Enhancing Life Effectiveness:

The Impacts of Outdoor

Education Programs

Volume I

James T. Neill

Doctor of Philosophy

May 2008

University of Western Sydney

Enhancing Life Effectiveness:

The Impacts of Outdoor Education Programs

Volume 1

James T. Neill

B.Sc. (Hons), Australian National University

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

University of Western Sydney

May 2008

James Neill, 2008

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5

Australia License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/au

Electronic versions: http://wilderdom.com/phd

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am particularly indebted towards Prof. Herb Marsh (supervisor from 1995

to 2006), Prof. Rhonda Craven (supervisor from 2006 to 2008 and co-supervisor for

much of the period prior to then), Dr. Alex Yeung (co-supervisor 2007 to 2008), and

Garry Richards. Herb’s enthusiasm was critical to the study in its early stages, and

his expertise was particularly important in dealing with methodological issues in

instrument development and analysis of change. Rhonda’s enthusiastic urging came

along at the right time, and I was helped considerably by her coaching and comments

on draft chapters. Alex’s proofreading of draft chapters was also much appreciated.

Garry provided formative inspiration and a wealth of practical opportunity for

carrying out the research during the years I worked at the Australian Outward Bound

School (1988 to 1996), and subsequently as a fellow PhD student, mentor, and

friend. It should be noted that the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ) was

originally designed and developed by Garry, with significant contributions along the

way from others. I would also like to thank Outward Bound Australia (OBA) for

cooperation over many years, including allowing access to the bulk of the data.

Warm appreciation is also due to people I have worked with in the fields of

outdoor education and psychology including Robyn Cairns (nee Warner), Brett

Bannerman, Dr. James van Gelder, Alan Riches, Dr. Trevor Cheney, Dr. René

Fabert, Scott Fry, Dr. Brenda Morrison, Dr. Tonia Gray, Dr. Simon Priest, Prof.

Mike Gass, Prof. Lee Gillis, Dr. Keith Russell, Dr. Jim Sibthorp, Dr. Jason Bocarro,

Kara Sammet, Martin Ringer, Ray Handley, Dr. Simon Crisp, Dr. Bernd Heubeck,

Dr. Anita Mak, Prof. Debra Rickwood, Dr. Michele Fleming, and Thea Vanags.

Thanks also to Sandra Klaperski for her research assistant work, including drawing

several of the Chapter 2 figures, and to the small army of proofreaders who

manifested many valuable of hours of proofreading and commenting on draft

chapters (Kara Sammet, Robyn Cairns, Jackie Neill, and Dr. Eric Brymer). Finally,

thanks to my family for being there for the long haul: Jackie, Tom, Asha, Katica,

Mum, and Dad.

STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICATION

The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my

knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text.

I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material, either in

whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution.

……………………………………..

James T. Neill

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Volume 1

LIST OF TABLES...............................................................................................xiv

LIST OF FIGURES..............................................................................................xx

ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS................................................................xxii

ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................xxiv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................1

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THEORY ABOUT THE DEVELOPMENTAL

EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR EDUCATION PROGRAMS.................................5

Introduction ..........................................................................................................5

Scope of Outdoor Education .................................................................................5

Introduction.......................................................................................................5 Definitions ........................................................................................................5 Classifications ...................................................................................................6 Researched Outcomes and Industry Surveys......................................................7

Introduction...................................................................................................7 Hattie et al. (1997).........................................................................................7 Mackay (1981). .............................................................................................8 Richards et al. (1997). ...................................................................................8 Lugg and Martin (2001).................................................................................9 McRae (1990). ..............................................................................................9 Summary.....................................................................................................10

Summary.........................................................................................................10

Theoretical Perspectives......................................................................................11

Introduction.....................................................................................................11 Environmental Theories ..................................................................................12

Introduction.................................................................................................12 “Nature is good” theory. ..............................................................................12 Psychoevolutionary theory, biophilia, and nature-deficit disorder. ...............13 Negative effects of nature. ...........................................................................14 Positive effects of nature. ............................................................................14 Direct and indirect effects of nature. ............................................................15 Natural environment in outdoor education theory. .......................................16 Summary.....................................................................................................20

Experiential Theories ......................................................................................20 Introduction.................................................................................................20 Dewey’s theory of experience......................................................................20 Experiential learning cycles and waves........................................................23 Summary.....................................................................................................24

Psychosocial Theories .....................................................................................25 Introduction.................................................................................................25

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Learning theory and group psychodynamics. ...............................................26 Stress-inoculation. .......................................................................................27 Psychoeducational theory. ...........................................................................28 Summary.....................................................................................................30

Multi-Element Theories ..................................................................................30 Introduction.................................................................................................30 Outward Bound theories. .............................................................................31 Barret and Greenaway (1995). .....................................................................38 Russell and Farnum (2004)..........................................................................38 Beard and Wilson (2002).............................................................................39 Other theories. .............................................................................................40 Summary.....................................................................................................41

A Systems Framework ....................................................................................41 Introduction.................................................................................................41 Interactivity. ................................................................................................41 Domains and elements.................................................................................42 Temporal change. ........................................................................................44 Theoretical propositions. .............................................................................45 Summary.....................................................................................................45

Summary.........................................................................................................46

Summary ............................................................................................................46

CHAPTER 3 LIFE EFFECTIVENESS CONSTRUCTS AND REVIEW OF

RESEARCH EXAMINING THE IMPACT OF OUTDOOR

EDUCATION PROGRAMS ............................................................................47

Introduction ........................................................................................................47

Life Effectiveness ...............................................................................................47

Introduction.....................................................................................................47 Definition........................................................................................................47 Similar Terms .................................................................................................49 Related Constructs ..........................................................................................51

Practical intelligence. ..................................................................................51 Self-concept. ...............................................................................................51 Personal agency and self-efficacy. ...............................................................51 Habits of highly effective people. ................................................................52

Proposed Dimensions......................................................................................52 Achievement Motivation. ............................................................................54 Active Initiative...........................................................................................55 Hardiness Resourcefulness. .........................................................................57 Intellectual Flexibility. ................................................................................58 Organisational Self-Discipline. ....................................................................58 Productive Teamwork..................................................................................59 Self-Confidence...........................................................................................60 Social Competence. .....................................................................................61 Task Leadership. .........................................................................................62 Time Management.......................................................................................63

Summary.........................................................................................................63

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Review of Research about the Effects on Outdoor Education Programs on Personal and Social Development....................................................................64

Introduction.....................................................................................................64 Traditional Reviews ........................................................................................64

Introduction.................................................................................................64 Crompton and Sellar (1981).........................................................................65 Burton (1981). .............................................................................................65 Ewert (1983, 1987)......................................................................................66 Barret and Greenaway (1995a, 1995b).........................................................67 Rickinson et al. (2004).................................................................................67 Summary.....................................................................................................68

Meta-Analytic Reviews...................................................................................68 Introduction.................................................................................................68 Understanding meta-analysis. ......................................................................68 Cason (1993; Cason & Gillis, 1994). ...........................................................69 Hattie et al. (1997).......................................................................................70 Marsh, P. E. (1999a, 1999b). .......................................................................71 Bunting and Donley (2002). ........................................................................71 Gillis and Speelman (in press). ....................................................................71 Hans (1997, 2000). ......................................................................................72 Wilson and Lipsey (2000)............................................................................72 Staunton (2003). ..........................................................................................73 Comparative meta-analyses. ........................................................................76 Summary.....................................................................................................80

Multi-Level Studies.........................................................................................81 Introduction.................................................................................................81 Sibthorp, Witter, Wells, and Ellis (2004). ....................................................82 Russell and Sibthorp (2004).........................................................................82 Sibthorp, Paisely, and Gookin (2007). .........................................................83 Summary.....................................................................................................84

Effects of Independent Variables.....................................................................85 Introduction.................................................................................................85 Program.......................................................................................................85 Group. .........................................................................................................87 Participant. ..................................................................................................89 Summary.....................................................................................................90

Summary and Implications for the Present Investigation .................................90

Summary ............................................................................................................91

CHAPTER 4 AIMS, HYPOTHESES, RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND

THEIR RATIONALE.......................................................................................92

Introduction ........................................................................................................92

Study 1. Psychometric Testing and Development of the LEQ..............................92

The Problem....................................................................................................92 Aims ...............................................................................................................93 Statement of the Hypotheses and Research Questions......................................94

Research Question 1.1.1: Congeneric factorial structure of the LEQ-G. .......94

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Research Question 1.1.2: Multi-factorial structure of the LEQ-G.................94 Research Question 1.1.3: Higher-order factorial structure for the LEQ-G. ...94 Research Question 1.1.4: Factorial invariance across gender and age for

the LEQ-G...............................................................................................94 Hypothesis 1.1.5: Congeneric factorial structure of the revised LEQ-G

model. .....................................................................................................94 Hypothesis 1.1.6: Reliability of the revised LEQ-G model...........................94 Hypothesis 1.2.1: Congeneric factorial structure of the LEQ-H....................95 Hypothesis 1.2.2: Multi-factorial structure of the LEQ-H. ...........................95 Hypothesis 1.2.3: Higher-order factorial structure for the LEQ-H. ...............95 Hypothesis 1.2.4: Factorial invariance across gender and age for the

LEQ-H. ...................................................................................................95 Hypothesis 1.2.5: Factorial invariance across samples for the LEQ-H..........95 Hypothesis 1.2.6: Reliability of the LEQ-H. ................................................95 Research Question 1.3.1: Differences in LEQ-H scores as a function of

age and gender.........................................................................................95 Rationales for the Hypotheses and Research Questions ...................................97

Rationale for RQs 1.1.1 to 1.1.4: Psychometrics properties of the LEQ-G. ............................................................................................................97

Rationale for Hs 1.1.5 and 1.1.6: Reliability of the revised LEQ-G. .............98 Rationale for Hs 1.2.1 to 1.2.6: Psychometric properties of the LEQ-H. ......98 Rationale for RQ 1.3.1: Differences in LEQ-H scores as a function of

gender and age.........................................................................................98

Study 2. Longitudinal Impacts of Outdoor Education Programs on the LEQ .......99

The Problem....................................................................................................99 Aims ...............................................................................................................99 Statement of the Hypotheses and Research Questions....................................100

Hypothesis 2.1.1: Prior effect declines in LEQ Overall scores (T0 to T1). .100 Research question 2.1.2: Prior effect interaction with LEQ factor scores

(T0 to T1). .............................................................................................100 Hypothesis 2.2.1: Short-term positive effects of the intervention on LEQ

Overall scores (T1 to T2). ......................................................................101 Research question 2.2.2: Short-term effect interaction with LEQ factor

scores (T1 to T2). ..................................................................................101 Hypothesis 2.3.1: Follow-up effect declines in LEQ Overall scores (T2

to T3). ...................................................................................................101 Research Question 2.3.2: Follow-up effect interaction with LEQ factor

scores (T2 to T3). ..................................................................................101 Hypothesis 2.4.1: Long-term positive effects of the intervention on LEQ

Overall scores (T0 to T3). ......................................................................101 Research question 2.4.2: Long-term effect interaction with LEQ factors

scores (T0 to T3). ..................................................................................101 Hypothesis 2.5.1: Short- and long-term positive effects of the

intervention for different program types on LEQ Overall scores (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3). ..................................................................................101

Research Question 2.5.2: Short- and long-term effect interactions with LEQ factor scores for different program types (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3). .......................................................................................................101

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Hypothesis 2.5.3: Larger short- and long-term positive effects for young adult programs compared to other program types on LEQ Overall scores (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3). .............................................................101

Research Question 2.5.4: Short- and long-term effect interactions with LEQ factor scores for young adult programs compared to other programs (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3)..........................................................102

Hypothesis 2.5.5: Larger short- and long-term positive effects for OBA young adult programs compared to other young adult programs on LEQ Overall scores (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3). ........................................102

Research Question 2.5.6: Short- and long-term effect interactions with LEQ factor scores for OBA young adult programs compared to other young adult programs (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3). .....................................102

Hypothesis 2.6.1: Positive relation between program length and short- and long-term changes in LEQ Overall scores (T1 to T2). .....................102

Research Question 2.6.2: Interaction between program length and short-term effects for LEQ factors (T1 to T2). ................................................102

Hypothesis 2.7.1: Larger short-term positive effects for single-gender groups on LEQ Overall scores (T1 to T2). .............................................102

Research Question 2.7.2: Interaction between group gender composition (single-gender vs. mixed) and short-term effects for LEQ factor scores (T1 to T2). .............................................................................................102

Hypothesis 2.7.3: No difference in short-term effects for all-male compared to all-female groups on LEQ Overall scores (T1 to T2)..........102

Research Question 2.7.4: Interaction between single-gender group composition (all-male vs. all-female) and LEQ factor scores (T1 to T2). .......................................................................................................103

Research Question 2.8.1: Short- and long-term effects of group size on LEQ Overall scores (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3). ........................................103

Research Question 2.8.2: Interaction between group size and LEQ factor scores (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3). .............................................................103

Hypothesis 2.9.1: Short- and long-term effects of participant gender on LEQ Overall scores (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3). ........................................103

Research Question 2.9.2: Interaction between participant gender and LEQ factor scores (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3). ...........................................103

Hypothesis 2.10.1: Short- and long-term effects of participant age on LEQ Overall scores (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3). ........................................103

Research Question 2.10.2: Interaction between participant age and LEQ factor scores (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3). ...................................................103

Research Question 2.11.1: Variance components (T1 to T2)......................103 Research Question 2.11.2: Variance components with the fixed effect of

time (T1 to T2). .....................................................................................104 Research Question 2.11.3: Variance components with the fixed effects of

time and interactions with explanatory variables (T1 to T2). ..................104 Research Question 2.11.4: Variance components (T0 to T3)......................104 Research Question 2.11.5: Variance components with the fixed effect of

time (T0 to T3). .....................................................................................104 Research Question 2.11.6: Variance components with the fixed effects of

time and interactions between explanatory variables (T0 to T3). ............104 Rationale for the Hypotheses and Research Questions...................................104

vi

Rationale for H 2.1.1 and RQ 2.1.2: Prior effects.......................................104 Rationale for H 2.2.1 and RQ 2.2.2: Short-term effects. .............................105 Rationale for H 2.3.1 and RQ 2.3.2: Follow-up effects...............................105 Rationale for H 2.4.1 and RQ 2.4.2: Long-term effects. .............................106 Rationale for H / RQs 2.5.T1 to T2.5.6: Program type effects. ...................106 Rationale for H 2.6.1 and RQ 2.6.2: Program length effects.......................107 Rationale for H / RQs 2.7.T1 to T2.7.4: Group gender effects....................107 Rationale for RQs 2.8.1 and 2.8.2: Group size effects. ...............................107 Rationale for H 2.9.1 and RQ 2.9.2: Participant gender effects. .................108 Rationale for H 2.10.1 and RQ 2.10.2: Participant age effects....................108 Rationale for RQs 2.11.T1 to T2.11.6: Multi-level effects. ........................108

Summary ..........................................................................................................110

CHAPTER 5 METHOD.....................................................................................111

Introduction ......................................................................................................111

Participants .......................................................................................................111

Study 1..........................................................................................................112 Study 2..........................................................................................................112

T1 to T2. ...................................................................................................112 T0, T1, T2, and T3. ...................................................................................114 Missing questionnaires. .............................................................................118

Overview...............................................................................................118 T1..........................................................................................................118 T2..........................................................................................................118 T0..........................................................................................................119 T3..........................................................................................................119 Conclusion. ...........................................................................................122

Instrumentation .................................................................................................122

LEQ Overview..............................................................................................122 Design Principles ..........................................................................................123

Assessment of life skill competencies. .......................................................123 Relevant to program aims. .........................................................................123 Short and simple........................................................................................123 Sensitive to change....................................................................................123 Educational exercise. .................................................................................124

Stages of Development of the LEQ ...............................................................124 LEQ Factors and Instrumentation ..................................................................125 Word Count Clouds.......................................................................................126

Procedure..........................................................................................................127

Data Collection .............................................................................................127 Overview...................................................................................................127 T0..............................................................................................................129 T1 and T2..................................................................................................129 T3..............................................................................................................129

Data Screening..............................................................................................130

Programs...........................................................................................................131

vii

Outdoor Education ........................................................................................131 Outward Bound.............................................................................................131

Outward Bound internationally..................................................................131 Outward Bound Australia. .........................................................................133

Program Types ..............................................................................................135 Adolescent. ...............................................................................................136 Young Adult..............................................................................................138 Adult. ........................................................................................................140 Family. ......................................................................................................141 Corporate. .................................................................................................142 Special. .....................................................................................................143

Study 1: Research Design and Analysis.............................................................144

Overview ......................................................................................................144 Confirmatory Factor Analysis .......................................................................145 Congeneric Analyses.....................................................................................145 Factor Structure.............................................................................................146 Structural Invariance .....................................................................................148 Global, Second-Order Models .......................................................................150 Outcome Statistics.........................................................................................151

Factor loadings (λx). ..................................................................................151 Coefficient omega (ω). ..............................................................................151 Uniquenesses (Us).....................................................................................152

Chi-square (χ2). .........................................................................................152 Goodness-of-fit indices (GFIs). .................................................................152

Composite Scores..........................................................................................153 Test-retest Correlations .................................................................................153

Study 2: Research Design & Analysis ...............................................................154

Overview ......................................................................................................154 Composite Scores..........................................................................................154 Descriptive Statistics .....................................................................................155 Comparisons by Time ...................................................................................157 MANOVAs and Paired Sample t-Tests..........................................................157 Effect Sizes and Confidence Intervals ...........................................................162 Multi-level Modeling ....................................................................................164

Overview...................................................................................................164 MLM of LEQ data.....................................................................................166 Missing data. .............................................................................................167 Standardisation. .........................................................................................168 Models. .....................................................................................................168

1: Baseline variance components. ..........................................................168 2: Variance components with the fixed effect of time.............................169 3: Variance components with the fixed effects of time and interactions between time and explanatory variables. ............................................170

Estimation procedure.................................................................................171 Significance of parameters.........................................................................171 Fixed effect parameter effect sizes.............................................................171

viii

Comparing models. ...................................................................................172 Preparation of data.....................................................................................172

Converting data from SPSS to MLwiN. .................................................172 Coding of independent variables............................................................172

Sample description. ...................................................................................173 T1 to T2. ...............................................................................................173 T0 to T3. ...............................................................................................173

Summary ..........................................................................................................174

CHAPTER 6 STUDY 1 RESULTS: PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING AND

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LIFE EFFECTIVENESS

QUESTIONNAIRE.........................................................................................175

Introduction ......................................................................................................175

Psychometric Investigation of the LEQ-G .........................................................176

Overview ......................................................................................................176 RQ 1.1.1: Congeneric Factorial Structure of the LEQ-G................................176

Overview...................................................................................................176 Results. .....................................................................................................176 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................177

RQ 1.1.2: Multi-Factorial Structure of the LEQ-G.........................................181 Overview...................................................................................................181 Results. .....................................................................................................181

11-factor, 64-item model. ......................................................................181 11-factor, 55-item model. ......................................................................186 10-factor, 50-item model. ......................................................................186 10-factor, 40-item model. ......................................................................186 9-factor, 36-item model. ........................................................................187 8-factor, 32-item model. ........................................................................187 8-factor, 24-item model. ........................................................................187

Conclusion. ...............................................................................................188 RQ 1.1.3: Higher-Order Factorial Structure of the LEQ-G.............................188

Overview...................................................................................................188 Results. .....................................................................................................188 Conclusions...............................................................................................189

RQ 1.1.4: Factorial Invariance Across Gender and Age for the LEQ-G .........194 Overview...................................................................................................194 Results. .....................................................................................................194

Gender...................................................................................................194 Age........................................................................................................194

Conclusions...............................................................................................195 Gender...................................................................................................195 Age........................................................................................................196

H 1.1.5: Congeneric Factorial Structure of the Revised LEQ-G .....................199 Overview...................................................................................................199 Results. .....................................................................................................199 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................199

H 1.1.6: Reliability of the Revised LEQ-G ....................................................201

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Overview...................................................................................................201 Results. .....................................................................................................201 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................201

Psychometric Investigation of the LEQ-H .........................................................202

Overview ......................................................................................................202 H 1.2.1 Congeneric Factorial Structure of the LEQ-H ...................................203

Overview...................................................................................................203 Results. .....................................................................................................203 Conclusions...............................................................................................203

H 1.2.2: Multi-Factorial Structure of the LEQ-H ...........................................205 Overview...................................................................................................205 Results. .....................................................................................................205 Conclusions...............................................................................................205

H 1.2.3: Higher-Order Factorial Structure of the LEQ-H ...............................205 Overview...................................................................................................205 Results. .....................................................................................................205 Conclusions...............................................................................................206

H 1.2.4: Factorial Invariance Across Gender and Age LEQ-H.......................210 Overview...................................................................................................210 Results. .....................................................................................................210

Gender...................................................................................................210 Age........................................................................................................210

Conclusions...............................................................................................211 Gender...................................................................................................211 Age........................................................................................................212

H 1.2.5: Factorial Invariance Across Samples for the LEQ-H ........................215 Overview...................................................................................................215 Results. .....................................................................................................215 Conclusions...............................................................................................215

H 1.2.6: Reliability of the LEQ-H..................................................................217 Overview...................................................................................................217 Results. .....................................................................................................217 Conclusions...............................................................................................218

RQ 1.3.1: Differences in LEQ-H scores as a Function of Age and Gender.....218 Overview...................................................................................................218 Results. .....................................................................................................218

Gender...................................................................................................218 Age........................................................................................................218

Conclusion. ...............................................................................................219

Summary ..........................................................................................................222

CHAPTER 7 STUDY 2 RESULTS: LONGITUDINAL IMPACTS OF

OUTDOOR EDUCATION PROGRAMS ON LIFE EFFECTIVENESS ....223

Introduction ......................................................................................................223

Descriptive Statistics.........................................................................................224

Longitudinal Changes .......................................................................................228

Introduction...................................................................................................228

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H 2.1.1 and RQ 2.1.2: Prior Effects ...............................................................228 Overview...................................................................................................228 Results. .....................................................................................................228 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................229

H 2.2.1 and RQ 2.2.2: Short-term Effects ......................................................229 Overview...................................................................................................229 Results. .....................................................................................................229 Interpretations of change. ..........................................................................231 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................233

H 2.3.1 and RQ 2.3.2: Follow-up Effects.......................................................234 Overview...................................................................................................234 Results. .....................................................................................................234 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................235

H 2.4.1 and RQ 2.4.2: Long-term Effects ......................................................235 Overview...................................................................................................235 Results. .....................................................................................................235 Interpretations of change. ..........................................................................236 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................239

Summary.......................................................................................................239

The Influence of Six Independent Variables ......................................................240

Introduction...................................................................................................240 H / RQs 2.5.1 to 2.5.6: Program Type Effects................................................241

Overview...................................................................................................241 Results. .....................................................................................................242 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................245

H 2.6.1 and RQ 2.6.2: Program Length Effects..............................................254 Overview...................................................................................................254 Results. .....................................................................................................254 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................254

H / RQs 2.7.1 to 2.7.4: Group Gender Effects................................................255 Overview...................................................................................................255 Results. .....................................................................................................255 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................256

RQs 2.8.1 and 2.8.2: Group Size Effects........................................................259 Overview...................................................................................................259 Results. .....................................................................................................259 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................260

H 2.9.1 and RQ 2.9.2: Participant Gender Effects..........................................264 Overview...................................................................................................264 Results. .....................................................................................................264

T1 to T2. ...............................................................................................264 T0 to T3. ...............................................................................................265

Conclusion. ...............................................................................................265 H 2.10.1 and RQ 2.10.2: Participant Age Effects...........................................268

Overview...................................................................................................268 Results. .....................................................................................................268 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................269

xi

Summary.......................................................................................................269

Multi-Level Analyses........................................................................................272

Introduction...................................................................................................272 RQ 2.11.1: Variance Components (T1 to T2) ................................................273

Overview...................................................................................................273 Results. .....................................................................................................273 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................273

RQ 2.11.2: Variance Components with the Fixed Effect of time (T1 to T2)...273 Overview...................................................................................................273 Results. .....................................................................................................273 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................274

RQ 2.11.3: Variance Components with the Fixed Effects of Time and Interactions with Explanatory Variables (T1 to T2) ...................................274 Overview...................................................................................................274 Results. .....................................................................................................274 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................275

RQ 2.11.4: Variance Components (T0 to T3) ................................................276 Overview...................................................................................................276 Results. .....................................................................................................276 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................276

RQ 2.11.5: Variance Components with the Fixed Effect of time (T0 to T3)...276 Overview...................................................................................................276 Results. .....................................................................................................276 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................277

RQ 2.11.6: Variance Components with the Fixed Effects of Time and Interactions with Explanatory Variables (T0 to T3) ...................................277 Overview...................................................................................................277 Results. .....................................................................................................277 Conclusion. ...............................................................................................279

Example Detailed MLM Results (T1 to T2 LEQ Overall)..............................283 Model 1. ....................................................................................................283 Model 2. ....................................................................................................284 Model 3. ....................................................................................................285

Summary.......................................................................................................288

Summary ..........................................................................................................291

CHAPTER 8 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THEORY,

RESEARCH, AND PRACTICE.....................................................................292

Introduction ......................................................................................................292

Study 1: Psychometric Development of the LEQ...............................................292

Introduction...................................................................................................292 Structure and Invariance................................................................................293 Factors and Items ..........................................................................................294 Strengths and Limitations..............................................................................295 Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice ............................................296 Summary.......................................................................................................298

xii

Study 2: Longitudinal LEQ Changes and the Effect of Six Independent Variables.......................................................................................................299

Introduction...................................................................................................299 Longitudinal Effects......................................................................................300

Prior. .........................................................................................................300 Short-term. ................................................................................................301 Follow-up..................................................................................................302 Long-term. ................................................................................................303 Variance components. ...............................................................................304

Independent Variables...................................................................................305 Program Type............................................................................................305 Program Length.........................................................................................306 Group Gender and Participant Gender. ......................................................307 Group Size. ...............................................................................................308 Participant Age..........................................................................................308

Multi-Level Findings.....................................................................................309 Strengths and Limitations..............................................................................309 Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice ............................................311

Program Type............................................................................................314 Program Length.........................................................................................315 Group Gender and Participant Gender. ......................................................315 Group Size. ...............................................................................................316 Participant Age..........................................................................................316

Summary.......................................................................................................317

Summary and Conclusion .................................................................................319

CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION..............................................321

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................325

APPENDICES.....................................................................................................367

APPENDIX A Outdoor Education Theory and Research ......................................367

A.1 Program Purpose Classification Schemes................................................367 A.2 Traditional Reviews................................................................................368 A.3 Effect Sizes ............................................................................................369

APPENDIX B Life Effectiveness Questionnaire ...................................................371

B.1 LEQ-G....................................................................................................371 B.1.1 LEQ-G Instructions and Questionnaire.............................................371 B.1.2 LEQ-G Variable Names and Items ...................................................373

B.2 LEQ-H....................................................................................................375 B.2.1 LEQ-H Instructions and Questionnaire.............................................375 B.2.2 LEQ-H Variable Names and Items ...................................................377

B.3 Administration Guidelines ......................................................................378 B.3.1 Time 1 and Time 2 ...........................................................................378 B.3.2 Time 3 (Letter 1)..............................................................................380 B.3.3 Time 3 (Letter 2)..............................................................................380

APPENDIX C LEQ Variance-Covariance Matrices and Item Names ....................381

xiii

C.1 Study 1 (LEQ-G; N = 1,164) ..................................................................381 C.2 Study 1 (LEQ-H; N = 1,892) ..................................................................386

APPENDIX D Histograms of LEQ Factors...........................................................388

APPENDIX E LEQ Changes Over Time ..............................................................394

E.1 Normalised LEQ T1 Factor Score SDs for Calculation of ESns................394 E.2 Participant Age Effects on Changes in LEQ Overall and Factor Scores ...394

E.2.1 Adolescent .......................................................................................394 E.2.2 Young Adult ....................................................................................397 E.2.3 Sail Training ....................................................................................397 E.2.4 OBA Standard/Challenge .................................................................403 E.2.5 Adult programs ................................................................................409 E.2.6 Family..............................................................................................412 E.2.7 Corporate .........................................................................................414 E.2.8 Special .............................................................................................417

APPENDIX F Multi-Level Analyses ....................................................................419

F.1 T1 to T2 ..................................................................................................419 F.1.1 Achievement Motivation ..................................................................419 F.1.2 Active Initiative................................................................................421 F.1.3 Emotional Control ............................................................................423 F.1.4 Intellectual Flexibility.......................................................................425 F.1.5 Self Confidence ................................................................................427 F.1.6 Social Competence ...........................................................................429 F.1.7 Task Leadership ...............................................................................431 F.1.8 Time Management............................................................................433 F.1.9 Summary..........................................................................................435

F.2 T0 to T3 ..................................................................................................436 F.2.1 Descriptive statistics .........................................................................436 F.2.2 Multi-level models............................................................................436 F.2.3 LEQ Overall .....................................................................................437 F.2.4 Achievement Motivation ..................................................................439 F.2.5 Active Initiative................................................................................441 F.2.6 Emotional Control ............................................................................443 F.2.7 Intellectual Flexibility.......................................................................443 F.2.8 Self Confidence ................................................................................445 F.2.9 Social Competence ...........................................................................447 F.2.10 Task Leadership .............................................................................449 F.2.11 Time Management..........................................................................451

xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Volume 1

Table 2.1 Classifications of Major Purposes and Expected Outcomes of Outdoor Education ..............................................................................................7

Table 2.2 Breakdown of Major Outcome Categories in 97 Empirical Outdoor Education Program Studies (Hattie et al., 1997) ....................................8

Table 2.3 New Zealand Teachers’ Perceived Likelihood of Outdoor Education Outcomes Occurring for School Students (Mackay, 1981)......................8

Table 2.4 Australian Outdoor Educator Program Objectives (Richards et al., 1997) .....................................................................................................9

Table 2.5 Outdoor Education Learning Outcome Ranks (Lugg & Martin, 2001) .......9

Table 2.6 Conceptual Framework of the Wilderness Therapy Treatment Milieu (adapted From Russell and Farnum’s, 2004, Figure 1)........................39

Table 3.1 Synonymous Life Effectiveness Terms ......................................................49

Table 3.2 Synonyms of Skill (Roget, 1972) ..............................................................50

Table 3.3 Proposed Dimensions of Life Effectiveness ..............................................54

Table 3.4 Summary of Effect Sizes for Six Outcome Categories (Hattie et al., 1997) ...................................................................................................74

Table 3.5 Summary of Effect Sizes by Time Contrast (adapted from Hattie et al., 1997, Table 3)......................................................................................75

Table 3.6 Summary of Effect Sizes from Meta-analyses of Outdoor Education and Closely Related Programs.............................................................75

Table 3.7 Effect Sizes for Comparative Personal and Social Development Interventions........................................................................................79

Table 3.8 Summary of Two-Level Multi-Level Analyses Involving Eight Predictors and Six Outcomes of Adventure Education Programs

(Sibthorp, Paisley, & Gookin, 2007) ....................................................84

Table 4.1 Study 2 Independent and Dependent Variables ........................................99

Table 5.1 Administration Times for LEQ Data Collection (T0, T1, T2, and T3) .....111

Table 5.2 Sample Sizes by Program Type, Time Contrast, and OBA/Non-OBA .....116

Table 5.3 Sample Sizes by Study, Time, and Participant Gender and Age..............117

Table 5.4 Return Rates for T0, T1, T2, and T3 LEQs .............................................118

Table 5.5 MDMANOVAs Involving T3 Returned/Not Returned and LEQ Factor Scores (T0, T1, T2 and T1 to T2 Difference Score).............................120

Table 5.6 Ms, SDs, Independent-Samples t-tests for T0, T1, T2, and T1 to T2 Difference Scores by T3 Returned/Not Returned ................................121

Table 5.7 Stages of Development of the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire ..............125

Table 5.8 Overview of the 11 LEQ-G Factors, with Descriptions and Sample Items..................................................................................................126

Table 5.9 Invariance Testing Parameters..............................................................149

Table 5.10 LEQ Sample Sizes by Method of Computing LEQ Factor Scores .........155

Table 5.11 Equivalent Expressions of Standardised Mean Effect Sizes ..................163

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Table 5.12 Practical Examples of Small, Medium, and Large Standardised Mean Effect Sizes ........................................................................................164

Table 6.1 Summary of LEQ-G Hypotheses and Research Questions ......................176

Table 6.2 Fitted One-Factor Congeneric Models for the 11-Factor 64-Item LEQ-G Factors: FLs, Us, ωs, χ2 , GFIs (N = 1,164) ..................................178

Table 6.3 CFA FLs and Us for the Initial Baseline 11-Factor, 64-Item LEQ-G Model (N = 1,164).............................................................................182

Table 6.4 FCrs for the Initial Baseline 11-Factor, 64-Item LEQ-G Model (N = 1,164) ................................................................................................185

Table 6.5 FCrs and Second-Order Factor Loadings (γ) for the 8-Factor, 24-Item LEQ-G Model (N = 1,164).................................................................189

Table 6.6 CFA FLs and Us for the 8-Factor, 24-Item LEQ-G Model (N = 1,164) .190

Table 6.7 GFIs for LEQ-G Measurement Models With No Invariance Constraints ........................................................................................191

Table 6.8 GFIs for the First-Order, 8-Factor, 24-Item LEQ-G Model With and Without Invariance Constraints For Gender and Age.........................197

Table 6.9 GFIs for the Global Second-Order, 8-Factor, 24-Item LEQ-G Model With and Without Invariance Constraints For Gender and Age..........198

Table 6.10 Fitted One-factor Congeneric Models for the 8-Factor 24-Item LEQ-G Factors: FLs, Us, ωs, Ms, and SDs (N = 1,164) ............................200

Table 6.11 Cronbach’s α and Test-Retest Correlations for the LEQ-G Models .....202 Table 6.12 Summary of LEQ-H Hypotheses and Research Questions ....................202

Table 6.13 Fitted One-Factor Congeneric Models for the 8-Factor 24-Item LEQ-H Factors: FLs, Us, ωs, Ms and SDs (N = 1,892) .............................204

Table 6.14 GFIs for LEQ-H Measurement Models With No Invariance Constraints ........................................................................................206

Table 6.15 CFA FLs and Us for the 8-Factor, 24-Item LEQ-H Model (N = 1,892) ................................................................................................207

Table 6.16 FCrs and Second-Order FLs (γ) for the 8-Factor 24-Item LEQ-H Model (N = 1,892).............................................................................207

Table 6.17 GFIs for the First-Order, 8-Factor, 24-Item LEQ-H Model With and Without Invariance Constraints For Gender and Age.........................213

Table 6.18 GFIs for the Global Second-Order, 8-Factor, 24-Item LEQ-H Model With and Without Invariance Constraints For Gender and Age..........214

Table 6.19 GFIs for the First-Order, 8-Factor, 24-Item LEQ Model With Selected Invariance Constraints For Sample 1 and Sample 2 .............216

Table 6.20 GFIs for the Global Second-Order, 8-Factor, 24-Item LEQ Model With Invariance Constraints For Sample 1 and Sample 2...................216

Table 6.21 Cronbach’s α and Test-Retest Correlations (T0 to T1) for the 8-Factor, 24-Item LEQ Model for Sample 1 and Sample 2 Participants 217

Table 6.22 Ms and SDs for the 8-Factor, 24-Item LEQ Model for Study 1 Participants by Gender and Age ........................................................220

Table 6.23 Inferential Tests of Mean Differences in LEQ Factor Scores for Gender and Age Groups Pooled Across Sample 1 and Sample 2 ........221

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Table 7.1 Ms, SDs, ESns and CIs, and Pair-Wise Comparisons for T1 and T2 LEQ Factors ......................................................................................226

Table 7.2 Ms, SDs and Pair-Wise Comparisons for T0, T1, T2, and T3 LEQ Factors ..............................................................................................226

Table 7.3 ESns and CIs for T0, T1, T2, and T3 LEQ Factors .................................227

Table 7.4 Summary of Study 2 Longitudinal Change Hypotheses and Research Questions...........................................................................................228

Table 7.5 ESns, r, and r2 for Band 1 and Band 2 LEQ Factors (T1 to T2) ..............232

Table 7.6 Breakdown of Participants Who Reported Negative Change, No Change, and Positive Change for Band 1 and 2 LEQ Factors

Between T1 and T2 ............................................................................232

Table 7.7 Breakdown of Participants With Deciles of Short-term Change (T1 to T2) Based on Primary Data ...............................................................233

Table 7.8 ESns, r, and r2 for Band 1 and 2 LEQ Factors (T0 to T3) .......................238

Table 7.9 Breakdown of Participants Who Reported Negative Change, No Change, and Positive Change for Band 1 and 2 LEQ Factors

Between T0 and T3 (N = 663)............................................................239

Table 7.10 Breakdown of Participants By Deciles of T0 to T3 Long-Term Change, Based on Primary Data........................................................240

Table 7.11 Summary of Study 2 Independent Variable Hypotheses and Research Questions...........................................................................................241

Table 7.12 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores by Program Type........247

Table 7.13 ESns and CIs for T1 to T2 LEQ Factors by Program Type ...................248

Table 7.14 Results of 2 (T1 to T2) by 8 (LEQ Factor) RMMANOVAs for Each Program Type....................................................................................249

Table 7.15 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores by OBA Young Adult Versus Non-OBA Young Adult Programs ...........................................249

Table 7.16 ESns and CIs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factors by OBA Young Adult Versus Non-OBA Young Adult Programs ...........................................250

Table 7.17 Ms and SDs for T0 and T3 LEQ Factor Scores by Program Type........252

Table 7.18 ESns and CIs for T0 and T3 LEQ Factors by Program Type ................252

Table 7.19 Ms and SDs for T0 and T3 LEQ Factor Scores by OBA Young Adult versus Non-OBA Young Adult Programs............................................253

Table 7.20 ESns and CIs for T0 and T3 LEQ Factors by OBA Young Adult versus Non-OBA Young Adult Programs ......................................................253

Table 7.21 Partial Correlations Between T1 to T2 LEQ Factor ESns and Outdoor Education Program Length (with Participant Age Partialled Out) by

Program Type, with Program Type Descriptive Statistics ..................255

Table 7.22 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Adolescent Programs by Group Gender...............................................................257

Table 7.23 ESns and CIs for T1 to T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Adolescent Programs by Group Gender...............................................................258

Table 7.24 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Adolescent, Young Adult, and Special Programs by Group Size.......................................261

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Table 7.25 ESns and CIs for T1 to T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Adolescent, Young Adult, and Special Programs by Group Size, with Group Size

Descriptive Statistics..........................................................................262

Table 7.26 Ms and SDs for T0 and T3 LEQ Factor Scores for Young Adult Programs by Group Size ....................................................................263

Table 7.27 ESns and CIs for T0 to T3 LEQ Factor Scores for Young Adult Programs by Group Size ....................................................................263

Table 7.28 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores by Participant Gender, with Time x Gender ANOVAs ...............................................266

Table 7.29 ESns and CIs for T1 to T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Adolescent, Adult, Young Adult, and Special Programs by Participant Gender ...............267

Table 7.30 Ms and SDs for T0 and T3 LEQ Factor Scores for Young Adult Programs by Participant Gender .......................................................267

Table 7.31 ESns and CIs for T0 and T3 LEQ Factor Scores for Young Adult Programs by Participant Gender .......................................................268

Table 7.32 η2 and ηp2 for Time by Participant Age MDMANOVAs T1 to T2 and T0 to T3 .............................................................................................269

Table 7.33 Summary of LEQ Overall and LEQ Factor Changes Over Time (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3) and the Effects of Six Independent Variables...........271

Table 7.34 Summary of Study 2 Multi-Level Hypotheses and Research Questions .272

Table 7.35 Summary of MLM 2 t-values, Ranks, and ρ for the Fixed Effect of Time (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3) for LEQ Overall and LEQ Factors as

Response Variables............................................................................279

Table 7.36 Summary of MLM 1 Variance Components (σ2) For T1 to T2 and T0 to T3 LEQ Overall and Each LEQ Factor As Response Variables......280

Table 7.37 Summary of MLM 3 t-values and ESms for the Fixed Effects of Time (β1; T1 to T2 and T0 to T3) and Interactions Between Time (T1 to T2 and T0 to T3) and Participant, Group, and Program Independent

Variables (β2 to β12) for LEQ Overall and LEQ Factors as Response Variables ...........................................................................................281

Table 7.38 Summary of MLM 1, MLM 2, and MLM3 Random Effect Parameter Estimates for T1 to T2 and T0 to T3 LEQ Overall and LEQ Factors

as Response Variables .......................................................................282

Table 7.39 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for LEQ Overall (T1 to T2).....................................................................................................287

Table 7.40 Summary of Significant MLM 3 Fixed Effect Parameters, with LEQ Overall and LEQ Factor Scores as Response Variables .....................290

Volume 2

Table A-1 Expected Outcomes of Outdoor Education ...........................................367

Table A-2 Potential Benefits of Outdoor Adventure Pursuits.................................367

Table A-3 Purposes of Adventure Programming ...................................................368

Table A-4 Summary of Crompton and Sellar’s (1981) Review of Outdoor Education Affective Outcome Studies .................................................368

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Table A-5 Summary of Ewert’s (1982b) Review of Self-Concept Outdoor Education Outcome Studies ...............................................................368

Table A-6 Effect Sizes and Summary Information For Short-Term (Program) and Long-term (Follow-up) Adventure Education Program

Outcomes (Table 13, Hattie et al., 1997)............................................369

Table E-1 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Adolescent Programs by Participant Age.............................................................395

Table E-2 ESns and CIs for T1 to T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Adolescent Programs by Participant Age.............................................................396

Table E-3 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Young Adult Sail Training Programs by Participant Age ..............................................398

Table E-4 ESns and CIs for T1 to T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Young Adult Sail Training Programs by Participant Age ..............................................399

Table E-5 Ms and SDs for T0 and T3 LEQ Factor Scores for Young Adult Sail Training Programs by Participant Age ..............................................401

Table E-6 ESns and CIs for T0 and T3 LEQ Factor Scores for Young Adult Sail Training Programs by Participant Age ..............................................402

Table E-7 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores for by Participant Age for Young Adult OBA Standard/Challenge Programs.........................404

Table E-8 ESns and CIs for T1 to T2 LEQ Factor by Participant Age for Young Adult OBA Standard/Challenge Programs .........................................405

Table E-9 Ms and SDs for T0 and T3 LEQ Factor by Participant Age for Young Adult OBA Standard/Challenge Programs .........................................407

Table E-10 ESns and CIs for T0 and T3 LEQ Factor Scores for Young Adult OBA Standard/Challenge Programs by Participant Age.............................408

Table E-11 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Adult Programs by Participant Age .............................................................................410

Table E-12 ESns and CIs for T1 to T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Adult Programs by Participant Age..................................................................................411

Table E-13 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Family Programs by Participant Age .............................................................................413

Table E-14 ESns and CIs for T1 to T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Family Programs by Participant Age .............................................................................413

Table E-15 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Corporate Programs by Participant Age, with Time x Age ANOVAs ...................415

Table E-16 ESns and CIs for T1 to T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Corporate Programs by Participant Age.............................................................416

Table E-17 Ms and SDs for T1 and T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Special Programs by Participant Age .............................................................................418

Table E-18 ESns and CIs for T1 to T2 LEQ Factor Scores for Special Programs by Participant Age .............................................................................418

Table F-1 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Achievement Motivation (T1 to T2).........................................................................420

Table F-2 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Active Initiative (T1 to T2).....................................................................................................422

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Table F-3 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Emotional Control (T1 to T2).................................................................................................424

Table F-4 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Intellectual Flexibility (T1 to T2) ..........................................................................................426

Table F-5 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Self Confidence (T1 to T2).....................................................................................................428

Table F-6 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Social Competence (T1 to T2).................................................................................................430

Table F-7 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Task Leadership (T1 to T2).....................................................................................................432

Table F-8 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Time Management (T1 to T2).................................................................................................434

Table F-9 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for LEQ Overall (T0 to T3).438

Table F-10 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Achievement Motivation (T0 to T3).........................................................................440

Table F-11 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Active Initiative (T0 to T3).....................................................................................................442

Table F-12 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Intellectual Flexibility (T0 to T3) ..........................................................................................444

Table F-13 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Self Confidence (T0 to T3).....................................................................................................446

Table F-14 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Social Competence (T0 to T3) ..........................................................................................448

Table F-15 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Task Leadership (T0 to T3).................................................................................................450

Table F-16 MLA Parameter Estimates and Model Fits for Time Management (T0 to T3).................................................................................................452

xx

LIST OF FIGURES

Volume 1

Figure 2.1 A four-stage experiential learning cycle with transfer of learning (adapted from Kolb, 1984). ..................................................................24

Figure 2.2 A three-stage experiential learning cycle. ...............................................25

Figure 2.3 A three-stage experiential learning cycle spiral.......................................25

Figure 2.4 The adventure wave (adapted from Schoel et al., 1988, in Rawson, 1991, p.18)...........................................................................................36

Figure 2.5 The Outward Bound Process Model (adapted from Walsh & Golins, 1976). ..................................................................................................37

Figure 2.6 Experiential learning process flow (Gager, 1978, p. 5). ..........................37

Figure 2.7 The ingredients of outdoor adventure (Barret & Greenaway, 1995). .......38

Figure 2.8 The Learning Combination Lock model (Beard & Wilson, 2002)...........40

Figure 2.9 Structural model depicting the interactive relationship between an individuals’ phenomenological reality (Ii) and domains of influence in outdoor education. ...........................................................................43

Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of the hierarchical nature of outdoor education. .......82

Figure 4.1 The hypothesised 11-factor structure for the 64 LEQ-G items (Study 1). ........................................................................................................96

Figure 4.2 The hypothesised 8-factor structure of the 24-item LEQ-H (Study 1). ....97

Figure 5.1 Histogram of outdoor education participants’ age (years) distribution (N = 3,640). .......................................................................................113

Figure 5.2 Pie chart showing the percentage of participants from each Program Type (T1 to T2, N = 3,640). ...............................................................114

Figure 5.3 Pie chart showing the percentage of participants from each Program Type (T0, T1, T2, and T3; N = 663). ..................................................115

Figure 5.4 Eight-point Likert response scale for the LEQ-G and LEQ-H...............125

Figure 5.5 LEQ-G word frequency cloud. .............................................................127

Figure 5.6 LEQ-H word frequency cloud. .............................................................127

Figure 5.7 Bar graph showing the number of respondents to the LEQ-G and LEQ-H by year (N = 3,961). ..............................................................128

Figure 5.8 Outward Bound recipe (Pritchard, n. d.). ..............................................135

Figure 5.9 Hierarchical data structure of the present investigation (T1 to T2). .......166

Figure 5.10 Hierarchical data structure of the present investigation (T0 to T3). .....167

Figure 6.1 Path diagram for the first-order, 8-factor, 24-item LEQ-G model showing standardised FLs and Us (N = 1,164). ..................................192

Figure 6.2 Path diagram for the global second-order, 8-factor, 24-item LEQ-G model showing standardised first- and second-order FLs and Us (N = 1,164). ............................................................................................193

Figure 6.3 Path diagram for the first-order 8-factor, 24-item LEQ-H model showing standardised FLs and Us (N = 1,892). ..................................208

xxi

Figure 6.4 Path diagram for the global second-order, 8-factor, 24-item LEQ-H model showing standardised first- and second-order FLs and Us (N = 1,892). .........................