energy conversion system ebook

7/30/2019 energy conversion system ebook

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Writing

ESSAY-WRITING

The word essay is defined in The Concise Oxford Dictionaryas a literary composition (usually prose e short) on any subject.

Accordingly, it is a written composition giving expression to ones ownpersonal ideas or opinions on some topic, an event a situation, anobject or a problem. It is a presentation based on ones experienceand perceptions. Here more than the originality of an idea, theapproach of the writer is valued. Essay is written in a personal style.

Characteristics of a Good Essay:-

UNITY: -An essay must have unity, i.e. developing on them with adefinite purpose.

ORDER: - The essay should follow a certain ordered line of thought ecome to a definite conclusion. It should not consist of haphazardreflections put down any how. These should not only the unity ofsubject but also unity of treatment.

BREVITY: - Essays should not the exceptional long. The limit should

be maintained. It should be a brief exercise, concisely expressed.

STYLE: - The style of an essay should be dignified e literary. A long,colloquial terms, and free a easy instruction should be avoided. Alsoit is mistake to attempt any flights of fine writing. The language asentence construction should be simple, directs natural.

PERSONAL TOUCH: -An essay should serve the personal feelingsof the writer. It should have the individuality of the writer.

Essay is written in a personal style with the reader in mind. If a

reader does not enjoy reading it, then the purpose in defeated.Essays are generally classified into the following five types:(i) Narrative Essay:- incidents or happenings are narrated

chronologically in a narrative essay. We try to give asequential account of the happenings. We adept theapproach as style of a narrator or story letter, trying to


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gradually move towards the main events or climax. Narrativeessay may deal with(a)Historical stories or legend (the reign of Akbar).(b)Biographies (life of Babar).(c)Incidents (a street quarrel).(d)An accident or natural disaster (flood, fire).(e)A journey & voyage.(f)A story (real/imaginary).

(ii) Descriptive Essay:- Here the writes describes an object, aplace, an event or a natural phenomenon. One tries tocreate visual images and works on the subject like a painter.e.g. Organic life, My favorite film star.

(iii) Expository/Reflective Essay:- it contains the thoughts ofits author on some subject- an idea arising in the mind. Itconsists of reflections or thoughts on a particular topic,which is generally of an abstract nature for e.g.

(a)Habits, qualities (thrift, cowardice, heroism).(b)Social, political & domestic topics (riches & poverty,government).(c)Philosophical subjects (reality, consciousness).(d)Religious & theological topics.

(iv) Argumentative Essay:- It deals with subject on whichpeople hold conflicting views and opinion. They are writtenon topics which can be debated and on which people canadvance heated arguments for & against the view. e.g.

(a)Should banks be privatized?(b) Should India go Nuclear?

(v) Imaginative Essay:- here we imagine ourselves in a

situation or take up a hypothetical position. One can indulgein flights of fancy & give expression to ones faculty ofimagination.

e.g. (a) The autobiography of horse.(b) If I were a multi-millionaire.


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STRUCTURE OF ESSAYAn essay should have an appropriate structure. If ideas are

presented loosely, they will not carry conviction. Hence it isnecessary to arrange ideas systematically & ensure the essay getsunity. Hence we should follow the three tier structure in essay:

(i) Introduction/Beginning.(ii)Middle/Main Body.(iii) End/Conclusion.

Introduction:- Should inform the reader of the topic. A goodbeginning is very necessary. Some ways of beginning are:

(a)Define the topic. This introduction is effective in reflectiveessays.

(b)Pose a question to arouse the interest of the reader. Butlater in the essay, you have to supply an answer to thequestion raised. This beginning in effective in reflective &argumentative essays.

(c)Begun an essay with a quotation relevant is the topic.(d)Start with a personal anecdote or experience.(e)Begin by describing a scene or a situation.

Introduction is followed by theMain body:- It contains ones description of an object, scene,

events, natural phenomenon or ones views on any problem.The ideas collected are presented in the section. The ideas are

arranged in a logical order & presented in different paragraphs. Oneparagraph should have one main idea or theme. All the paragraphsshould be connected- one leading to another. This gives unity to theessay. The ideas should be discussed properly & supported withexamples illustration

Discussion is the main body leads to conclusion. It mustemerge naturally. The conclusion can tie a brief summary, a

restatement of ones viewpoint or emphasis upon the solution to aproblem. It can also be a brief reminder of the main events.

PLANNING THE ESSAYFirst understand the topic, & decide whether one has sufficient

ideas on the topics. Determine the line of thought one wishes follow.Next get down the ideas as they occur. The ideas that have been


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jotted fall into a certain category try to arrange the ideas into differentcategories. Than arrange these ideas & prepare an outline. Thearrangement should be logical. The essay must have an impressionthat it is a well integrated pattern of thought.

Think of an attractive beginning. It should be fresh, original &arresting. Give the different aspects of the topic, one idea in oneparagraph. Decide on the examples & illustration. Your thoughtshould show logical development & must not the jumbled. Theconclusion must be stated clearly & firmly. It should not be vague &shabby.

Never be irrelevant. Vague generalizations, violent statementetc. should be carefully avoided. Do not overload an essay withstatistics. Lastly use simple language, avoid difficult & unfamiliarwords. The sentences should be short & simple. Avoid all repetitions,

be concise & to the point. The language should be free fromgrammatical & spelling mistakes. Complex sentence structure shouldbe avoided.

To conducts, essay is a very sensitive form of self expression. Itis harmonious blending of thought & expression.

PRCIS WRITINGThe word prcis is derived from French, meaning exact or

terse. It is pronounced Pray see. A prcis may be defined as arestatement in shortened form of the main idea and points in a pieceof writing. There are no fixed rules about the length of a prcis butordinarily it should contain one third of the number of words in theoriginal passage. Prcis is not putting in different words, neither is it aparaphrase, nor a list of the main points. It is a piece of continuouswriting & to be effective. It should have proper organization of ideas,logical sequencing of points & the use of simple language. But at thesame time prcis is not creative writing. It is merely a condensedreproduction of the original writes ideas, views etc.

Prcis writing is an exercise in compression. It is a gist of the

passage, expressed in ones own language. It should be lucid,succinct & full i.e. including all essential points.

Qualities of a Good Prcis(i) Completeness:- A prcis should cover the essential contents

of the given passage. It should not omit any important facts orideas.


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(ii) Clarity:- It should express the meaning of the original passageclarity & be free from all ambiguities. Without reading theoriginal one should be able to get the main message throughthe prcis.

(iii) Conciseness:- A prcis must be brief & concise. Itshould be a coherent piece of writing, presenting the argumentslogically. A smaller version of the original by mere omission ofwords, phrases/ clauses gives a poor show.

TEN STEPS TO PRECIS WRITING

(I) To understand the passage, read it carefully. Put downthe main theme in a phrase or sentence. Think of a suitable

title.(II) Read through the passage again, this time underline the

key words, phrases, clauses and sentences.(III) Select the essential points, got them down, & reject the rest.(IV) Prepare your first draft on the basis of underlined key words,

Phrase etc.(V) Compare your draft with the original for any omissions,

Irrelevancies etc.(VI) Check the length of the prcis. If it is more then the

sequential limit, go through the draft again and deleteunnecessary details. Cut it down to the required length.

(VII) Read the revised draft paying attention to punctuations,spellings, and grammar.

(VIII) Prepare the final draft neatly.(IX) Write in brackets, in the right hand corner the number of

Words used.(X) Write rough on the top of your first draft and cross them

Out.

DOS FOR PRECIS WRITING

(I) Use your own language as for as possible.(II) Keeps the same sequence of events, ideas, arguments etc,

as the original passage, change only for the lack of clarity.


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(III) Drop figures of speech, examples and illustrations. In apassage devoted entirely to illustrations, use the same in acompressed form.

(IV) Give maximum information within the required limit.(V) Use indirect speech and third person.

DONTS FOR PRECIS WRITING(I) Avoid copying from the original.(II) Do not give any title unless specifically required.(III) Do not divide your prcis into paragraphs unless the original

passage is very long.(IV) Do not change any facts.(V) Do not make any comments.

LETTER WRITING

NEED OF A BUSINESS LETTER:-Correspondence is one of the chief means of keeping oneself in

contact. With those separated by distance. Every business, big orsmall, has to maintain contact with the external world including otherbusinessmen, customers and government departments. Of coursethere exists other means of communication, like telephone, telex,telegraph etc. but they can make only a temporary impression on thereceivers mind & they are quite expensive too. Hence despite theavailability of modern means of quick & convenient ways oftransmitting humans sound, letters are as important ago.

A letter is really, a piece of conversation by post. Henceconversing with friends/relations by post, are called personal letters.

Letters written to other firms and companies, customers,suppliers, govt. offices etc. are called business letters. Their aim is

to achieve a definite purpose, such as selling a product, making anenquiry, seeking information or advice, creating good will etc.

A business letters must therefore appeal to the readers interest& induce in him the proper mood. The ability to adapt oneself to thereaders point of view is the basic requirement of a good letters.


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FUNCTION OF A BUSINESS LETTER

(I)A business letter serves as a record for future reference.(II) It leaves a more lasting impression on the receivers mind than

an oral message.(III) Since it can reach anywhere, it is used to widen the

area of operations.(IV) It is used as a legal document.(V) It is used to build good will.

KINDS OF LETTERBroadly speaking letters can be classified as personal and non-

personal. Personal letters are informal, written to exchange news or

to seek-favor. They are written to friends/relations etc. in a friendly,informal style. Business letters are non-personal letters.

Business letters can be classified as official letters, demi-official (D.O.) letters, internal letters or memos, form letters etc.

Official letters are written to govt. or semi-government bodies.Demi-official or D.O. letters are official in purpose but are

addressed to a person by name. D.O. letters may be written if(i) The matter require personal attention of the addressee,(ii) The matter is of confidential nature.(iii) The matter is urgent and requires immediate disposal.

Internal letters or memos are used both in govt. offices &business houses for internal communication.

Form letters are used for correspondence of recurring or routinenature. They are used in case of acknowledgements, remindersinterviews, notices, appointments etc. they have a standard form withsome blanks left in them which are filled in and sent to theaddressees. Form letters lack personal touch, but save lot of time &labour.


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STRUCTURE & LAY-OUT

First as apparel off proclaims the man, the appearance of a lettersoften reveals the characters of the writer & the organization.

Elements of Structure:-The following elements usually constitute the structure of a businessletters.

(i) Heading.(ii) Date.(iii) Reference.(iv) Inside address.(v) Attention line.

(vi) Salutation.(vii)Subject.(viii) Body.(ix) Complimentary close.(x)Signature.(xi) Identification marks.(xii)Enclosure.

(i) Heading:- Most business organizations use printed letterheads for correspondence. It contains the name, address,the telephone no., telegraphic address etc.

(ii) Date:- Some letters heads contains a printed line indicatingwhere the date should be typed. The date, month & year isindicated e.g. 3 march, 2004/ March 3, 2004.Both methods are acceptable.

(iii) References:- It is the number assigned to a letter. Thepurpose of reference is to enable replies to be linked with the

previous correspondence & also to send replies to theseletters to the proper office or department. Stating thereference helps quick & easy future reference. e.g.

CHAUKSE OIL MILLS


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Gokhale Market, Bombay RoadAkola - 444001

Your Ref:-Our Ref:-

(iv) Inside address:- The full address of the person ororganization addressing to should be written two spacesbelow the date. The names of persons, firms, streets, roadsetc. should be written. These details should not beabbreviated. And special attention should be given tospellings of names, for if you misspell a name, it gives animpression that you have little respect for the person.

Mode of address:(a)Mr. or Shri for men both married/unmarried

Miss for unmarried women.Miss./ Shrimati for married women.Ms. For married/unmarried women.Messrs. plural of Mr.Misses plural of Mrs.e.g. Shri G.C. Honolli

Commerce CollegeGadag.

(b)titles of rank are used as under:(i) Dr. J. K. Frani.(ii) Col. B. Shetti (M.A. Ph.D.)

Some titles used are: Sir, Reverend, Doctor,Professor, Colonel, Rao Bahadur, PadmaShri, etc.

(v) Attention Line:- To ensure prompt attention, sometimes aletters which is addressed to a firm/company is marked is aparticular officer. This is done by writing an attention line twospaces below the inside address & two spaces abovesalutation. e.g.

Attention: The sales Manager.

(vi) Salutation:- It is an essential ingredient in a letter, its likegreeting a person when one meets another. It is placed twospaces below attention line or if not below inside address.The choice of salutation depends upon the personalrelationship between the writer & the reader. Sometimes


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sales & circular letters are addressed as Dear Customers,Dear Member, Dear Reader, Dear Subscriber, etc.

(vii) Subject:- The purpose of subject line is to let the readerknow immediately what the message is about.

(viii) Body:- The main purpose of a letter is to convey a message& the main purpose of the message is to produce a suitableresponse in the reader. This is done through the body of aletters. Therefore, it is important to organize & arrange thematerial very carefully.

In the first paragraph, reference to any correspondenceshould be given & in the second the main message shouldbe stated. The paras that follow should contain further

details, if any. The closing paragraph should indicate yourexpectation, wishes or intentions.

(ix) Complimentary Close:- It is a courteous leave taking apolite way of ending a letter. The close must agree with thesalutation. e.g.

Salutation Complimentary Close

(i) Sir Yours faithfully,Yours obediently

(ii) Dear sir,Dear Madams/Madam,

Yours faithfully,(or)

yours truly,(iii) Dear Sri/Smt./Kum. XYX,

My dear Sri/Smt./Kum. XYX,Yours sincerely,

(iv) Dear XYZ,

My dear XYZ,

Yours sincerely,

(or)Yours ever,

(v) Dear member/Customer/Reader/Subscriber

Yours sincerely,


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(x) Signature:- It is the signed name of the writes. It is belowthe complimentary close.

(xi) Identification Marks:- These marks are put in the leftmargin to identify the typist of the letter. The initials of theoffices who dictated the letters are put first. e.g. If the letterhas been dictated by Shri L. N. Goswami & typed by Ms.Honey Shah, then the identification marks will be as follows:LNG/HI (or) LNG:HI. Or HI/hi.The last two initial slow only the typists initials.

(xii) Enclosure:- If anything is attached to the letters, it must beindicated against the enclosure line, e.g.,.

Encl: 1. Mark sheets of B.E.2. Resume

Apart from this some other things are to be kept inmind while writing a letter. For making a favorable initialimpression, it is necessary to choose a good quality paper.The standard size of paper used is 8 by 11 inches.Secondly most business letters are typed coz typing savestime & gives a tidy appearance to the letter.

Margins in a letter add to its attractiveness. Generally,a one inch margin is left on the sides & 1 inches on thetop & bottom. Lastly the modern tendency is to omitunnecessary commas & full stops & to use Openpunctuation. Here punctuation marks are used only in thebody of the letter. Mixed punctuation is that where a coma isput after date, house no., salutation and complimentaryclose & a full stop follows the last line of the inside address.The third style is Close punctuation, which is conventionalwhere the main parts of the letter are punctuated. The mostcommonly used style by business houses is the mixed

punctuation.Envelopes used should be of a suitable size &

minimum folds must be there in a letter.

STYLE OF PRESENTATIONThere are several styles for writing business letters. They are:-


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(1)Indentedstyle.(2) Block style.(3) Complete-Block style.(4) Semi-Block style.(5) Hanging-Indented style.

(1) Indented Style:- Oldest form of business letter. Each newelement is indented (space from margin) 2 or 4 spaces. Closedpunctuation is used.

Bhauderi Trading Co. Ltd.434, Mathura Road,New Delhi-110001

October 30,2004The United Commercial Bank Ltd,

1133, Mahatma Gandhi Road,New Delhi - 110001

Dear sir,Please refer to --- ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- --- - -- -- - - -

- - - - - - - -- -- --We are grateful --- ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------

- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - --- ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - ---- ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - -

- -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ---.

Yours faithfullyXYZ.Secretary.

ASB/1g.


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(2) Block Style:- Here the date line, complimentary close &signature are aligned, with right margin, all other elementsexcepts head are set flush left. Divisions between elements &paras of body of letter are indicated by double spacing. Mixedpunctuation is used.

Bharat Aluminum Corporation303, Jahangir Road

Ahmedabad -380003

10 September 2004,

Your Ref: 43-PA/04Our Ref: POC-30u

The General ManagerShahi CementsSarangpuraGhaziabad 201001.

Dear sir,I regret ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - -

-- - - - - - - - - --damaged condition ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ -

- - - - - - -- - - -I shall be ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ --------- - - - - -

- - - - --- - - - ------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ---


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--------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ -----.

Yours FaithfullyXYZ

Purchase Officer

(3) Complete Block:-All parts, except the printed letters head arealigned with the left margin. Letter saves more time, Cozindentation is not required. But some dont like it for it appearimbalanced & heavy on left side. Open punctuation used.


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(4) Semi-Block:- This is like the block style except that theparagraphs of the letter are indented. Mixed punctuation used.

Social CorrespondenceLetters are written to fulfill social obligations or to meet personal

need which may not be directly related to our official or professionalactivities. Some letters are like, letters of congratulations, invitations,introductions, recommendations, condolences, letters conveyingacceptances & regrets, etc.

The format & style of these letters is same as the business

letters, but they have an air of ease & intimacy, casualness.Promptness is the key to success in social correspondence.The following seven parts usually constitute the structure of a

social letters: senders address, date, salutation, body, complimentaryclose, signature, & receivers address. e.g.

Senders AddressDate


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Salutation( Body)

------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - -- ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - -- - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - --- - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - --- - - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - -- - -- - - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - -- - - - -- - - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ -- - - - - - -- - - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -.

(v)Complimentary close

Signature

Receivers Address.

TESTIMONIAL:- It is a recommendation made for a person ingeneral terms. Usually it is a statement about the experience, abilitiesand qualities of a person. It may be written by an officer for anemployee. It is a certificate testifying the character & qualifications ofthe person/applicant. It can be referred to as a letters ofrecommendation from a reliable & respectable third party.


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BUSINESS & TECHNICAL REPORT

Characteristics:-The word report is derived from the Latin reportare which means tocarry back. Re= back + portare= to carry. A report is a descriptionof an event carried back to someone who was not present on thescene. Thus broadly speaking many memos, letters and news itemsare reports. Many have tried to define report:

A report is a communication fromsomeone who has information tosomeone who wants to use thatinformation.

- C. A. Brown

The essential points are:A report is a formal statement of facts or information or anaccount of something.

It is presented in a conventional form. It is written for a specific audience. Includes information about procedure of collecting data &significance of such data.

It contains conclusion of the writer. Often includes recommendations.

A report differs from other composition, it is a conventionalform written to meet some specific need or requirement.

Importance:-A report is a basic management tool used in decision-making.

A large no. of important decision in business, industry or govt. aretaken on the basic of information presented or recommendationsmade in reports. A commission or committee, a study group or a

panel is required to present its findings/recommendations in the formof a report.

It has rightly been said that for running an industry or businessefficiently the skill of report writing is as necessary as goodequipment & quality raw materials.

Report writing develops the power of discrimination,organization, judgment & communication & decision making.


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TYPES OF REPORTReports may be oral or written. An oral report is a piece of face-

to-face communication. It is simple & easy to present. It may be aboutsomething seen or absorbed. But a written report is always preferred.It is relatively more accurate & permanent. It enjoys severaladvantages over oral reports:

1. An oral report can be denied at any time. But a written reportis a permanent record. The reporter cannot deny what hehas reported first.

2. Oral report tends is be vague. In written report, the write triesto be accurate & precise.

3. A written report can change hands without any danger of

distortion during transmission.4. A written report can be referred to again & again.

Types of Business Report:-We can classify business reports into-

(1) On the basis of legal formalities we can have; Formal & Informalreports:

Formal reports: it is prepared in a prescribed form & ispresented according to an established procedure to aprescribed authority. Formal reports can be statutory(presented according to the form & produce laid down by low)or non-statutory (not required under any low).Informal reports: It is usually in the form of a person-to-personcommunication. it may range from a sheet, fragmentarystatement of facts on a single page, to several pages ofdetailed information. They may be in the form of a letter, memoetc.

(2) On the basis of the frequency of issue:

Periodic/Routine reports: They are prepared & presented atregular, prescribed intervals. They may be submitted annually,semi-annually, monthly, fortnightly, weakly or daily. Suchreports contain a mere statement of fact without anyrecommendation.Special reports: They are related to a singleoccasion/situation. They deal with non-recurrent problems.


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(3) On the basis of function: If a report merely presents facts pertinentto an issue or situation, it is informative

on the other hand, if it analyses the facts, draws conclusions, &makes recommendations, it may be described as

Analytical/interpretative or investigative report.An informational report contains only the data collected or thefacts observed in an organized form. Whereas an interpretativereport contains facts, but it also includes anevaluation/interpretation or analysis of data & the reportersconclusion. It may have recommendations for action. Such areport is also called recommendation or recommendatoryreport.

(4)On the basis of the nature of the subject draft with, we haveproblem determining report, fact-finding report, performance

report, technical report.(5)On the basis of the number of persons entrusted with the

drafting of reports, we have reports by individuals and reportsby committees/sub-committees.

Types of Routine Report:-

Progress Report:- In any long term project work, the administrationkeeps itself informed through progress reports. The projectmay be construction of bridges, buildings, lay-out of aresidential colony or installation of an equipment in a factory.

Laboratory Report:- Is the experiment carried out in a laboratory tolast a theory, verify the modifications or to examine thevalidity of the research findings. A lab report is an account ofthe various steps, findings & conclusions, put together in alogical order. The following elements generally constitute alab report:(i) Heading (ii) Experiment No. (iii) Date (IV) Object (v)

Apparatus used (vi) Method/Procedure (vii) Observations(viii) Conclusion (ix) Signature.

Inspection Report:- They are of 2 types:(i) Inspection done on a piece of equipment to find out

whether it is functioning properly or requires somerepairs/replacement.


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(ii)Report which indicates the result of inspection of aproduct as a part of quality control.

Inventory Report:- It is customary to take stock of equipment,furniture, stationary etc. at regular intervals.

Annual Confidential Report:- Periodic evaluation of theperformance & general conduct of the employees are madeat appropriate times for rewards such as increments,promotions, transfer etc.It is done to determine whether a person is efficient or not.

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTUREReports are mainly divided into: front matter, main body, back

matter.

Front Matter:-

1. Cover2. Frontispiece.3. title Page4. Copy Right Notice5. Forwarding Letters6. Preface7. Acknowledgements8. Table of Contents9. List of Illustrations10. Abstract & Summary.

Main Body:-

1. Introduction2. Discussion/Description3. Conclusions4. Recommendation.

Back Matter:-


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1. Appendices2. List of References3. Bibliography4. Glossary5. Index.

From the above elements, the title page, introduction &discussion/description are obligatory. These elements are generallyapplicable to formal writings such as articles, research papers,memo-graphs, books etc.

FRONT MATTER

Cover:- It is usually made of white or some soft, neutral-colored card.It protects the manuscript from damage & gives the report a

neat appearance. The cover usually contain the title of thereport, number (if any), date, classification (secret, top secret)etc. The cover is the first impression, hence we should notcrowd it with information. The inside of the front cover & boththe insides & outside of the back cover are usually left blank.

Frontispiece:- It generally appears in bound reports meant for widecirculation. It is a window display which ignites the curiosity ofthe reader. The form most of times used are map,photographs, articles, drawing etc.

Title Page:- It is usually the first right hand page of the report. Itcontains all information given on the cover, and also, the sub-title, authors name, job no. etc.

Copyright Notice:- It is given in the inside of the title page as:@1999, The McGraw-Hill companies,Sometimes the following note is added:All rights reserved. No part of this report may be reproduced in any form

or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher..

Forwarding Letters:- They are of 2 types: Covering & Introductory.Both are written for the primary recipient of the report, the firsttype serves simply as a record of transmission & is not boundwith the report. The introductory letters helps to establish a


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report with the reader. Here besides mentioning the title, wetell the scope, contents & purpose of the report briefly.

Preface:- It introduces the report, not the subject-matters. Thepreface should not be confused with the foreword. While theformer is written by the author himself, the letter is usuallywritten by an authority or expert in the field.

Acknowledgments:- Here we mention diligently, the memos ofpersons & organizations who have helped in the production ofthe report.

Table of Contents:- It gives the reader an overall view of the report,& help him locate a particular topic or sub-topic easily. Here

page nos are carefully checked against each topic & sub-topic.

List of Illustrations:- If there are large no. of table & figures aseparate listing is done soon after the table of contents. Itgives the information about the no., title & page no. of eachillustration.

Abstract & Summary:- Most reports contain a synopsis (also calledabstract, epitome, precis, digest) which is a report inminiature. There are a few differences between abstract &summary according to different writes. The main difference isthat of function. An abstract tells in concentrated form whatthe report is about, and a summary gives the substance of thereport. A summary presents the report in a nutshell, withoutany illustration & explanations. By its nature an abstract isshorter than a summary. It is however generally agreed thatthe length of an abstract should be about 2-5% of the original,whereas that of the summary between 5-10%.

A reader interested in knowing the extent of coverage will besatisfied with the abstract, whereas if he wants to know themethod of analysis, significant findings, important conclusion& recommendations made, then he needs a summary.

MAIN BODY


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Introduction:- This presents a betters starting point to the reader.The major function here is to tell what the report is about, whatwork has already been done on the subject & what newgrounds have been covered. Here Historical/Technical background. Scope/Limitation & problem & purpose. Origin/Source & method of collecting data. Deference of special terms/Symbols etc.

Are included.

Discussion or Description:- The information collected is presented& related to the problem it discusses or describes the mainbusiness of the report. The main function of this part is topresent data in an organized form, discuss this significance

and analysis & the result that flows there from. Thus is not setprocedure for writing this. Some writes follow the backwardorder i.e., first stating the result 7 then describing how theyarrived at it.

Conclusion:- It is the remarks at the end of a piece of writing. Itsfunction is to bring the discussion/description to an end. Itrefer to the logical inferences drown & the judgments formedon the basis of analysis.

Recommendation:- In some reports the conclusions &recommendations are combined as they are closelyassociated. The function of recommendation is to suggest thefuture course of action.

BACK MATTER

Appendices:-An appendix contains material, needed to support the

main body of the report but is too detailed or voluminous to beincluded in the text. It is such that the reader can safely omit itwithout any loss of understanding the contents of the report.Generally the kinds of material included in the appendix arequestionnaires, statistical data, detailed calculations,derivations, sample documents, specimen, definition etc.


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List of References:- It is essential to give credit to workspublished/unpublished, which we have used/quoted in ourreport. This is done by citing such works in the text & listingthem in sequential order. If they are small in no. they can bementioned in the footnotes, at the bottom of the page. Here theattention is drawn by putting a printers mark (a star/asterisk.)e.g. Warner Alan, A Short Guide to English Style, Oxford UniversityPress, London, ELBS Editor 1964, pp 40-42

Bibliography:- It is a serially numbered list of published/unpublishedworks which are consulted before/during the preparation of areport. It is distinct from references:

1. Bibliography lists the works which the author has read, to whichhe is indebted for idea/information, whereas list of references

point to out specific location of an idea or piece of information.2. Bibliography contains works recommended for further study,

whereas reference do not perform any such function.3. Entries in bibliography are in alphabetical order, whereas, in

references it is sequential, in the order a suited.4. Bibliography is often prepared before writing the report, the list

of references is prepared while writing the reports e.g.Mohan, Krishna & N.P. Singh. 19995. Speaking English Efficiently. NewDelhi. Macmillan Indian Limited.

Glossary: - Glossary is a list of technical words used in the report &their explanation. If the no of words is small, they are generallyexplained in the footnotes.

Index:- it serves as a quick guide to the material in the report. It helpsthe reader to locate any topic, sub-topic or important aspects.Entries here are made in alphabetical order & all page nos. onwhich the information of entries is available is mentionedagainst it.


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Drafting the Application:-The letter of application is a special covering letter; it must be

something more than a note forwarding an enclosure. It shouldpossess the qualities of effective sales letter. It should be informative,to the point & short. Its tone should be friendly but not familiar.

1. The introductory paragraph should attract the employersattention besides saying whether you are applying inresponse to an advertisement or at somebodyssuggestion or on your own initiative.

2. If an effective opening paragraph has been written, wehave excited the employers interest. Now we have toshow with evidence how we are a person he is lookingfor. This requires emphasizing. Those aspects of ourqualities & achievements which the post requires. If any

outstanding contribution has been made, one shouldmention it & for details refer the employer to the resume &prompt him to go through it.

3. In the end we should try to motivate the employer torespond favorably. Ones immediate aim should be torespond favorably.

Elements of Structure:-The structure of the application letters contain the following

parts:(i) Address of the applicant & date.(ii) Employers name & Address.(iii) Salutation.(iv) Body.(v) Complimentary close.(vi) Signature.(vii) Enclosures.

(Details of each element is already discussed in letter-writing).


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PREPARING THE RESUME

The resume or the personal data sheet is an inventory of theapplications personal details, educational qualifications, specializedtraining, experience, references and any other relevant informations.

References:-A reference is a person who is ready to vouch for another. The

interview conducted enables the employer to select a candidate butbefore the appointment order is sent. It is necessary for the employerto obtain information about the selected candidates integrity,honestly, ability for the post and any other facts. Hence the applicantis generally requested to name, in their application, persons who arewilling to be a reliable source of information about them. The name of

those person with whom the applicant has been associated are given.Generally the name of the head of the institution where the applicantlast studied and the name of the employers order whom he worked,are cited. The prospective employer writes to those person for theirconfidential remarks about the applicants characters, conduct & jobsuitability. These remarks are considered more suitable/reliable thanthe open testimonial, which do not usually sketch the character &competence of the applicant.

It is necessary to obtain the prior consent of the person youwish to cite as your references.

Opening:-

wish to apply for the post of advertised by you in _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

of Nov 3, 2004. Please refer to your advertisement no. 40/92 in the HT of 12

sept, 2004 fora _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. I wish to be considered for this post.

I should be grateful if you would kindly consider me for thepost of a _ _ _ _ _ advt. by you in T01, dated. _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _. My qualification & 8 years experience as a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

of _ _ _ _ _ _ co, makes me confident that I can do the jobof a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ advt. by you in HT of dated _ _ _ _ _

_ _ __ _ _.


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Closing:-

I look forward to heaving from you soon. I hope that my qualification will merit your consideration. I would appreciate an opportunity of attending an interview. I trust you will favor me with an interview.


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NOTICE, AGENDA, MINUTES OF MEETINGS.

NOTICES:-The rules of procedure of every organization clearly states the

notice period required for calling a meeting both General bodymeeting & meetings of smaller groups such as governing body,executive committee, finance committee etc. The notice is usuallycirculated, a week prior to the meeting, to all the members. Thenotice should reach the members within a reasonable time before themeetings. The day, date, time & place of meeting & the business tobe transacted (agenda), is mentioned in the notice. The items ofbusiness is mentioned in the notice if their number is small,otherwise, they are attached in a separate sheet along with thenotice.

AGENDA:-Agenda is a document that outlines the contents of a forth

coming meeting. It is usually sent along with the notice of themeeting. It is an official list of things to be done or dealt with at aparticular meeting. It is drown up by the secretary in consultation withthe chairman. At the meeting the business is normally transacted inthe order in which it is listed in the agenda. If the agenda is circulatedas an annexure, the following elements are included:

(i) Name of organization/date of circulation.(ii)Day, date, time & place of meeting.(iii) Program of business to be transacted.(iv) Background papers or information.(v)Signature of the secretary.

Generally the first item on every agenda is confirmation of theminutes of the previous meeting and the last item any other matterwith the permission of the chairman. Other items are arranged in theirorder of importance. Each item is numbered some organizations alsoindicate the time when each item will be taken up at a meeting. This

helps the group to keep to the schedule & cut down meaningless &irrelevant discussions.

MINUTES:-Minutes are the official record of the proceedings of a meeting.

They are generally written by the secretary of the organizational unit.Keeping minutes of the meetings of the board of directors,


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committees of directors, & general body of joint stock company is alegal requirement.

Minutes usually contain the main points of discussion, theconclusion reached, the recommendations made & the tasksassigned to individual members & groups. Minutes must be precise &they are not a verbatim record of the proceedings. A clear, concise,accurate & well-organized summary of the business liras acted is allthat is required.

Types of Minutes:- Minutes are of two types-(i) Minutes of Resolution:- Here only the resolutions passed at a

meeting are recorded and no reference is made to anydiscussion preceding to the resolution.

(ii)Minutes of Narration:- It is somewhat similar to a report. In

addition to the resolutions passed, a brief account of thediscussion & voting pattern is also included.Minutes may be recorded either in a tabular/block form or in theform of continuous paragraphs.The following items are listed in minutes:

a) Name of organizational unit.b) Date, time & place of meetingc) Number of meeting.d) Name of chairman of the meeting.e) Name of members present.f) Record of transactions.g) Signature of the secretary & the chairman.

PARAGRAPHINGA paragraph is a group of sentences related to one core idea

and arranged in a logical order. The core idea is generally expressedin a sentences called the topic sentence/theme statement. All othersentences clarify the idea, compare & contrast it with other similar

ideas, give supporting facts, details & proof, illustrates or provideadditional information. Sometimes however the core idea is notexpressed in one sentence, one may have to declare it firm theparagraph, as a whole. One thing is essential have, the paragraphmust have unity of theme & cohesion. Mere groping of sentencesdoes not constitute a paragraph


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ENQUIRY, QUOTATION, ORDERS, TENDERS

ENQUIRY:-When a buyer wishes to get some information about the

quantity, price, availability etc. of goods to be purchased, or about theterms of sale etc. he writes a letter or enquiry to the seller.

Some ways of opening:a) We would be grateful to get details of your prices _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _.b) We should appreciate details of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.c) We should be pleased to get information about the prices to

terms on which you could supply _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .

Hints for drafting an Enquiry

State the purpose of your letter, whether you need goods,services or information.

Request for price-list, catalogue etc. Ask for sample/demonstration etc. Tell the seller know you got his name. State the details of your business. Ask for terms relating to discount credit, mode of delivery,

packing etc. Give an idea of the quantity you require, so as to quote the

best possible prices. If you are asking for concession, give reasons- large &

continuous order, ability to promote sales in your area etc.

Closing Sentence:-a) We would really appreciate an early response.b) Should your terms be favorable, we would be pleased to

send our first order immediately.

c) Since our stocks are exhausted. Pleases treat this enquiryas urgent.

d) Since we plan to give you regular business, please quoteyour most favorable terms.

QUOTATION:-


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It is a specific offer for sale, made in response to an enquiryfrom a particular person or business house. A quotation includesdetails about prices of specific goods, terms of payment, conditions ofdelivery etc.

It is customary for a business organization to invite quotationsfrom several sellers before placing an order. The purpose is to findout the cheapest & the best source of supply of goods required.Drafting such a letter needs great care so as to get information wewish to collect, and also locate the right seller. For this:

a) Describe your needs clearly & precisely, giving detailsspecification regarding shape, size, colour, quality, make etc.

b) Request for the seller prices & terms of payment.c) Ask for a sample.d) Give an idea of quantity required.

e) Ask for guarantee period.f) Ask for accessories & parts if any.

Sending a Quotation:-Give a prompt reply to a letter inviting quotations. Dont forget

to mention:a) Mode & terms of payment.b) Place & time of delivery.c) Method of transport.d) Charges on account of sales tax, _ _ _ __, freight, _ _ __e) Packing & forwarding charges.

Placing Orders:-After accepting a quotation, next step is to place order. Do not

forget toa) Place a clear & firm order.b) Dont hesitate to repeat details as size, color, quality make &

description of item. Make reference to catalogue oridentification number, if any.

c) Specify the quantity stating the price per unit of each item.d) Indicate the mode & terms of payment.e) Mention mode of transport.f) Tell the time-period by which you expect the goods to arrive.g) State the full address & place where you want the goods

delivered.


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h) Give details if you wish any extra kind of packing & beprepared to pay extra.

i) Goods would be _ _ _ _ _, if specifically instructed.

Inviting Tenders:-While quotations are sought from a few selected sellers, notices

regarding tenders are advertised in newspapers, magazines, invitingprospective sellers of services & goods to quote their rates for doinga job or supplying goods specified in the notice. When a tender isaccepted the successful tenderer has to sign a contract, to do whathe has promised.

Tenders are invited for jobs, whose execution is spread over aperiod of time, or needs adequate prior preparation. It maybeconstruction of roads, buildings, bridge or bulk supply of goods or

rendering of service.

Opening Sentences:- Tenders are hereby invited for: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .

estimated cost Rs. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _. Sealed tenders in duplicate are invited from _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ . Sealed tender on work order basis or through rate system are

invited from the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . Sealed & separate % rate tenders are invited by the

undersigned by date: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ up to time: _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ & shall be opened on the same day at time: _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ .

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