ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY(CENG 291)

8/16/2019 ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY(CENG 291)

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KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CENG 291 ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY

TECHNIQUES FOR THE DETECTION ANDESTIMATION OF FUEL ADULTERATION INKENYASE (ASHANTI REGION)

BY: BERNARD WIAFE BINEY

2186614

AUGUST 2015



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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTMy deepest gratitude goes to the Almighty God by whose grace, goodness, mercies, love and

blessings this project has been a success. And to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Biney for their moraland financial support they gave me during the project. I would also like to thank the supervisorsand coordinators of this course (Engineering in Society) for the engineering ethics and researchexpertise they inculcated in me; they were very essential for the realization of this project.Very great thanks to the fuel station personnel at Pacific, Goil, and Total filling stations for theircooperation and immense contribution to the project. Finally, to the taxi drivers and residents ofKenyase, I say God bless you all for your great work.



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ABSTRACT

Fuel adulteration, the illegal introduction of foreign substances into fuel, is widespread inkenyasi (Ashanti Region). Expensive fuels are adulterated by integrating with cheaper lowquality fuels having similar physical and chemical properties. The large differential prices of

petrol, diesel, kerosene; the enormous availability of kerosene with easy miscibility; lack ofmonitoring and consumers’ awareness; uncontrolled regulations in the production and supplychain makes the unethical practice of fuel adulteration a very conceivable plan.

Twenty-three interviewees (Fuel station personnel and fuel consumers) were given a semi-structured interview on fuel adulteration from 25 th May, 2015 to 21 st June, 2015. A discussiongroup was also conducted and the topic was extensively treated. Fuel adulteration increases theemission level of Hydrocarbon, Carbon monoxide, Oxides of Nitrogen and particulate matter;reduces octane quality which can lead to engine knocking and reduced engine life; results tofinancial loss to the National GDP. The density of every substance is unique; fuel adulterationcan therefore be checked by measuring the density of the fuel under investigation and comparingit to that of International Standards. Evaporation test, Distillation test, Chemical marker test, Ashcontent determination, Gas Chromatography, Optical Fiber test and the Ultrasound test can also

be used to detect and estimate fuel adulteration.



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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION…………………………………………………………………………………1ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………………………..2ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………...3TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………………...4LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………….4LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………...4

1. INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………………..51.1 Background to the course…………………………………………………………………..51.2 Objectives of the course……………………………………………………………………51.3 Description of the Report…………………………………………………………………..6

2. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………………...72.1 Fuel…………………………………………………………………………………………72.2 Fuel Adulteration…………………………………………………………………………...92.3 Types of Fuel adulteration………………………………………………………………….92.4 Causes of Fuel adulteration……………………………………………………………….102.5 Consequences of Fuel adulteration………………………………………………………..11

3. METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………………………….123.1 Problem Identification…………………………………………………………………….123.2 Map Preparation…………………………………………………………………………...123.3 Data Collection……………………………………………………………………………12

4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS……………………………………………………………...134.1 Description of Community………………………………………………………………..134.2 Nature and Characteristics of the problem………………………………………………..144.3 Measures of prevention of Fuel adulteration……………………………………………...154.4 Petrochemical Engineering………………………………………………………………..164.5 Description of testing factors of the problem……………………………………………..224.6 Specifications of Petrol and Diesel………………………………………………………..244.7 Main solution to the problem……………………………………………………………...264.8 Other solutions to the problem..…………………………………………………………...28

5. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………...296. RECOMMENDATIONS…………………………………………………………………...307. REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………...328. APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………………33

LIST OF TABLESTable 1: Types of Chemical fuels………………………………………………………………...8Table 2: Petrol Specifications (IS 2796:2000)………………………………………………….24Table 3: Diesel Specifications (IS 1460:2000)………………………………………………….25

LIST OF FIGURESFigure 1: Map of Kenyase (Ashanti Region)……………………………………………………13Figure 2: Petrochemical feedstock sources……………………………………………………...17Figure 3: Shanghai Petrochemical Complex…………………………………………………….18Figure 4: A fuel dispenser displaying octane numbers…………………………………………..23Figure 5: A labeled drawing of a hydrometer……………………………………………………27Figure 6: Measuring the density of a liquid with a hydrometer………………………………….27



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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the course Engineering in Society (CENG 291)

Engineering in Society (CENG 291) is a common course for all first year students in theCollege of Engineering (KNUST). As a common course, it is coordinated from the Provost’soffice together with appointees from all the engineering departments in the college.

It is a course that was designed as a result of numerous observations that the African universitygraduate appears to be becoming increasingly separated from the realities of life in Africa. Thecurricula do not appear to address the day to day challenges that Africans face. Students most ofthe time do not know how to apply what they study in the university in their working field.Society expects education in general and University education in particular to equip Africans tosolve Africa problems. This course is therefore an attempt to respond to this concern.Engineering in society aims at helping students to acknowledge and appreciate the importance of

engineering and how to apply their knowledge in solving societal problems.At the end of the second semester of the first year, presentations on broad topics such as: the

structure of the economy of Ghana, Poverty in Africa and its indicators, MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs), Development challenges in Ghana, The history of the College ofEngineering and of KNUST, Ethics in engineering practice, are given to the students. Thisequips students with engineering ethics, research methods and methodology for the project.

For the project work, students are required to identify a development challenge within theircommunities and indicate how they will address the challenge with their chosen field ofengineering. The project work consists of field work, report preparation and defense of thereport.

1.2 Objectives of the Course

The overall aim of the course is:

To inculcate in students an appreciation of the fact that the purpose of engineering is tosolve societal problems.

Inspire students to draw a link between their chosen field of engineering and theapplication of this field to the challenges that confront the day to day lives of people.

To help students to apply the knowledge obtained in their field of study to develop theircommunities and the nation as a whole.

To help students think critically with the aim to produce innovative and excellentengineers for the country



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1.3 Description of Report

This report comprises of profound research notes on:

Fuel adulteration in Kenyase (The problem identification, Map preparation, Datacollection).

Types of Fuel adulteration Causes of Fuel adulteration Consequences of Fuel adulteration Petrochemical Engineering

Testing factors of Fuel adulteration Techniques for detecting fuel adulteration Main Solution to the problem Other solutions to the problem Conclusion Recommendation



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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 FUEL

Fuel (source of energy) is a substance that reacts chemically or by nuclear process with anothersubstance to produce heat. Wood was one of the earliest fuels to be used by man and is even nowthe primary energy source in some parts of the world. The term genuinely applies to materialsthat store energy in the form of chemical energy that can be released through combustion.However, the expression is now extended to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy.

Heat released from fuels is valued for industrial process, cooking, warmth and the radiance thatcomes with the combustion. Fuels are used for heating, for powering internal-combustionengines and for a direct source of power in jet and rocket propulsion. In circumstances where afuel must supply its own oxygen, as in rockets and torpedoes, oxidizing agents such as hydrogen

peroxide or nitric acid is added to the fuel mixture. Hydrocarbons are the most common sourceof fuel. Other fuels including radioactive metals are also utilized.

Chemical reactions in the combustion of all ordinary fuels involve the combination of oxygenwith any carbon, hydrogen, or sulfur present in the fuels. The end products are carbon dioxide,sulfur dioxide, and water. Other substances present in fuels do not promote the combustion buteither are driven off in the form of vapor or remain after combustion in the form of ash.

Types of Fuel

Fuel is categorized into four main groups:a) Chemical fuels

b) Fossil fuelsc) Biofuelsd) Nuclear fuels

Chemical fuelsChemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with materials around them by

oxidation. They are categorized in two ways:Firstly, by their physical properties as;

a) Solid b) Liquidc) Gas

And secondly on the basis of their occurrence;a) Primary (natural) fuel

b) Secondary (artificial) fuel



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Table 1: Types of Chemical fuels

Primary (natural) Secondary (artificial)

Solid fuels Coal, wood, peat, dung Charcoal, coke

Liquid fuels Petroleum LPG, diesel, gasoline, kerosene, coaltar, ethanol, naphtha

Gas fuels Natural Gas Coal gas, hydrogen, water gas, propane, coke, CNG

Fossil fuel

Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, predominantly petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas) andcoal, formed from the fossilized remains of ancient animals and plants by exposure to high heatand pressure in the absence of oxygen in the Earth’s crust over hundreds of millions of years.

Fossil fuels contain great percentages of carbon and include petroleum, natural gas and coal.They range from volatile materials with low carbon to hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid

petroleum to non-volatile materials made of almost pure carbon.Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take hundreds of millions of years to

form. The reserves are being exhausted much faster than new ones are formed.

Biofuels

Biofuels are solid, liquid, or gas fuels derived from biomass. Biofuel can be manufactured fromany carbon source that can be replenished rapidly e.g. plants. Wide range of plants and plant-derived materials are used to manufacture biofuel.

Biofuels have recently been developed for use in automotive transport (for example Biodieseland Bioethanol).

Nuclear fuels Nuclear fuel is any material that can be burned by nuclear fission or fusion to derive nuclear

energy. Technically, all matter can be a nuclear fuel because any element will release nuclearenergy under the right conditions, but nuclear fuels refer to materials that will produce energy

without being placed under excessive duress.



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2.2 Fuel adulteration

Fuel adulteration is defined as the illegal or unauthorized introduction of foreign substances

into fuels, which results in a product that does not conform to the requirements and specificationsof the product. The foreign substances are called fuel adulterants; they alter and degrade thequality of the fuel. Expensive fuels are adulterated by integrating with cheaper low quality fuelshaving similar chemical and physical properties. Transport fuels (diesel and gasoline) are oftenadulterated with other cheaper products for economic gains. For instance, gasoline is widelyadulterated with kerosene.

Fuel adulteration is practiced mainly because due to significant differential prices among products. It is essentially an unintended consequence of tax policies and an effort to regulate fuel prices. Petroleum product utilization is increasing due to increase in population, developmentactivities, urbanization and changes in life style. In the situation where different products ofequivalent qualities have different prices, unscrupulous people always try to exploit the situation

for illegal profits. As fuel prices rise, some people cut costs by blending the cheaper hydrocarboninto highly taxed hydrocarbon. Gasoline is taxed more heavily, followed by diesel, kerosene,industrial solvents and recycled lubricants, in that order. Fuel adulteration is financially alluring;less than 10% adulterated fuel is financially unattractive but more than 30% adulterated fuel islikely to be detected by fuel consumers. The large differential prices of petrol, diesel andkerosene, the easy availability of kerosene and the fact that it is miscible with petrol and diesel,makes the unethical practice of adulteration of gasoline and diesel a very conceivable plan.

Likely source of Fuel adulteration

During transportation from Oil company terminal/depot to retail outlets via tank truck. At Retail outlets By Fuel consumers

2.3 Types of Fuel adulteration

a) Blending kerosene into diesel, often as much as 20-30 percent. b) Blending small amounts of heavier fuel oils into diesel fuelsc) Blending relatively small amounts of distillate fuels like kerosene into automobile

gasolined) Blending variable amounts (as much as 30 percent) of gasoline boiling range

hydrocarbons such as industrial solvents into automobile gasoline.e) Blending small amounts of spent waste industrial solvents such as used lubricants –

which would be costly to dispose of in an environmentally approved manner intogasoline and diesel.



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Gasoline adulteration:Gasoline is commonly adulterated with kerosene. Kerosene is difficult to burn than gasoline.

The addition of kerosene to gasoline therefore results in higher levels of hydrocarbon, Carbon

monoxide and particulate matter emissions even from catalyst-equipped cars. The greater sulfurlevel of kerosene can deactivate the catalyst and lower conversion of engine-out pollutants.Too much addition of kerosene to gasoline reduces octane quality and engine knocking canoccur. Besides damaging the engine, knocking can increase particulate matter, hydrocarbon andoxides of nitrogen emissions.

Gasoline may also be adulterated with gasoline boiling range solvents such as toluene, xylenesand other aromatics, or light materials such as pentanes and hexanes (rubber solvents).

Diesel adulteration:The mixing of kerosene into automobile diesel fuel is extensively and legally practiced by the

oil industry worldwide as a means of adjusting the low temperature operability of the fuel. Thisis not detrimental to tailpipe emissions, on condition that the resulting fuel continues to meetengine manufacturer’s specifications (particularly for viscosity and cetane number). On theother hand, high level adulteration of low sulfur diesel fuel with higher-level sulfur kerosene cancause the fuel to exceed the sulfur concentration.

The addition of heavier fuel oils to diesel is usually easy to detect because the resulting fuelwill be darker than the original.

2.4 Causes of Fuel adulteration

Existence of differential tax levels among fuels resulting to the differential pricingmechanism of fuels. Gasoline is taxed more heavily, followed by diesel, kerosene,industrial solvents, recycled lubricants, in that order.

Enormous availability of adulterants with easy miscibility and similar chemical properties, both indigenous and imported, in the market.

Lack of monitoring and consumers’ awareness.

Uncontrolled regulations in the production and supply chain.

Lack of transparency in the marketing sector for intermediates and byproducts ofrefineries.



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2.5 Consequences of Fuel adulteration.

When vehicles are operated using adulterated fuel, combustion process increases theemission level of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and particulatematter, which are all air-toxin substances.

Kerosene addition reduces octane quality which can lead to engine knocking.

High sulfur level of kerosene can deactivate the engine catalyst and lower conversion ofengine-out pollutants.

Adulteration of fuel can cause health problems directly in the form of emission ofcarcinogenic pollutants.

Substantial loss of tax revenue resulting to financial loss to the national GDP (GrossDomestic Product).

Longer usage of adulterated fuels may result in reduced engine life, malfunctioning of theengine; failure of the components and safety problems.

It deprives the poor of kerosene. Lack of availability of subsidized kerosene forces the poor to continue to use biomass and expose them to great levels of indoor air pollution.



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3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATIONAir pollution is very prevalent in Kenyase (Ashanti Region) due to enormous emission level of

Hydrocarbons, Carbon monoxide, Oxides of Nitrogen, particulate matter. These cause health problems directly in the form of emission of carcinogenic pollutants. Drivers suffer reducedengine knocking resulting to malfunctioning of engines and reduced engine life. Interviews andfocus groups were organized among fuel station personnel, fuel consumers and residents; fueladulteration was identified as a major problem of the community.

3.2 MAP PREPARATIONThe map of Kenyase (Ashanti Region) was prepared with the aid of Google maps. Google map

is a desktop web mapping service developed by Google. It offers satellite imagery, street maps,360 o panoramic views of streets and route planning for travelling by foot, car, bicycle, or publictransportation.

3.3 DATA COLLECTIONThis research is a qualitative research. It explored experiences of fuel adulteration through

semi-structured interviews and discussion groups.Twenty-three interviewees (fuel station personnel, fuel consumers and residents) were given

semi-structured interviews on fuel adulteration from 25 th May, 2015 to 21 st June, 2015. Attemptswere made to get in-depth opinion from the participants. A list of interview questions was

prepared (see Appendices) on fuel adulteration. These questions were thoroughly discussed witheach interviewee. A discussion group was organized among the twenty-three interviewees. Theycame together in a group to discuss fuel adulteration.



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4.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 DESCRIPTION OF COMMUNITY

Figure 1: Map of Kenyase (Ashanti Region)

Kenyase is a populated place in Ashanti Region, Ghana. It is located at an elevation of 287meters above sea level and its population amounts to 36, 409.Its coordinates are 6o43’60’’N and 1o34’0’’W in DMS (Degrees Minutes Seconds) or 6.73333and -1.56667 (in decimal degrees).There are five fuel filling stations and two transport stations in the community.



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4.2 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROBLEM

Detailed notes on the causes, types, and consequences of fuel adulteration can be found at theliterature review section (see from page 7 to 11). The most features pertaining to Kenyase is that:

Residents suffer from air pollution. When vehicles are operated using adulterated fuel,combustion process increases the emission level of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,oxides of nitrogen, and particulate matter, which are all air-toxin substances. They alsocause health problems directly in the form of carcinogenic pollutants.

Drivers mostly have reduced engine life. Kerosene addition reduces octane quality offuels which leads to engine knocking. Longer usage of adulterated fuels may result inreduced engine life, malfunctioning of the engine; failure of the components and safety

problems.

It deprives the poor of kerosene. Lack of availability of subsidized kerosene forces the poor to continue to use biomass and expose them to great levels of indoor air pollution.



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4.3 MEASURES OF PREVENTION OF FUEL ADULTERATION

During Transportation Fuel Tankers should be perfectly sealed before leaving companies.

Tamper proof locking systems must be employed for the tankers.

Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to monitor movement of fuel tankers.

At Retail Outlets Sample of fuel should be tested to verify if it meets requirements. This should be jointly

signed by the dealer and transporter on receipt.

Retail outlet dealers should compare density of fuel and standard density at the time of

receipt before decantation.

Quarterly inspection by field officers and surprise inspection by senior officers.

Samples of fuel must be drawn on random basis and sent to certified laboratories fortesting.

By the Government State Government officials should also conduct surprise inspections at fuel stations to

check fuel adulteration.

In case adulteration at Retail outlet is proved, the fuel company should be penalized bythe government.

The Government should devise better economic policies to make petrol and dieselaffordable.

Fuel Consumers Fuel consumers should be constantly educated on fuel adulteration and its

consequences. They should also be perpetually encouraged to desist from fueladulteration.



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4.4 PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Petrochemical engineering is a specialized branch of chemical engineering that deals with theoperations of refining of petroleum crude oil, processing of natural gas and petrochemicaltechnology. Petrochemicals are chemical products obtained from petroleum. Some chemicalcompounds made from petroleum are also derived from other fossil fuels such as natural gas orcoal, or renewable natural resources such as sugar cane or corn.

The most common petrochemical classes are:1. Olefins: including ethylene, propylene and butadiene. Ethylene and propylene are

important sources of industrial chemicals and plastic products. Butadiene is used inmaking synthetic rubber.

2. Aromatics: including benzene, toluene and xylene isomers. Benzene is a raw material fordyes and synthetic detergents, and benzene and toluene for isocyanates MDI and TDIused in making polyurethanes. Manufacturers use xylenes to produce plastics andsynthetic fibers.

3. Synthetic gas: is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide used to make methanoland ammonia. Ammonia is used to produce the fertilizer urea and methanol is used as asolvent and chemical intermediate.

Oil refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid catalytic cracking of petroleumfractions. Chemical plants produce olefins by steam cracking of natural gas liquids like ethaneand propane. Aromatics are produced by catalytic reforming of naphtha. Olefins and aromaticsare the building-blocks for a wide range of materials such as solvents, detergents, and adhesives.Olefins are the basis for polymers and oligomers used in plastics, fibers, resins, lubricants,elastomers, and gels.



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Sources of petrochemicals

Figure 1: Petrochemical feedstock sources

The diagram depicts the major hydrocarbon sources used in the petrochemical industry are:

Methane, ethane, propane and butanes: obtained from natural gas processing plants. Naphtha obtained from petroleum refineries

Benzene, toluene and xylenes (BTX) primarily obtained from petroleum refineries byextraction from the reform produced in catalytic reformers.

Gas oil obtained from petroleum refineries.

Petrochemical engineers are analytical, inspired, unique, and innovative intellectuals withexcellent problem solving skills. They have a natural affinity and aptitude for mathematics andscience and can habitually envision complex processes and design on computers. Applyingscientific and mathematical principles, petrochemical engineers develop processes like catalyticcracking to break down complex organic molecules found in crude oil into much simpler

substances. These building blocks are then separated and recombined to form many useful products including: lubricating oils, plastics, polymers, synthetic rubber and synthetic fibers.Much of modern life would cease to function without these petrochemical processes.

Examples of petroleum derivatives are ethylene, polypropylene, benzene, methanol and butane.Polypropylene, for instance, serves as both a plastic and a fiber. In its plastic form, it makes



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dishwasher-safe containers and in the fiber form it can produce indoor-outdoor carpeting, such ason mini-golf courses.

Petrochemical engineers constantly put their creativity to work, synthesizing new materials,transforming combinations of elements of matter and developing the processes to do it all safely,efficiently and on a large scale. Using petrochemicals, Engineers process and package many of

the foods we eat, clothes we wear, help power our cars and heat our homes and develop newmaterials from garbage. Petrochemical engineers turn raw materials into valuable products. Theyusually work with a team of chemists and other scientists. They often meet with manufacturers,lawyers and clients to make sure that design plans are safe and will withstand a number ofconditional variables, such as safety. They create engineering plans on computers usingcomputer-aided design (CAD) systems, which simulate realistic three-dimensional models andtest and predict possible errors and problems with a mechanism, generating workable solutions.Although most work takes place on computers or in laboratories, petrochemical engineerssometimes travel to meetings and factories to supervise and see their work in progress.

Figure 2: Shanghai Petrochemical complex



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Typical tasks of a Petrochemical Engineer A typical day for a petrochemical engineer will take place in an office, industrial plant or

laboratory environment. They usually work standard workweeks, unless a deadline must be met or an emergency occurs, requiring the expertise of the petrochemical engineer.

Design, maintain and manage petrochemical and petroleum processing plants.

Design and operate quality and environmental control systems. Solve environmental problems in industrial processing and manufacturing plants. Ensure efficient, safe and environmentally responsible plant operations. Supervise technologists, technicians and other engineers engaged in support activities. Choose the best instruments for measuring pressure, temperature, flow rate and

composition. Advise management regarding the layout of industrial plants and the installation and

sizing of equipment. Determine the most effective processes for commercial production. Conduct economic evaluations of projects to find the most cost-effective options. Design and develop new and better processes and equipment for converting raw materials

into products using computers to simulate, model and control such processes.

Branches of Petrochemical Engineering

The branches of petrochemical engineering include:1. Polymer TechnologyIt can be described in brief as the manufacture, processing, analysis and application of long

chain molecules. Materials that are typically classified as polymers include: plastics, paints,rubber, foams, adhesives, sealants, varnishes and many more. These materials, today, fullycontrol the high technology era we live in to such an extent that it has become impossible to live

life as we know now, without these products. Industries that are totally dependent on polymersinclude petrochemical industries, information technology, aerospace, music, clothing, medical,motor manufacturing, building, packaging, and many more. As a study field, PolymerTechnology is not well known among prospective students, but has vast employment potential. Ittherefore often happens that students enter the polymer field from areas such as AnalyticalChemistry or Engineering and have to undergo retraining to function effectively in the polymerenvironment. Chemistry forms the basis and starting point of Polymer Technology but it alsoleans on other scientific study-areas such as engineering and manufacturing.

2. Fertilizer TechnologyFertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming

materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Mined inorganic fertilizers have been used for many centuries, whereas chemicallysynthesized inorganic fertilizers were only widely developed during the industrial revolution.Fertilizers typically provide, in varying proportions: six macronutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus,

potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur; eight micronutrients: boron, chlorine, copper, iron,manganese, molybdenum, zinc and nickel.



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3. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)It is an assessment of the possible positive or negative impacts that a proposed project may haveon the environment, consisting of the environmental, social and economic aspects. The purposeof the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the ensuing environmental impactswhen deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. The International Association for Impact

Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects ofdevelopment proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made. EIAs areunique in that they do not require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome, butrather they require decision makers to account for environmental values in their decisions and to

justify those decisions in light of detailed environmental studies and public comments on the potential environmental impacts of the proposal.

4. Risk Management and EnvironmentRisk management is the identification, assessment, and prioritization of risks followed bycoordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the

probability and/or impact of unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of opportunities.Risks can come from threats from project failures, accidents, natural causes and disasters as wellas deliberate attack from an adversary, or events of uncertain or unpredictable root-cause. Anexample of a risk management standard is the National Institute of Standards and Technology.Methods, definitions and goals vary widely according to whether the risk management method isin the context of project management, security, engineering, industrial processes or public healthand safety.

6. Electrochemical TechnologyThis covers the whole range of technologies that involve chemical processes that are driven bythe application of an electric current, or which produce an electrical potential as a result of achemical reaction. Some of these are familiar processes, such as the electrolytic production ofaluminium, electroplating of metals, and the development of advanced batteries. Otherapplications include the deposition of thin films of semiconductors on metals surfaces, useful inthe production of solar energy devices and photocopying materials, and the development ofsensors based on molecules that are engineered at the molecular scale.

7. Adsorption Separation ProcessesSeparation, is any mass transfer process that breaks a mixture of substances into two or moredistinct product mixtures, at least one of which is enriched in one or more of the mixture'sconstituents. Almost every element or compound is naturally found in an impure state. In somecases these separations require total purification, as in the electrolysis refining of bauxite ore foraluminium metal, but a good example of an incomplete separation process is oil refining. Therefining process splits this mixture into other, more valuable mixtures such as natural gas,gasoline and chemical feed stocks, none of which are pure substances, but each of which must beseparated from the raw crude. 8. Pinch Technology Pinch technology is a new set of thermodynamically based methods that guarantee minimumenergy levels in design of heat exchanger networks. Over the last two decades it has emerged asan unconventional development in process design and energy conservation. The term is often



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used to represent the tools and algorithms of pinch technology for studying industrial processes.Developments of rigorous software programs like Pinch Express, Super Target and Aspen Pinchhave proved to be very useful in pinch analysis of complex industrial processes with speed andefficiency. Pinch technology presents a simple methodology for systematically analysingchemical processes and the surrounding utility systems with the help of the First and Second

Laws of Thermodynamics. The First Law of Thermodynamics provides the energy equation forcalculating the enthalpy changes in the streams passing through a heat exchanger. The SecondLaw determines the direction of heat flow. That is, heat energy may only flow in the direction ofhot to cold. Pinch technology is a methodology for minimising energy consumption of chemical

processes by calculating minimum energy consumption and by optimising heat recovery systemsetc.

9. Fuel and Combustion TechnologyThis branch includes: Combustion fundamentals properties of fuels, chemical kinetics andcombustion thermodynamics, environmental and operational performance such as emissions,flame stabilization techniques, reduction of emissions and calculation methods in combustion.

10. Natural Gas Liquefaction and HandlingLiquefaction of gases is the process of refrigerating a gas to a temperature below its criticaltemperature so that liquid can be formed at some suitable pressure, also below the critical

pressure. Gas liquefaction is a special case of gas refrigeration. An important distinction betweenrefrigerators and liquefiers is that in a continuous refrigeration process, there is no accumulationof refrigerant in any part of the system. This contrasts with a gas-liquefying system, where liquidaccumulates and is withdrawn. Thus, in a liquefying system, the total mass of gas that is warmedin the counter current heat exchanger is less than the gas to be cooled by the amount that isliquefied, creating an unbalanced flow in the heat exchanger. In a refrigerator, the warm and coolgas flows are equal in the heat exchanger. This results in balanced flow condition. Thethermodynamic principles of refrigeration and liquefaction are identical. However, the analysisand design of the two systems are quite different due to the condition of balanced flow in therefrigerator and unbalanced flow in liquefier systems.

11. Refining Processes Technology The refining technology process uses the following steps: First, fraction distillation is used. This

entails heating the crude oil first, allowing it to vaporize and then condensing the vapour. Thesecond step is known as conversion, i.e. applying a chemical process on some of the fractions tocome up with others. This process breaks down long chemical chains into short ones which willmake it easier for the refinery to turn it into usable form, depending on its demand. The fractionsare then treated carefully by applying different refining technology methods to get rid of allimpurities. The various fractions i.e. both the processed and unprocessed are combined intomixtures or left in their unique purest forms as desired. All products in their natural form containsome sort of impurities hence have to be refined through the above mentioned ways. The final

part is blending. Many things originate from oil or natural gas- medicine, synthetic fibre,fertilizers, among many others. By utilizing technology, refining is done to get the most pureforms of components.



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12. Renewable energy resourcesRenewable energy is energy that comes from resources which are continually replenished suchas sunlight, wind, rain, biomass, tides, waves and geothermal heat. While many renewableenergy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas,

where energy is often crucial in human development. Carbon-neutral and negative fuels can storeand transport renewable energy through existing natural gas pipelines and be used with existingtransportation infrastructure, displacing fossil fuels, and reducing greenhouse gases. Climatechange and global warming concerns, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, and increasinggovernment support, are increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives andcommercialization. Renewable energy sources, that derive their energy from the sun, eitherdirectly or indirectly, such as Hydro and wind, are expected to be capable of supplying humanityenergy for almost another 1 billion years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from thesun is expected to make the surface of the Earth too hot for liquid water to exist.

4.5 DESCRIPTION OF TESTING FACTORS

These are some of the parameters of fuel that are expected to be affected byadulteration:

1. DensityThe density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of the substance. In the oil and

gas industry, density of a fuel can be loosely defined as weight per unit volume of thefuel; this quantity is more precisely called the specific weight. Density is an intensive

property that is very effective in testing adulterated fuels. Hydrometer is used to measuredensities of substances.

2. DistillationDistillation is the process of separating, concentrating, or purifying liquid by boiling it

and then condensing the resulting vapor. If the boiling points of the constituents of amixture vary only slightly, complete separation cannot be achieved in a single distillation

3. Hydrocarbon compositionThis is the percentage of hydrogen and carbon atoms present in the fuel.

Aromatic, Vol. % Olefins, Vol. %

Benzene, Vol. % Sulphur, ppm

4. Octane numberOctane number or octane rating is a number that measures the ability of a liquid motor

fuel such as gasoline to prevent preignition or knocking. The higher the octane number,the more the fuel can withstand compression before igniting and vice versa. Fuels with a



23

higher octane number are used in high performance gasoline engines; fuels with loweroctane numbers are ideal for diesel engines.

Figure 3: A fuel dispenser displaying octane numbers.

Measurement methods Research Octane Number (RON): is the most common type of octane rating. It is

determined by running the fuel in a test engine with a variable compression ratiounder regulated conditions. It is determined at 600rpm engine speed.

Motor Octane Number (MON): is another type of octane rating. It is determinedat 900rpm engine speed rather than 600rpm for RON. MON testing uses anequivalent test engine to that used in RON testing but with a preheated fuelmixture, higher engine speed and variable ignition timing to stress the fuel’sknock resistance.

NB: The average of the RON and the MON is called the Anti-Knock Index . It is oftenwritten on pumps as (R+M)/2 .

5. Multifunctional additives-dosageMultifunctional fuel additives improve the combustion efficiency, reduce emissions and

deposit related problems in engines. They serve as a solution to concerns ofsustainability, efficiency and environmental responsibility.



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Table 2: Petrol Specifications (IS 2796:2000)Characteristics Unleaded regular

(Requirements)Unleaded premium(Requirements)

Unit

1.

Color Orange Red2. Density at 15 oC 710-770 710-770 Kg/m3. Distillation:

a) Recovery up to 70 oC b) Recovery up to 100 oCc) Recovery up to 180 oCd) Final boiling point, Max

10-4540-7090215

10-4540-7090215

% Volume% Volume% VolumeoC

4. Research Octane Number 88 935. Anti-knock index (AKI) 84 886. Existent gum, max 40 50 g/m7. Potential gum, max 50 50 g/m

8. Sulphur 0.05 0.059. Lead content (Pb) 0.013 0.013 g/L10. Benzene content

a) For notified areas b) For metrosc) For the rest

1.03.05.0

1.03.05.0

11. Copper strip corrosion for 3hours at 50oC

Not more than No.1

Not more than No.1

Rating



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Table 3: Diesel Specifications (IS 1460:2000)Characteristics Requirements Unit

1. Acidity, inorganic Nil

2. Acidity, total 0.2 Mg of KOH/g

3. Ash 0.01 % mass

4. Carbon residue 0.3 without additives % mass

5. Cetane number (CN)Cetane index (CI)

4846

6. Pour Point, max as per OCCDirective

a) Winter b) Summer

315

oCoC

7. Copper strip corrosion for 3hours at 100 oC

Not worse than No.1

8. Distillation:a) At 350 oC, min recover

b) At 370 oC, min recover8595

% volume% volume

9. Flash pointa) Abel, min 35 oC

10.Kinetic viscosity at 40 oC 2.0-5.0 Cst

11.Sediment, max 0.05 % mass

12.Density at 15 oC 820-860 Kg/m

13.Total Sulphur 0.25 % mass

14.Water content 0.05 % volume

15.Total sediments 1.6 mg/100mL



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4.7 Main Solution to the problemMeasuring and Comparing the density of fuels

Density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of the substance. The symbol used fordensity is ρ (the lower case Greek letter rho), notwithstanding the letter D can also be used.Mathematically,

( ) =( )

( )

In the oil and gas industry, density is sometimes is loosely defined as weight per unit volume,though this lacks scientific accuracy – this measure is precisely called specific weight.Density is also sometimes interchanged with relative density and specific gravity (the ratio ofdensity of a substance to the density of a reference substance, usually water).

Density of a substance varies with pressure and temperature. This variation is small for liquidsand solids. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thereforedecreases its density. Correspondingly, increasing the temperature of a substance decreases itsdensity by increasing its volume. In contrast, the density of gases is strongly affected by

pressure. The density of an ideal gas is: =

×

×,

Where ρ is density, M is the molar mass, P is the pressure, R is the universal gas constant, and Tis the absolute temperature.

NB: Specific volume is the reciprocal of the density of a substance. It is a quantity highly used inthermodynamics.

Measurement of DensityDensity is extensively measured in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m 3) or grams per cubiccentimeter (g/cm 3). It can be determined in different ways depending on the substance to bemeasured. Solid objects can be weighed on a balance or scale to determine their mass and thenimmersed in a liquid to determine their volume; the volume of liquid displaced by the object isequal to the object’s volume, and the mass divided by the volume is its density. The density of aliquid can be determined in a similar way. The mass of the liquid can be found by first weighingan empty container, then weighing the container with the liquid in it, and then subtracting theempty weight from the full weight. The liquid’s volume may be determined by graduatedcontainers such as the volumetric flask. Gases may be weighed in airtight containers of knownvolume and weight. Since gases are more sensitive to changes in temperature and pressure thanare liquids or solids, the temperature and pressure must be included in any measurement of thedensity of a gas.

The density of every substance is unique. Thus, density of a substance is a characteristic ofthat substance. Density can therefore be used to identify a substance. As a characteristic

property, it is not affected by the amount or shape of the substance. Fuel adulteration cantherefore be checked by measuring the density of the fuel under investigation and comparing



27

it to International standards. The density of petrol (gasoline) ranges from 740kg/m 3 to750kg/m 3 and density of diesel ranges from 835kg/m 3 to 855 kg/m 3

In this research work, the hydrometer is chosen as an instrument toinvestigate fuel adulteration considering the density of fuels.Hydrometer is a graduated glass or metal instrument used to measureeither the specific gravity or density of a liquid. It is constructed onthe hydrostatic principle of the Greek mathematician and inventorArchimedes, which states that the weight of a body in a liquid is equalto the weight of the liquid it displaces.

A hydrometer is mostly made of glass and comprise of acylindrical stem and a bulb (round bottom) filled with lead shot ormercury to make it float upright.

The petrol or diesel to be investigated is poured into a cleancontainer.

Figure 4: A labeled drawingof a hydrometer

The hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it floats freely.

The level at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted.

Hydrometers usually contain a scale inside the stem. The stem is graduated so that the

reading can be taken directly.

Figure 5: Measuring the density of a liquid with a hydrometer

NB: Different scales are used in constructing hydrometers for certain industries. The API(American Petroleum Institute) gravity is extensively used worldwide by the petroleum industry.



28

The API gravity is a measure of how heavy or light a petroleum liquid is compared to water: if aliquid’s API is greater than 10, it is lighter and floats on water; if less than 10, it is heavier andsinks.

=.

− 131.5

API gravity is graduated in degrees on hydrometers. API gravity values of most petroleum liquidranges from 10 to 70 degrees.

Digital DensitometerThe digital densitometer is a very excellent instrument for measuring for density. It delivers

greater accuracy but it is a relatively expensive unit and requires a closely regulated environmentwhich is not expected to be found at the point of sale.

4.8 Other Solutions to the Problem

Evaporation testEvaporation is the gradual change of state from liquid to gas that occurs at a liquid surface.

Detection of fuel adulteration using evaporation test will detect very low concentrations (1-2%)of diesel in gasoline and equitably low concentrations (5%) of kerosene in gasoline. This ishowever a laboratory technique and is inappropriate for field use.

Distillation testDistillation is the process of separating, concentrating or purifying liquid by boiling it and then

condensing the resulting vapor. Detection of fuel adulteration using the density test exploits thevariance in boiling points of different liquids making up the fuel sample. Correct and preciseresults are obtained with accurate distillation data for uncontaminated fuel. This technique is alsonot suitable for field use because the measurement setup is usually bulky and the measuring

process is time consuming.

Chemical marker testA number of chemical markers can be used to detect fuel adulteration. Surreptitious methods

include the use of visible dyes which has been successfully applied in industrial countries. Moresophisticated methods include invisible dyes which are reacted on field tests with anotherchemical to produce a color.

Ash Content DeterminationAsh is the solid residue of combustion. It is the powdery substance that is left when something

has been burned. In the situation where ash forming contaminants such as silicon and phosphatefrom waste industrial solvents may be involved, laboratory tests to measure ash content will

produce beneficial data since neither gasoline nor diesel fuels have measurable ash contents.

Gas Chromatography testGas chromatography is a common type of chromatography used in analytical chemistry for

separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition. Gaschromatography is a very efficient laboratory setup for detecting hydrocarbon-based adulterants.



29

However, the shortcoming of this method is that it requires experience analysts together withskilled interpretation of results.

Adulteration detection using Optical fiber sensor

Roy S. (1999) developed a technique for the detection of adulteration of petrol/diesel bykerosene using optical fiber sensor. This method exploits the variance in refractive index andtherefore the evanescent absorption of monochromatic light in petrol/diesel when it is adulterated

by mixing kerosene.

Adulteration detection using UltrasoundAdulteration of fuel alters the density together with the viscosity of the fuel. In the view of the

fact that both of these parameters (density and viscosity) influence the speed of sound in the fuel,it is expected that the speed of sound in adulterated fuel would be different from that in

unadulterated fuel (Thomas KV et.al. 2004). The effect of adulteration of petrol by diesel anddiesel by kerosene on the speed of sound in the fuel sample has been well studied and thetechnique has been developed.

5.0 CONCLUSIONS

The main conclusions that can be drawn are that:

Fuel adulteration, the illegal introduction of foreign substances into fuels, does not onlydeteriorate the economy. Adulterants alter the chemistry of the base fuel rendering its qualityinferior which in turn affects combustion dynamics. The adulterated fuel also causes air

pollution, reduces engine efficiency and among others.

I. Fuel adulteration is a very conceivable plan because of the large differential prices of petrol, diesel and kerosene; the easy availability of kerosene and the fact that it ismiscible with petrol and diesel; lack of monitoring and consumers’ awareness; and

uncontrolled regulations in the production and supply chain.

II. Likely source of fuel adulteration includes during transportation of oil company terminalto retail outlets, at retail outlets and by fuel consumers.

III. Fuel adulteration increases the emission levels of Hydrocarbons, Carbon monoxide,Oxides of Nitrogen, and particulate matter; reduces octane quality which can lead to



30

engine knocking; causes health problems directly in the form of emission of carcinogenic pollutants; substantial loss of tax revenue resulting to financial loss to the national GDP.

IV. Measures of prevention of fuel adulteration is not limited to but include perfectly sealingfuel tankers; GPS technology to monitor movement of fuel tankers; quarterly inspection

by field officers and surprise inspection by senior officers.

V. Petrochemical engineering is a specialized branch of chemical engineering that deals withthe operations of refining of petroleum crude oil, processing of natural gas and

petrochemical technology. Petrochemicals are chemical products obtained from petroleum. Examples of petroleum derivatives are ethylene, polypropylene, benzene,methanol and butane. Polypropylene, for instance, serves as both a plastic and a fiber.

VI. The testing factors of fuel adulteration include density, distillation, hydrocarboncomposition, octane number, multifunctional additives-dosage. These are some of the

parameters of fuel that are expected to be affected by adulteration.

VII. The density of every substance is unique. Thus, density of a substance is a characteristicof that substance. Density can therefore be used to identify a substance. As acharacteristic property, it is not affected by the amount or shape of the substance. Fueladulteration can therefore be checked by measuring the density of the fuel underinvestigation and comparing it to International standards. The density of petrol (gasoline)ranges from 740kg/m 3 to 750kg/m 3 and density of diesel ranges from 835kg/m 3 to 855kg/m 3. This work extensively works on the use of the hydrometer to detect fueladulteration.

VIII. The digital densitometer is a very excellent instrument for measuring for density. Itdelivers greater accuracy but it is a relatively expensive unit and requires a closelyregulated environment which is not expected to be found at the point of sale.

IX. Other techniques that can be used to detect fuel adulteration include evaporation test,distillation test, distillation test, chemical marker test, Ash content determination, gaschromatography test, optical fiber sensor, and ultrasound technique.



31

6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

In view of this, it is recommended that:I. Fuel consumers should be constantly educated on fuel adulteration and its consequences.

They should also be perpetually encouraged to desist from fuel adulteration.

II. Quarterly inspection by field officers and surprise inspection by senior officers. Samplesof fuel must be drawn on random basis and sent to certified laboratories for testing. Incase adulteration at Retail outlet is proved, the fuel company should be penalized by thegovernment.

III. The density of petrol, diesel and the adulterants should be extensively studied. This willenhance the development of the hydrometer, making it more effective in detecting fueladulteration.

IV.

The operations of the digital densitometer should be expansively studied. This willenable reconstruction of the digital densitometer to make it more affordable, effective andeasy to use.

V. The Evaporation test, Distillation test, Chemical marker test, Ash content determination,Gas Chromatography test, Ultrasound test, and Optical fiber test are all very effectiveways of detecting fuel adulteration. However, the shortcomings of these methods are thattheir setup is bulky, measuring process takes very long time and require experienceanalyst. A team of Petrochemical, Chemical, Electrical and Computer engineers should

be set up to extensively study, correct and redevelop these methods especially the GasChromatography test, Ultrasound test and the Optical fiber test to make them moreaccessible, affordable and easy to use.



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7.0 REFERENCES

1) Ratcliff, Brian et. al. (2000). Chemistry1. Cambridge University PressISBN 0-521-78778-5

2) “Density definition in oil gas glossary”. Oilgasglossary.com. Retrieved 2015-07-13

3) Dr. H. Bote-Kwame (2015). Physical chemistry for Engineers.

4) Bell Fuels, “Lead-free gasoline material safety data sheet.”

5) API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards, Chapter 11.1. 1980, Volume XI, XII.Adjunct to: ASTM D1250-88 and IP 200/80.

6) www.schoolsintheusa.com/careerprofiles_details.cfm?carid=149 retrieved on 2015/07/18.

7) Roy S. (1999), ‘Fiber optic sensor for determining adulteration of petrol and diesel bykerosene’ Sensors and Actuators, B55, pg. 212-216.

8) Sharma R K, Gupta Anil Kumar, (2007) ‘Detection/Estimation of Adulteration in Gasolineand Diesel using ultrasonic’, IEEE Xplore, pg. 509-511.

9) Amit P. Gawande and Jayant P. Kaware (2013). Fuel adulteration Consequences in India: Areview. ISSN 2277-2609. Scientific Reviews & Chemical Communications (SRCC)

10) Anil Gupta and R.K. Sharma (2010). A New Method for Estimation of Automobile fueladulteration, Air pollution, Vanda Villanyi (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-143-5, InTech,Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/air-pollution/a-new-method-for-estimation-of-automobile-fuel-adulteration

http://www.intechopen.com/books/air-pollution/a-new-method-for-estimation-of-automobile-fuel-adulteration



http://www.schoolsintheusa.com/careerprofiles_details.cfm?carid=149





INTERVIEWThe interview for this project was a semi-structured interview. It was very flexible and granted

the interviewees the permission to digress to unveil relevant information on fuel adulteration inKenyase.

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Name: ……………………………………………………………………………………………Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]Age: ……… yearsMarital status: Married [ ] Single [ ] Divorce [ ] Widowed [ ]Occupation: ……………………………….

1) How does fuel help in your daily activities?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2)

Which type of fuel do you use?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3) Among the five fuel stations in Kenyase, which ones do you patronize mostly?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………4) How are their fuel prices? High [ ] Normal [ ] Low [ ]…………………………………………………………………………………………………5) What can you say about the color and thickness of fuel purchased from that (those) fuel

station (s)?………………………………………………………………………………………………....6) Please, are you aware of fuel adulteration? Yes [ ] No [ ].....................................................................................................................................................7) Have you ever been a victim of fuel adulteration? Yes [ ] No [ ]…………………………………………………………………………………………………8) How will you assess the severity of fuel adulteration in Kenyase?Very serious [ ] Serious [ ] Quite serious [ ] Not a big deal [ ]………………………………………………………………………………………………….9) Should the practice be encouraged? Yes [ ] No [ ]………………………………………………………………………………………………….10) What do you think are the causes of fuel adulteration?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………11) What are the effects of fuel adulteration?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………12) What do you suggest can be done to control fuel adulteration?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Documents

ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY(CENG 291)