledge are:
Priority 1: Family genealogy, stories of country and kinship lore;
Priority 2: Bardi Language and seasons for harvesting species; and
Priority 3: Bush foods and medicines.
27. Key contacts for acquiring customary knowledge are:
Kimberley Land Council; and
Bunyiol Bardi elders:
Mercia Angus
Mary Anne Doyle
Madalene Grey
Leonard Sampi
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Paul Sampi
28. A number of other community contacts include:
Aubrey Tigan
Kevin George
John Albert
Lizzy Puertollano
Roy Wigan
Frank Davey
Patsy Ahchoo
Joe Davey
Victor James
Patrick Sampi
Rosa Angus
29. The project for capturing and consolidating customary knowledge is to be
outsourced. Funding for this project is included in funding assessments relating to caring
for country projects. Once captured, the knowledge is to be developed into an ongoing
education regime for GACC participants with particular emphasis on children.
Guiding Principles
30. GACC is to be guided by agreed principles written into the management
constitution. The principles to drive an expected code of conduct are detailed in the table
below.
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Principle
1 The Vision provides the aim that guides all decision-making and activities. Participants are
to maintain their focus on the aim. The vision is to ‘establish a long-term sustainable
Aboriginal Corporation that provides the family with the opportunity to exercise
custodianship of family country for future generations’
2 The core values are:
Respect Integrity
A sense of community Commitment and work ethic
A sense of humour Patience
Humility
3 All participants are to behave in line with the agreed values. Anyone breaching these values
will be counseled by the executive committee and if their conduct does not improve their
access to country will be restricted.
4 Goonj Arlan is an Aboriginal Corporation in accordance with the Corporations (Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander) Act 2006.
5 Economic return from activities will be distributed to participants and project development
as determined by the Executive Committee. Only members directly contributing to the
Corporation management or projects will personally benefit from individual payments.
6 Diversity and niche are to characterise business activities being undertaken. Activities that
are successful will be reinforced however the intention is to spread success across a number
of simple activities to support sustainability.
7 Where possible, individuals will be responsible for supervising specific projects and
answerable to the Executive Committee.
8 Activities will involve on and off country participation in Corporation management and
specific projects.
9 Access to Goonj Arlan and its environs is to accord with the following principles:
Family members have absolute access;
Bardi community people have access for customary purposes and are expected to
inform the Corporation of their visits;
Bardi community business activities on family land and sea interests are only to be
conducted on agreement with the Prescribed Body Corporate and the Bunyiol Bardi
council if established; and
Visits by government agencies and Aboriginal organisations will be encouraged.
10 Outstations are to be alcohol and drug free.
11 Decision-making relating to corporation matters is to be by consensus from the Executive
Committee.
12 Equipment is only to be used for the purposes of Corporation operations or tasks that support
the wellbeing of the community. This is particularly the case for transport assets, which are
to be managed centrally and are not to be used for personal use.
13 Open communication is to underpin conflict resolution internally or between the Corporation
and other groups.
14 Personal development is to be encouraged for all members and supported by the Executive
Committee where it benefits community, caring for country or business.
15 Healthy country is to underpin all activities conducted. Outstations and country are to be
clean and litter free and activities are not to harm the environment.
16 Changes to these principles are only to be made on consensus decision by the Executive
Committee.
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Business and Conservation Project Descriptions
31. A description of each of the business enterprises and conservation activities
proposed by GACC is contained in this section. All activities are aimed at supporting the
GACC vision and objectives.
32. Caring for country.
GACC intends to establish itself as a conservancy actively managing land and
sea habitats, supporting scientific research and ensuring community activity is
not detrimental to the health of the country. Activities will ensure the long-term
security of the coastline from bio and human threats. This will support the
interests of Bardi people, regional and government natural resource
management organisations and adjacent local pearl shell leases.
GACC would provide a vehicle for data collection on a range of natural
resource based matters relevant to coastal, mangrove and mudflat habitats as
well as species populations. The Conservancy will also aim to establish itself as
a base for scientific research field trips, with access to local communities for a
source of field assistance to impart skills to local people and create meaningful
work.
GACC caring for country projects will target activities threatening the health of
the country. This include managing community fishing and hunting, managing
community access in particular to vulnerable areas, weed control and feral
species eradication, and protection of threatened or vulnerable communities.
Capturing and consolidating traditional knowledge is key to providing meaning
to this venture and significant to the land and sea management, which will use
traditional and western practices.
33. Aquaculture for aquarium trade
GACC intends to develop aquaculture activities progressively. Enterprise will
target the aquarium industry and species selection will accord with progressive
development of skills and infrastructure. The key to successful niche
aquaculture on a small scale is to embark on activities that are low in
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overheads, fast in production, provide modest returns, and are not characterised
by large economic hurt stemming from stock losses.
Initial projects will involve easily managed freshwater species such as gold fish
and as skills and confidence develop, fresh water native species will be
produced. Scope exists to further develop skills and infrastructure to breed
saltwater aquarium species. Hermit crab species endemic to the Goonj Arlan
area will provide an immediate source of revenue and breeding stock.
GACC does not intend to seek new markets during initial project development.
The products will be distributed to markets through the Munbana Aquaculture
Hatchery. This will reduce overheads associated with marketing and allow
GACC to harness Munbana‟s experience, knowledge and established networks.
34. Cash Crop plantation
Cash crop plantation is to be initially focussed on Gubinge production. Gubinge
is marketable for its high vitamin C content. Wild Gubinge grows in the vicinity
of the outstation at a distribution of 4 plants per 100m². This provides a source
of wild harvest however non-irrigated trees produce fruit only once per year and
the harvesting would be labour intensive. Irrigated plants produce two yields in
a year. GACC will establish a limited plantation of up to 200 plants over a two
year period by which time it should yielding harvestable fruit quantities.
The plantation will not involve clearing land, rather trees will be planted in
between existing vegetation along the access and outstation ring roads. The
roads provide access for maintenance and harvesting. Irrigation will use rainfall
capture systems and existing bores.
Seeds will be collected by wild harvest and propagated to provide seedlings for
the plantation. Knowledge and skills are readily acquired from existing Broome
TAFE training.
Distribution will be through existing distribution networks mitigating the need
for marketing overheads.
35. Native Seed Collection
Native seed collection will target specific species in demand by nurseries and
companies. Species from the Kimberley region are in good demand however
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availability is limited leaving an opportunity to leverage from land ownership
and the availability of high demand species. The most lucrative markets involve
land rehabilitation by mining and forestry industries, however the issue of
provenance and quantities limits the market access. Nurseries are another
market however returns are smaller and targetted species may not provide
significant scope for GACC.
Another issue relating to the seed collection industry is that demand is difficult
to forecast while storage can affect the quality of seed. GACC will continue to
establish market networks, however it must ensure good reliability in supplying
seeds if this is to be a feasible project. The key aspects are establishing reliable
markets, targetting specific species and being responsive to demand while
limiting storage requirements.
36. Niche tourism
The tourism product to be developed and marketed is the experience of living
on an Aboriginal outstation and participating in conservancy activities. This
niche product is marketable to schools, youth development organisations and
potentially overseas tourists looking for tourism products that blend social and
environmental experiences. It will be provided at specific times of the year for
small tourist numbers and for limited activities. This negates the need for
extensive tourism facilities and services to meet the demands of mainstream
tourism. Activities would involve participation in land and sea management
projects as well as the experience of learning to live off the natural resource
base of the country.
Existing networks of GACC members provide leverage to market this product.
Infrastructure development to accommodate transient visitors supports this
activity.
WAITOC and FACET will be accessed to seek support in product development
and marketing.
37. Organic Produce
Organic produce for commercial sale to local communities is a simple offshoot
from community sustaining activity. Products will be simple and all year round
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to provide healthy food options. An alternative market exists in established
organic distributers in Broome.
The effort to grow and harvest organic produce is significant however base
skills exist amongst GACC members. The priority of this activity is focussed on
GACC community sustainment, however excess produce will be sold to other
communities.
38. Native species farming
Species farming is a project that will not be conducted until GACC matures. It
is intended that activities will be developed as separate projects in conjunction
government agencies supported by discreet business planning and funding.
It is intended that species farming will be for consumption by local
communities and for protecting vulnerable populations through breeding and
release programs. Species such as goanna and scrub turkey may provide
opportunity for techniques to be developed in partnership between GACC, local
communities, research institutions and government.
Research and development will be required to commence from a low base line
depending on targetted species. Species management plans will need to be
developed to support any commercial use.
Task Analysis
39. A detailed task analysis is contained at Annex E. The analysis is conducted against
elements of community, caring for country and enterprise. Analysis for each element
involves the following assessments:
Threats and associated mitigation
Skills development needs
Infrastructure requirements
Management requirements
Assessed areas of costs
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Cost Benefit Analysis
40. A detailed Cost Benefit Analysis is at Annex F.
Action Plan
41. The action plan is contained at Annex G. This plan identifies the specific actions
against Community, Caring for Country and business functions. Stakeholders are identified
against each action as well as the schedule time for implementation.
