Elementary grammar of the English language

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ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR • t

OF THE

English Language

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NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

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Copyright, 1891, by

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

Press of J. J. Little & Co. Astor Place, New York

PREFACE.

Ik the study of language, it is too often the case

that pupils acquire the habit of thinking that the

rules of grammar were constructed first, and that the

language was then made in accordance with the rules.

In this work it is the endeavor to impress strongly

upon the pupil's mind the fact that language arises

from the necessities of thought and its communica¬

tion ; and that the rules and principles of grammar

are derived from and determined by the language.

It therefore results that explanations of distinctions

in thought and of the forms of language resulting

therefrom, precede formal statements of rules and

principles.

The pupil is not merely informed upon the various

points, but is thrown, to an increasing extent as the

work proceeds, irpon the power derived from the infor¬

mation already given. This is shown in the fact that

the book does not, except in preparatory explanations,

answer its own questions ; in the fact that an occa¬

sional question is asked on points not previously ex¬

plained, but which may be inferred from explanations

which have been made in regard to other points.

In the treatment of the relations of words in the

sentence, the connection is presented as not merely

formal, but as being based upon the relations in the

thought. 3

4 PREFACE.

The system of diagrams for analysis is one of the

simplest that can be devised. Complex systems of

diagrams defeat their own purpose and only add to

the difficulties of the pupils instead of aiding them.

The illustrative examples throughout the book are

set forth in such a manner as to catch the eye at a

glance, and the prominence given to these will teach

the pupils that the applications of the rules and not

the rules themselves are the most important consider¬

ations.

No directions to teachers are given in the text.

No models for composition are included, and no pic¬

tures or objects are given as subjects for compositions.

This is on the ground that such work is mainly formal

and mechanical. The aim of the book is to confer upon

the pupils a knowledge of and a power to use good

language. The composition work is intended to appear

in connection with the expression of thought in other

subjects, such as reading, geography, etc.

In these cases the thoughts are familiar and are ex¬

pressed for the purpose of making clear to the teacher

the pupil's understanding of them. In work of this

kind the use of the language that the pupil has been

studying in grammar is applied in a vital way. He

does not write merely for the purpose of writing a

composition, but naturally, and to meet the reason¬

able demand of his regular school work.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION I.—Description of Speech and its Parts.

PAGE

Words and Sentences.7 Parts of Speech.10

The Noun..12

The Noun Defined ..12 The Noun in the Sentence.14

The Pronoun.19 The Verb.22 The Adjective.25

The Adjective Defined.25 Articles.27 The Adjective and the Sentence ..... 28

The Adverb . . ..32 The Preposition.35

The Preposition Defined . . ^ . . .35 The Conjunction. 39

The Interjection.43

SECTION II.—Modification of Speech and its Parts.

Kinds of Sentences.45

Kinds of Nouns.48 Kinds of Pronouns.50 The Relative Pronoun in Complex Sentences . . 54

Gender of Nouns and Pronouns.58

Number in Nouns and Pronouns.61

Person in Nouns and Pronouns.64 Case in Nouns and Pronouns.66

The Nominative Case.66

The Possessive Case.70 The Objective Case.72

(5)

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

The Noun as a Modifier.74

Declension of Nouns and Pronouns . . . .77

Properties of the Adjective.80

The Verb.8G

Classes of V erbs.86

Person and Number of the Verb.88

Tense of the Verb.89

Mode of the Verb.95

The Verb in the Sentence.98

Voice in the Verb.102

Conjugation of Verbs.105

Conjugation of the Verb “ To Be ” .... 105

Conjugation of the Verb “ To Love ” (Active Voice) . 109

Conjugation of the Verb “ To Love” (Passive Voice) . 113

Irregular Verbs.114

The Participle and the Sentence.115

The Adverb.116

SECTION III.—Principles Governing Speech and its Parts.

Kinds of Sentences—Selection and Arrangement of

Words.121

The Noun as Subject Modifier.124

The Noun as Predicate Modifier.130

Use of the Pronoun.134

Use of the Adjective.138

Use of the Verb ..142

(Jse of the Participle.150

Use of the Adverb.153

Use of the Conjunction.157

APPENDIX.

Rules for Capitals.159

Punctuation.159

I. DESCRIPTION OF SPEECH

AND ITS PARTS.

I. WORDS AND SENTENCES.

Doll

House Bell Cloud

Flag Tree

1. Read the above six words. What do they make

you think of ? They make you think of objects or

things because they are used to represent them.

If in the development of language a large woody

plant with branches and leaves had come to be called

a house, and a building containing rooms, etc., a tree, then the word house would make you think of what

you now call a tree, and the word tree of what you

now call a house.

When you hear the word telephone you know at

once what is meant by it, and yet had you used this

word forty years ago, no one would have understood

you. There was no idea of the telephone at that time,

and therefore no word was needed to express the idea;

but as soon as the telephone was invented, it was

necessary to call it by a name, and it was agreed to

call it telephone ; hence that word now calls up to our

minds the correct idea. 2. Words are merely the ivritten or spoken signs of

ideas. 3. An idea is a mental picture of a thing. 4. Any object that the mind thinks of is a thing.

(D

8 DESCRIPTION OF SPEECH AND ITS PARTS.

5. Suppose you watch George while he gathers

some leaves, puts them in a basket on his arm, and

walks away. Your mind will then think of some¬

thing to say or declare about the objects, George and

the leaves. When the mind thinks something about

an object, it has a thought. What is a thought ?

6. A thought is that which the mind thinks about

an object. 7. When you put into connected words that which

your mind thinks, the written or spoken thought is

called a sentence. We must learn how to make the sentence. Write

the words : George house leaves

Do these words express anything more than three

separate ideas ? Do they make sense ? Do they tell

or declare anything that the mind thinks ? Do they

express a thought ? They do not tell or declare any¬

thing, because no word among them is a word used to

tell or declare anything.

The words, then, are not all rightly chosen for the

purpose of telling something. Choose a different kind

of word, and put it in the place of house. Thus :

George carries leaves.

This collection of words makes sense and conveys a

thought, because these connected words now express

the thought which the mind thinks about George and

the leaves.

This collection of words, therefore, is a sentence.

The right words are chosen to express the thought.

Write as follows :

Carries George leaves

WORDS AND SENTENCES. 9

These words do not make sense, because they are

not rightly arranged.

Transpose the first two words, and the whole collec¬

tion makes sense as before.

What, then, is a sentence ? 8. A sentence is a collection of words so chosen and

arranged as to express a thought. A sentence may he short or long. It may consist

of but two words, or of many words. It may make a

plain statement, or ask a question, or give a command.

George carries leaves. Does George carry leaves ?

Carry leaves, George.

These are all sentences. When any one talks with you, his speech consists

of sentences. What, then, is speech ? 9. Speech is the utterance of thought by weans of

sentences. The shortest whole speech that can be made is a

sentence of two words ; as,

George walks.

10. The sentence is the unit or whole of speech.

The parts of a sentence are the parts of speech.

11. Note: Every sentence should begin with a

capital letter. Most sentences close with a period.

A question closes with an interrogation point (?).

Exercise.

12. In each of the following examples fill the blank

space, or choose a different kind of word in place of


the one given, or transpose words, so as to make each

group a sentence, and express a thought.

George (walks). (Boys) laugh.

Bark dogs. -run.

Lambs-. Horses-corn.

Skip lambs.

George-apples.

May I-? -the dog ! Oxen hay eat. Pull oxen loads.

II. PARTS OF SPEECH.

13. There are many words in the English language, but there are only a few sorts or kinds of words ; just as there are many trees in a forest, but only a few kinds of trees.

The trees in a forest are divided into sorts accord¬ ing to their forms, each sort bearing a single name ; as, maple, oak, pine.

We, perhaps, saw a good many animals in the streets this morning, but only a few kinds of animals, each kind having a common name for all the indi¬ viduals of the kind ; as, pigs, coivs, horses.

Words, also, are divided into kinds, not according to their different forms, but according to the different uses made of them.

Oxen pull loads.

In this sentence, we say that oxen and loads are of the same kind because they are both names of things.

But what about the word pull ? Is it a name of a thing ? No ; it is not the name of anything ; it tells

or declares something about things, that is, about oxen. In the sentences in §12, there are these two kinds

PARTS OF SPEECH. 11

of words—words that are the names of things, and

words that tell or declare something. Examine the

sentences in the exercise, when completed, and under¬

score each word that is the name of anything, and

make a cross opposite each word that declares some¬

thing ; thus, George laughs x.

What are the several kinds of words called ?

14. The several kinds of words are called Parts of

Speech,

The sentence is the whole or complete form of speech, and the parts of speech are the kinds of words

used in making the sentence.

15. In respect to the two kinds of words you have observed, what description can you give of the first

kind ? They are the names of things. And of the second kind ? They are words that tell or declare something.

Parting words into kinds is like parting things into

classes, and is called parsing. What is parsing ?

16. Parsing is naming the part of speech of a

icord, and fully describing it. What is the first thing to be done in parsing ? 17. The first thing to be done in parsing is to tell

what part of speech a word is, and to give a reason for

its being such.

QUESTIONS.

What are pictures of things in the mind called ? What is a thing ? Give examples of things. What two ways are there of

representing things, or ideas ? What is an idea ? What are words ? What is a thought ? Why does not the collection of

words, George clouds leaves, express a thought ? Make a change

in this group of words so that it will convey a thought. What other thing must be done, to make a sentence, besides choosing


the right words ? What is a sentence ? How many words must

the shortest sentence contain ? With what kind of letter should every sentence begin ? WThat kinds of punctuation marks are

placed at the close of different sorts of sentences ? Are there many or few words in our language ? Why are leaves and

animals divided into kinds or classes ? Are words separated into different kinds according to their forms, or according to

the uses made of them ? Why are words parted into kinds ? What two kinds of words have you already pointed out ? When words are grouped according to their several kinds, what are these kinds called ? What is the exercise of parting words into kinds called ? What is parsing ? What is the first step in

parsing ?

III. THE NOUN.

THE NOUN DEFINED.

18. In writing the following sentences, notice the variety of things spoken of. Among these things are persons, places, animals, and groups or classes of things, and some things that cannot be directly seen.

Henry is playing. George is running. Emma and Frank are asleep.

In these sentences, which words are the names of persons ?

The boys are playing and running. Which word in this sentence is the name of a class

of persons ?

The dog barks. Which word is the name of an animal ?

Cities are larger than towns. Which words are names of certain classes of places ?

THE NOUN. 13

The booh is mine. Which word is the name of a thing that is neither

a person nor a place ?

Truth is lovely.

Honesty is the best policy. Which words are the names of things that are not

directly seen ?

All words that are names of things are called nouns.

Noun means name. What is a noun ?

19. A noun is the name of anything ; as, Henry,

boys, Ohio, booh, truth, honesty. 20. Parsing a word that is a noun consists :

First, in stating what part of speech it is ; and,

/Second, in describing it, giving the reason why it

is a noun. Thus : booh is a noun, because it is the name of a

thing ; or, simply, because it is a name.

Exercise.

21. Of the following kinds of things, write as many

names as you can think of.

1. Names of particular persons ; as, George, Mary. 2. Names of classes of persons ; as, men, girls, doctors. 3. Names of particular plants ; as, daisy, rose.

4. Names of classes of plants ; as, trees, grass.

5. Names of classes of places ; as, mountains, lakes. 6. Names of things we can see, hear, feel, or smell ; as, hat,

music, rose. 7. Names of things not directly apparent to our senses ; as,

pride, love.

Exercise.

22. Write' the following sentences and underscore

each noun, parsing the nouns.

14 DESCRIPTION- OF SPEECH AND ITS PARTS.

1. The horse trots.

Horse is a noun, because it is a name.

2. M^ry has gone.

3. William is playing.

4. The tree has leaves.

V 5. A house has doors.

0. The Ohio is a great river.

7. A carriage has wheels.

8. The child is sick.

9. The cat has sharp eyes.

23. Some words are always norms; as, river, wis- dom, doll. Some words are used botli as nouns and as other parts of speech; as, Doffs bark. The bark of the rose is green. How may a noun be known from the other parts of speech ? By its meaning, or by its use , it is always the name of something.

Exercise.

24» In the following sentences, fill each blank with an appropriate noun, giving the reason for supposing it to be such, or parsing it.

1. (Boys) play. 2. - bark. 3. The-gives milk. 4.

rhe of the rose is green. 5. The-are in the sky G Texas is a great-. 7. The Hudson is a beautiful _. 8. The Bible is a good

have finished our- 9. Henry tied his 10. We

23. In the following list, name and parse the nouns :

Pen, if, top, wise, doll and, John, ink, bird, the, is, girl,

jush, slate, man, great, kindness, beautiful, good, carriage, on,

saddle, for, at, inkstand, river, go, greatness, gentle, feathers.

THE NOUN IN THE SENTENCE.

20. We are now ready to learn some of the uses of the noun in the sentence.

THE NOUN. 15

There are two main divisions of a thought: (1) A thing to think of.

(2) Something to tell or declare about this thing.

And what has a sentence to do with a thought ?

It expresses the thought in words. Then there

must also be two main divisions of a sentence.

Henry plays.

In this sentence, *Henry represents the thing

thought of, and plays represents what is declared about the subject Henry.

The sentence must then be divided into two main divisions.

What are these divisions ? They are called the

subject and the predicate. What is the subject of a sentence ?

27. The subject of a sentence names the thing thought

°f- What is the predicate of a sentence ?

28. The predicate of a sentence declares what is

thought of the subject. 29. As a noun is the name of anything, what use

may be made of it in the sentence ? A noun may be

used for the subject of a sentence, or for the name of

the thing thought of.

Exercise.

30. In the following examples, separate the subject

from the predicate by a vertical line ; underscore the

subject and the predicate. Explain the subject and

the predicate, and parse the nouns.

1. Boys | play.

This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought.


Boys is the subject, because it names the thing

thought of. Play is the predicate, because it declares

something of the subject. Boys is a noun, because

it is a name.

2. Horses | eat corn.

This is a sentence, why ? Horses is the subject,

why ? Eat is the predicate, why ? Horses is a

noun, why ? Cora is a noun, why ?

3. The trees bear apples. 4. Good boys love their books. 5.

America contains many cities. 6. Virtue secures happiness.

7. Corn grows in Kansas. 8. «A11 things rejoice in youth.

THE NOUN AND THE PREDICATE.

31. Besides its use as the subject of a sentence, the

noun is sometimes used to help the predicate to declare

more completely; that is, to complete its sense or

meaning.

Trees bear.

In this sentence the predicate is indefinite, because

it does not declare what the trees bear. Its meaning

is not clear and complete.

We do not know whether the trees bear leaves or

fruit. Let us add a word to the predicate :

Trees bear fruit.

What part of speech is the word fruit ? Fruit is a

noun, because it is a name. How does it affect the

predicate ? It helps the predicate to declare definitely

by telling what the trees bear. ITow can we make the

predicate declare still more definitely ? By making it

declare the kind of fruit which the trees bear ; as.

Trees bear apples.

THE NOUN. 17

The noun apples, then, is added to the predicate

bear to make it declare definitely. Words like bear,

strike, send, etc., always need a noun added in the

predicate to show the object of the action which they

express. Hence such nouns are called the predicate object.

There are some other predicates which do not declare completely without the addition of a noun.

The words is, icas, and some others, always need a noun or some other word to enable them to declare completely.

Time is, leaves us to ask, what is time ? Time is

money, completes what the incomplete predicate is

declares about time,

George Washington teas, is an incomplete declara¬ tion. George Washington was president, is complete.

32. The noun used after incomplete predicates, as

is and was, explains the subject, and is called a predi¬

cate noun or predicate nominative. This noun is not

like the word apples. It tells what time is, not what

time does. But both modify the predicate, and are

used to complete its sense or meaning.

Thus, the subject of a sentence must always be a noun, or some word used for a noun, and the predicate

frequently requires the addition of a noun to complete

its sense and to make it declare definitely. What is meant by analyzing a sentence ?

33. Analyzing a sentence is pointing out its sub¬

ject and predicate, with the words which explain or

modify the subject and the predicate.

Exercise.

34. Analyze the sentences by pointing out or under¬

scoring the subject and the predicate. P. El. Gr.—3

18 DESCRIPTION" OF SPEECH AND ITS PARTS.

1. Character | makes the man.

This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. Character is the subject, because it is the name of the

thing thought of. Makes is the predicate, because it declares something of the subject.

2. Birds fly. 4. John runs. 6. Winds blow.

3. Men walk. 5. Parrots talk. 7. Apples fall.

Exercise.

35. Analyze the sentences as in the preceding exer¬ cise, pointing out or underscoring the nouns that help

the predicate to declare either definitely or completely.

1. Character \ makes the man.

This is a sentence, why ? Character is the sub¬ ject, why ? Makes is the predicate, why ? Man is a noun added to the predicate to modify it by making it declare definitely. Makes the man may be called the modified predicate.

2. Knowledge | is power.

This is a sentence, why ? Knowledge is the sub¬ ject. Is is the incomplete predicate. Power is a noun added to the predicate to complete its declara¬ tion. It is the predicate nominative. Is power is the modified predicate.

3. Potatoes have eyes.

4. George is a merchant.

5. Franklin was a statesman.

6. Missouri contains many rivers.

7. Australia is a continent.

8. Humboldt was a German.

THE PRONOUN. 19

QUESTIONS.

What is a noun ? To what different kinds of things do nouns

apply ? How is a noun parsed ? In the sentence, The cat has five toes on each foot, which are the nouns ? Are the same words

always used as nouns ? Give examples of words used both as

nouns and as other parts of speech. How is a noun to be known

from other parts of speech ? What is the practical use of nouns,

and of other parts of speech ? What are the main divisions of a

thought ? What has a sentence to do with a thought ? In the

sentence, Henry plays, which word represents the idea, or thing

thought of ? Which represents what is declared about the sub¬

ject ? How many and what are the main divisions of a sentence ?

What is the subject of a sentence ? What is the predicate of a

sentence ? What is the first use of a noun in the sentence ? Form

five sentences, the shortest possible. Form five sentences having

other words connected with the subject besides the noun ; as,

The healthy boy grows. What other use is made of a noun in the sentence, besides

naming its subject ? Give an example of a noun added to the

predicate. How does the noun help the predicate ? In the sen¬

tence, Trees bear, why is the predicate indefinite ? Finish this

sentence so as to make it declare definitely. What are some

examples of predicates that do not declare completely ? What

word used as a predicate always needs a noun, or some other

word, to make it declare completely ? What is a noun so

added called ? What part of speech must the subject always

be ?

IV. THE PRONOUN.

36. The subject of a sentence is always a noun, or

some word used for a noun. If, instead of saying,

Charles is good, Charles is happy, I say, Charles is

good, he is happy, what word do I use in the second

sentence instead of the noun Charles ?

He is one of a group of words forming a second

part of speech. Charles is a noun, and he is used

20 DESCRIPTION" OE SPEECH AND ITS PARTS.

for this noun; hence he is called a pronoun, meaning

a word used for a noun.

If I say of Mary, She reads well, she is a pronoun,

because it stands for the noun Mary.

If I say of a dog. It barks, it is a pronoun, because

used for the noun dog.

In speaking of some children, I say.

They go to school.

In this sentence how will you parse they ? They

is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun children.

What is the subject of the sentence just given ?

They is the subject, because it is used to denote that

of which something is stated, namely, children.

In speaking to George, instead of saying, George must go, I say. You must go. You is a pronoun,

because it is used for the noun George or instead of

the name of the person spoken to.

If you say, I will go, what pronoun do you use

instead of your own name ?

In speaking both of yourself and George, you say.

We shall go. What pronoun do you use for the

names of both ?

What is a pronoun ?

37. A pronoun is a icord that is used for a noun. What are the pronouns thus far learned ? I and

we, for the name or names of the persons speaking;

you, for the name or names of the persons spoken

to ; he, she, it, and they, for the names of persons

or things spoken of.

Iteniarlc : A'pronoun is defined as a word used for a noun,

because such is its first use. Pronouns often have other uses,

however, and other words besides pronouns are sometimes used

for nouns.

THE PRONOUN. 21

Exercise.

38. Fill the blanks with appropriate pronouns, and then parse the nouns and pronouns.

1. If Susan neglects study (she) will learn nothing.

Susan is a noun, why ? She is a pronoun, because it is used for a noun.

2. James and I can play when (ice) have recited.

James is a noun, why ? I is a pronoun, because it is used for a name. We is a pronoun, because it is used for nouns—in this case, James and the name of the speaker.

3. A bird sings because-is happy. 4. Jane and you may go when-are ready. 5. When men are industrious-will prosper. 6. I am monarch of all-survey.

Exercise.

39. Analyze the sentences and parse the nouns and pronouns.

1. We | hear you.

This is a sentence, why ? We is the subject, why ? Hear is the predicate, why ? We is a pronoun, be¬ cause it is used instead of the names of persons. You

is a pronoun, because it is used instead of the names of persons. It is added, like a noun, to the predicate hear> to make it declare definitely. Hence, hear you

is the modified predicate.

2. They have wings. 6. You gather apples. 3. I bring news. 7. We have a swing. 4. She knows it. 8. They are the men. 5. It is a bird. 9. He is a good boy.


Exercise.

40. Without the use of pronouns, sentences would be awkward and tedious. In the following examples,

write pronouns in place of the nouns where they may

be appropriate, and observe the improvement.

1. Charles loves Charles’s mother, because Charles’s mother is

kind to Charles. 2. When boys and girls are generous, boys and girls will be

admired by all who know boys and girls. 3. John saw a rat. John thought John would kill the rat,

but the rat ran away from John as fast as the rat could run.

What is the use of the pronoun in the sentence ?

By the use of the pronoun we are able to avoid the repetition of names, and thus the sentence becomes more convenient and agreeable.

QUESTIONS.

What other word may be used for a noun as subject ? What is the definition of pronoun ? Mention some pronouns used for the names of persons, and the three ways in which they are used. Why do we use pronouns in the sentence ? Make seven short sentences, each containing a different pronoun as subject.

V. THE VERB.

41. In every sentence you have studied there has been a word that tells, asserts, or declares ; in short, a word that predicates something. The sentence may affirm something ; as,

George runs—

It may deny ; as,

George does not run—

THE VERB. 23

It may be in tbe form of a question or a command :

Does George run ?

Dun, George !

In all cases it declares. We must find out what this

kind of word declares, and give a name to the word as a part of the sentence.

Henry ivalks. He rides. He laughs.

In these sentences, which words declare what Henry

is doing ? Mention some other words that declare

what you do ; as, I write. What do all the words you

have mentioned declare ? They declare action. 42. All words that declare action are included in

one part of speech. That part of speech is called the verb. All words like walks, rides, and laughs are

verbs. But all verbs do not declare action.

Henry is here. Henry remains.

In these sentences, what part of speech are is and

remains ? They are verbs. They do not declare

action. What do they declare ? They declare being —Henry’s being here. Give a definition of verb.

43. A verb is a word which declares action or being ;

as, 1 ride, You remain, Henry is here. A verb may be known from other parts of speech by

its use in declaring action or being ; or by its making

sense with a noun or pronoun. What is the difference between a noun and a verb ?

44. A noun is the name of a thing, and is a sub¬

ject-word ; a verb declares something, and is a predi¬

cate-word.


Exercise.

45. Fill out the blanks with appropriate verbs, and

parse the nouns, pronouns, and verbs.

1. The dog {jumps).

Dog is a noun, why ? Jumps is a verb, because it

declares action.

2. The men -. 3. The fire -. 4. The bird -. 5.

The horse-. 6. Knowledge-power. 7. The stars-

in the sky. 8. The trumpets-. 9. The banners-. 10.

Actions-louder than words.

Exercise.

46. Analyze the sentences, point out the nouns that modify or complete the predicate, as shown in § 31, and parse nouns, pronouns, and verbs.

1. Exercise | promotes health.

This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. Exercise is the subject, because it is the name of the thing thought of. Promotes is the predicate, be¬ cause it declares something of the subject. Health

is a noun added to the predicate to modify it or make it declare more definitely, by showing what it is that exercise promotes.

Exercise is a noun, because it is a name. Promotes

is a verb, because it declares action. Health is a noun, because it is a name.

2. The bee sucks nectar from flowers.

3. The bee carries honey to the hive.

4. The dog’s claws are not sharp claws.

5. Spring opens the buds.

6. It brings the sparrows.

THE ADJECTIVE. 25

Exercise.

From the words that follow, make short sentences,

each containing a noun or pronoun and a verb.

Example—We eat fruit.

Write, oranges, man, bears, animal, fruit, gallop, we, creep,

ice, tree, they, asleep, laughs, animal, child, well, sails, is, seen, loud, live, keep, sea, see, eat, courage, into, up, I, army, chair, the, into, marches, are, field, slate.

QUESTIONS.

In every sentence, what word is important, besides the word that names the subject ? What does this word declare ? What is the word that declares called ? Give examples of verbs that

declare action and being. Give a definition of verb. How may a verb be distinguished from other parts of speech ? Can you make a sentence without a verb V What is the value of the verb

in the sentence, compared with other kinds of words ?

VI. THE ADJECTIVE.

THE ADJECTIVE DEFINED.

47. In the expressions, a street apple, a sour apple,

what idea is added to the meaning of the noun by the

words sweet and sour ? The idea of its taste or flavor,

—quality in the apple.

The words sweet and sour, when used with the

noun apple, qualify it by describing its qualities,

thus limiting its meaning to'such apples as are sweet

or sour.

In the expressions, a large apple, a small apple, what

words qualify the meaning of the word apple, by add¬

ing the idea of its size ?


48. In the expressions, all men, some men, few men, two men, what words qualify the noun men by adding

the idea of number ? Do these words qualify men by

extending, or by limiting, its meaning ? The meaning

of the noun men is extended by the word all, and lim¬

ited by the words some, few, and tivo.

What part of speech are such words as sweet, soar,

large, white, all, some, few, two ? They are adjec¬ tives, because they add some special meaning to the words with which they are connected, and thus de¬ scribe, or otherwise qualify their meaning.

What, then, is an adjective ?

49. An adjective is a word that is used to qualify a noun or pronoun ; as, a small apple; a large man; tivo trees ; he is good.

Exercise.

50. Parse the nouns and adjectives.

1. had men.

Bad is an adjective, because it qualifies the noun

men, showing what kind of men is meant. Men is a noun, because it is a name.

2. good men

3. strong horses

4. tall trees

5. short sticks

6. this book

7. that book

8. two knives

9. ripe peaches

10. many boys

11. some pears

12. God is good.

13. Peaches are ripe.

Exercise.

51. Point out the nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adjec¬

tives.

First, I took tools to work with on shore. After long search

I found the carpenter’s chest. This was a useful prize to me. I got it down to my raft, but I had little time to look into it.

THE ADJECTIVE. 27

Exercise.

52. Fill the blanks with suitable adjectives, and

parse the nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adjectives.

Boys | are playful.

Boys is a noun, because it is a name. Are is a

verb, because it declares being. Playful is an adjec¬

tive, modifying the noun by qualifying its meaning.

2. -gardens

3. -men

4. -houses

5. -grapes

G. -horses

7. Oranges are-

8. Leaves in spring are-

9. Nights in summer are —

Exercise.

53. Write adjectives with the nouns, and nouns with the adjectives.

Example—Good men9 great lake, etc.

Horses, gardens, trees, houses, fruit, books, men, dog, cow,

apple, room, paper, orange, boy, girl, lake, ocean.

Good, bad, large, small, high, low, great, little, fine, coarse,

bright, yellow, long, short, red, green, poor, rich, round, square.

THE ADJECTIVE. (Articles.)

54. In the expression, an apple, which word is the adjective, and why P An is the adjective, qualifying the meaning of the noun, by signifying one apple.

The word an is derived from the old word ane+

which means one, by omitting the e; and an is some¬

times further changed to a.

In the expression, the man, which word is the

adjective ? The is the adjective, because it qualifies the noun, by limiting its meaning to some particu-


lar man. The word the is related to the word that

or those. The man means nearly the same as that

man. The men means nearly the same as those men.

Since an and a have the same meaning, what is the rule for their use ?

55. An is used before a word beginning with a

vowel sound; a is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound.

The adjectives an or a, and the, are also called

articles.

54>. Remark : It is good usage to place an, rather than a, before words beginning with a pronounced h, when the accent

is on any syllable except the first ; as, an hotel, an horti¬ culturist.

Exercise.

57. Fill the blanks with the adjectives called arti¬

cles, the, an, or a, and correct the examples in which an should be a, or a should be an. Also parse the

words.

1. — house 9. — hour 17. a apple

2. eg'g 10. — new hat 18. a hour

3. — man 11. — empty house 19. a hotel

4. — apple 12. — hotel 20. an desk

5. — dog 13. — old book 21. a owl

C. — owl 14. — fresh egg 22. an skate

7. — horse 15. — kind aunt 23. an cent

8. — boy 16. — oval frame 24. a ant

THE ADJECTIVE AND THE SENTENCE.

58. The practical use of the adjective in the sen¬

tence must now he learned.

THE ADJECTIVE. 29

Write the following sentence, dividing the subject from the predicate :

Roses | bloom.

What is the subject of this sentence, and why ?

Add an adjective to the subject, and write :

Red roses \ bloom.

What effect has the adjective red on the subject

roses ? It changes or modifies the subject by limiting the roses to such as are of a special color.

Add another adjective :

The reel roses | bloom.

How is the subject affected by the adjective the ?

The subject is again modified by limiting the red roses to some particular red roses.

The adjectives red and the, added thus to the sub¬ ject, are called modifiers of the subject. And what

shall we call the subject with its modifiers, all to¬ gether ? as,

The red roses.

The subject with its modifiers is called the modified subject.

What is the modified subject ?

59. The modified subject is the subject with its

modifying words.

Thus, one use of the adjective in the sentence is to

modify the subject. CIO. Another use of the adjective in the sentence is

as part of the predicate, after such verbs as is, are,

was, become, etc. When so used the adjective com¬

pletes the predicate, and belongs to the subject, just as


the predicate nominative does. It is called the predi¬

cate adjective.

Mary is generous.

You are right.

Alexander was proud.

Children become wiser.

In these sentences which words are predicate ad¬

jectives ?

Note : The verbal form which is used to connect the predi¬

cate adjective or noun to the subject is often called the copula.

The adjective has still another office in the sen¬ tence. It is added to any predicate noun or pronoun

- to modify the predicate further.

The tree hears fine apples.

In this sentence the noun apples modifies the predi¬ cate hears, making it declare definitely. What ad¬ jective qualifies this noun ? The adjective fine, be¬ cause it describes the noun apples. Thus, the whole expression, hears fine apples, is the modified predicate.

What is the modified predicate ? 61. The modified predicate is the predicate ivith

all its modifying words together ivith their modifiers.

Exercise.

62. Analyze the sentences, pointing out the adjec¬ tives and noun modifiers, the modified subject and the modified predicate, and parse the words.

1. A ivise son \ makes a glad father.

This is a sentence, why ? Son is the subject, why ? Makes is the predicate, why ? A and wise are modi-

THE ADJECTIVE. 31

fiers of the subject, and the modified subject is A

wise son. A and wise are adjectives, because they

qualify the noun son. The modified predicate is

makes a glad father. Father is a noun, why ? It

modifies the verb makes, by making its declaration

definite. A and glad are adjectives, because they qualify the noun father.

2. Mary | is an amiable girl.

This is a sentence, why ? Mary is the subject,

why ? Is is the incomplete predicate, why ? The

subject is not modified. The predicate is modified by

the noun (girl, and girl is modified by the adjectives

amiable and an. Is an amiable girl forms the modified predicate. Mary is a noun, why ? Is is a

verb, why ? An and amiable are adjectives, quali¬

fying girl. Girl is a predicate noun, because it helps

the verb to complete its declaration.

3. Solomon was a wise man.

4. Some men are unwise.

5. Faithful study makes a learned man.

6. The graceful young trees grow.

7. A kind look gladdens the heavy heart.

8. I have a sharp knife.

QUESTIONS.

What part of speech are those words which are added to nouns

or pronouns to describe or explain their meaning ? Give some

of the ideas that are added by the use of such words. What is

an adjective ?

What does the word qualify mean, when applied to the adjec¬

tive ? Ans. It means describe or limit. What part of speech

*32 DESCRIPTION OF SPEECH AND ITS PARTS.

are the words an, a, and the ? By what other name are these

little adjectives sometimes known ? When is an, and when is a

used ?

Explain the effect of the adjective red, when joined to the sub¬

ject, in the sentence, Red roses \ bloom. What is done by placing

the before red ? When adjectives are thus added to the subject,

what are they called ? What is the modified subject ? And what

is one use of the adjective in the sentence ? Of what assistance

is the adjective to such a verb as is or was ? Explain the use of

the adjective in the sentence Man | is mortal. How is it related

to the subject ? How is it related to the predicate ? What is an

adjective thus qualifying the subject and modifying the predicate

called ?

Besides modifying nouns and helping such verbs as is to

declare completely, what other use has the adjective in the sen¬

tence ? Point out the modifiers in the modified predicate of the

sentence, The tree | bears fine fruit. What is the modified pred¬

icate ?

VII. THE ADVERB.

63. He talks wisely.

In this sentence, which word adds to the mean¬ ing of the verb a qualifying idea, or shows how he talks ?

He is very wise. He is quite busy. He acts very wisely.

In these sentences, which words qualify wise, busy, and wisely ? What part of speech are very, quite, and wisely ? They are adverbs.

What is an adverb ?

64. An adverb is a word which is used to qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs ; as. He talks wisely, He is very icise, He is quite busy, He acts very wisely.

THE ADVERB. 33

Exercise.

65. Point out the adverbs in the completed sen

tences, and fill the blanks with adverbs.

1. He talks foolishly.

2. He talks rapidly.

3. He talks fast.

4. He walks surely.

5. He is generously disposed.

6. I see more clearly now.

7. The horse runs-.

8. The man talks-.

9. The rain falls-.

10. The bell tolls-.

11. He is a-wise man.

12. Glass is-brittle.

13. The copy is-written.

14. He is-studious than she.

Exercise.

66. Parse the adverbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives,

and verbs, carefully observing whether the adverbs

qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

1. He | walks slowly.

He is a pronoun, why ? Walks is a verb, why ?

Sloivly is an adverb, because it qualifies the verb,

showing in what manner he walks.

2. Harriet walks rapidly.

3. The men worked hard.

4. Jane speaks correctly.

5. Jennie sings sweetly.

6. James is quite well.

7. John writes fast.

8. He is very studious.

9. He spoke very mildly.

10. He acted most generously.

11. The rain falls heavily.

12. The wind blows quite

roughly.

13. Sheridan was a truly elo¬

quent man.

14. Wild animals generally in¬

habit dark places.

67. In what general respect are adjectives and ad¬

verbs alike ? They are added to other words to

describe or limit their meaning.

What is the distinction between an adjective and P. El. Git.—3

34 DESCRIPTION" OE SPEECH AND ITS PARTS.

an adverb ? An adjective qualifies nouns and pro¬ nouns ; an adverb qualifies verbs, adjectives, and other

adverbs. Many adverbs are formed from adjectives, by add¬

ing ly ; as, sloiv, slowly ; rapid, rapidly ; swift, sivift-

ly ; heavy, heavily, 68. The practical use of the adverb in the sentence

is to add another modifier either to the subject or to

the predicate ; as,

A truly yood man lives ivell. He is a truly yood man.

Exercise.

69. In the foregoing Exercise, analyze the sentences numbered 2, 6, 9, 10, 11, 14.

14. Wild animals | generally inhabit dark places.

This is a sentence, why ? Animals is the subject, and inhabit is the predicate, why ? The subject is modified by the adjective wild, and the modified sub¬

ject is wild animals. The predicate is modified by the adverb generally, showing to what extent the declaration of the verb is to be taken, and by the noun places, qualified by the adjective dark, rendering the declaration definite. The modified predicate is generally inhabit dark places.

QUESTIONS.

What is an adverb ? How does it differ from an adjective ?

How are some adverbs formed ? What is the practical use of the

adverb in the sentence ?

THE PREPOSITION. 35

VIII. THE PREPOSITION.

THE PREPOSITION DEFINED.

70. We have learned two important parts of speech

that are capable of making a sentence, without help

from other kinds of words. What are these ? The

noun (or the pronoun) and the verb.

There are other parts of speech that help the main

Avords of a sentence to express a thought more defi¬

nitely, completely, or precisely. Of these we have

learned the adjective and the adverb. Some other parts of speech, yet to be learned, are

also helpful and necessary.

He went John.

Is the sense of these words plain ? Place the little

word to before John.

He went to John.

The sense is now plain. 71. This word to is necessary to complete the ex¬

pression of thought, and as it is placed before the

word which it helps, it is called a preposition, which

means placed before.

What is the effect of the word to in the above

sentence ? It shows the relation between the idea

expressed by the noun John and the action expressed

by the verb ivent.

He went with you.

He went for you.

In these sentences, which words show the relation

between the pronoun yon and the verb ivent ? Since


these words are placed before you to show the relation

between the ideas expressed by you and went, what

are they called ?

What is a preposition ? 72. A preposition is a word that is used to show

the relation of the idea expressed by a noun or pronoun

to that expressed by other words; as, He went with me

from house to house. The principal prepositions are :

about before down on under above behind during over underneath across below except round unto after beneath for since until against beside from through up along besides in throughout upon among between into till with around beyond of to within at by off toward without

But, save, and than are sometimes prepositions.

Exercise.

73. Fill the blanks with prepositions and parse them.

1. He spoke-John. 2. He sent-George. 3. The tree is full- leaves. 4. The house is built - brick. 5. The

child shivers - cold. 6. He went - Galveston. 7. Pie

sailed-a ship. 8. He sailed-a ship-London.

Exercise.

74. Parse all the words.

1. He | stood before the fire.

He is a pronoun, why ? Before is a preposition, because it shows the relation between the ideas ex¬ pressed by stood and fire. The is an adjective, why ?

2. He came to the city. 3. He went after John. 4. He ran

THE PREPOSITION". 37

behind John. 5. He started without George. 6. She sat under

the window. 7. Mice are fond of music. 8. John Randolph

traveled in a stage from Roanoke to Washington. 9. Samuel ran

to the house near the river.

THE PREPOSITION AND THE SENTENCE.

75. A glance at the foregoing examples is sufficient

to prove the value of this part of speech. Except for

the preposition, it would be difficult to express some

variations of thought.

He started George.

This means quite a different thing from

He started without George.

The preposition here unites the word George to the

predicate in such a way as to make George modify the predicate started and explain the thought intended.

Neither George alone, nor without alone, would ex¬

press the sense meant. Each word derives advantage

from the other ; and, because these words are closely

related, they are together called a phrase.

What is a phrase ? 76. A phrase is a group of words which have the

value of a single part of speech, hut are not a sentence ; as, without George ; behind John ; under the window.

In Examples 1, 6, 8, 9, of the foregoing exercise, how

are the predicates stood, sat9 traveled9 and ran modi¬

fied ? They are modified by the phrases before the fire9

under the window9 in a stage9 from lloanoke to

Washington9 to the house near the river9—all these

phrases being introduced by prepositions.


In the same manner the phrase may modify the

subject; as,

John Randolph, of Roanoke, traveled to Washington.

Here the phrase of Roanoke modifies the subject John Randolph.

77. The phrase beginning with a preposition is sometimes equivalent to an adjective. A man of truth,

is equivalent to a truthful man. A phrase may also take the place of an adverb ; as, He spoke with force, is equivalent to He spoke forcibly.

Exercise.

78. Analyze the sentences in the foregoing exercise.

9. Samuel ran to the house near the river.

This is a sentence, why ? Samuel is the subject ; ran is the predicate. The subject is unmodified.

The predicate is modified by the phrase, to the house

near the river, introduced by the preposition to,

which shows the relation between the predicate ran

and the phrase that follows. To the house near the

river is a phrase, because it consists of many related words not a sentence. The principal word in the phrase is house, which is itself modified by the phrase, near the river.

QUESTIONS.

Define the preposition. Give an example of a phrase intro¬

duced by a preposition. What relation exists between the prep¬

osition, and the word it is placed before ? What is a phrase ?

What other parts of speech is the prepositional phrase some'

THE CONJUNCTION. 39

times equivalent to ? What part does this phrase perform in

the sentence ? Give examples of phrase modifiers in subject and

predicate.

What parts of speech have you now learned ? Which are the

main parts of speech in forming a sentence ? Which are the help¬

ing parts of speech ? What part of speech is used for names ?

What part of speech is used instead of a noun ? What, to

qualify nouns and pronouns ? What part of speech declares ?

What qualifies the verb ? What expresses the relation of nouns

and pronouns to other words ? What two parts of speech

describe, limit, or extend the meaning of other words ?

IX. THE CONJUNCTION.

79. You must go.

I must go.

Connect these two sentences so as to make but one

sentence. You must go, and I must go ; or.

You and I must go.

The word and joins the two sentences in the first case,

and the two subjects in the other. Unite the two

sentences : The girls came. The hoys staid away.

The girls came, hut the hoys staid array.

In this case but is the connecting word. What are such words as and and but called ? They are called

conjunctions, because they join together.

What is a conjunction ? SO. A conjunction is a word that is used to connect

rvords or sentences ; as. He and I must go ; George is

tall, but William is taller.


The principal conjunctions are : and either or then although except provided therefore also for since though as if so unless because neither still wherefore both nor than whether but notwithstanding that yet

Exercise.

81. Pill the blanks with conjunctions, and parse the words. Has gone, must wait, etc., are parsed as single words.

1. Harriet has gone,-Ann must wait.

2. The trumpets sound-the banners fly.

3. Ellen is a better scholar-Mary.

4. Hyacinths-callas blossom at Easter.

5. Sleet-rain are falling.

G. The king must win, -he must forfeit his crown. 7. Freely we serve,-we freely love.

Mary studies. William studies.

How many sentences, subjects, and predicates have I used ? Two sentences, two subjects, and two predi¬ cates. To express the same thoughts more brief!y, I connect the two subjects by a conjunction and use one predicate ; as,

Mary and William study.

What are two subjects thus joined called ? A compound subject.

Mary sings. Mary plays.

Instead of making two sentences as above, since both predicates have the same subjects, I may say,

Mary sings and plays.

THE CONJUNCTION. 41

What are two predicates so joined called ? A com¬ pound predicate.

A simple sentence contains but one subject and one

predicate, either or both of which may be compound.

82. Another use of the conjunction is to join simple

sentences, making of them one sentence.

The wise man keeps silence. The fool speaks.

What kind of sentences are these ? Why ? Each

consists of one subject and one predicate. What kind

of sentence is the following ?

The zuise man keeps silence, but the fool speaks.

It is a compound sentence, because it consists of two

simple sentences, united by a connecting word.

What is a compound sentence ?

83. A compound sentence consists of two or more

simple sentences united by a connecting word.

What is a clause ?

84. A clause is a simple seyitence used as a part of

another sentence. A compound sentence may be composed of many

clauses or simple sentences.

Exercise.

85. Make compound subjects and predicates, and

compound sentences, using some of the conjunctions

on the list; and separate the clauses of compound sen¬

tences into simple sentences by striking out the con¬

junction and writing capitals and periods.

1. Robins hop. 2. Blackbirds walk=Robins hop,

but blackbirds walk.


3. Fishes swim. 4. Frogs swim. 5. Ducks swim.

6. Cows eat grass. 7. Cows chew the cud.

8. Herons and storks wade, but loons and ducks swim and

dive.

9. Bells ring and whistles blow.

10. Good men are loved, and great men are admired.

Remark : Where more than two subjects or predicates are

joined, or where more than two clauses are united, the connect¬

ing word is expressed only between the last two ; as, Mary and John and Charles talk and sing and play=3fary, John, and

Charles talk, sing, and play.

Exercise.

86. Analyze the compound sentences in § 81.

1. Harriet has gone, hut Ann must wait.

This is a sentence, why ? Compound, because it is composed of two clauses, each of which may stand alone as a simple sentence. They are connected by the conjunction but. The first clause is Harriet has gone, with Harriet for its subject, and has gone for its predicate. The second clause is Ann must wait, etc.

Harriet | has gone, but

Ann | must wait.

QUESTIONS.

What is a conjunction ? What is its use in the sentence ?

What is a compound subject ? A compound predicate ? What

is a simple sentence ? A compound sentence ? A clause ?

THE INTERJECTION. 43

X. THE INTERJECTION.

87. We have learned that words are the signs of ideas.

We are now introduced to a class of words that do not

represent distinct ideas, but are rather signs of feeling.

My child, alas! is lost.

Oh ! that they would consider their danger.

In these sentences the words alas and oh more par¬ ticularly express feeling or emotion.

Interjection means thrown in between, and these

words are called interjections because they are thrown

into a sentence without becoming a necessary part of

it, as are the other parts of speech.

What is an interjection ? 88. An interjection is a word used as an exclama¬

tion, to express emotion ; as, 0pity ! Alas! my child.

The principal interjections are :

adieu, ah, aha, alas, away, ha, hail, halloo, hey, hist ho, hollo, hush, hurra, huzza, fy, indeed, la, lo, O, oh

Exercise.

89. Point out the interjections and explain them.

Alas ! poor YoricJc !

Alas is an interjection because it expresses emotion,

and has no further connection with the sentence.

2. Oh, happy morn !

3. Ah, how unfortunate !

4. Hurrah ! the bonnets in blue !

QUESTIONS.

What is an interjection ? How does it differ from the other

parts of speech ? What is the literal meaning of the word ?


REVIEW.

How many, and what are the parts of speech ? Why are the

parts of speech so called ? What is the whole of speech ? Of

what practical use is learning the parts of speech ? When people

talk or write, in what form do they express their thoughts ? Are

words ever used to express anything except complete thoughts ?

Give an example of such an expression. What is the principal

word in every sentence ? What three parts of speech may be

called the main words in a sentence ? What are the helping parts

of speech ? What is parsing and its first step ? What is a noun ?

A pronoun ? A verb ? An adjective ? An adverb ? A prepo¬

sition ? A conjunction ? An interjection ?

Which of the adjectives are called articles ? Which of these

has two forms ? How are the two forms respectively used ?

Mention three nouns that name persons. Three that name

animals. Three that name places. Three that name rivers or

mountains. Three that name things we cannot directly see.

What is an idea ? What are words ? What is a thought ? What

are the divisions of a thought ? What is the difference between

subject and predicate ? The difference between a subject and a

modified subject ? a predicate and a modified predicate ? What

part of speech is the subject ? What the predicate ? How does

a noun modify the predicate verb ? Mention some verbs that the

noun and adjective help to declare completely. What are such

nouns and adjectives called ? What is the practical use of the

pronoun in the sentence ? What pronouns are used for the per¬

son speaking ? For the one spoken to ? For the one spoken of ?

What phrases are used as modifiers ? What parts of speech

are some of these phrases equivalent to ? What is analyzing a

sentence ? Give an example of a modified subject ; a modified

predicate ; a compound subject ; a compound predicate ; a com¬

pound sentence.

Change a compound sentence into simple sentences. What is

a clause ? What is a phrase ?

What kind of letter is placed at the beginning of a sentence ?

What punctuation at the end of most sentences ? At the end of

a question ? When there are more than two subjects in a com¬

pound subject, or more than two predicates in a compound pred¬

icate, how is the comma used ? Illustrate this use by examples.

II.—MODIFICATION OF SPEECH

AND ITS PARTS.

XI. KINDS OF SENTENCES.

90. A sentence has been defined as a collection of

words expressing a thought. It is the unit or whole

of speech.

We have learned two kinds of sentences, the simple

and the compound, distinguished by their form. We

have learned to analyze these sentences, separating

them into their main parts. We have learned to rec¬

ognize and describe the kinds of words, or parts of

speech that compose sentences.

There are some properties of sentences and parts of

speech yet to be learned.

There are four kinds of sentences, distinguished not

only by their form, but by their meaning. They ex¬

press different meanings, even when they consist of

nearly the same words. If I say,

George rides fast,

I use a sentence that declares a fact. It is a declara¬

tive sentence. If I want to know whether or not George rides fast,

I ask the question,

Does George ride fast ?

This is an interrogative sentence.

(45)

46 MODIFICATION OF SPEECH AND ITS PARTS.

Should I desire to command him or entreat him to ride fast, I say,

George, ride fast, or. Do ride fast, George.

This is an imperative sentence. Seeing George riding fast, I exclaim,

Hoiv fast George rides !

This is an exclamatory sentence. 91. A declarative sentence is one that declares a

fact. 92. An interrogative sentence is one that asks a

question. 93. An imperative sentence is one that commands

or entreats. 94. An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses

sudden feeling. A declarative sentence may be changed into the

interrogative form by transposing its subject and its verb; as.

You have the apples. Have you the apples f

An interrogative sentence is often introduced by using an interrogative word like what, who, which. An exclamatory sentence may be formed by prefixing to the declarative sentence the words oh, how, so, etc.; as,

Oh, you have the apples l

Exercise.

95. Name the kind of sentence to which each of the examples belongs, and from each form the three remaining kinds.

KINDS OF SENTENCES. 47

1. Birds sing in the morning.

This is a declarative sentence, because it declares a fact. The other forms are :

Do birds sing in the morning ?—interrogative.

Sing, birds, in the morning,—imperative.

How the birds sing in the morning !—exclamatory.

2. Does Mary play the piano well ? 3. John, come quickly. 4. How sharp the cat’s claws arel 5. Jip doesn’t bite. 6. Oh, time flies swiftly! 7. Where are the flowers ? 8. See how they run ! 9. There’s no place like home.

96. The following are the parts of speech already

described: The noun, the pronoun, the verb, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction,

and the interjection. Certain changes, or modifica¬

tions, belonging to the noun, the pronoun, the verb,

the adjective, and the adverb, are called properties of

the parts of speech. 97. Correct speaking is acquired by practice and

habit. Correct sentences may be used by imitating

those who speak correctly ; but to correct errors in

speech we must know the properties of the parts of

speech.

Men is mortal. He are mortal.

These are incorrect sentences, though they contain

noun or pronoun, and verb. Why they are wrong, and

how to make them right, are things to be learned by

the study of grammar.


The first step in parsing has been defined as telling what part of speech a word is, and giving the reason

why. 98. The second step in parsing is to explain the

properties of a ivord.

QUESTIONS.

What have we learned about sentences? How are the sen¬ tences distinguished? What are the four kinds of sentences described in this lesson ? Give an example of each. How are these sentences distinguished, by form or by meaning? What is a declarative sentence? An interrogative sentence? An im¬ perative sentence? An exclamatory sentence? Give an example of each.

What is meant by the properties of the parts of speech? How is correct speaking acquired? How are we able to correct errors in speech? What is the second step in parsing?

XII. KINDS OF NOUNS.

99. A noun has been defined as the name of any¬ thing. Usually, a noun is the name common to all the individuals of a class of things that are alike. This name belongs to each individual of the class, and to the whole class ; as, hoy, dog, city, river, town. Such a name is called a common noun.

In some classes the individuals have their own par¬

ticular names that do not apply to the other members of the class; as, among cities, JVeio York, Philadel¬ phia, Chicago ; among boys, George, James, Richard. Such a name is called a proper noun.

There are other nouns which are the names of col¬ lections of persons, or things, considered as one body ;

KINDS OF NOUNS. 49

as, family, class, flock. Such a name is called a col¬ lective noun.

100. A common noun is a general name of all the

individuals of a class ; as, boy, man, river.

101. A proper noun is a name belonging to a par¬

ticular individual of a class ; as, George, New York,

the Ohio.

102. A collective noun is the name of a number of

things considered as one body ; as, family, class, flock.

Exercise.

103. Distinguish the kind of sentence, and analyze it. Parse the words, describing the nouns so far as

learned. Compound words, like George Washington,

are parsed as one name.

1. George \ ivent over the river.

This is a simple sentence, why ? Declarative, because it declares a fact. George is the subject, and

went is the predicate. Went over the river is the modified predicate. George is a noun, because it is a

name ; proper, because it is the name of an individual.

Went is a verb, because it declares action. Over is a

preposition, because it shows the relation between the

ideas expressed by ivent and river. The is an adjec¬ tive, expressing a limitation of the idea denoted by

river. River is a noun, why ? A common noun,

because it is a general name.

2. The panting herds repose at noon.

3. The bear is called Bruin, and it feeds upon nuts, berries,

and honey.

4. Ohio contains rivers, forests, and fields.

5. George Washington was president of the United States.

6. Francis Bacon was a learned man.

7. Virtue secures happiness.

P, El. Gr.—4


QUESTIONS.

Which kind of nouns is most used, that which is the name of

classes of things, or that which is the name of individuals ?

What is this kind of noun called ?

Explain the diiference between a common and a proper noun.

Name and explain one other kind of noun. What is the defi¬

nition of noun ? Of common noun ? Of proper noun ? Of

collective noun ? Write sentences on the subjects, the discoverer of America, and ship, so as to include each of the three kinds of

nouns.

XIII. KINDS OF PRONOUNS.

104. The definition of pronoun is given in § 37.

The pronoun is not the name of anything, but refers

to a name already used, or supposed to be used, and

stands for that name ; as,

Carlo is a good dog, because he guards the house.

Here the pronoun he stands for the noun Carlo, which goes before, and is referred to by the pronoun.

When Mr. Smith meets George, he does not say,

Mr. Smith hopes George is well, but,

I hope you are well.

Speaking of George’s brother, he does not say,

Hoiv is your brother ? Is your brother well ? but.

How is your brother ? Is he well ?

Here, then, are three pronouns that are used for the

names of persons : J, standing for the person speaking,

Mr. Smith ; you, for the person spoken to; and he, for

the person spoken of, George's brother. Should the

person spoken of be a female, she is the pronoun used ;

for an animal, or a thing, it is the pronoun used.

KINDS OF PRONOUNS. 51 r

105. The person speaking is, for convenience, called the first person.

The person spoken to is called the second person.

The person spoken of is called the third person.

100. These persons are represented by I for the first

person, you for the second person, and lie, she, and it for the third person. They are called personal pro¬ nouns.

A personal pronoun is one which, by its form,

represents either the first, second, or third person : the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of.

107. Here are two sentences :

The man provides for his family. The man is careful.

We may suppose that the man provides for his fam¬ ily because he is careful, but the two sentences do not

clearly express the thought. Now put the pronoun

tvho in the place of the noun man in the second sen¬

tence, and rearrange the words a little. We now have

the two clauses in one sentence :

The man who is careful | provides for his family.

Who relates to man, and we have rearranged the

words so as to bring the pronoun near to the noun it

stands for. In this sentence the pronoun who con¬

nects the clause, the man is careful, with the clause, the man provides for his family. Because this

pronoun thus connects its noun with an explanatory

clause, it is called a relative pronoun. 1©§. The noun for which the relative pronoun

stands is called the antecedent of the pronoun ; as.

The man who was sick is better.

Here man is the antecedent of the pronoun who.


109. A relative pronoun is one which relates to its

antecedent so as to connect sentences, or clauses; as. The man who died left a family. The flowers which

you hr ought are beautiful.

The relative pronouns are who, which, that, and what; and their compounds whoever, whichever, what¬ ever.

What is used as a kind of compound relative, includ¬

ing the antecedent and the relative ; as.

This is what (that which) I ivanted.

Who and its compounds whoever, etc., are used for persons ; as,

The man who came.

Which is used for things other than human beings; as.

The horse which I rode. The tree which fell.

That is used for either who or which ; as.

The man that came. The horse that I rode.

Hetnark : That is sometimes used as an adjective ; as, that man, that house.

•

110. The third kind of pronoun is the interrogative pronoun, so called because it is used in asking a ques¬

tion. The pronouns who, which, and what, when em¬ ployed for asking a question, are called interrogative pronouns.

An interrogative pronoun is one used in ashing a question j as, Who is there ? Which is the man f

KINDS OF PRONOUNS. 53

Exercise.

Ill. Point out the pronouns and their antecedents,

or the nouns they stand for, and describe the pronouns as personal, relative, or interrogative.

1. I will go, but you must stay,

I | will go but

you | must stay

I is a pronoun, why ? Personal, why ? First per¬

son, why ? You is a pronoun, why ? Personal, why ? Second person, why ?

2. The horse which was ordered \ is here.

Which is a pronoun, why ? Relative, because it

relates to the antecedent horse in such a way as to connect the clause. The horse is here, with, The

horse teas ordered.

horse

-The -which I was ordered

is here

3. George walks rapidly, though he is tired.

4. The men who passed by are soldiers.

5. The bird will fly if it is free.

6. I shall have what is needed.

7. Who is the man that passed by?

8. Where are the flowers that you brought ?

9. Which is the boy you speak of ?

The interrogative pronouns who, which, and what,

represent the nouns contained in the answers to the

questions that they are used in asking.


Exercise.

112. Describe the pronouns, pointing out the nouns

they represent.

Who comes here? George comes here.

Which came first? George came first.

What brings you here? Good news brings me here.

QUESTIONS.

Define pronoun. Is the pronoun used for the name of any¬

thing? Give examples of three personal pronouns. What is a

personal pronoun? Give an example of a pronoun that may con¬

nect two sentences, or clauses. What is such a pronoun called?

What is a relative pronoun? Name the relative pronouns and

their compounds. What other kind of pronoun is there, and for

what purpose is it used? Define it. Where is the noun to which

an interrogative pronoun refers to be found?

XIV. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN IN COMPLEX

SENTENCES.

113. We want to express in the clearest, strongest, and most compact form the thought that a man, because he is careful, provides for his family. We may say.

The man provides for his family. He is careful.

Here are two simple sentences. Is the thought ex¬ pressed clearly ?

The man is careful and he provides for his family.

This is a compound sentence, and is not compact.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 55

A careful man provides for his family.

This is a simple sentence, clear and compact, but not the strongest.

The man who is careful provides for his family.

This is the strongest sentence, clearest and most com¬ pact.

In this sentence, the clause who is careful quali¬

fies the subject man like an adjective, but it qualifies

more completely than does the adjective in the pre¬

ceding sentence, describing the particular kind of

man that provides for his family.

man—- —The —who | is careful

provides —for—family

—his

This sentence is a complex sentence. The clause. The man provides for his family, is an independent

clause, because it can stand by itself as a sentence.

Who is careful is a dependent clause, because it de¬

pends upon the main clause to complete its meaning

and by itself does not make sense. It is also called a relative clause, because the relative pronoun who, like a conjunction, connects it with the antecedent man.

Remark : That may be substituted for who.

114. Complex means woven together. The complex sentence weaves together two clauses more closely than

does the compound sentence. A complex, sentence is one that contains an inde¬

pendent clause and one or more dependent clauses ; as,

This is the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house

that Jack built.


The dependent clause takes its place in the sentence

like an adjective, and is explained as a modifier of subject or predicate, as the case may be.

Let us analyze the sentence :

The man who is slothful | shall suffer hunger.

This is a sentence, why ? A declarative sentence, why ? Complex, because it contains an independent clause and a dependent clause. The man shall suffer

hunger is the independent clause, because it makes complete sense when standing alone. Who is sloth¬

ful is the dependent clause, because it does not make complete sense when standing alone. Man is the subject of the independent clause, and the verb shall

suffer is its predicate. The adjective the, and the relative clause who is slothful, are adjective modifiers of the subject man. The man who is slothful is the modified subject. Hunger, the predicate ob¬ ject, modifies the predicate by making its declaration

definite; and the modified predicate is shall suffer

hunger. Who is the subject of the dependent clause ; is is the incomplete predicate, and slothful is the predicate adjective completing the declaration of the verb is.

shall suffer man- —The —who is slothful

—hunger

Exercise.

115. Analyze the sentences, pointing out the inde¬ pendent and the dependent clause ; the subject and the predicate ; and the modifiers of each. Observe the prepositional phrases in Example 8.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 57

1. The man who was sick is better.

2. The girls who laughed have gone.

3. The boy has caught the bird that escaped.

4. The bird that sang so sweetly has flown.

5. Children that study must play.

6. George, who called, has left his cane.

7. He who peeps through a hole may see what will vex him.

8. Many animals, that catch other animals, pause for a mo¬

ment before springing upon their prey.

9. The hat which you bought is lost.

10. He who loves not others lives unblest.

Exercise.

116. Change the complex sentences into simple sen¬ tences, by substituting adjectives for the dependent

clauses. „

Change the simple sentences into complex sentences

by the reverse process.

1. The man who is merciful, is merciful to his beast = The

merciful man is merciful to his beast.

2. The wounded bird could not fly.

3. John, who is lame, has a crutch.

4. Feathered animals are birds.

5. The slothful man shall suffer hunger.

6. I hate thoughts that are mean.

QUESTIONS.

What kind of sentence does the relative pronoun enable us to

form ? Give an example of this kind of sentence, and explain it

in your own language. What is an independent clause ? A de¬

pendent clause ? What part of speech is the dependent clause

like? What place does the dependent clause take in the sen¬

tence? Which of the two is the more compact and stronger, the

compound sentence or the complex sentence ? Put the sentence,

The careful man provides for his family, into both the compound

and the complex forms. Define the complex sentence.


REVIEW.

What are the four forms of sentences classified according to

their meaning ? Define, and give an example of each. What

is meant by the properties of the parts of speech ? How many

and what are the parts of speech ? What are the first and

second steps in parsing ? How many kinds of nouns have you

learned ? Describe and define each, giving examples.

What are personal pronouns used for ? What person rep¬

resents the person speaking ? The person spoken to ? The

person spoken of? What personal pronoun is used for a fe¬

male? For an animal or thing ? Define personal pronoun.

What is the antecedent of a relative pronoun? What is that

pronoun called which connects sentences or clauses? Give an

example of a sentence in which the pronoun serves as a connect¬

ing word. Define the personal pronoun.

What are the relative pronouns and their compounds? Which

of these is used for persons ? Which, for things other than

human beings? What sort of pronoun is ivhat ? For what

other pronouns is that used ? What is the third kind of pro¬

noun, and the definition of it ?

What kind of sentence may be formed by the use of a rela¬

tive pronoun? What is a complex sentence? An independent

clause ? A dependent clause ? What office does the relative

clause perform in the sentence ? How does the relative pronoun

do the work of a conjunction ? Give an example of a complex

sentence. Change the dependent clause into an adjective, and

make a simple sentence.

XV. GENDER OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

117. The properties of the parts of speech have been referred to as whatever belongs to the different kinds of words. More particularly, properties are those changes in the form or meaning of words which fit them for use with other words in sentences.

It is a property of nouns and pronouns to express

GENDER OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 59

distinctions of sex, either by a change of form, as in

the case of the pronouns just given, or by the use of

a different word. This property is called gender.

Some nouns, by a change of form, represent the

different sexes, male and female. Such nouns are :

count, countess ; lion, lioness; hero, heroine.

Pronouns have fewer changes to denote sex, and

take their gender from their nouns. Distinction of sex in nouns is often expressed by different words ; as.

woman ;

daughter ;

wife ; aunt.

man,

son,

husband,

uncle.

Nouns that represent the male sex are said to be of

the masculine gender. Nouns that represent the female

sex are of the feminine gender. Those that have no distinction of sex—as, tree, house, brick— are of the neuter gender. Nouns which are common to both sexes

are of the common gender; as, 'parent, child, bird. The (fender of nouns and pronouns denotes a

distinction of sex. 118. Nouns have four genders—masculine, femi¬

nine, neuter, and common. There are three ways of distinguishing the masculine

and feminine genders; viz..

By different words; as, boy, girl; By different terminations; as, actor, actress ; and. By different words joined faith the nouns; as, man¬

servant, maid-servant: landlord, landlady.

60 MODIFICATION" OF SPEECH AND ITS PARTS.

Exercise.

119. Name the gender of each of the following

nouns: girl boy uncle aunt

man woman niece nephew

king queen master mistress

lass lad lord lady

daughter son madam sir

father mother hero heroine

husband wife songster songstress

heir heiress emperor empress

actor actress executor executrix

duke duchess princess prince

hero heroine widower widow

Exercise.

120. Name and explain the gender of each noun.

Father is masculine gender, because it is the name

of a male. Parent is common gender, because it is

common to both male and female.

mother boys pear gold

brother girls trees grass

sister chair kings sky

daughter queen children actress

cousin aunts wife man-servant

Exercise.

121. Fill the blanks with nouns or pronouns of

appropriate gender, and parse them.

1. A mother’s brother is an-, and -sister is an-.

2. What shall I do with my canary ? -is sick.

3. We trust George ; -speaks the truth.

4. -are commanded to obey their-.

5. The-gives rich milk.

6. The-has-claws in sheaths ; but she puts them out

whenever the-barks at-.

NUMBER IN NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 61

Exercise.

122. Write two sentences, containing nouns and pronouns, on each of the following subjects. Parse the nouns and pronouns.

1. a girl picking flowers

2. a boy flying a kite

3. a canary bird

4. hard and easy lessons

QUESTIONS.

What is the meaning of property, when applied to words ?

What is one property of nouns and pronouns ? Explain, in your

own way, how nouns and pronouns express distinction of sex.

Which has the more changes to denote gender, the noun or the

pronoun ? Give examples of change of form to denote gender in

nouns and pronouns. What are the genders, how many, and

what do they represent ? Define gender. How may you tell the

gender of such pronouns as you or they ?

XVI. NUMBER IN NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

123. Most nouns and pronouns have a change of form, to express more than one of the things which they represent. The property which enables them to do this is called number.

The word boy denotes one boy ; but if we add the letter s, and write boys, this word denotes more than one boy. The pronoun used for boy is he. The pro¬ noun standing for boys is they. The noun or pronoun denoting one is in the singular number; that denot¬ ing more than one is in the plural number.

124. Number is that property of nouns and pro-


nouns by ivhich they denote one, or more than one.

There are two numbers, si ngular and plural. The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding

s or es to the singular.

Exercise.

125. Write, spell, and pronounce the plural and

the singular of each of the words:

pear, cart, whip, top, boot, ship, cake, book, rat, pie, shoe,

string, head, cow, horse, dog

girls, stairs, plums, looks, boots, books, trees, grapes, stones,

pans, pictures, bottles, boxes, churches, wishes, kisses, heroes

street, balls, doll, kites, skate, slates, plates, houses, candle,

elephants, road, carriages, apes

126. Some nouns ending in / or fe, in the plural

change/ or fe into v and add s ; as loaf, loaves ; wife,

wives. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form

the plural by changing y into i and adding es; as,

fly, flies; slcy, shies. Day, hey, and delay, ending

in y preceded by a vowel, form the plural regularly.

The more important of the irregularly formed plu¬

rals are:

men oxen feet mice teeth women children geese pence brethren

Nouns taken from foreign languages sometimes

form their plurals according to the rules of those lan¬

guages ; as.

index, indices, stratum, strata.

focus, foci, cherub, cherubim.

But in many cases the regular form also is allowed ; as,

indexes cherubs.

NUMBER IN NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 63

Some nouns have the same form in both numbers; as,

deer, sheep, swine.

Some are used only in the singular; as,

flour, gold, sloth, idleness.

Others are used only in the plural; as,

ashes, alms, scissors, tongs, snuffers.

Exercise.

127. Write, spell, and pronounce the plural of the following words:

fox, sex, box, inch, coach, peach, bench, fish, dish, loss, moss,

distress, volcano, potato

calf, half, self, loaf, elf, leaf, beef, wolf, life, wife, knife,

sheaf, shelf, thief, staff

fly, sky, cry, city, lady, duty, army, glory, entry, story, study,

fairy, dairy, berry, cherry, beauty, day, key

Exercise.

128. Write correctly the inaccurate expressions :

two gooses

some mouses

six foot

all the womans

eight cherrys

several knifes

ten flys

the oxes

two pennys

two shelfs

broken tooths

two leafs

Exercise.

129. Form sentences, each containing the plural of

one of the following :

ox, child, goose, story, man, loaf, wife, knife, city.

Also sentences with the singular of :

cherries, skies, boxes, ladies, shelves.


QUESTIONS.

What new property in nouns and pronouns have you learned ?

What change in the word boy makes it denote more than one ?

How many numbers have nouns and pronouns, and what are

they ? How is the plural regularly formed ? In what way do

nouns ending in y form their plural ? Give examples of nouns

that have irregular plurals. What of the plural of pronouns ?

Of nouns from foreign languages ? Of such nouns as deer, sheep f Give examples of nouns used only in the plural number.

XVII. PERSON IN NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

130. We have learned that the person speaking

uses the personal pronoun Ij as,

7, Alexander, am emperor of Russia.

You is used of the person spoken to ; as,

You, Alexander, are emperor of Russia.

He is used for the person spoken of ; as,

He, Alexander, was emperor of Russia.

Three persons are now to be referred to, in parsing

nouns and pronouns; viz., first person, second person, and third person, according as they denote the person

speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing

spoken of.

In the examples last given, observe that the pro¬

noun changes its form for each of the three persons,

I, you, he, while the noun does not change its form.

The noun, however, is regarded as having different

persons, according to its connections with other parts

of the sentence.

It is not the meaning of the noun that indicates its

PERSON IN NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 65

person, but the way it is used with reference to the

person speaking.

In the first example quoted, Alexander is known

to be in the first person, because of its relation to the

pronoun I, which we know is in the first person.

In the second example, the pronoun you indicates

that Alexander is in the second person. So in the

third example, even if he were not used, we should

know that the noun Alexander is in the third person,

because it is spoken of, and not speaking, or spoken

to.

131. Person is that property of nouns and pro¬

nouns by ivhich they denote the person speaking, the

person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of; and

these are called, respectively, the First Person, the Second Person, and the Third Person.

Exercise.

132. Parse the words, giving the gender, number,

and person of the nouns and pronouns.

1. We, the people of the United States, | declare.

We is a pronoun, because it stands for the names

of the persons speaking ; common gender, because it

includes both sexes ; plural number, because it de¬

notes more than one ; first person, because it repre¬

sents those speaking. The is an adjective qualifying

the noun j>eople. People is a noun, why ?—collect¬

ive, because it is the name of a number of persons

considered as one class ; common gender, because it

includes both sexes; plural number, because it means

more than one ; first person, because it denotes the

person speaking. Of is a preposition, because it

shows the relation between people and United States. P. El. Gr.-5


United States is a noun, why ?—proper, because it is

the name of a particular nation ; neuter gender, be¬

cause it does not denote sex ; singular number, because

it denotes one ; third person, because it is spoken of.

Declare is a verb, because it denotes action.

2. They shall fall by the sword.

3. Ostriches lay large eggs.

4. I, John, heard a great voice.

5. People who succeed practice industry.

6. The Manx cat is odd, because it has no tail.

QUESTIONS.

V"hat personal pronouns are used for the person speaking, the

person spoken to, and the person spoken of ? How are those

persons referred to in parsing ? Which of the two, noun or

pronoun, changes its form to denote person ? What determines

the person of the noun in the sentence ? What is person ?

J XVIII. CASE IN NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

THE NOMINATIVE CASE.

I330 I rode the horse. It is my horse. The horse carried me.

In these sentences, I, my9 me, are pronouns, used

instead of a name. The condition of the pronoun in

each of the examples differs from its condition in the

others; hence different forms are used. It would be

incorrect, in the third example, to say.

The horse carried I,

CASE IN NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 67

It would be equally incorrect, in the first, to say,

Me rode the horse.

In the first sentence, I is used to express the subject

about which the verb asserts an action.

In the second sentence, It denotes the subject, and

the person indicated by I is represented as the pos¬

sessor of the horse by the use of the form my.

In the third sentence, horse names the subject, and

the person indicated by I is represented as receiving

the action by the use of the form me as the object. In

these three sentences the first personal pronoun has

three different relations to the thought, and changes

its form accordingly.

These different uses of the pronoun in the sentence

are called cases. The use of the noun or pronoun to

name or nominate the subject of the verb—the doer

of its action—is called the nominative case; I rode.

The use of the noun or pronoun to denote possession

is called the possessive case; my horse. The use of

the noun or pronoun as the object of the verb, receiv¬

ing its action, is called the objective case; he saio

me.

Pronouns have changes of form to denote the three

cases. It is different with nouns. Substitute George

for the pronoun I:

George rode the horse.

It is George’s horse.

The horse carried George.

Here the noun George is used in the three cases, yet

the form of the noun is unchanged, except in one case,

the possessive.


Nouns and pronouns used to express tlie object of a

verb’s action are in the objective case. They are also

in the objective case when used after a preposition ; as,

He struck me. He is kind to me.

Sometimes a noun or a pronoun is used without any

close connection with other parts of the sentence ; as,

Oh, Absalom ! would I had died for thee ! He ! What has he done to deserve blame ?

Here Absalom and He are neither the subject of a

verb nor the object of a verb or a preposition, and

are said to be in the nominative independent case.

134. Case is that property of a noun or a pronoun

which denotes its relation to oilier parts of the sentence. 135. The nominative ease is the case of the subject

of the sentence and of the predicate noun. The nominative case is always used with a verb,

expressed or understood, of which it is said to be the

nominative ; as,

John rode. He rode.

Here John and He are nominatives of the verb

rode, used before the verb. Sometimes the nomina¬

tive case is used after the verb, as a predicate noun

or pronoun ; as,

James is a merchant. It is I.

Here James and It are nominatives of the verb;

merchant and I are predicate nominatives after the verb.

Exercise.

Parse the words.

1. The horse I threw John.


The is an adjective, why f Horse is a noun ; com¬

mon, why ?—common gender, because including both

sexes; singular number, denoting one ; third person,

spoken of; nominative case, because it names the sub¬

ject of the verb threw. Threw is a verb, why ? John

is a noun, etc.; proper, why ? masculine gender, why ? singular number, why ? third person, why ? objective

case, because it is the object of the verb.

2. Friends, hear, though you hlame.

Friends (you) | hear

though

you | blame

Friends is a noun, etc.; second person, why ? nom¬

inative independent case, because it names the persons addressed, but is not otherwise related to the thought.

Hear is a verb, etc., its subject you is not expressed.

Though is a conjunction, connecting the two clauses hear and you blame. You is a pronoun ; gender,

number, person, case ? Flame is a verb, etc.

3. Riches take wings and fly away.

4. Thou reasonest well, Plato.

5. Beavers work in the night.

6. Water fertilizes the earth.

7. Fathers, we have met in council.

The first and second steps in parsing have been

learned. Since case shows a relation of nouns and

pronouns to other words in the sentence, and since

other parts of speech, also, have certain relations ;

therefore, 136. The third step in parsing is to explain the

relations of the words of the same sentence.


QUESTIONS.

What property of nouns and pronouns is considered in this

lesson ? Give examples of the uses of the four cases, and explain

each, in your own language. Which of the two, noun or pro¬

noun, changes its form to denote each of the three cases ? Do

nouns have any change of form to denote case ? What is the

definition of case ? What is the nominative case ? What is the

subject of a sentence or of a verb ? What is meant by the nom¬

inative of a verb ? What is the nominative independent case ?

What are the first, second, and third steps in parsing ?

THE POSSESSIVE CASE.

137. The possessive case denotes the possessor or owner ; as,

George's slate.

In nouns, this case is generally formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter s. The pronoun indicates

the possessive case by change of form ; as.

My slate, your slate, his slate.

The s, to indicate the possessive case, is omitted in

the plurals of nouns which end in s ; as,

horses9 mouths, not horses’s mouths.

With very rare exceptions, the s to indicate the pos¬

sessive singular is written and pronounced; as,

Barnes's Readers j the ox's horns.

Exceptions, in which the s is neither written nor pro¬

nounced, are :

Jesus', Moses', conscience'.


138. The possessive case qualifies the noun denoting

the thing possessed by limiting its meaning, like an adjective ; as,

man’s ingratitude (equivalent to human ingratitude).

Here the possessive case man’s limits the noun in¬

gratitude to that which belongs to man.

The possessive case denotes the possessor or owner,

and qualifies the noun that denotes the thing possessed.

Exercise.

139. Complete the form of the possessive case in the first word in each example of the first list ; fill

the blanks with the possessive cases in the second list;

and correct the errors in the third list.

1. Jane dress ; mother photograph ; Moses seat ; Robin Hood barn ; Moses law ; Mother Carey chickens ; eagles wings.

2. - horse ; - dress ; George - hatchet; Mother -melodies ; Mother - cupboard ; - grammar.

3. James’ hat ; ladies’s waiting room ; Mrs. James’es ring ; eagles’s wings ; a mans life ; my mothers two brothers farms.

REVIEW.

What is meant by properties of the parts of speech ? What is that property called, by which the nouns husband and wife, the pronouns he and she, are distinguished ? In what three ways do nouns express distinctions of sex ? Name the several gen¬ ders, and explain each. Define gender.

What is number in nouns and pronouns ? Name four different ways in which nouns change to form the plural. Do pronouns form their plural regularly, or irregularly? Name some nouns that have the same form in both singular and plural. What nouns are used only in the singular ? What, only in the plural ?

What other important property have nouns and pronouns


besides those of gender and number ? What is the form of the

first personal pronoun when used as the subject of a sentence ?

What form does it take to denote the possessor of anything ?

What, when receiving the action of the verb ? What is the use

of the noun in these different relations called ? How many

cases are there ? Which of the two. nouns or pronouns, makes

the more changes to denote case ? Explain and define the

nominative case. In what case is the subject of a sentence and of

a verb? In what case is the object of a verb ? What other part

of speech requires the objective case after it ? Explain the nomi¬

native independent case. Define case.

How is the possessive case of nouns formed ? How does the

pronoun indicate case ? What other form of words may indicate

possession besides the possessive case ? What is the relation of

the possessive case to the noun denoting the thing possessed ?

THE OBJECTIVE CASE.

140. George loves me. John struck him.

Columbus discovered America.

In these sentences, the verbs declare action, and the action is directed to, or received by the objects me, him, and America. Two of these objects are pronouns, whose forms indicate that they are in the objective case. The noun America is also in the objec¬ tive case, though its form is the same as if it were in the nominative case.

Where the verb declares action, the objective case is usually needed to show the object to which the action is directed.

Prepositions, as we have seen, require the objective case after them. We do not say, Come to I, but, Come to me; not, Go to he, but, Go to him.

141. The objective case denotes the object of the

CASE IN NOUN'S AND PRONOUNS. 73

action expressed by a verb or of the relation denoted by a preposition.

Exercise.

142. Point out and parse the nouns in the objective

case after verbs and prepositions.

1. He called Augustus ; me he did not want.

Augustus is a noun, proper ; masculine gender;

singular number ; third person, why ?—objective case,

because it denotes the object of the action expressed by called. Me is a pronoun, gender unknown, be¬

cause the gender of the person speaking is unknown;

singular number ; first person, denoting the person

speaking; objective case, denoting the object of the action expressed by want.

2. Mice are fond of music.

Music is in the objective case, because it is the

object of the preposition of.

<i. Little birds sit on the telegraph poles.

4. Cats love home ; dogs love their masters.

5. The tiger has black stripes around his body, legs, and tail.

6. A rat generally tastes its food with its tongue, before it

eats it.

QUESTIONS.

In the sentence Columbus discovered America, in what case is

America? Which words change their form to denote the objec¬

tive case, nouns or pronouns ? What other part of speech,

besides the verb, requires after it the objective case? Give exam¬

ples showing the use of the objective case after verbs and prep¬

ositions. How can you express possession except by using the

possessive case? Define the objective case.


XIX. THE NOUN AS A MODIFIER.

143. Time is money.

In this sentence, the noun money is in the nomi¬

native case after the verb is. It is called a predicate

noun or predicate nominative, because it completes the

predicate is. Thus it completes the predicate and

also qualifies the subject time by explaining its

meaning.

Longfellow, the poet, loved children. <*

In this sentence, Longfellow is the subject, and

nominative of the verb. The noun poet is also in the

nominative case, and is added to explain which Long¬

fellow is meant. It therefore modifies the subject by

explaining its meaning. An explanatory noun or pro¬

noun used in this way, because it is “set alongside”

of another noun or pronoun, is called an appositive noun or pronoun, and in the sentence is called an ap¬ positive modifier; as,

John, my brother9 lives here. He himself said so. We boys will go.

In the same way, the appositive noun or pronoun is

frequently used as a modifier of the objective case ;

as, Children loved Longfellow, the poet. L saw the man himself.

An appositive noun is always in the same case, and

means the same thing as the subject or object that it

qualifies.

THE NOUN AS A MODIFIER. 75

144. The possessive case of a noun or pronoun is

used, like an adjective, to modify a noun as subject or

object, and is called the possessive modifier; as,

marts cruelty (equivalent to human cruelty).

Here the possessive man’s modifies the noun cruelty

by explaining whose cruelty is meant. In the same

way, the possessive modifier may modify the predicate,

by explaining the object of the verb ; as,

Civilization softens marts cruelty.

Here the possessive man’s modifies the object cru¬

elty by explaining whose cruelty is meant.

The possessive modifier differs both in case and in meaning from the noun or pronoun that it modifies.

The noun which is the immediate object of a verb

may be called an object modifier of the sentence ; as, t

James loves his dog, Carlo.

Here dog is the object modifier, and Carlo is the appositive modifier of the object.

Exercise.

145. Analyze the sentences, pointing out and ex¬

plaining the noun modifiers.

1. David the youth | hilled Goliath the giant.

This is a sentence, simple, declarative. David is

the subject; liilled is the predicate. The youth is a

modifier of the subject. The is an adjective modifier,

pointing out a particular youth. Youth is a noun or

appositive modifier, explaining which David is meant.

David the youth is the modified subject. Goliath is


the object modifier of the predicate, denoting the per¬

son receiving the action. The is an adjective modifier,

pointing out a particular giant. Giant is an appositive modifier, indicating which Goliath is meant. The

modified predicate is killed Goliath the giant. David

youth—

the—

killed —Goliath

—giant

—the

2. The bird’s nest \ contains robin’s eggs.

The and bird’s are modifiers of the subject. Bird’s

is a possessive modifier, limiting the subject nest by indicating the owner of the nest. The bird’s nest is

the modified subject. Eggs is the object modifier of the predicate, denoting the object receiving the action. Robin’s is the possessive modifier, showing the owner

of the eggs. The modified predicate is contains

robin’s eggs.

3. We boys must play.

4. The cat’s claws scratched Jane’s hand.

QUESTIONS.

In the sentence, Time is money, what is the relation of the noun

money to the predicate and to the subject ? In what case is it ?

In the sentence, Longfellow, the poet, etc., what is the case of the

noun poet, and how is it related to the subject ? What is an

explanatory noun of this sort called ? What is it called as a

modifier in the sentence ? In what case is the noun in apposi¬

tion ? Explain the appositive noun in the predicate. What is a

possessive modifier ? Is the possessive in the same case, or in

a different case ? What is the noun which is the immediate

object of the predicate verb called, as a modifier ?

DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 77

XX. DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

146. As we have learned, nouns and pronouns have

some changes to denote number and case. These

changes are called the declension of nouns and pro¬

nouns. To recite the changes in the regular order of number and case is to decline a noun or pronoun.

Exercise.

147. -Decline the noun boy, and the pronoun J.

Case. Singular Number. Plural Number.

Nom....

Poss.. ..

Obj.

boy I

boy’s my or mine

boy me

boys we

boys’ our or ours

boys us

v > Decline the noun man and the pronoun you.


Nom....

Poss ....

Obj.

man you

man’s your or yours

man you

men you

men’s your or yours

men you

Decline the noun horse and the pronouns he and she.


Nom....

Poss ....

Obj.

horse he she

horse’s his her or hers

horse him her

horses they

horses’ their or theirs

horses them

j


Decline the noun knife and the pronoun it.


Nom.... knife it knives they

Poss .... knife’s its knives’ their or theirs

Obj. knife it kniVes them

Decline the relative pronouns who and tvhich.

Case. Singular and Plural.

Nom.... who which

Poss .... whose whose

Obj. whom which

148. The possessive case of the pronouns mine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, is sometimes used without

the nouns which they qualify; as,

* my book and yours, your book and mine.

/ 149. When the word self, or its plural selves, is

added to a personal pronoun, it is called a compound

personal pronoun; as,

myself, ourselves; yourself, yourselves j

himself, herself itself, themselves.

Note.—Since a pronoun stands for a noun, it must

agree with its antecedent, or the noun it stands for, in

gender, number, and person.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 79

Exercise.

150. Parse and decline the nouns and pronouns.

1. The Arab loves his horse.

Arab is a noun, proper ; masculine gender ; third

person, singular number ; nominative case, subject

of the verb loves. Nominative, Arab; possessive, Arab’s; objective, Arab,

His is a personal pronoun; masculine gender ;

third person, singular number, to agree with Arab;

possessive case, limiting horse, by showing whose

horse is meant. Nominative, he; poss., his; obj.,

him.

Horse is a noun, common ; common gender ; third

person, singular number ; objective case, being the

object of the verb loves. Decline horse,

2. Washington loved his country, and spent the flower of his

life in its defense.

3. The man who wants to see me is the very man whom I want

to see.

4. The flowers bloom for you and me.

5. Some men forget their duty.

6. We must love our country.

7. His hopes are below, hers are above.

8. They fought for their homes.

9. They submit since they cannot conquer.

10. He came and went like a pleasant thought.

11. I see them on their way.

12. I myself told you so.

13. She is your mother and mine.

14. He himself went out.

15. That garden of theirs is a very fine one.

16. This sled is not yours.

17. Whoever run£ may read.

18. Tell what you know.

19. That is the man whose house was burned.


REVIEW.

In the sentence, George loves me, how is the pronoun me related to the verb loves ? In what case is the pronoun ?

Give a similar instance of the use of a noun. Which word, the

noun or the pronoun, changes its form to denote the objective

case ? In what case is the object of a verb which declares action ?

What other part of speech takes the objective case after it ?

Define the objective case.

In the sentence, Time is money, in what case is the noun

money ? What is the noun so used called ? What part of the

sentence does it modify ? What part of the sentence does it

qualify, by explaining its meaning ? In the expression, Long¬ fellow, the poet, explain the relation of the noun poet. What is

the noun so used called ? Does this noun mean the same thing

as the subject, or a different thing ? Explain, in your own

language, the possessive case as a modifier in the sentence.

What word, or part of the sentence, may it qualify by limiting its

meaning ? Does the possessive case mean the same thing as the

word it limits, or a different thing ? What other case and part

of speech may sometimes be used instead of the possessive case, to

denote possession ? Explain the possessive modifier in relation

to both subject and predicate. What other part of speech, used

with the noun limited, may mean the same thing as the possess¬

ive ? What, as a modifier in the sentence, may the noun that is

the immediate object of a verb be called ?

What is meant by the declension of nouns ? Decline the pro¬

noun he, and the noun knife. In what number and case is him ? their f them ? whom ? myself ? it ? Which is correct, and

why, He spoke for you and me, or, He spoke for you and I? Explain the use of the possessives mine and yours without the

nouns which they qualify. In § 150, point out and explain a

simple, a compound, and a complex sentence.

XXI. PROPERTIES OF THE ADJECTIVE.

151. The adjective lias been defined.

Adjectives qualify nouns and pronouns. There are

PROPERTIES OF THE ADJECTIVE. 81

two classes of adjectives, one of which has been learned. It expresses quality ; as,

sweet, sour, long, short.

This kind of adjective is called a descriptive adjective,

because it describes, or expresses a quality of the noun; as,

sweet apple, long string.

152. Another kind of adjective does not describe quality, but limits, or defines by pointing out or num¬

bering the noun. This and that, with their plurals these and those ; one, two, any, every ; who, which,

and what, are some of these defining adjectives,

which are called definitive adjectives.

153. An or a, and the are other adjectives used to qualify nouns without describing their qualities. The

is called the definite article, because it points out some

definite or particular object denoted by the noun ; as,

the man, the house.

An or a is called the indefinite article, because it does

not point out a particular object, but points to any

one of a class ; as,

an apple, a house.

154. An adjective may be used, like a noun, as the subject of a verb, and in that case is parsed as a noun ;

as, The ivicked perish.

Here wicked is used as a noun, and is subject and

nominative of the verb perish. Generally, adjectives do not change their form to

denote number and case, but are used in the same P. El. Gr.-6


form for all numbers and all cases of the nouns or

pronouns to which they are added ; as,

good boy, good boys.

This and that change their form to agree with a plural

noun ; as, this boy, these boys.

155. Some adjectives change their form to denote difference in the degree of the quality which they ex¬ press. If I say that one apple is sweet, I distinguish it from another apple of a different quality ; as,

a sour apple.

In comparing sweet apples, I find one that is sweeter than the one first tasted, and still another that is sweetest of all.

We have, then, three degrees of comparison among things of the same quality.

The first degree expresses the simple quality, and is called the positive degree ; as,

a stveet apple, a studious boy.

The second expresses a higher or lower degree of

the quality, and is called the comparative degree; as,

a sweeter apple, a less studious boy.

The third expresses the highest or lowest degree of

the quality, and is called the superlative degree; as,

the sweetest apple, the least studious boy.

156, Comparison of adjectives is that change of

form which shoivs different degrees of the quality com¬

pared.


Adjectives of one syllable are regularly compared by

adding to the positive form r or er for the comparative

degree, and st or est for the superlative degree ; as,

positive, sweet; comparative, sweeter; superlative,

sweetest.

Adjectives of more than one syllable generally place the adverb more before the positive to form the com¬

parative degree, and the adverb most before the posi¬

tive degree to form the superlative degree ; as,

positive, lovely ; comparative, more lovely ; superlative,

most lovely.

Some adjectives are compared in both ways ; as,

humble, more humble, most humble; or, humbler,

humblest.

A few adjectives are irregular in their comparison :

Pos. Comp. Superl. Pos. Comp. Superl.

good better best late later latest or last

bad worse worst near nearer nearest or next

ill worse worst little less least

much more most old

( older oldest

manv more most 1 elder eldest

Exercise.

157. Parse all the words, describing all their prop¬

erties. 1. A wise and most worthy man.

A is an adjective, why ? definitive, because it points

out the noun man, which it qualifies. Wise is an

adjective; descriptive, because it expresses a quality;

positive degree, because it denotes simple quality ;

compared regularly—wise, wiser, wisest; qualifies the


noun man. And is a conjunction, why ? Most is

an adverb qualifying the adjective worthy. ' Most

worthy is an adjective, descriptive; superlative de¬

gree, because it expresses the highest degree of the quality ; qualifies the noun man.

2. fine houses

3. fine gardens

4. finest lands

5. a most beautiful day

6. a most benevolent man

7. better men

8. more lovely forms

9. ripe pears and riper peaches

Exercise.

158. Fill the blanks in the first list with adjectives in the comparative degree ; those in the second list with adjectives in the superlative degree.

1. - men 2. - children 3. - pears 4. -

peaches 5. - houses 6. - gardens 7. - fields 8.

- trees

1. the-men 2. the- boys 3. the - pears 4. the

-nuts 5. the - birds 6. the - skies 7. the -

fields

Exercise.

159. Point out any compound subjects or predi¬ cates ; the compound sentences, and the conjunctions that connect the parts. Parse the words, observing that the verb is omitted after the conjunction in Examples 3 and 5.

1. We have fair weather, and a fairer sJcy.

We is a pronoun, personal; first person ; gender unknown, why ? plural number ; nominative case, naming the subject of the verb have. Have is a verb, etc. Fair is an adjective, descriptive ; positive de¬ gree, why ? compared—fair, fairer, fairest ; qualifies the noun weather. Weather is a noun, common;


neuter ; third person, singular; objective case, object of the verb have. And is a conjunction, connecting

what ? A is a definitive adjective, pointing out what ?

Fairer is an adjective, etc. Sky is a noun, etc.

2. The raisins of Malaga are good, but the raisins of Smyrna

are better.

3. Taller trees grow in California than in some other states.

4. Charles is the least amiable of all the brothers.

5. Sweet apples are more pleasant than sour apples.

6. He was a good orator, a better poet, but most famous as a

philosopher.

Exercise.

160. Form short sentences each containing one of

the following adjectives in one of the three degrees; as,

1. wise—Solomon ivas wise.

2. good 3. rich 4. great 5. tall 6. poor 7. sour 8. sweet

9. eloquent 10. beautiful 11. bad 12. superl. of bad 13. superl. o/old 14. superl. of much 15. comp, of much 16. superl. of

temperate

QUESTIONS.

Define the adjective. What adjectives change their form to

indicate number ? For what other part of speech may an adjec¬

tive be used ? For what purpose do some adjectives change

their form ? Explain, in your own language, degrees of com¬

parison. What is the positive degree ? The comparative ?

The superlative ? Define comparison and adjectives. In wThat

way are adjectives regularly compared ? How are adjectives of

more than one syllable compared ? Compare nine adjectives that

are irregular in their comparison. In § 159 point out a sen¬

tence with a compound predicate ; any compound sentences and

the conjunctions that join their clauses, or other cases where con¬

junctions are omitted.


XXII. THE VERB.

CLASSES OF VERBS,

161. We have learned that a verb is a word which

declares action or being ; as,

Henry eats, George sits, I am here.

A sentence is a collection of words that expresses a thought, and a thought is something to be told about

an idea or subject; therefore, no sentence can be formed without a telling word, or verb. The verb is

one of the principal words in the sentence. Verbs are separated into two classes, according to

their meaning and use. One kind generally requires the addition of another word—a noun or pronoun—to render its declaration definite, denoting the object of the action asserted.

Birds catch. This is a declaration, but not a definite declaration.

What do birds catch ?

Birds catch flies. This is definite, because the noun added defines

what it is that birds catch, by furnishing an object to

which the action expressed by the verb may pass over. Because its action needs an object to pass over to, this kind of a verb is called a transitive verb.

Another kind of verb declares action in such a way that it does not need the addition of an object word ; as.

Birds fly.

Here the action is confined to the subject birds. Such a verb is called an intransitive verb.

THE VERB. 87

Verbs that declare action that ends in the subject, and verbs that declare being, and not action, are in¬ cluded in this class.

162. A transitive verb is one that requires an object

to render its declaration dejinite.

163. An intransitive verb is one whose declaration may he dejinite without an object.

Some verbs are used both as transitive and intransi¬ tive verbs.

The verb to be, and its various forms, though intran¬

sitive, and not requiring an object, usually needs a

noun in the nominative case, or a predicate adjective, to complete its declaration.

Exercise.


1. William struclc Abel.

William is a noun, etc., why ? nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb struck. Struck

is a verb, because it declares action; transitive, because

it requires an object to define its declaration. Abel is

a noun, etc.; objective case, because it is the object of the verb struck, denoting the object of the action.

2. George is quite ivell.

George is a noun, etc. Is is a verb, because it

declares being; intransitive, because it requires no object. Quite is an adverb, because it qualifies an

adjective—well. Well is an adjective, because it

qualifies a noun ; descriptive, why ? positive degree

—(compare it); qualifies the noun George, and is a

predicate adjective, completing the declaration of the

verb is.


3. The falcon has the eyes of the dove. 4. The sparrows chirped merrily.

5. The sun sets behind a cloud.

6. The sea contains animals.

7. Hard words bruise the heart of a child.

QUESTIONS.

What is a verb ? What is a sentence ? What is the verb’s

relation to the sentence ? Explain the sentence, Birds catch, and

state what it needs to make it complete. What is a transitive verb ?

Explain the sentence, Birds fly, and why it is definite and com¬

plete without an object added to the verb. What is an intransi¬

tive verb ? Does the verb to be require an object ? What does

it require to complete its declaration ?

PERSON AND NUMBER OF THE VERB.

165. Verbs have some changes of form correspond¬ ing with the number and person of their subjects. Speaking of myself, I say, I love; speaking of you, I say, You love; of George, I say, He loves. These verbs change to agree with the subject in person. Love is in the first person ; love is in the second per¬ son ; and loves is in the third person.

The verb also has some changes to suit the number of its subject.

The expression, He loves, has the verb in the sin¬ gular number, to agree with the subject he. They love has the verb love in the plural, to agree with the plural subject they. But the verb does not change its form to agree with the first person singular and plural of the subject. Thus we say, 1 love, and, We love.

166. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person ; as, I love, He loves, They love.

THE VERB. 89

Exercise.

167. Parse the verbs in §164 and add to the

description the properties of the verb just learned.

Thus : Struck is a verb, because it declares action ;

transitive, because it requires an object; third person, singular number, to agree with its subject William.

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

QUESTIONS.

What properties of the verb are treated in this lesson ? Does

or does not the verb change its form to express these properties ?

Give examples of the use of the three pronouns. What is the

rule for the verb in respect to number and person ?

TENSE (TIME) OF THE VERB.

168. There are three principal divisions of time— the present, the past, and the future. Every act or event

is spoken of either as taking place, or as completed, in

one or another of these periods. Now, or at present,

I study. Yesterday, or at some time in the past, 1

studied. To-morrow, or at some future time, I shall

study. Here are three forms of the verb, each of

which denotes a division of time in which the action is declared as happening.

169. The forms of the verb used to denote the time of the action or being, are called tenses; as, I study,

He slept.

I love ; He writes.

170. These forms of the verb denote the action as

going on at the present time, and the tense thus ex¬

pressed is called the present tense.


The present tense denotes the action or being ex¬ pressed by the verb as taking place at the present time.

I have studied ; I have written.

171. These forms of the verb denote the action as completed at the present time—at the moment the studying or writing is done. It may have been done long ago, but the words simply indicate that the action is now completed. The tense thus expressed is called the present-perfect tense.

The present-perfect tense denotes the action or being as completed at the present time.

He studied—yesterday ;

He was studying—when the bell rang.

172. These forms of the verb denote the action as going on in past time ; and the tense thus expressed is called the past tense.

The past tense denotes action or being as taking place in past time.

I had studied—before I ivas called on ;

I had written—before I saw you.

173. These forms express the action as completed in past time previous to some other past time. This form of the verb is called the past-perfect tense.

The past-perfect tense denotes the action or being as completed before some past time.

I shall study, He will write.

174. These speak of the future without reference to any particular portion of the future. This form of the verb is called the future tense.

THE VERB. 91

The future tense denotes action or being as taking

place in future time.

I shall have studied my lesson when he arrives.

175. This denotes action at some future time before

some other future time, and is called the future-perfect tense.

The future-perfect tense denotes action or being as

perfect or completed, at a future time before some other

future time.

176. Thus there are three divisions of time, and an

action may be considered as going on, or as completed,

in each.

This gives us six tenses.

Time.

Present. -{

Tense. Signifying. Present.Action or being as taking place in

present time.

Present-Perfect.. Action or being as completed before

the present time.

Past.

'Past.Action or being as taking place in

past time.

Past-Perfect.Action or being as completed before

some past time.

Future. <

'Future.Action or being as taking place in

future time.

Future-Perfect.. Action or being as completed before

some future time.

177. The verb has very few changes of form to ex¬

press person and number. These can only be known

in many cases by knowing the person and number of

the subject. 178. The changes of the verb to express person,

number, and tense, may be arranged in the following

order :

92 MODIFICATION OF SPEEOII AND ITS PARTS,

THE VERB “ TO LOVE."

lstper.

2d per.

3 d per.

1st per.

2d per.

3 d per.

Is/ per.

2d per.

3 d per.

Is/ per.

2d per.

3d per.

Is/ per.

2d per.

3d per.

Present Tense.

Singular.

I love

You 1 love

He 2 loves

Plural.

We love

You love

They love

Present-Perfect Tense.

I have loved

You have loved

He has loved

I loved

You loved

He loved

Past Tense.

We have loved

You have loved

They have loved

We loved

You loved

They loved

Past-Perfect Tense.

I had loved We had loved

You had loved You had loved

He had loved They had loved

Future Tense.

I shall3 love

You shall love

He shall love

We shall love

You shall love

They shall love

Future-Perfect Tense.

Is/ per. I shall have loved We shall have loved

2d per. You shall have loved You shall have loved

3d per. He shall have loved They shall have loved

Exercise.

179. Give the person, number, and tense of the verbs :

I study. I studied. I shall study. I loved. I shall love. I

1 Thou, in the second person, singular, and the verb forms suited to it—as lovest, didst, xvert, etc.—are no longer used in ordinary English speech.

2 Substitute it and she. 3 Substitute will. See “Use of the Verb,” p. jgO.

THE VERB. 93

went. I shall go. I am in Texas. I was in Missouri. I shall

be in Illinois.

I am studying. You have studied. We had studied. lie had

studied. She had loved. They learn. They learned. It has

learned. You had learned. She writes. He wrote. You had

written.

I have played. I had played. I shall play. He shall have

played. They will have played. You will study.

Exercise.

180. Parse the words, describing them so far as learned.

1. He | had departed before I returned.

He is a pronoun, personal; third person, singular number ; nominative case, subject of the verb had

departed. Had departed is a verb; intransitive,

because it requires no object ; past-perfect tense, because it denotes an action completed at some past

time ; third person, singular number, to agree with

the subject he. Before is an adverb, because it qual¬ ifies a verb ; here qualifying two verbs, showing the

time at which two actions took jdace ; also a conjunc¬ tion, connecting the two clauses, he had departed and

I returned. Beturned is a verb ; intransitive, why ?

—past tense, denoting action in past time ; first person, singular number, to agree with the pronoun I9 which

stands for the name of the person speaking.

He had departed

before I | returned

2. The covetous man lives for money.

3. He lived on the most simple food.

4. Industry generally brings success.


5. Robinson Crusoe had for companions a dog, a cat, and a

parrot.

C. Virtue will secure respect and happiness.

7. The enemy had fled before the troops arrived.

8. They will have arrived before he will return.

9. 1 shall have arrived before I shall see him.

QUESTIONS.

What are the three principal divisions of time ? How are acts

or events related to these divisions of time ? What property of

verbs expresses differences of time ? What are tenses ? How

many present tenses are there ? How many past tenses ? How

many future tenses ? What are the present tenses ? What, and

for what, are the past tenses ? The future tenses ? Give exam¬

ples of each of the tenses. Recite the tenses as arranged. In the

foregoing exercise point out the sentences that contain compound

predicates. Point out the connectives of these predicates, whether

conjunctions or commas.

Exercise.

181. Form and write sentences on persons, animals, floivers, games, etc., each sentence containing a verb in such tense, person, and number as may be required.

1. Present tense, first person, singular ; as,

I love a fragrant tea-rose.

2. Past-perfect tense, third person, singular ; as,

George had gone when I called him.

8. future tense, first person, plural

4. present tense, second person, plural

5. past tense, third person, singular

6. present-perfect tense, third person, plural

7. past tense, third person, plural

8. future tense, first person, singular

9. future-perfect tense, third person, plural

10. present-perfect tense, second person, plural

THE VERB. 95

REVIEW.

What is the use of the adjective ? Into how many classes may

adjectives be divided ? What is a descriptive adjective ? A

definitive adjective ? For what other part of speech may an

adjective be used, and how is it then parsed ? Give examples of

such use, and of the two classes of adjectives. For what pur¬

pose is the change of form in adjectives ? How are adjectives

regularly compared ? What other ways of comparing them ?

What is a verb ? How is a verb important to the sentence ?

What classes of verbs are there, and what is their difference ?

What is tense ? What divisions of time give rise to the changes

called tenses ? Can you name a verb without a tense ? Name

the tenses in regular order, giving the first person singular of

each. Define, or explain, each of the tenses. In what respects

must the verb conform to its subject ?

MODE OF THE VERB.

182. We have learned that the tense of the verb is that form by which the time of the action or being is expressed. We shall now learn that the verb changes

its form to express the manner or mode in which the

action or being is declared. 183. In one form of the verb the action or being is

declared, or indicated, in a simple and direct manner,

as a fact ; and the manner or mode of expression

is called the indicative mode; as,

I study. I shall remain.

The indicative mode declares the action or being

expressed by the verb simply as a fact; as, I love, 1

shall remain. 184. Action or being is sometimes declared or indi-

96 MODIFICATION OF SPEECH AND ITS PAETS.

cated not simply as a fact, but is asserted as being possible or necessary only ; as,

I can study. May I remain ?

This mode of stating power or possibility is called the potential mode.

The potential mode declares the power, possibility, liberty, duty, or necessity of the action or being ex¬ pressed by the verb ; as, I can study, I must study,

May I study f 185. Sometimes a doubtful manner of expressing

the action or being is desired, as expressed in the clause if he study, in the following sentence :

He will learn, if he study.

Here the verb study is joined, or subjoined, as a condition on which the action expressed by the verb learn depends. It is doubtful whether he will or will not study. This mode of expressing action or being is called the subjunctive mode.

The subjunctive mode declares the action or being of the verb as doubtful or conditional; as, If he study, Except ye repent, Lest he be sick.

186. The verb has another way of expression, and

that is by a command, or entreaty ; as.

Go thou. Come to me.

This is called the imperative mode. The imperative mode declares the action or being

expressed by the verb as a command or entreaty; as. Come to me, Remain here.

187. The verb is sometimes used without a subject,

THE VERB. 97

and without any limit of person and number, as, to

study, in the sentence,

He likes to study.

The verb is then in the infinitive mode. The word

to is used with this mode, and is called the sign of the

infinitive; as, to live, to learn, to die. The infinitive

generally follows a verb, a noun, or an adjective ; as,

I wish to go. A child to love. I am glad to go.

In naming different verbs, the infinitive, with its

sign to, is used ; as, instead of saying, “the verbs be,

do, love,” etc., we should say, “the verbs to be, to do, to love,” etc.

The infinitive mode expresses the action or being of

the verb in a general manner, without declaring any¬

thing of a subject; as, to learn, to die. 188. Still another mode of the verb partakes of the

nature both of the verb and of the adjective.

The flying birds disappeared.

In this sentence flying partakes of, or participates

in, both the action of the verb and the quality of the

adjective. Hence this mode of the verb’s expression

is called the participle. It is parsed like an adjective,

and in the above example qualifies birds.

The participle is a mode or form of the verb ivhich

partakes both of the nature of an adjective, or noun,

and of the action of a verb.

The participle has three tenses : the present; as, naming; the past; as, riamed; and the perfect; as, hav¬

ing named. 189. Mode is that form of the verb ivhich indicates

the manner of the action or being. P. El. Gr.—7


Exercise.

190. Tell in what mode each of the verbs is.

1. I shall study.

The verb shall study is in the indicative mode,

because it declares the action simply as a fact.

2. I shall go. 3. I can study. 4. If you call. 5. I could study. C. I must study. 7. He loves to play. 8. He is slow to learn. 9. The birds, flying, disappeared. 10. The house, taking fire, burned down. 11. He would go, if he were able.

QUESTIONS.

What is the difference between the tense and the mode of a

verb ? How many modes are there, including the participle ? What is the definition of mode ? Of the indicative mode ? Of the potential ? The subjunctive ? The infinitive ? The parti¬ ciple ? How many, and what, are the tenses of a participle ? What is the sign of the infinitive ?

THE VERB IN THE SENTENCE.

191. We must not forget that what we learn of

verbs, as of other parts of speech, is meant to help us

in expressing our thoughts by sentences.

192. We have learned four kinds of sentences,

classified according to their meaning, as follows :

(1) A declarative sentence is one that declares a fact

in a broad sense. It may use the indicative mode to

declare a fact as at present taking place—1 go; as past—I went; as future—I shall go. Or it may use

the potential mode to declare a fact as possible—1 may go ; or as necessary—I must go.

THE VERB. 99

(2) The interrogative sentence, like the declarative,

has its subject and predicate, but the arrangement

is often different, the verb being placed before the

subject; as, I may go, is declarative. May I go ? is

interrogative. A general inquiry often uses the inter¬

rogative pronouns who, which, what, as subject, refer¬

ring to an object to be indicated by the answer ; as.

Who is here ? Answer : John.

(3) An imperative sentence commands or entreats,

and makes use of the imperative mode ; as, Go thou, or,

simply. Go; Come to me.

(4) An exclamatory sentence expresses sudden feel¬

ing, often by the potential mode; as, Can it he so!

Must you leave me ! Oh, if I could only he there !

193. The infinitive mode may be used :

(1) as a noun ; as. To lie is wrong, where to lie is

the subject of the sentence, and of the verb is ;

(2) as modifier of the noun ; as, I have a promise to

keep, where to kqep modifies the noun promise ;

(3) as a modifier of the adjective ; as, He is hard to

please, where to please modifies the adjective hard;

(4) as an adverb modifier ; as, He is inclined to

sleep, where to sleep modifies the verb by describing

how he is inclined.

194. The participle is sometimes used as an adjec¬

tive ; as. The growing corn looks green. The participle

is used as an explanatory or appositive modifier of sub¬

ject or predicate ; as, A man, named Jones, called, where

the participle named, modified by Jones, modifies the

subject man, and the modified subject is, A man,


named Jones. In the sentence, I saw a man, named

Jones, the predicate object is modified in a similar

manner.

195. A clause containing many words, including a

verb, may be used as a noun, and may be the subject of a sentence, or the object, modifying the predicate ; as.

That Columbus discovered America is declared by

history. History declares that Columbus discovered America.

In the first sentence, the whole clause. That Column*

bus, etc., is the subject of the sentence, and of the verb is declared; it is therefore used as a noun. In the second sentence, the same clause is the object of the verb declares ; is used as a noun in the objective case, and is a predicate modifier.

196. The complex sentence consists of a main clause, and one or more dependent clauses. This kind of sentence often involves the subjunctive mode.

In the sentence,

I should rejoice, if he were here,

the independent clause is, I should rejoice. If he

ivere here is the dependent clause, with a verb in the subjunctive mode ; it is connected with the main clause by the conjunction if, and is a modifier of the predicate should rejoice.

Note.—The infinitive, the participle, and the noun may be substituted one for another ; as.

To steal is a crime. Stealing is a crime. Theft is a crime.

THE VERB. 101

Exercise.

197. Analyze the sentences, pointing out the modi¬

fiers, the clause used as a noun, the infinitive used as a noun or adverb, and the participle used as a modifier.

1. He | must come to take me riding.

This is a sentence ; declarative, because it declares

a fact ; simple, why ? He is the subject, and must

come is the predicate. The subject is unmodified.

The predicate is modified by the infinitive phrase to

take me riding, used as an adverb modifier. The

modified predicate is, must come to take me riding.

He must come

—to take —me

—riding

2. Who would have believed it ?

3. The man was wounded, if I mistake not.

4. That men are mortal, we all know.

5. The eagle’s foot, which is made to seize, has hooked talons.

C. To err is human.

7. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again.

QUESTIONS.

What are the four kinds of sentences, classified by their mean¬

ing ? Give an example of each. In what different senses does

a declarative sentence declare a fact ? What are some of the

uses of the infinitive ? Of the participle ? What kind of clause

is sometimes used for a noun, and what part may it perform in

the sentence ? What is a complex sentence ? What mode of the

verb is often contained in the dependent clause of the sentence ! Give an example of a participle used as the subject of a sentence,

and substitute an infinitive and a noun for it.


VOICE IN THE VERB.

19S. The first thing to be observed in a sentence is

the subject, which is spoken of. The second thing to be looked for is the predicate, or what is said of the

subject. I desire to call attention to John, because he has

been doing wrong. John is the subject. What has

he done ? John struck James.

On the other hand, James has been injured, and I de¬ sire to confine attention to him. James is now the subject. What injury has he received ?

James was struck by John.

In the two sentences, John and Janies are subjects of the same verb. But the form of the verb is differ¬ ent in the two cases. In the first one, John, the sub¬ ject, performs the action, and the form of the verb is simply struck. This is called the active voice of the verb. In the second case, James, the subject, receives the action, or suffers by it, and the form of the verb is was struck. This form is called the passive voice.

The passive voice is often the more convenient form of speech. In describing the products of Kansas, I may say,

They raise corn there ;

but a better expression is,

Corn is raised there.

Here the verb is used in the passive voice. Transi¬ tive verbs, almost without exception, are used in both voices.

199. The active voice is that form of the verb

THE VERB. 103

which declares the subject as the actor ; as, John struck James.

200. The passive voice is that form of the verb which

declares the subject as acted upon ; as, James teas struck by John.

The following are some examples of the two voices :

Active Voice. to love

to call

to kill

John loves.

Ann called.

Passive Voice.

to be loved

to be called

to be killed

John is loved.

Ann was called.

Exercise.

201. Change the active into the passive voice, and the passive into the active voice.

1. Study is loved by George = George loves study.

2. Mary loves flowers.

3. The horse threw John.

4. Water fertilizes the earth.

5. The ground is covered with snow.

6. Hooked claws arm the foot of the eagle.

7. Hannibal crossed the Alps.

8. Gaul was conquered by Caesar.

0. Columbus discovered America.

202. Among the changes of form in verbs to express

mode and tense, there are three forms from which all the other forms may be regularly constructed. These

are the present tense and the past tense of the indica¬

tive mode and active voice, and the past participle ; as,

love9 loved, loved. These three forms are called the

principal parts of the verb, because the other parts may

be formed from them.


203. Some verbs are said to be regular, while others

are irregular. 204. A regular verb forms its past tense, indicative

mode, and its past participle by adding d or ed to the present tense; as, present indicative, love; past indic¬

ative, loved; past participle, loved. 205. An irregular verb does not form its past

indicative and its past participle by adding d or ed to the present; as, am, was, been ; see, saw, seen ; teach,

taught, taught. In forming the tenses of the verb to learn, we give,

for the present-perfect tense, I have learned, and for the future, I shall learn. Have and shall are them¬ selves verbs, and, because they help in forming the tenses of other verbs, they are called helping, or aux¬ iliary verbs.

200. An auxiliary verb is one by the help of which the different modes and tenses of other verbs are formed.

The auxiliary verbs are : have, shall, will, may, can, do, and be, with their variations, has, had, should, would, might, could j and must and ought, which have no variations.

REVIEW.

What, in your own language, is the difference between tense and

mode in the verb ? What is the mode of a verb ? What is the

indicative mode ? The potential mode ? The subjunctive mode ?

The imperative mode ? The infinitive ? The participle ? Give

examples of each mode. What preposition is used as the sign of

the infinitive ? How is this sign used in naming verbs ? What

are the four kinds of sentences, classified by their meaning ?

What mode is especially adapted to the interrogative sentence ?

What, to the imperative ? What are three kinds of sentences,

classified by their form ?

What are the first and second things to be observed in a sen-

THE VERB. 105

tence ? Give examples of the active ancl passive voices, and

describe the difference between them, giving examples. Define

the active voice ; the passive voice. What are the principal parts

of a verb ? How are regular verbs formed from these parts ?

How are irregular verbs formed ? What is the office of auxiliary

verbs ? Give examples of auxiliary verbs. What is an auxiliary

verb ? Name the auxiliary verbs.

CONJUGATION OF VERBS.

207. The different verbs are arranged according to their voice, mode, tense, number, and person. Because

these parts are thus united or joined together, the verb

is said to be conjugated, and the scheme of the whole

is called conjugation. 208. Conjugation is giving all the forms of the verb

in regular arrangement. Conjugation begins by giving the principal parts of

the verb.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB “ TO BE."

209. Principal Parts : sun was been

Indicative Mode.

Present Tense.

Plural.

We are You are

They are


1. 1 have been We have been 2. You have been You have been

3. He has been They have been

Singular.

1. I am

2. You are

3. He 1 is

1 Substitute she and it.

10G MODIFICATION OF SPEECH AND ITS PARTS.

Past Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. I was We were

2. Yon were You were

3. He was They were

Past-Perfect Tense.

1. I liad been We had been

2. You had been You had been

3. He had been They had been

Future Tense.

1. I shall1 be We shall be

2. You shall be You shall be

3. He shall be They shall be

Future-Perfect Tense.

1. I shall have been We shall have been

2. You shall have been You shall have been

3. He shall have been They shall have been

Potential Mode.

Present Tense.

1. I may 2 be We may be

2. You may be You may be

3. He may be They may be


1. I may have been We may have been

2. You may have been You may have been

3. He may have been They may have been

J Substitute will. See “ Use of the Verb,” p. —. 3 Substitute can and must.

THE VERB. 107

Past Tense.

Singular.

1. I might1 be

2. You might be 3. He might be

Plural.

We might be You might be

They might be

1. 2. 3.

Past-Perfect Tense.

I might have been

You might have been

He might have been

We might have been

You might have been

They might have been

Subjunctive Mode.

Present Tense.

1. If I am If we are

2. If you are If you are

3. If he is If they are

Past Tense.

1. If I were If we were

2. If you were If you were

3. If he were If they were

Imperative Mode.

Present Tense.

2. Be you Be you

Infinitive Mode.

Present, to be Past, to have been

Participle.

Present, being Past, been Perfect, having been

1 Substitute could, would, and should.


Exercise.

210. Give the

each example.

mode, tense, number ', and person

I am. I shall have been. I have been.

I was. They could have been. I had been.

We can be. You can have been. I shall be.

Be you. He might have been. We should be.

Being. If you were. They may be.

If he is. She has been. It will be.

To be. He may have been. Having been.

You were. I might have been. He shall be.

I may be. He should have been. You may be.

To have been. They shall have been. They might be.

Exercise.


1. George | has been sick.

Has been is a verb, because it declares being ; in« dicative mode ; present-perfect tense ;

1st person, I have been ; 2d person, you have been ; 3d person, he has been—

third person, singular number, agreeing with its nom¬ inative George, why ?

George has been —sick

2. We must be kind.

3. They will be rich.

4. If I were there.

5. She is very intelligent.

6. 0 that we might be immortal!

7. Be still.

THE VERB. 109

CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB “TO LOVE." (Active Voice.)

212. Principal Parts: love loved loved

Indicative Mode.

Present Tense.

Plural.

We love

You love

They love


1. I have loved We have loved 2. You have loved You have loved

3. He has loved They have loved

Past Tense.

1. I loved We loved 2. You loved You loved 3. He loved They loved

Past-Perfect Tense.

1. I had loved We had loved 2. You had loved You had loved 3. He had loved They had loved

Future Tense.

1. I shall2 love We shall love

2. You shall love You shall love

3. He shall love They shall love

Singular.

1. I love

2. You love

3. He 1 loves

1 Substitute she and it. 8 Substitute will.


Future-Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural.

1. I shall have loved We shall have loved 2. You shall have loved You shall have loved

3. He shall have loved They shall have loved

Potential Mode.

Present Tense.

1. I may 1 love We: O All it TT I ATTA V' All 2. You may love 3. He may love

We may love You may love They may love

1. 2. 3.

1. 2. 3.

1. 2. 3.


I may have loved We may have loved You may have loved You may have loved He may have loved They may have loved

Past Tense.

I might3 love We might love You might love You might love He might love They might love

Past-Perfect Tense.

I might have loved We might have loved You might have loved You might have loved He might have loved They might have loved

Subjunctive Mode.

1. 2. 3.

If I love If you love If he love

Present Tense.

If we love If you love If they love

1 Substitute can and must. 2 Substitute could, would, and should.

THE VERB. Ill

Singular.

1. If I loved 2. If you loved

3. If he loved

Past Tense. Plural.

If we loved

If you loved

If they loved

Imperative Mode.

Present Tense.

2. Love you Love you

Infinitive Mode.

Present, to love Perfect, to have loved

Participle.

Present, loving Past, loved Perfect, having loved

213. Do and did are sometimes used in the present

and past tenses of the indicative mode ; as,

I do love, I did love. I do not know, I did not know.

This is called the emphatic form of the verb. The verb to be is used with the present participle to

form the tenses ; as,

Present, I am loving. Past, I was loving, I have been loving, I had been

loving. Future, I shall be loving, etc.

This is called the progressive form of the verb. 214. The imperative mode has only the second per¬

son, because it is used only in address.


QUESTIONS.

How many tenses has the indicative mode ? How many has

the potential mode ? The subjunctive ? The imperative ? The

infinitive ? The participle ? What is the emphatic form of the

verb ? What is the progressive form ? What other auxiliary

verbs besides may and might are used in the potential mode ?

Why has the imperative mode but one person ?

Exercise.

215. Give the mode, tense, number, and person of the verbs, and use them for conjugation.

You love. You will love. He has played. He can play. I

shall play. You might play. He must come. It will rain. I

should laugh. You would cry. We may go. They have loved.

He will have studied. If he come. I could play. To come. To

have turned. I had turned. I might turn. He had wished. I

shall wish. You must have ruled. I may have lifted. We can

bless. To pay. To have paid. Naming. Named. We may

have added. She will save. He will have asked. If I asked.

Go. Come. Turn.

Exercise.


1. Children | love to talk.

To talk is a verb ; intransitive, why ? infinitive mode ; present tense ; object of the verb love, defining what it is that children love.

Children love —to talk

2. Boys love to play.

3. Cease to do evil.

4. Learn to do good.

5. We must forgive injuries.

6. The sun, rising,1 dispersed the mist.

1 Rising is a verb, denoting action ; intransitive; participle, because it partakes of the nature of an adjective ; present tense ; as an adjective, qualifying the noun sun.

THE VERB. 113

7. Having finished, he sat down.

8. I saw him toiling up the hill.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB “ TO LOVE.”

(Passive Voice.)

217. Add the participle loved to each tense, num¬

ber, and person of the verb to be in all modes, and the

conjugation of this voice will be complete. Thus :

Indicative Mode.

Present Tense. Singular.

1. I am—loved

2. You are—loved 3. He is—loved

Plural.

We are—loved You are—loved

They are—loved

Exercise.

218. Give the voice, mode, tense, number, and person of all the verbs.

I am loved. I was loved. I have been loved. She had been

loved. She will be loved. They will have been loved. I must

be loved. If he be loved. He could have been loved. Loved.

Having been loved.

Exercise.


1. Washington | is honored ly all.

Is honored9 is a verb ; transitive, because the verb

to honor may have an object; passive voice, because it declares action received by its subject; indicative

mode, because it declares a fact ; present tense, why ?

third person, why ? singular number, agreeing with P. El. Gr.—8


its subject Washington. All is an adjective, used as

a noun ; objective case, after the preposition by.

Washington is honored

—by all.

2. Moses’ rod was turned into a serpent.

3. Thousands of elephants are killed for their tusks.

4. The crop should have been gathered before the rain.

5. We must be industrious, if we would prosper.

SOME IRREGULAR VERBS.

220. Principal Parts.

am was been hold held held

begin began begun hurt hurt hurt

bite bit bitten or bit keep kept kept

bleed bled bled know knew known

blow blew blown lay laid laid

break broke broken lie lay lain

bring brought brought lose lost lost

buy bought bought make made made

catch caught caught mean meant meant

come came come meet met met

do did done pay paid paid

drink drank drunk ride rode ridden

eat ate eaten ring rang rung

fall fell fallen run ran run

feed fed fed say said said

feel felt felt see saw seen

find found found sell sold sold

fly flew flown send sent sent

get got got set set set

give gave given shoot shot shot

go went gone sing sang sung

grow grew grown sit sat sat

have had had sleep slept slept

hear heard heard speak spoke spoken

hide hid hidden or hid stand stood stood

THE PARTICIPLE AND THE SENTENCE. 115

strike struck struck tell told told

sweep swept swept think thought thought

swing swung swung throw threw thrown

take took taken wear wore worn

teach taught taught write wrote written

Exercise.

221. Conjugate the verbs, designating those that

are irregular by reference to the preceding list.

Walk, go, teach, eat, pour, hope, write, take, come, wish,

shoot, sleep, am, fly, jump, hide, ride, drink, dress, bless, fall,

lose, make, pay, sit, set, hurt, desire, confess, know, feel, fight,

do, buy, see.

XXIII. THE PARTICIPLE AND THE SENTENCE.

222. The participle has been described as that form

of the verb which partakes both of the nature of an

adjective, or noun, and of the nature of a verb. It

may qualify a noun or pronoun, and at the same time

express the action of a verb, being followed by modi¬

fiers which denote the object receiving the action.

In the sentence,

Stanley, provident and brave, marched into the heart

of Africa,

the adjectives provident and brave qualify Stanley,

Substitute for these adjectives, participles :

Stanley, providing a body of armed men, and braving

the dangers of climate and hostile tribes, marched into

the heart of Africa.

In this sentence, the participles providing and

braving qualify the subject Stanley, but they do

more ; they have the action of verbs, and take after

116 MODIFICATION OF SPEECH AND ITS PAKTS.

them object modifiers, thus describing in what respects

Stanley was provident and brave.

The subject, Stanley, is modified by the two parti¬

cipial phrases, providing a body of armed men,

and braving the dangers of climate, etc. The

phrase, providing a body of armed men, is intro¬

duced by the participle providing, which, as an adjec¬

tive, qualifies the subject, and, as a verb, is followed

by the object modifier, a body of armed men. The

phrase braving, etc., is related to the subject in the

same way. Marched is the predicate, which is modi¬

fied by the prepositional phrase, into the heart of

Africa.

Exercise.

223. Analyze the sentences, explaining the parti¬

cipial phrases in the modified subject or predicate.

1. Wild geese, flying in the night, make a doleful noise.

2. The neighbors, hearing the disturbance, came rushing in.

3. The soldiers, beaten by the enemy, returned to the camp.

4. I saw them routed, and retreating in confusion.

5. The enemy, having been beaten, fled.

XXIV. THE ADVERB.

224. The definition of the adverb, and the distinc¬

tion between the adjective and the adverb, have been

given. We are now to learn that there are different

kinds of adverbs, classified according to meaning.

He comes late.. He comes soon.

When he comes.

Here the adverbs late, soon, and when modify the

THE ADVERB. 117

verb comes, by showing the time of the action. Such

adverbs are called adverbs of time, and answer the

question when ?

He came here.

He came up. He went back.

In these sentences the adverbs here, up, and back

denote place, and are adverbs of place, answering the

question where ?

Iam very icell.

It is intensely hot. He is much better.

Here the adverbs very, intensely, and much express

degree, and are called adverbs of degree, answering the

question hoiu much ?

He talks wisely. It was badly done. She sings well.

Here the adverbs wisely, badly, and well express

the manner of action ; they are called adverbs of man¬

ner, and answer the question how ? We have seen that adverbs resemble adjectives in

qualifying other words ; adjectives qualifying nouns

and pronouns, and adverbs qualifying verbs, adjectives,

and other adverbs. There is another resemblance be¬

tween those two parts of speech : some adverbs, like

adjectives, are compared ; as,

soon, sooner, soonest.

much, more, most. badly or ill, worse, worst. wisely, more wisely, most wisely.


Exercise.

225. Parse the words, distinguishing the adverbs by

classes, and giving the degrees of comparison.

1. The ship | sails very fast.

Very is an adverb of degree, not compared; quali¬

fies the adverb fast; adverbs qualify, etc. Fast is an

adverb ; compared, fast, faster, fastest; qualifies the

verb sails, showing the manner of the action.

ship sails

The— —fast

—very

2. The horse walks slowly.

3. Spring opens delightfully.

4. Webster spoke most eloquently.

5. My friend is now quite well.

6. Winter is almost here.

The adverb is often used in the sentence to intro¬

duce an adverbial clause, and to connect a dependent

with an independent clause.

Exercise.

226. Analyze according to the model.

1. While I muse, the fire | burns.

This is a sentence, declarative; complex, because it

consists of an independent clause and a dependent

clause. The fire burns is the principal clause ; while

I muse is the dependent clause. The adverb while

connects the two clauses. The subject of the princi¬

pal clause is fire, modified by the, and the predicate is

burns, modified by the adverbial clause While 1 muse,

showing when, or under what circumstances, the fire

THE ADVERB. 119

burns. The subject of the dependent clause is I, the

predicate muse, modified by the adverb while.

fire

the—

burns

—while

I I muse.

2. The angels sang in Heaven when she was born.

3. Bisons move in great herds when they seek watering-places.

4. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.

5. Don’t cross a bridge till you come to it.

6. Make hay while the sun shines.

7. A man never knows what he can do till he tries.

8. The cat and the tiger crouch that they may deceive their

prey.

9. I shall be glad when you come.

10. I felt uncertain whether it was best to go or stay.

11. While there is life, there is hope.

12. Ere the evening lamps are lighted, shadows dance upon the

wall.

13. The river glittered and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on.

14. The oars dipped into the water with a liquid sound, as the

boats glided down the stream.

15. Pie locked the door after the horse was stolen.

1G. When Ciesar had crossed the Rubicon, Pompey prepared

for battle.

17. When all is composed within us, the discharge of our

duties is easy.

18. As the flower springs and perishes, so does man.

19. Be not discontented when you meet not with success.

20. Where there is a will there is a way.

21. The cottage stood where the mountain shadows fell.

22. The flower is sweetest when it is washed with dew.

23. Express your ideas clearly so that you may be understood.

24. There is a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue.

25. He has become a citizen of this place since you were here.

26. Before reinforcements could be sent, the battle was lost.

27. I will take care of her until you return.

28. He will be respected wherever he may be.

29. The tree lies where it fell.


REVIEW..

How are verbs arranged when their various parts are joined

together ? What is meant by conjugation ? How many modes

are there ? How many tenses in each mode ? Give the first per¬

son, singular, of each tense in the indicative mode ; in the poten¬

tial mode ; in the subjunctive mode. Give the tenses of the

imperative mode ; of the infinitive mode ; of the participle.

What other auxiliary verbs besides may and might are used in

the potential mode ? Give an example of the emphatic form of

the verb. What other forms of the present and past tenses may

take the place of Ilove? Give the principal parts of the verbs

to he, to buy, to do, to go. To what class of verbs do these be¬

long?

Of what two parts of speech does the participle partake ? How

does it do the work of an adjective ? How the work of a verb ?

What is a participial phrase ? In the sentence, Stanley, provid¬

ing a body of armed men, and braving the dangers of climate and

hostile tribes, marched into the heart of Africa, what is the sub¬

ject, and what is the predicate ? What is the modified subject ?

The modified predicate ? By what sort of phrases are the subject

and predicate modified ?

Give the definition of adverb. How many classes of adverbs

are there ? Explain each in your own words, and tell what ques¬

tion it answers to. In what two respects do adverbs resemble

adjectives ? Compare the adverbs soon, much, badly, and wisely.

What kind of clause does the adverb in the sentence sometimes

introduce ? What is a complex sentence ? Give an example of

a complex sentence containing an adverbial clause, and analyze

the sentence. What other kind of clause have you learned that

is used as a dependent clause in a complex sentence ? In the sen¬

tence, My friend, who was sick, is better, what is the word con¬

necting the two clauses ? In the sentence, Fools rush in where

angels fear to tread, which is the connecting word, and what kind

of clause does it connect ?

III. THE PRINCIPLES GOV¬

ERNING SPEECH AND

ITS PARTS.

XXV. KINDS OF SENTENCES.—SELECTION AND

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.

227. A sentence is a collection of words so chosen and arranged as to express a thought.

228. A simple sentence contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be com¬ pound.

229. A clause is a simple sentence used as a part of another sentence.

230. A phrase is a group of closely related words which have the force of a single part of speech, but are not a sentence.

23S. A compound sentence is composed of two or more simple sentences united.

232. A complex sentence is one containing an inde¬ pendent clause, and one or more dependent clauses.

The first thing to be done, in examining a sentence, is to point out the subject spoken of, and the predi¬ cate, or what is asserted of the subject. These will readily show themselves in answer to the questions. Who, or What, is spoken of? and, What is declared or said about it ?

233. The subject will be a noun or pronoun in the (121)

122 THE PRINCIPLES GOVERNING SPEECH.

nominative case ; or two or more connected nouns or

pronouns ; or a clause ; or a phrase used for a noun. 234. One or more verbs, which declare something of

the subject, will be the predicate. 235. The modifiers of the subject will consist of one

or more qualifying words, or one or more clauses or phrases, that define, explain, or describe the subject.

236. The modifiers of the predicate will be the word or words that denote the object which receives the action expressed by the verb, and the words that com¬ plete or more fully explain what the verb declares.

237. The following sentence illustrates all the defi¬ nitions just given, and all the principal modifiers that have been learned.

A frica’s greatest soldier, Hannibal, who came from Carthage, having resolved to conquer, crossed the Alps into Italy, and defeated the Homans where they had advanced to meet him.

The subject is modified by a possessive noun, an adjective, an appositive noun, a relative clause, and a participial phrase.

There are two predicates. The first predicate is modified by an objective noun and a prepositional phrase. The second predicate, connected by a con¬ junction, is modified by an objective noun and an adverbial clause.

The sentence contains all the parts of speech but one, viz., the interjection.

Classify the sentence according to its meaning and form. Analyze it, and point out the several parts of speech.

KINDS OF SENTENCES. 123

The following diagram presents the analysis clearly to the eye.

crossed

—Alps

—the

—into Italy soldier

—Africa’s —greatest

—Hannibal

—who came

—from Carthage

—having resolved

—to conquer

-and

defeated

—Romans

—the

—where they had advanced

—to meet —him

Pupils should make similar diagrams of all sen¬

tences analyzed.

2.38. Errors to be avoided.—Return to the definition of

a sentence. 239. Selection of words is necessary to avoid incorrect

and awkward expression. Him and me had came,

is incorrect, because the wrong forms of the pro¬

nouns and verb have been chosen. He and I had

come, is correct. A dentist advertises, “ Teeth

extracted with great pains.” This sentence is liable to ridicule. Teeth extracted with great

care, is what he meant. 240. Arrangement of words is as necessary as choice.

An advertisement reads, “ A young man wanted

to take charge of horses of a religious turn of

mind.” Here the prepositional phrase explain¬

ing what kind of young man is wanted, is too far

away from the subject which it is designed to


modify. A young man of a religious turn of mind

is ivanted to take charge of horses, says what the

advertiser meant.

241. Place the modifiers as near as possible to the

parts of the sentence which they modify.

Exercise.

242. Rearrange and analyze.

1. Missouri was the twenty-fourth State which was admitted in 1821.

2. A house was built by a mason of brownstone. 3. A young man was arrested with short hair. 4. Wyandotte cave is the greatest natural curiosity of Indiana

which is situated in Crawford County.

QUESTIONS.

What are the definitions of sentence ; simple sentence ; clause ; phrase ; compound sentence ; complex sentence ? Give examples of each. What two things are first to be ascertained in analyz¬ ing a sentence ? What is next to be done ? What questions help to reveal the subject and predicate ? In the sentence given as an example, what are the modifiers of the subject ? Of the predicate ? Which is the relative clause ? Which the adverbial clause ? What two things are referred to as necessary to make the sentence properly express the thought intended ? Give the rule for arrangement of modifiers.

XXVI. THE NOUN AS SUBJECT MODIFIER.

243. The subject of a sentence is always a noun or some word or words used for a noun. The subject may be a pronoun, an adjective, a participle or parti-

THE NOUN AS SUBJECT MODIFIER. 125

cipial phrase, an infinitive phrase, or a clause—each used for a noun.

244. As subjects of a sentence, the noun, the pro¬

noun, and the adjective and participle used as a noun,

must be in the nominative case.

The nominative case is the case of the subject.

245. The noun or pronoun as a modifier has been

considered; added to another noun or pronoun, it ex¬ plains or qualifies it.

When the modifying noun or pronoun means the

same thing as the noun or pronoun which it modifies, it is in the same case, by apposition; as,

Coivper, the poet, lived in England.

Here the noun poet is in the nominative case, agree¬ ing with Coivper, and is called an appositive noun.

The residence of Cowper, the poet, ivas in England.

In this sentence poet is in the objective case,

agreeing with Cowper, which is the object of a prep¬

osition. A noun or pronoun which modifies another noun or

pronoun signifying the same thing is put, by apposi¬

tion, in the same case.

246. When the modifying noun means a different

thing from the noun modified, it is in the possessive

case ; as, Cowper’s fame is universal.

Here Cowper’s means a different thing from fame,

and is in the possessive case, while fame is in the

nominative case. A noun ivhich modifies another noun signifying a

different thing must be in the possessive case.


The possessive case is regularly formed by adding

the apostrophe and the letter s to the nominative case.

When two or more nouns in the possessive case

denote the ownership of the same thing, the apos¬

trophe is omitted in all except the last; as,

David and Jonathan's f riendship.

But when the possessive denotes the ownership of

separate things, the apostrophe is used with all the

possessives; as,

James’s, George’s and William’s hats were lost.

The word modified by the possessive case is some¬

times not expressed, but understood ; as,

I went to Mr. Martin’s (house or office). My hopes are greater than his {hopes).

Pronouns change their form to denote possession,

but never take the apostrophe ; as,

my horse, his horse.

After hers, ours, yours, and theirs the qualified

noun is always omitted ; as.

Their labor is greater than ours {our labor).

The qualified noun is sometimes omitted after any

possessive ; as,

No love is like a mothers {love).

247. A noun used independently, not being a neces¬

sary part of the structure of the sentence, is in the nominative independent case ; as,

Friends, I came not here to talk.

248. Punctuation.—In the compound subject, where

127 THE NOUN AS SUBJECT MODIFIER.

the conjunction is omitted, each simple subject is set

off by a comma ; as,

John, George, William and Frank came.

When an appositive contains more modifying words

than the, it is set off by commas ; as,

Cowper, the poet, lived before Wordsworth, the poet

laureate.

The nominative independent, when it is the name of

one simply addressed, is set off by a comma; when it

is used in an exclamatory way, it is followed by an

exclamation point ; as,

George, give me your book. The fathers ! where are they ?

Exercise.

249. Analyze the sentences, and describe the parts

of speech.

1. The swan never sings, and is valued only for its

beauty.

sings

—never

--and

is valued

—for beauty

—its

—only

2. Who comes, bringing tidings ?

2. The good receive their reward in doing good.

4. To give is better than to receive.

5. The living are not sought among the dead.

swan

The—


Exercise.

Point out and parse the modifying nouns—apposi-

tive and possessive—and analyze the sentences.

1. Napoleon himself commanded the army.

2. Paul, the apostle, lived in the first century.

3. I myself witnessed the transaction.

4. England’s sovereign is Victoria, the queen.

QUESTIONS.

What constitutes the subject of a sentence ? What words or forms of words may be used instead of a noun for the subject ?

Give the rule. Explain the appositive noun. The possessive

noun. How is the possessive case regularly formed ? In what

use of the possessive case is the apostrophe omitted ? Give an

example of the omission of the word modified by a possessive.

Do pronouns take the apostrophe ? What is the nominative

independent case ? What is the punctuation for the compound

subject ? For the appositive ? For the nominative indepen¬

dent ?

250. Errors to be avoided.—Avoid wrong arrangement. In a compound subject the personal pronoun of

the first person should be placed after the name

of any other person ; as, I and George came, should be, George and I came.

251. Avoid using the wrong case for the subject. The

sentence Him and me came, violates the rule.

Him and me are in the objective case, while the

subject must be in the nominative case. He and 1 came, is correct. The expression them marbles as

a subject is wrong for two reasons. Them is a pronoun and not an adjective. It is in the ob¬

jective case, while marbles is in the nominative

case. The proper word is the adjective pronoun,

making the expression those marbles.

THE NOUN AS SUBJECT MODIFIER. 129

252. Avoid a useless appositive. The noun in appo¬

sition is designed to explain the word which it

qualifies. In the sentence, Mr. Marten, he came,

the appositive pronoun he is useless because it

adds no explanation.

253. Avoid the use of the apostrophe in the possessive

where it is not proper, and the omission of it where it

belongs; as, tier’s, it’s, for hers, its ; David’s and

Jonathan’s friendship, for David and Jonathan’s

friendship ; James and George’s hooks, for James’s and George’s hooks.

Exercise.

254. Correct errors of arrangement, case, apostro¬

phe, and punctuation, giving the rules and principles

which sustain the corrections.

1. I and him played. 2. them apples look ripe.

3. George he is a good friend. 4. my mothers’ house

5. John Randolphs dog’s 6. the oxens hay

7. a mans manners’ 8. it’s food and our’s

9. the two boy’s skates 10. John and Joel’s hats

11. Greeks Romans, and barbarians were mingled.

12. Hannibal having resolved, to conquer, crossed the Alps.

Exercise.

255. Construct sentences, containing appositives and

possessives, suggested by the following pairs of words :

Example.—George, horse. George’s horse trots

briskly. George himself drives his horse.

1. Columbus, America

2. Tennyson, poet

3. Franklin, statesman

4. Milton, author.

5. Bonaparte, soldier

6. Webster, orator

7. Paul Jones, sailor

8. Edison, inventor.

P. El. Gr.—9


XXVII. THE NOUN AS PREDICATE MODIFIER.

256. The predicate is always one or more verbs.

Verbs alone declare. A transitive verb requires an ob¬

ject to define its declaration. A noun or pronoun used

as the object of a verb is distinguished from a noun or

pronoun used as the subject by being in the objective

case ; as, He made kites for him and me.

In this sentence kites is in the objective case, because

it denotes the object which receives the action ex¬

pressed by the verb.

It is called the direct object because it denotes the

thing which is directly affected by the action expressed

by the verb. Him and me, with for, constitute the

indirect object. This relation of indirect object is often

expressed by the objective case of the noun or pronoun,'

without a preposition ; as,

She gave Louise a book, He made me a kite.

The indirect object always expresses the person or

thing for whom the action expressed by the verb is

exerted or to whom it extends.

257. The object of a transitive verb or of a preposi¬ tion must be in the objective case.

258. Some transitive verbs, such as name, choose, call, make, elect, declare, etc., may have two nouns, or a

pronoun and a noun, used as object; the first as direct object, and the second denoting some office, station, name, or other attribute which the action expressed by

the verb confers upon the person or thing expressed

by the object; as.

They named him John. They chose Washington president•

THE NOUN AS PREDICATE MODIFIER. 131

The second part of such an object is sometimes

called the complement of the object, because it seems

necessary to complete the meaning of the object when

taken in connection with the meaning of the verb.

When such a verb is changed to the passive voice, the

direct object becomes the subject, and the objective com¬ plement remains as predicate (complement) after the

verb; as,

He was named John, Washington was chosen

president.

259. Some intransitive verbs may have an object; as.

He sleeps his last sleep. I dreamed a dream.

He walked many miles.

This is called a cognate or allied object. The intransitive verb to he, in its different forms,

am, is, was, etc., is usually completed by a predicate

noun or pronoun which is in the nominative case be¬

cause it explains or describes the subject; as.

It is he. Washington ivas president.

260. The sentence is often so arranged, especially

in poetry, that the predicate precedes the subject; as.

Note fades the glimmering landscape on the sight.

This is equivalent to

Note the glimmering landscape fades on the sight.

The preposition is often placed after, and separated

from the object noun to which it belongs ; as,

To whom did you speak?

This is equivalent to

Whom did you speak to f


261. Punctuation.—The comma is used to separate

the parts of a compound predicate where the conjunc¬

tion is omitted. Verbs not having the same object

must be followed by a comma, even when the con¬

junction is expressed ; as,

A woman is wanted to wash, and milk one or two cows.

Here a comma after wash is plainly necessary.

A phrase not closely connected with the word,

phrase, or clause which it modifies, is set off by a

comma ; as,

In cases of doubt, it is best to be on the safe side.

Exercise.

262. Analyze the sentences, and parse the noun¬

modifiers and the objects of verbs and prepositions.

2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13.

14.

15.

1. The Romans kept geese in walled yards.

Komans i kept

The— —geese

—in yards

—walled

A teacher in Chicago taught me spelling.

Washington, the general, was chosen president.

The sheriff appointed him deputy.

Whom did you come for ?

Franklin was a benefactor of his country.

They live at a distance from the city.

I will show him the picture.

Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, was a brave man.

He sat in the front of the room.

The boat carried the passengers to the island.

She plucked a rose for me.

John will tell you the story.

Smith, the teacher, is a brother of Smith, the artist.

We should prefer duty to pleasure.

THE NOUN AS PREDICATE MODIFIER. 133

QUESTIONS.

What part of speech must the simple predicate be ? Why ?

What is a transitive verb ? An intransitive verb ? What does

a transitive verb usually require ? In what case is the object of

a verb ? What other part of speech requires the same case ?

Give the rule. What is a preposition ? A prepositional phrase ?

What sort of verbs may have two objects, and what are these

objects called ? Does the verb in the passive voice take an ob¬

ject ? In what case is the predicate noun after the verb is, was, etc. ? Why ? Can an intransitive verb have an object ? Must

the predicate be arranged in the sentence before or after the sub¬

ject ? How is the preposition sometimes placed with reference

to its object ? Give the punctuation in a compound predicate.

263. Errors to be avoided.—Avoid the wrong case. In

the question Who did you speak to ? the interrog¬

ative pronoun must be the object of the preposi¬

tion to, and therefore in the objective case ; as,

Whom did you speak to? In the sentence The invitation is for you and I, the pronouns are

objects of the preposition for, and should be

in the objective case ; as, for you and me. 264. Avoid a wrong choice of prepositions. No rule for

the use of one preposition rather than another can

be given. The practice of good writers and the

dictates of common sense must govern the choice.

I listened at him, is manifestly improper. I

asked him for to go, has one preposition too many.

Where do you wish to stop at ? contains an unnec¬

essary preposition. Where do you wish to stop ?

fully expresses the thought, without at. The

land consists in plains, should have of for in,

and He died for thirst, should have of instead of

for.


Exercise.

205. Correct the errors, giving the reasons. Punc¬

tuate the last five examples.

1. Who did you refer to ? 2. Who’s there ? It’s me. 3. It

was not me who he spoke to. 4. Who have they selected ? 5.

Between they and I there is no difficulty. 6. We have no hope

for his success. 7. He asked you and I to go. 8. His opinions

are not founded in truth. 9. John is different to George. 10.

The two hunters divided the game among themselves.

Exercise.

260. Make a sentence, containing verbs with two

objects (direct and indirect, or direct with comple¬

ment) or prepositional phrases, on each of the follow¬

ing subjects.

1. Christmas gifts 3. land and water 5. election of president

2. Robinson Crusoe 4. going fishing G. appointment to office

XXVIII. USE OF THE PRONOUN.

267. A description of the different kinds of pro¬

nouns has been given.

Because the pronoun is used instead of the noun, it

must represent some of the properties of the noun. To

express the thought that a man left his own country, it

is incorrect to say,

The man left my country,

because my is in the first person, while the noun it

stands for, man, is in the third person.

The man left its country.

This is equally wrong, because man is of the mas¬

culine gender, and its is neuter.

USE OF THE PRONOUN. 135

The man left their country.

This is again wrong, because man is in the singular

number, and their is in the plural number. The cor¬

rect form is, The man left his country.

26S. The pronoun must agree with its antecedent,

or the noun or pronoun for which it stands, in per¬ son, gender, and number.

James and William support their mother.

In this sentence the singular pronoun his cannot be

correctly used for the plural their, because the pro¬

noun must represent both persons, while his represents

but one.

Neither James nor John likes his hooks.

In this sentence the verb and the pronoun refer to

the nouns separately, and should be in the singular

number.

Neither James nor John like their hooks.

This contains an incorrect use of both verb and pro¬

noun.

The pronoun which stands for a collective noun may

be either singular or plural, according to the meaning.

Referring to an assembly as a whole, it is proper to

say. The assembly closed its sessio?i.

Referring to the assembly as composed of individuals,

it is proper to say,

The assembly ivere divided in their opinions.

We say. You and he may go your way,

because any other than the second person of the pro-


noun would not represent the person spoken to. For

the same reason, we say.

You, he, and I are deprived of our rights.

Their in the place of our would exclude one of the

persons.

269. A pronoun must represent all the nouns and pronouns for which it stands.

A pronoun is sometimes used to help a verb to ex¬

press a general action, without declaring of any partic¬

ular actor or subject; as.

It rains. It grew dark.

A pronoun may stand for a clause ; as.

He is in danger, and he knows it not.

QUESTIONS.

What is a pronoun ? What are the different kinds of pro¬

nouns ? What must a pronoun represent ? Give the rule.

When the pronoun stands for two nouns or pronouns, what must

its number be ? When the pronoun stands for two or more

nouns separately, what is its number ? How is the pronoun

used with a collective noun ? Describe some common errors in

the use of pronouns. Give examples of incorrect and correct use.

What pronoun without an antecedent is used with verbs express¬

ing a general action ? How is the pronoun sometimes used ?

What besides a noun or pronoun may a pronoun stand for ?

276. Errors to be Avoided.—Avoid the use of a plural

for a singular pronoun; as, Each one must answer for themselves. One is singular, and the pronoun

must be himself.

271. Avoid the use of a singular for a plural pronoun;

as. Vanity and pride will soon reveal itself.

USE OF THE PRONOUN. 137

272. Avoid the use of the wrong case; as. He told

you and I. I is in the nominative case, and should be in the objective, me.

Exercise.

273. Fill the blanks with appropriate pronouns. Point out the pronouns, and the nouns they stand for, and parse them.

1. Ostriches cover-eggs in the sand.

2. The dog and the cat have canine teeth in-jaws.

8. Neither the stork nor the crane has webbed toes on-feet.

4. You and I must exert all-strength.

5. Either the one or the other will give-assistance.

6. He was in the car with-, and I was not aware of it.

7. Mary and George have left-home.

8. Neither you nor I will leave-friends.

Exercise.

274. Correct the errors, pointing out and parsing the pronouns, and the nouns or pronouns for which

they stand.

1. Each one of them expressed their opinion.

2. Each one of you will give your opinion.

3. Each of us will give our opinion.

4. Jane or Mary will bring her books.

5. Every man of them declared their sentiments freely.

C. Neither beauty nor wealth can make their possessors happy.

7. Both the girl and the boy spent money.

Exercise.

275. Form short sentences, each containing a noun

and a pronoun, upon the following hints.

1. ocean, tides

2. fish, fins

3. cat, claws

4. trees, leaves

5. hen, chicks

0. plants, flowers

7. spring, buds

8. boys, parents


XXIX. USE OF THE ADJECTIVE.

276. The definition of adjective lias been given in

§49. Two kinds of adjectives are described, and

their properties explained in §§151 and 152. We have learned that an adjective may be used as a

noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as the object of

a verb or a preposition :

The good are happy.

Shun the had. Make f riends of the good.

277. The noun is sometimes used as an adjective :

stone fence, steel pen.

278. The adjective occurs in the infinitive phrase, which may be used as a noun and subject; as.

To he good is to he happy.

279. The adjective maybe a predicate adjective, com¬

pleting the declaration of the verb, and with the verb

asserting some quality of the subject; as,

Man is mortal. The rose smells sweet. The fruit seems ripe. The flower looks beautiful.

Most adjectives do not indicate the property of

number by their form ; but the definitive adjectives

this, that, plural these, those, have these changes of

form to designate their number. They must agree in

number with the nouns which they qualify ; as,

this kind of apple. that sort of animal, these men. those animals.

280. The comparative and superlative degrees of the

adjective have different uses in different relations.

USE OF THE ADJECTIVE. 139

When two tilings are compared, the comparative

degree is proper; when more than two things are

compared, the superlative degree should be used ; as,

George is the taller of the two brothers.

Sarah is the tallest of the four sisters.

When two things are compared the adjective must be in the comparative degree ; when more than two, in the superlative.

281. The adjective as a modifier in the sentence may

take the place of a prepositional phrase ; as,

A man of wealth = a wealthy man.

The adjective may take the place of a dependent or

relative clause modifier ; as,

A man who is careful guards his steps — A careful man guards his steps.

No adjective should be used to qualify a noun un¬

less it adds an idea of quality not before expressed ; as,

A great big tree.

Here big adds no new idea after great.

A lasting and enduring monument.

Here enduring adds no new idea.

When more than one adjective qualifies the same

noun, the adjective that expresses the most nearly

related idea should be placed next to the noun; as,

a painted brick house, not, a brick painted house.

When the adjectives are about equally related to the

noun the more agreeable effect is afforded by placing

the longest adjective next to the noun ; as,

a vast, untrodden wilderness, is better than an un*

trodden, vast wilderness.


282. Punctuation.—When two or more adjectives,

not connected by conjunctions, are used to qualify a

noun, the comma is placed after each one except the

last; as,

fresh, bright, sweet, beautiful flowers.

Exercise.

283. Punctuate and analyze the sentences. Change

the phrases and clauses into adjectives, and the adjec¬

tives into phrases and clauses, where such changes are

practicable.

1. Very ripe fruit must be handled with care — Fruit

that is ripe must be handled caref ully.

2. A thing of beauty is a joy forever.

3. The deep clear sparkling water reflected his image.

4. Harriet awoke pale languid and feeble.

5. The flower which looks most beautiful is not always the

sweetest.

6. No man feels safe unless he is a man of honesty.

Exercise.

284. Form sentences, containing phrases or clauses

equivalent to adjectives, on each of the following

hints.

1. Maryland’s size 4. flowers’ perfume

2. Franklin’s character 5. the Ohio’s tributaries

3. Iceland’s climate 6. man’s knowledge

QUESTIONS.

What is an adjective ? Into what classes are adjectives

divided ? Explain each class. For what other part of speech

is the adjective used ? Give an example of an adjective in an

infinitive phrase, and explain its use. What is a phrase ? Men-

USE OF THE ADJECTIVE. 141

tion adjectives that indicate number by their form. With

what must an adjective agree in number ? For what modifying

expressions may an adjective be used ? When two or more ad¬

jectives qualify a noun, how should they be arranged ? When

several adjectives qualify a noun, what is the rule for their

punctuation ?

285. Errors to be Avoided.—Avoid the use of an adverb where an adjective is required. In the sentence.

The fruit seems ripe, the adjective qualifies the

subject by describing its meaning. In The fruit

seems ripely, the adverb qualifies the verb, and

the thought intended is not expressed. To ex¬

press the thought that a flower is beautiful it is

not proper to say, 'The flower looks beautifully. The adjective, not the adverb, should be used ;

as. The flower looks beautiful. 286. Avoid the use of the pronoun “them” instead

of the definitive adjective “those;” as. Give me

them apples, instead of Give me those apples. Pro¬

nouns do not qualify nouns; adjectives do.

287. Avoid using the plurals “those” and “these”

instead of the singulars “ that ” and “ this ; ” as,

those kind of apples, these kind of books, instead

of that kind, etc., this kind, etc. The adjective

must agree with its noun in number.

288. Avoid, in connection with such adjectives as “this” and “that,” useless adverbs; as, this here

house, that there book. 289. Avoid the use of the superlative for the comparative

degree, when only two things are compared ; as,

Of the tivo boys George is the strongest. The

comparative stronger should be used here.

290. Avoid a useless adjective; as, a great big fire; a

great fire expresses the idea without big.


Exercise.

291. Correct the errors in language and punctua¬

tion, and parse the words as corrected.

1. Give me them marbles.

2. Those kind of goods don’t suit.

3. George feels badly.

4. That there is my knife.

5. The house looks nicely.

6. The horse was sold cheaply.

7. I bought the cheapest of the two hats.

8. Among the score of samples she chose, the cheaper.

XXX. USE OF THE VERB.

292. The subject names the idea thought about, and

the verb declares what is thought.

The verb bears a very close relation to the subject.

If the subject is one, the form of the verb is such as

to declare for one ; if the subject is more than one,

the verb has some change of form to declare for more

than one. Thus we have,

He loves, They love.

The verb has also some changes to accommodate the

person of the subject ; as,

I have, you have, he has.

This double relation of the verb to the subject gives

us the following rule :

293. A verb ?nust agree with its subject in number and person.

Very rarely does any one say I are. Mistakes in the

use of the verb are more frequent in connection with

USE OF THE VERB. 143

the third person, making a singular verb agree with a

plural subject ; as, they is and they teas, for they are

and they were ; as,

George and John was here. The horses is tired.

294. Phrases and clauses used for the subject, in¬

stead of nouns, may be called noun phrases and noun

clauses. These are regarded as in the singular num¬

ber, and take a verb in the singular ; as.

To suffer is the lot of man. To do good is a duty. Tending the sheep is the work of a shepherd boy. That Washington was the first president of the United

States is ivell known.

Here the verb in the infinitive, the infinitive phrase,

the participial phrase, and the complete clause con¬

taining a subject and predicate of its own, are all

subjects of sentences, and take verbs in the singular.

295. A collective noun, as we have seen, may have

a verb in the singular or the plural, according to the

meaning intended. Note the difference in meaning

between the word jury in the following two sen¬

tences :

The jury is made up. The jury are weary.

296. A compound subject requires a verb in the plural

when the conjunctive that unites the simple subjects

leaves the verb to declare the same thing concerning

them all; as,

Mary and George go to school.

Vicksburg and Natchez are on the 3fississippi River.


When the conjunctive so joins the simple subjects

of a compound subject as to make impossible the

same declaration concerning them all, then the verb

is in the singular number, agreeing with each subject

separately ; as,

Either Mary or George comes to-day. Neither Vicksburg nor Natchez is on the Hudson River.

If the compound subject contains nouns or pro¬

nouns in different persons, the verb must agree with

that member of the compound which is nearest it; as,

Neither he nor they have heard of it. Neither they nor he has heard of it.

In compound predicates the auxiliary verb is often

expressed with the first simple predicate only ; as,

I have lived, learned, loved, and forgotten.

297. The noun is sometimes used without a verb,

adding an idea to the sentence, but forming no part of

its structure. When so used it is called the noun inde¬ pendent, or absolute, and is in the nominative inde¬ pendent case; as.

The sisters sat, side by side.

Such forms have the general effect of adjectives or

adverbial phrases.

298. The infinitive mode, as has been learned, may

be the subject of a verb. It may also be the object of

a verb ; as, She tries to learn.

It may, like an adjective, qualify a noun ; as.

He is in haste to go.


Like an adverb, it may qualify an adjective; as,

I am ready to die ;

or it may be the object of a preposition ; as.

He is about to go.

The infinitive, or the infinitive phrase, may be the

object complement after a transitive verb ; as.

We wish him to be a merchant.

After some verbs, as feel, dare, make, let, the sign to

is generally omitted ; as,

Let us go, not Let us to go.

Here let is in the imperative mode, having ns for

its direct object, and the infinitive to go for the ob¬

jective complement.

299. There are nice distinctions in the use of the

auxiliary verbs shall and will. In expressing the ac¬

tion of a verb simply as future, shall belongs with the

first person of both numbers, and will belongs with the

second and third persons ; as,

I shall go, We shall go.

You will go, They will go.

When the meaning is one of determination, this rule

is reversed, and will is used with the first person, and

shall with the second and third persons ; as,

I will go, no one shall hinder me. You (or they) shall go j I will have it so.

300. Interrogative sentences may be analyzed by

putting them into the declarative form. Where the

P. El. Gr. —10


interrogative pronoun is in the nominative case, the sentence may be analyzed as it stands; as,

Who is the man ?

Who ? is man —the

Where the interrogative pronoun is in the objective case, it must be regarded as following the verb ; as,

Whom did you call ? = You did call whom?

You did call —whom ?

The auxiliary, separated from the main verb for the purpose of interrogation, must be reunited ; as.

Has the long dreary rain ceased?—The long dreary rain has ceased?

301. An imperative sentence, having no subject expressed, is to be so explained. In the sentence,

Give me my purse,

there is no subject expressed, the predicate is give,

and the modified predicate is the whole sentence. Give is a verb in the imperative mode, number un¬ known, being a command to the person or persons addressed.

Exercise.

302. Analyze the sentences. Point out the subjects and predicates, simple and compound. Parse the verbs. Explain the punctuation.

1. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day.


curfew tolls The— -—knell

—the —of day

—parting

2. The lightning flashes and the thunder roars.

3. The nation declared its independence.

4. That he was a great poet is admitted ; but that he was a

great man is denied.

5. To have a giant’s strength is excellent ; but to use it like a

giant is tyrannous.

6. Tending the sheep was the work of Little Boy Blue.

7. Mary, Ann and Jane have recited, reported and gone.

Exercise.

303. Construct sentences containing compound sub¬ jects or predicates, or both ; sentences with infinitives

or phrases, or noun-clauses for subjects ; interrogative and imperative sentences.

1. Who were at the picnic ?

2. Who composed the baseball team ?

3. Who were elected officers of the club ?

4. Call the grocer through the telephone, and give him your

order.

QUESTIONS.

What is a verb ? What is the office of the predicate ? What

is the rule for the agreement of the verb ? Besides the noun and

the pronoun what parts of speech or forms of speech may be the

subject of a verb ? In what number is a verb whose subject is

a collective noun ? What number of the verb is required by a

compound subject ? When does a compound subject have a verb

in the singular number ?

Explain the noun independent. What parts of a sentence

may the infinitive mode compose ? Explain the use of the

auxiliary verbs shall and will. How are interrogative sentences

analyzed ? Imperative sentences ?


304. Errors to be Avoided. — Avoid the choice of

wrong verbs and of wrong forms of right verbs.

Set and lay are transitive verbs, and usually take

objects. Sit and lie are intransitive verbs. I set down is wrong, and should be I sit down. In the

imperative sentence. Lay it down, Carlo, the verb

is the proper one ; but if the order refers to the

dog’s own position, it should be. Lie down, Carlo. The principal parts of the intransitive verb to lie

are lie, lay, lain; of the transitive verb to lay, are lay, laid, laid. The sentence, I laid on the sofa, contains the wrong verb ; it should be, /

lay on the sofa, using the intransitive verb.

305. Using the wrong tense, or the wrong formation of a

tense, is another error. The principal parts of the

verb to do are do, did, done. To say I done it is to use the past participle instead of the past

indicative, I did it. The wrong tense in the em¬

phatic form of the verb should be avoided. 1

done learned my lesson, should be, I did learn my lesson. It is wrong to say, Untended to have gone. How can you intend to do a thing which, accord¬

ing to the words you use, must take place before

you form the intention ? The present, instead of

the past, of the infinitive is the correct tense : I intended to yo.

306. Avoid the use of the wrong person of the verb.

Don’t is a contracted form of do not. In the sen¬

tence He don’t, which is equivalent to He do not, you use the first person of the verb with the third

person of the subject. You should say He doesn’t, and I don’t.

307. Avoid the plural form of the verb with the singu¬

lar form of the subject; as, James with his brothers


have gone. Brothers is in the objective case

after the preposition with, and cannot be the sub¬

ject of the verb. The sentence expresses the cir¬

cumstances in which James has gone, and should

be, James, with his brothers, has gone. Each is

third person singular ; therefore. Each of them

have consented is wrong.

SOS. Avoid the mistake of using will for shall, and

shall for will. The rule of good usage requires

shall with the first person, and will with all the

other persons. 1 will go (I am willing to go) is

proper when your consent is asked ; to express

mere future action, I shall go is the proper form.

Exercise.

509. Correct the errors, and give the principles and

rules which sustain the corrections. Kemeinber that

the tenses of verbs may be formed from the principal

parts.

1. The hen is setting.

2. The dog is laying down.

3. I come back yesterday.

4. The meeting has broke up.

5. I shall lay down to rest.

6. George laid on the grass.

7. A sensible man don’t talk in that way.

8. The cattle were drove to the yard.

9. I want to lay down.

10. He don’t know what he is saying.

11. Set down, now !

12. I laid down on my bed.

13. He done it.

14. John, with his friends, have left us.

15. Each of them have done wrong.

16. I will go to-morrow.

17. He says he shall go to-day.


XXXI. USE OF THE PARTICIPLE.

310. In §222 the properties of the participle have

been explained. It is both an adjective and a verb.

It adds to the noun or pronoun, or words used for

them, the idea of action or being, and has this advan¬

tage over the adjective—that it may, like other parts

of the verb, be followed by modifiers.

The participle may be used as a noun; as.

The rising and setting of the sun.

It may also be used as an adjective:

The rising and the setting sun.

Participles, therefore, are verbal nouns and verbal adjectives.

The participle may be parsed like those parts of

speech for which it is used. In the sentence,

The ship, entering the rapids, was iv recked,

entering, like an adjective, qualifies and agrees with

the noun ship, and, as a verb, is followed by rapids as its object.

The participle may be qualified by an adverb, as

may the adjective and the verb; as,

a truly loving heart, a very charming landscape.

311. The participial phrase may be arranged in the

sentence either before or after the word or words which

it modifies. The effect is often more pleasing if this

phrase is placed before the modified words ; as.

USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 151

Finding myself surrounded, I ivas alarmed.

This is better than,

I ivas alarmed, finding myself surrounded.

The participial phrase is often nsed in an indepen¬

dent or absolute way. Thus it adds the idea of the manner or condition of the action which the sentence

asserts.

Peace being established, prosperity once more reigned.

This is a simple sentence with an independent parti¬

cipial phrase. By changing it into a complex sen¬

tence, the force of the participial phrase may be

understood ; thus.

Prosperity once more reigned, when peace was estab¬

lished.

The last clause is adverbial, modifying the verb

reigned. Exercise.

312. Analyze the sentences, parsing the participles

and participial phrases.

1. By studying the ivories of nature, we learn much.

This is a sentence, declarative ; simple ; the subject we, the predicate learn; the subject unmodified ;

the predicate modified by the object much, an ad¬

jective used as a noun, and by the participial phrase studying the works of nature, introduced by the

preposition by, and having the force of an adverbial

modifier. Studying is a participle, present tense,

of the verb to study, used here as a verbal noun; ob¬ jective case, object of the preposition by ; as a verb.


it is modified by works as its object; works is modi¬

fied by the, and by the prepositional phrase of nature.

We learn

—much —by studying

—works —the —of nature

2. In observing times and seasons, there is little profit.

3. The dangers assailing them on all sides discouraged them.

4. By hearing and repeating falsehoods, we at last believe them.

5. We become wearied with often traveling the same road.

Exercise.

313. Form participial sentences upon :

1. fishing

2. riding

3. sailing

4. rain

5. frost

6. sunshine

7. truth

8. strength

9. youth

QUESTIONS.

What is a participle ? How many and what are its tenses ?

What is a tense ? What two ideas does the participle express ?

For what parts of speech may the participle be used ? How is it

parsed ? Explain the independent construction of the participle.

By what may the participle be qualified ? How may the parti¬

cipial phrase be arranged in the sentence ?

314. Errors to be avoided in the use of the participle consist chiefly in using instead of it other forms of the verb, and in using the participles of the wrong verbs.

USE OF THE ADVERB. 153

Exercise.

315. Correct the errors, and explain the corrections.

1. Breakfast was ate an hour ago.

2. History is teached in our school.

3. The house was shook by a slight earthquake.

4. George was throwed from his horse.

5. He knowed the horse wasn't well broke.

XXXII. USE OF THE ADVERB.

316. A description of the adverb and its different classes is given in §§63 and 224. The rule for the use

of adverbs is, that they qualify verbs, adjectives, and

other adverbs.

All kinds of adverbs do not qualify each of the parts of speech named. Those that qualify other adverbs

are nearly always adverbs of degree, such as very, too,

more, most, only. Some prepositions are used as adverbs ; as.

It turned up. He came in. He ran off.

The mere form of a word does not decide what part of speech it is; the mind must be alert to detect its

use in the particular instance. 317. Adverb phrases are formed with prepositions,

and are regarded as single words ; as,

in vain, in short, at all, for good,

at last, at least.

These are phrases with adjectives. By stealth is an

adverb phrase formed of a noun with a preposition.

In forming sentences, it is important to arrange the


words so that the adverbs will be seen to qualify the

words they are intended to qualify.

I speak for myself only.

In this sentence it is uncertain whether the speaker

means that no one else speaks, or that he speaks only

for himself, and not for others. If he means the latter, the adverb should be placed where it will qualify the phrase for myself, which is used as an adverb :

1 speak only for myself.

318. The adverh should he so placed in the sentence as plainly to qualify the word or words intended.

319. The infinitive with its sign to is used as the object of a verb ; as.

He resolved to visit us.

The adverb should not be introduced between the parts of the infinitive ; as,

He resolved to immediately visit us.

The correct form is :

He resolved to visit us immediately.

320. The adverbs yes, and no when used to refuse or deny, have something of the nature of the interjec¬ tion ; as,

Will you go ? No. m

Here no is equivalent to the complete statement I will not go, and has lost much of its adverbial force. Before adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree no has its adverbial value, and is equivalent to not.

USE OF THE ADVERB. 155

321. In some complex sentences adverbs serve to

connect the dependent with the independent clause,

qualifying the verbs of both clauses ; as,

When spring opens, the birds come.

Here the adverb when qualifies both verbs, opens

and come. In such sentences, adverbs are often used

in pairs, both of which qualify the verbs :

When spring opens, then the birds come ; so long as

men can breathe and eyes can see.

When and then, so long and as, qualify the verbs.

322. To distinguish an adverb from a preposition or a conjunction, look for the verb, adjective, or other

adverb in the sentence, and ask whether the idea ex¬ pressed by the word adds anything to the idea of either

of them.

Exercise.

323. Analyze the sentences, parsing the adverbs. Example 3 is a compound-complex sentence, composed

of two complex sentences joined by a semicolon in the

place of a conjunction.

1. When his branch is yet tender, and putteth forth leaves, ye

know that summer is nigh.

2. Wheresoever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered

together.

3. Whither thou goest (you go), I will go ; where thou lodgest

(you lodge), I will lodge.

4. We only part to meet again.

5. He that doeth (does) wrong shall receive for the wrong

which he hath (has) done.

6. It is better to think wisely than to speak eloquently.

7. Experience is a hard school, but fools will learn in no

easier one.

15G THE PRINCIPLES GOVERNING SPEECH.

Exercise.

324. Construct sentences containing adverbs and

adverb phrases.

1. When do flowers blossom and fruits ripen ?

2. Under what circumstances do oranges and pineapples grow ?

3. Where would you like to go ?

4. When will you be ready ?

QUESTIONS.

What is an adverb ? Into what classes may adverbs be di¬

vided ? What other parts of speech are sometimes used as

adverbs ? What is an adverb phrase ? How should adverbs be

arranged in sentences ? Where *is the adverb qualifying an in¬

finitive with to placed ? Parse the adverbs yes and no.

325. Errors to be Avoided.—Avoid wrong selection of words for adverbs. In The river jloivs swift, the adjective swift is used instead of the adverb swiftly.

326. Avoid wrong arrangement. An adverb should not be placed between a verb and its auxiliary be ;

as, The house ivill be never finished. The adverb must be so placed as to leave no doubt as to what verb it qualifies.

327. Avoid the use of two contradictory adverbs. 1 haven't got no booh, means, I have a booh, because one negative denies the other. I have no booh, expresses the intended meaning.

Exercise.

328. Correct errors in words and arrangement.

1. He is a remarkable fine fellow.

2. He speaks very easy.

3. He is illy provided for.

4. She is like to be situated comfortably.

USE OF THE CONJUNCTION. 157

XXXIII. USE OF THE CONJUNCTION.

329. In §80 conjunctions are shown to connect words and sentences. Words which usually perform some other office in the sentence are sometimes used as conjunctions. The adverbs before, ivhen, where, while, etc., may perform at the same time the office of adverb and conjunction, and are then called conjunct¬ ive adverbs; as,

I shall be up when the sun rises.

330. The relative pronouns who, which, that, may perform at the same time the office of pronoun and conjunction ; as.

The man who was sick is well.

331. Conjunctions are sometimes used in pairs, called correlatives, seeming to connect more closely ; as.

Both he and I shall go.

The most common correlatives are :

both—and neither—nor though—yet though—still

whether—or if—then because—therefore more—than

other—than else—but not—but not—nor

as—so so—as as—as so—that

Exercise.

332. Analyze the sentences, and parse the conjunc¬ tions.

1. Because he is ordered, therefore he will obey.

2. We must neither despise nor neglect instruction.

3. Talent is something, but tact is everything.

4. A thrifty man spends less than he earns.

5. If a man die, shall he live again ?

6. Actions speak louder than words.


QUESTIONS.

Define conjunction. Give an illustration of the same word

used as a conjunction, a preposition, and an adverb. What pro¬

nouns may be used as conjunctions ? What adverbs ? Make a

sentence containing a conjunctive pronoun. A conjunctive

adverb. What are correlative conjunctions ? Name some pairs

of these correlatives. What adverbs are used in correlative

pairs ?

333. Errors to be Avoided.—In the use of the correla¬ tives, care must be taken not to mix the pairs. Neither he or I shall go, Either he nor I shall go, are equally incorrect, because the wrong cor¬ relatives are associated.

334. The conjunction as must be paired with as or with so> not with than; as. He was as good as

his word. The sentence. He ivas as good and even better than his word, contains an error, because as is paired with than. Test it by putting the related words together : He was as good than his word, and even better than his word. Substitute as for than9 and leave the latter part of the sen¬ tence incomplete, thus : He was as good as his word, and even better (than his word).

Exercise.

335. Correct all errors, giving reasons. Omit use¬ less conjunctions.

1. Being as I was in town, I thought for to call on you.

2. Whether or no you was at home I didn’t know.

3. A horse is swifter nor an ox.

4. The mail did not arrive either yesterday nor to-day.

5. The crop was as large and even larger than was expected.

6. Because he is inexperienced, then he ought to learn from

others.

APPENDIX.

RULES FOR CAPITALS.

Begin with capital letters :

1. The first word of every sentence.

It is never too late to mend.

2. The first word of every line of poetry.

I bring fresh showers for thirsting flowers, From the sea and the streams.

3. The first word of every direct quotation,,

He said, “Knowledge is power.”

4. The words I and 0.

0, my son Absalom, would I had died for thee !

5. Most abbreviations.

M.D., P.S., Mr.

6. Proper names and proper adjectives.

James, Europe, Spanish, American.

7. Days of the week and months of the year.

Monday, March.

8. Names of the Supreme Being.

God, Lord.

PUNCTUATION.

A period should be placed after every declarative and

imperative sentence, and after every abbreviation.

Virtue is its own reward. Obey your parents. P. S.

(159)

160 APPENDIX.

An interrogation point should be placed after every

direct question.

Do you hear me ?

An exclamation point should be placed after every expression or sentence denoting strong emotion.

Sweet bird ! thy bower is ever green.

Quotation marks are used to inclose quoted passages.

“Sweet are the uses of adversity.”

Commas should be used to separate the parts of sen¬

tences.

The brook had nothing to do but to flow, to look limpid, and to murmur amid fragrant flowers.

When the subdivisions of a sentence are separated by commas, the main divisions should be separated by semicolons.

To err is human ; to forgive, divine.

The colon should be used to separate parts of a sem tence that have no direct grammatical relation.

Terms : Forty dollars a year, in advance.

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Elementary grammar of the English language