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Era4:GlobalInteractions,c.1450toc.1750KeyConcept4.1.GlobalizingNetworksofCommunicationandExchangeTheinterconnectionoftheEasternandWesternhemispheresmadepossiblebytransoceanicvoyagingmarkedakeytransformationofthisperiod.Technologicalinnovationshelpedtomaketransoceanicconnectionspossible.Changingpatternsoflong-distancetradeincludedtheglobalcirculationofsomecommoditiesandtheformationofnewregionalmarketsandfinancialcenters.Increasedtransregionalandglobaltradenetworksfacilitatedthespreadofreligionandotherelementsofcultureaswellasthemigrationoflargenumbersofpeople.GermscarriedtotheAmericasravagedtheindigenouspeoples,whiletheglobalexchangeofcropsandanimalsalteredagriculture,diets,andpopulationsaroundtheplanet.
I. Inthecontextofthenewglobalcirculationofgoods,therewasanintensificationofallexistingregionalpatternsoftradethatbroughtprosperityandeconomicdisruptiontothemerchantsandgovernmentsinthetradingregionsoftheIndianOcean,Mediterranean,Sahara,andoverlandEurasia.[Textbook:417-418;437-442;523-539]
II. Europeantechnologicaldevelopmentsincartographyandnavigationbuiltonpreviousknowledgedevelopedintheclassical,Islamic,andAsianworlds,andincludedtheproductionofnewtools,innovationsinshipdesigns,andanimprovedunderstandingofglobalwindandcurrentspatterns—allofwhichmadetransoceanictravelandtradepossible.[Textbook:417-418;455-459]
Illustrativeexamplesofinnovationsinshipdesigns:
• Caravel• Carrack• Fluyt
III. Remarkablenewtransoceanicmaritimereconnaissanceoccurredinthisperiod.[Textbook:417-429;437-442]A. PortuguesedevelopmentofmaritimetechnologyandnavigationalskillsledtoincreasedtraveltoandtradewithWestAfrica,andresultedintheconstructionofaglobaltrading-postempire.
B. SpanishsponsorshipofthefirstColumbianandsubsequentvoyagesacrosstheAtlanticandPacificdramaticallyincreasedEuropeaninterestintransoceanictravelandtrade.
C. NorthernAtlanticcrossingsforfishingandsettlementscontinuedandspurredEuropeansearchesformultipleroutestoAsia.
IV. Thenewglobalcirculationofgoodswasfacilitatedbyroyal-charteredEuropeanmonopolycompaniesthattooksilverfromSpanishcoloniesintheAmericastopurchaseAsiangoodsfortheAtlanticmarkets.RegionalmarketscontinuedtoflourishinAfro-EurasiabyusingestablishedcommercialpracticesandnewtransoceanicshippingservicesdevelopedbyEuropeanmerchants.[Textbook:439-441;447-449;495-500;503-511;527-539;554-555;558-560;566-568]A. Europeanmerchants’roleinAsiantradewascharacterizedmostlybytransportinggoodsfromoneAsiancountrytoanothermarketinAsiaortheIndianOceanregion.
B. CommercializationandthecreationofaglobaleconomywereintimatelyconnectedtonewglobalcirculationofsilverfromtheAmericas.
C. Influencedbymercantilism,joint-stockcompanieswerenewmethodsusedbyEuropeanrulerstocontroltheirdomesticandcolonialeconomiesandbyEuropeanmerchantstocompeteagainstoneanotheringlobaltrade.
D. TheAtlanticsysteminvolvedthemovementofgoods,wealth,andfreeandunfreelaborers,andthemixingofAfrican,American,andEuropeanculturesandpeoples.
V. ThenewconnectionsbetweentheEasternandWesternhemispheresresultedintheColumbianExchange.[Textbook:417-418;430-431;441-442;447-449;494-516;520-522;527-537]A. EuropeancolonizationoftheAmericasledtothespreadofdiseases—includingsmallpox,measles,andinfluenza—thatwereendemicintheEasternHemisphereamongAmerindianpopulationsandtheunintentionaltransferofvermin,includingmosquitoesandrats.
B. AmericanfoodsbecamestaplecropsinvariouspartsofEurope,Asia,andAfrica.CashcropsweregrownprimarilyonplantationswithcoercedlaborandwereexportedmostlytoEuropeandtheMiddleEastinthisperiod.
IllustrativeexamplesofAmericanfoods:•Potatoes •Maize •Manioc
Illustrativeexamplesofcashcrops:•Sugar •Tobacco
C. Afro-Eurasianfruittrees,grains,sugar,anddomesticatedanimalswerebroughtbyEuropeanstotheAmericas,whileotherfoodswerebroughtbyAfricanslaves.Illustrativeexamplesofdomesticatedanimals:•Horses •Pigs •Cattle
IllustrativeexamplesoffoodsbroughtbyAfricanslaves:•Okra •Rice
D. PopulationsinAfro-EurasiabenefitednutritionallyfromtheincreaseddiversityofAmericanfoodcrops.
E. EuropeancolonizationandtheintroductionofEuropeanagricultureandsettlementspracticesintheAmericasoftenaffectedthephysicalenvironmentthroughdeforestationandsoildepletion.
VI. Theincreaseininteractionsbetweennewlyconnectedhemispheresandintensificationofconnectionswithinhemispheresexpandedthespreadandreformofexistingreligionsandcreatedsyncreticbeliefsystemsandpractices.[Textbook:437-439;443-447;452-459;465-469;473-481;500-503;566-568]Illustrativeexamplesofthereformofexistingreligionsandthecreationofsyncreticbeliefsystemsandpractices:
• ThecontinuingimportanceofSufipracticescontributedtothefurtherspreadofIslaminAfro-EurasiaasbelieversadaptedIslamtolocalculturalpractices.
• ThepoliticalrivalrybetweenOttomansandSafavidsintensifiedthesplitbetweenSunniandShi’a.
• ThepracticeofChristianitycontinuedtospreadthroughouttheworldandwasincreasinglydiversifiedbytheprocessofdiffusionandtheReformation.
• VodundevelopedintheCaribbeaninthecontextofinteractionsbetweenChristianityandAfricanreligions.
• SikhismdevelopedinSouthAsiainthecontextofinteractionsbetweenHinduismandIslam.
• WhilethepracticeofBuddhismdeclinedinSouthAsiaandislandSoutheastAsia,differentsectsofBuddhismandBuddhistpracticesspreadinNortheastAsiaandmainlandSoutheastAsia.
VII. Asmerchants’profitsincreasedandgovernmentscollectedmoretaxes,fundingfor
thevisualandperformingarts,evenforpopularaudiences,increasedalongwithanexpansionofliteracy.[Textbook:444-445;449-453;572-573]
KeyConcept4.2:NewFormsofSocialOrganizationandModesofProductionAlthoughtheworld’sproductivesystemscontinuedtobeheavilycenteredonagriculturalproductionthroughoutthisperiod,majorchangesoccurredinagriculturallabor,thesystemsandlocationsofmanufacturing,genderandsocialstructures,andenvironmentalprocesses.AdaptingtotheLittleIceAge,farmersincreasedagriculturalproductivitybyintroducingnewcropsandusingnewmethodsincrop-and-fieldrotation.Economicgrowthalsodependedonnewformsofmanufacturingandnewcommercialpatterns,especiallyinlong-distancetrade.Politicalandeconomiccenterswithinregionsshifted,andmerchants’socialstatustendedtoriseinvariousstates.Demographicgrowth—eveninareassuchastheAmericas,wherediseasehadravagedthepopulation—wasrestoredbythe18thcenturyandsurgedinmanyregions,especiallywiththeintroductionofAmericanfoodcropsthroughouttheEasternHemisphere.TheColumbianExchangeledtonewwaysofhumansinteractingwiththeirenvironments.NewformsofcoercedandsemicoercedlaboremergedinEurope,Africa,andtheAmericas,andaffectedethnicandracialclassificationsandgenderroles.
I. Beginninginthe14thcentury,therewasadecreaseinmeantemperatures,oftenreferredtoastheLittleIceAge,aroundtheworldthatlasteduntilthe19thcentury,contributingtochangesinagriculturalpracticesandthecontractionofsettlementinpartsoftheNorthernHemisphere.
II. Traditionalpeasantagricultureincreasedandchanged,plantationsexpanded,and
demandforlaborincreased.Thesechangesbothfedandrespondedtogrowingglobaldemandforrawmaterialsandfinishedproducts.[Textbook:417-418;427;441-442;495-500;506-507;509-516;527-537;556;560-561;566-568]
A. Peasantlaborintensifiedinmanyregions.Illustrativeexamplesoftheintensificationofpeasantlabor:•ThedevelopmentoffrontiersettlementsinRussianSiberia•CottontextileproductioninIndia•SilktextileproductioninChina
B. SlaveryinAfricacontinuedboththetraditionalincorporationofslavesintohouseholdsandtheexportofslavestotheMediterraneanandtheIndianOcean.
C. ThegrowthoftheplantationeconomyincreasedthedemandforslavesintheAmericas.
D. ColonialeconomiesintheAmericasdependedonarangeofcoercedlabor.Illustrativeexamplesofcoercedlabor:•Chattelslavery•Indenturedservitude
•Encomiendaandhaciendasystems•TheSpanishadaptationoftheIncamit’a
III. Asnewsocialandpoliticaleliteschanged,theyalsorestructuredethnic,racial,andgenderhierarchies.[Textbook:449-452;478-481;495-500;553-560]
A. Bothimperialconquestsandwideningglobaleconomicopportunitiescontributedtotheformationofnewpoliticalandeconomicelites.
Illustrativeexamplesofnewelites:•TheManchusinChina•CreoleelitesinSpanishAmerica
•Europeangentry•Urbancommercialentrepreneursinallmajorportcitiesintheworld
B. Thepowerofexistingpoliticalandeconomicelitesfluctuatedastheyconfrontednewchallengestotheirabilitytoaffectthepoliciesoftheincreasinglypowerfulmonarchsandleaders.Illustrativeexamplesofexistingelites:•ThezamindarsintheMughalEmpire •ThenobilityinEurope •ThedaimyoinJapan
C. Somenotablegenderandfamilyrestructuringoccurred,includingdemographicchangesinAfricathatresultedfromtheslavetrades.Illustrativeexamplesofgenderandfamilyrestructuring:•ThedependenceofEuropeanmenonSoutheastAsianwomenforconductingtradeinthatregion•ThesmallersizeofEuropeanfamilies
KeyConcept4.3:StateConsolidationandImperialExpansionEmpiresexpandedandconqueredpeoplesaroundtheworld,buttheyoftenhaddifficultiesincorporatingculturally,ethnically,andreligiouslydiversesubjects,andadministratingwidelydispersedterritories.AgentsoftheEuropeanpowersmovedintoexistingtradenetworksaroundtheworld.InAfricaandthegreaterIndianOcean,nascentEuropeanempiresconsistedmainlyofinterconnectedtradingpostsandenclaves.IntheAmericas,Europeanempiresmovedmorequicklytosettlementandterritorialcontrol,respondingtolocaldemographicandcommercialconditions.Moreover,thecreationofEuropeanempiresintheAmericasquicklyfosteredanewAtlanticexchangenetworkthatincludedthetransAtlanticslavetradeandtranspacificexchangenetwork.Aroundthe
world,empiresandstatesofvaryingsizespursuedstrategiesofcentralization,includingmoreefficienttaxationsystemsthatplacedstrainsonpeasantproducers,sometimespromptinglocalrebellions.Rulersusedpublicdisplaysofartandarchitecturetolegitimizestatepower.AfricanstatessharedcertaincharacteristicswithlargerEurasianempires.ChangesinAfricanandglobaltradingpatternsstrengthenedsomeWestandCentralAfricanstates—especiallyonthecoast;thisledtotheriseofnewstatesandcontributedtothedeclineofstatesonboththecoastandintheinterior.
I. Rulersusedavarietyofmethodstolegitimizeandconsolidatetheirpower.[Textbook:404-407;442-455;462-469;478-489;500-503;523-526;553-560;590-594]A. Rulerscontinuedtousereligiousideas,art,andmonumentalarchitecturetolegitimizetheirrule.
Illustrativeexamplesofartandmonumentalarchitecture:•Ottomanminiaturepainting
•Qingimperialportraits•Mughalmausoleaandmosques,suchastheTajMahal•Europeanpalaces,suchasVersailles
Illustrativeexamplesofreligiousideas:•Europeannotionsofdivineright•SafaviduseofShi’ism•Aztec(Mexica)practiceofhumansacrifice
•SonghaypromotionofIslam•Chineseemperors’publicperformanceofConfucianrituals
B. Statestreateddifferentethnicandreligiousgroupsinwaysthatutilizedtheireconomiccontributionswhilelimitingtheirabilitytochallengetheauthorityofthestate.
Illustrativeexamplesofdifferentialtreatmentofethnicandreligiousgroups:
• Ottomantreatmentofnon-Muslimsubjects
• ManchupoliciestowardChinese
• Spanishcreationofaseparate“RepublicadeIndios”
• SpanishandPortuguesecreationofnewracialclassificationsintheAmericasincludingmestizo,mulatto,creole
C. Recruitmentanduseofbureaucraticelites,aswellasthedevelopmentofmilitaryprofessionals,becamemorecommonamongrulerswhowantedtomaintaincentralizedcontrolovertheirpopulationsandresources.Illustrativeexamplesofbureaucraticelitesormilitaryprofessionals:•Ottomandevshirme•Chineseexaminationsystem
•Salariedsamurai
D. Rulersusedtributecollectionandtaxfarmingtogeneraterevenueforterritorialexpansion.
II. Imperialexpansionreliedontheincreaseduseofgunpowder,cannons,andarmedtradetoestablishlargeempiresinbothhemispheres.[Textbook:418-427;437-452;465-468;472-473;481-489;553-560]A. Europeansestablishednewtrading-postempiresinAfricaandAsia,whichprovedprofitablefortherulersandmerchantsinvolvedinnewglobaltradenetworks,buttheseempiresalsoaffectedthepowerofthestatesininteriorWestandCentralAfrica.
B. Landempires-includingtheManchu,Mughal,Ottoman,andRussian -expandeddramaticallyinsize.
C. EuropeanstatesestablishednewmaritimeempiresintheAmericas,includingthePortuguese,Spanish,Dutch,French,andBritish.
III. Competitionovertraderoutes,staterivalries,andlocalresistanceallprovidedsignificantchallengestostateconsolidationandexpansion.[Textbook:462-469;473-478;523-526;530-533;558-560]
Illustrativeexamplesofcompetitionovertraderoutes:•Omani-EuropeanrivalryintheIndianOcean •Piracyinthe
Caribbean
Illustrativeexamplesofstaterivalries:•ThirtyYearsWar •Ottoman-Safavidconflict
Illustrativeexamplesoflocalresistance:•Foodriots •Samurairevolts•Peasantuprisings