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Leaven Leaven
Volume 2 Issue 1 Church Organization Article 4
1-1-1992
Elders in the Old Testament Community Elders in the Old Testament Community
Timothy Willis [email protected]
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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Willis, Timothy (1992) "Elders in the Old Testament Community," Leaven: Vol. 2 : Iss. 1 , Article 4. Available at: https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/leaven/vol2/iss1/4
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Religion at Pepperdine Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Leaven by an authorized editor of Pepperdine Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected], [email protected].
8 Leaven, Winter 1992
Elders inthe Old Testament
Community
The role of elders has been a significant oneamong the churches of the Restoration Movement.The Biblical basis for that role has been interpretedprimarily from the prescriptions for elders ("presby-ters'Y'overseers") set forth by Paul in 1Timothy 3:1-8 and Titus 1:6-8. Yet, we have viewed those pre-scriptions through modern eyes; that is many ofusconceive of this institution in light of our currentsociety, in light ofAmerican democracy. Weview aneldership in contrast to the ecclesiastical structuresof other churches and see in it a more "democratic"system. More specifically, we view elderships aspart of an overall plan ofGod to protect our freedomof religion from the control of some distant govern-ing board ofthe church. In addition to this, there hasbeen a push in recent years to emphasize the spiri-tual aspects of elders, focusing on their role asshepherds.
The purpose of this essay is to discuss some ofthe basic roles and functions ofIsraelite elders in theOld Testament as a backdrop to some generalthoughts about elders ofthe New Testament church.Rule by elders is a rather common institution, foundin communities based on strong kinship ties. Whenwe realize this and its ramifications, we should get
Tim Willis teaches Old Testament at PepperdineUniversity. This material was presented at theChristian Scholars Conference, Pepperdine, July 20,1988.
by Tim Willis
a new perspective on what God, through Paul, wastrying to accomplish in calling for the appointmentof elders in the churches of the first century.
Categories of Old Testament EldersA thorough study ofthe elders of the Old Testa-
ment community is too complicated to be presentedin one essay. My own research into this topicinvolves investigations of groups of elders in ap-proximately four dozen tribal societies and tribalgroups living in state societies for comparison withthe elders of ancient Israel, as well as detailedexegeses ofreferences to elders in the OldTestamen t.What follows is a bare outline of some ofmy centralconclusions.
I am convinced that there were three distinctcategories ofmen in ancient Israel designated in theOld Testament as "elders" (the Hebrew term iszeqenim = bearded ones; this does not includenumerous passages in which zeqenim refers to "oldmen" in juxtaposition to "boys" or "children"). Thecategory ofelders mentioned firstin the Biblical textis "the elders of Israel," sometimes said to haveconsisted of seventy men (Exodus 24; Numbers 11),which was a representative body for the entirenation. This body became the Sanhedrin sometimeafter the Babylonian Exile. A second category ofelders is a group of administrative advisors in theroyal court called "elders of the king's house" or,simply, "the elders" (see 2 Samuel 12:17; Genesis24:2 ; 50:7; 1 Kings 12:6-15; Psalm 105:22). This
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body faded away after the fall of Jerusalem, but itsmemory was preserved in some apocalyptic literature(2Enoch 4;Revelation 4:4,10; 19:4). A third categoryof elders is the elders of cities. It is this group ofelders which was the institutional ancestor to theelders Paul prescribes in Timothy and Titus.
City EldersThere are fourteen clear references in the Old
Testament to city elders (Deuteronomy 19:12; 21:2-8; 21:19-20; 22:15-19; 25:7-9; Joshua 20:4-5;Judges 8:14-16; 11:5-11; Ruth 4:1-12; 1 Samuel11:3; 16:4; 1 Kings 21:8-12; Ezra 10:14; Proverbs31:23). Three official functions of these elders arementioned. As one might expect, several passagesspeak ofcity elders serving in some judicial capacity.In reality, very few details about this role are given.Laws specifically mentioning the roles ofcity eldersare given concerning only cases of murder(Deuteronomy 19:1-13; 21:1-9; Joshua 20:1-9),rebellious children (Deuteronomy 21:18-21), leviratemarriages (Deuteronomy 25:5-10; Ruth 4:1-12), andadultery (Deuteronomy 22:13-21). There are alse afew examples of the involvement of elders in landtransactions(e.g.,Ruth4:1-12). Besides these, thereare a few passages which mention how elders couldfunction as representatives oftheir respective com-munities in dealings with outsiders (I Samuel 16:1-5).
There is little evidence that the structure andfunctions of Israel's city elders changed much overthe centuries. The most significant changes camewhen the people were exiled to Assyria and Babylon,and during the subsequent Diaspora. Many Jewswere transplanted to non-Jewish cities at that time.In those cities, they formed a sort ofcity within a city,a Jewish "district" or "quarter." Leading men oftheJewish community served as elders, with thecommunity's religious life now revolving around thesynagogue. Although the form of the societalstructures ofthe cities in which they came to dwellwere sometimes quite different from those of theirpast, the people still maintained old customs andbeliefs in their new environment. This was thesituation in many Jewish communities ofthe RomanEmpire during the first century.
A similar persistence in old tribal patterns isfound in most countries in which a tribal society-i.e., a society which has a non-centralized politicalsystem-has been taken over by a state society witha centralized government. This is true whether thetribal peoples introduced the central governmentthemselves (as in the Israelite monarchy) orwhethergovernment was imposed on them from outside bysome other group. This persistence of old tribal
Church Structure 9
structures, practices, and beliefs is due in large partto the kinship bases to these communities. The basicfamily unit is not the nuclear family (husband-wife-children), but the "extended family" or "minimallineage." An extended family consists ofthe oldestsurviving member of a family and all of his descen-dants. A minimal lineage consists of one or moreextended families all descended from a commonancestor who lived a few generations prior to thefamilies currently living.' Such a group may consistof20-200 persons. In spite of this increased size, theminimal lineage often functions much as we wouldexpect a nuclear family to function. All the membersof a minimal lineage feel common economic, emo-tional, moral, and legal responsibilities to one an-other. When one member is in need, the wholefamily steps in to help. When one members suffers,the whole family hurls. When one member sins, thewhole family is shamed. When one member isaccused of wrong or is physically threatened byothers, the whole family must defend that memberor bear the consequences. Elders arise from theranks of senior members of the various extendedfamilies within these lineages.
The minimal lineage in the Old Testament iscalled a "father's house" (beyt 'ab; pronounced "baitav"). This is most obvious from the story ofAchan in
There is little evidence thatthe structure and functionsof Israel's city elders changedmuch over the centuries ....Elders arose from the ranksof senior members of thevarious extended familieswithin theirlineages.
Joshua 7:16-18. This is the man who caused Israelto be defeated at Ai by keeping goods captured atJericho. Goddesignated Achan as the culprit throughlot-casting. By this method, he was able to narrowthe field of candidates by working his way throughthe different levels in Israel's tribal structure. First,he indicated the culprit's tribe (Judah), then his"clan" (also translated "family"; Zerah), and then his"house" (Zabdi). Zabdi was Achan's grandfather.Zabdi was deceased by this time. This is known
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because Achan was a grown man with a wife andchildren, and his father or grandfather would havebeen ofthe generation whichdied in the Wilderness. (On"father's house," see alsoNum l:lff.: 26:1ff.) Still,Achan was considered tobe part ofZabdi's minimallineage, the "house ofZabdi."
The corporate re-sponsibility oftheminimallineage is indicated mostclearly by stories like thattold in the book of Ruth,and by laws ofredemption(e.g., Lev 25:47-49, whichcalls for one's brother oruncle or uncle's son to re-deem one who has beensold into slavery to a for-eigner). One must keep inmind this strong sense offamily corporateness whenone reads laws involving elders, because elders intribal societies usually do not get involved in adispute unless it affects more than one extendedfamily or more than one minimal lineage in a com-munity. For example, in Deut. 21:18-21, there is alaw requiring parents to hand over a rebellious sonfor punishment. This law seems extreme.to us;however, the involvement ofthe city's elders-amongother things in the text-indicates that the son'srebellion is such that it affects the reputation andwell-being of the entire community.
Perhaps one of the greatest misconceptions wehave about elders in tribal communities is the waythey interact with the rest ofthe members oftheircommunity. Because of our American society, wetend to impose our experiences with democraticrepresentative bodies and typical business meetingsupon what we read about with elders. For example,we often talk about elders as "officers" in the church,which gives a particular flavor to our perception ofthe way in which they exercise authority. I havefound elderships in tribal societies to be more demo-cratic and less business-like than we imagine. Onebrief example will illustrate this.
The following is exerpted from a description ofthe Thotribesmen ofNigeria. This particular examplehas been picked because it describes so many char-acteristics which are typical ofmeetings in many ofthe tribal societies about which I have read. Theauthor here uses "elder" and "leader" interchange-ably."
The day-to-day routine business (of an lbo vil-lage) was carriedout by persons re-ferred to in govern-ment reports as'the elders.' Moreimportant busi-ness was dealtwith at villagecouncil meetings,for example, mat-ters involving de-cisions affectingthe whole com-munity. . . (Acollection of vil-lages is called atoum.) Matterswhich affected allthe villages in atown were deter-
mined at a towncouncil meeting
convened by the 'elders' of its component villages ...The members of the council meeting were graded ona basis of age into elders, ...men, and young men. Agehowever was considerably modified by achievement
We often talk about elders as"officers" in the church, whichgives a particular flavor to ourperception of the way in whichthey exercise authority. I havefound elderships in tribal soci-eties to be more democratic andless business-like than weimagine.
The meeting was opened by a village leader (i.e.,an elder) who introduced an dexplained the subject tobe discussed. Any person who wished was then freeto address the meeting ... Veteran leaders took careto speak tow ads the end of the discussion when theycouldjudge the general feeling of the meeting and putforward arguments which would uiin general support
When the leaders felt that the matter had beenfully discussed and some degree of unanimity hadbeen reached they ... retired ... to consult. They stoodout of earshot of the meeting, literally putting theirheads together. All appeared to be talking at once,but gradually the babel subsided as a decision wasarrived at. They then returned to the meeting and oneof them, 'the spokesman,' usually a leader acceptedby his fellows as their best public speaker, announcedthe decision, pausing after each important point forthe assembly to indicate its assent by acclamation ..
The assembly always accepted the elder's deci-sum for the simple reason that it was in fact their owndecision. The elders, when they retired, were notmaking a new decision but consulting how to giveprecise definition and expression to the general feel-ing expressed by the meeting. "
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One aspect of this meeting should be high-lighted. Any man is welcomed to attend. Tribesmentypically give two reasons for this: (1) the commu-nity wants a true consensus opinion on the matter athand, and (2) this meeting provides a forum inwhich the younger men can see how a respectableperson (an elder) conducts himself.
But what do individuals have to do to attain thestatus ofelder in the community? Not every oldmanbecomes an elder. What sets off certian individualsas "elders?"
Research has led me to descriptions of the char-acteristics (qualifications, if you will) of elders froma variety of societies. What is surprising is that analmost identical set ofbasic characteristics ofeldersof a local community appears in each ofthese societ-ies. These qualifications usually include the follow-ing: (1) an elder is a senior member of a largeextended family; (2)he is wealthy, but also generousand hospitable; '(3) his character exemplifies thestandards of ethics and morality which the com-munity esteems most highly; (4)he is well-versed inhis people's "secret knowledge" (religious practices,customs, and history); and, (5) he is known in thecommunity for his oratorical skills, especially hisskill of persuasion.
The first characteristic (family) gives him asignificant constituency-and, consequently, a sig-nificant voice--in the community. The next twocharacteristics (generosity and moral/ethical up-rightness) demonstrate tohis family and the broadercommunity that he has the interests of the com-munity, not just his personal interests, at heart. Thefinal two characteristics (knowledge and oratoricalskills) are necessary tools for him to have if he isgoing to represent his group effectively. As in theexample given above, consensus is central to thedecision-making process. Even in criminal cases, itis felt that no settlement has been reached unless itis obvious that both parties in the case will agreewith the correctness of the verdict of the eldersbefore it is given. The elders, therefore, must bemasters ofpersuasion. They must use their oratori-cal skills, along with their extensive knowledge ofthe community's past for historical and legal prece-dents, to achieve a consensus, if one does not emergenaturally. If a consensus is not reached, there willprobably be a rift in the community.
Similar characteristics can be inferred for Israel'selders from the Old Testament. A delineation ofsome of the principal characteristics of an Israeliteelder appears in Job 29 and 31, Job's final defensebefore his three friends. Job speaks ofhis earlier lifeas the life of the ideal elder. He describes his
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economic status in terms ofthe size ofhis family (hischildren) and of his herds (milk) and orchards (oil)(29:5-6). Thus we know that he was the head of alarge and wealthy family. He points to his generos-ity, hospitality, and ethics in the acts ofbenevolencewhich he performed habitually (29:12-16; see 31:1-40). He was famous for his skills in speaking andpersuasion, holding the attention of all who came tothe gate of the city (29:7,11, 21-23). His fameapparently spread beyond his own relatives, foreven "princes" and "nobles" stopped talking to listento him (29:9-10), and he was like a "chief' and a"king" to the people (29:25). As is the case in similarsocieties, these characteristics ofpersuasive speechand wisdom would have been most significant forsituations ofpotential community strife. The coun-sel of an elder like Job would have carried muchweight.
Although Job 29 does not mention any knowl-edge of ancient traditions, laws, and stories, thischaracteristic ofelders is mentioned elsewhere. Forexample, in Deut 32:7, Moses invokes the people toturn to their "fathers" and their "elders" to hear thestories of God's past deeds. In sum, typical charac-teristics oftribal elders are found in Israel's descrip-tions of her own elders.
New Testament EldersWhen we turn to the New Testament, we find
many similarities between the elders of the churchand elders in typical kinship-based communities,including those of ancient Israel. A comparison ofthe "qualifications" of elders in I Timothy 3 andTitus 1 to common characteristics of those elders
When we turn to the New Tes-tament, we find many simi-larities between the elders ofthe church and elders in typi-cal kinship-based communi-ties, including those of an-cient Israel.
brings this out. Elders in kinship-based communi-ties are senior members of respected families; aChristian elder is to be one "whomanages his house-hold well" (1Timothy 3:4-5), and whose children arealso part of the community of believers (Titus 1:6).
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Typically, kinship-based elders are wealthy, butthey also are generous and hospitable; a Christianelder, whatever his standard ofliving, is to be "hos-pitable," "no lover ofmoney," "not greedy for gain" (ITimothy 3:2,3; Titus 1:7). Elders lead examplarylives in regard to the ethics and morality of theircommunities; a Christian elder should be "abovereproach, the husband of one wife, temperate, sen-sible, dignified" (1 Timothy 3:2); and he must be "alover of goodness, master of himself, upright, holy,and self-controlled" (Titus 1:8). Elders carry on thetraditions and beliefs of their people; a Christianelder is "not a recent convert" (1 Timothy 3:6), and"hemusthold firm to the sure word as taught, so thathe may be able to give instruction in sound doc-trine ..." (Titus 1:9). Finally, elders must be goodspeakers, able to persuade the members of theircommunity of measures which benefit the wholecommunity, as well as serving as worthy represen-tatives for their community to outsiders; a Christianelder, we are told, should be "an apt teacher" (1Timothy 3:2), he should not be "quarrelsome" (1Timothy 3:3), "he must be well thought ofby outsid-ers" (1 Timothy 3:7), "not ...quick-tempered or ...vio-lent" (Titus 1:7).
The commonalities between elders of typicalkinship-based societies and elders ofthe NewTesta-ment church are too pervasive to be overlooked.Paul's prescriptions for the elders in the churches ofEphesus and Crete were nothing new to the world,nor were they unique to Israel prior to the advent ofChristianity. Those characteristics are, in fact,typical of elders in most kinship-based societies.
This realization should make us stop and reex-amine our idea of why the "qualifications of elders"are given in Timothy and Titus. Here is one tradi-tional idea:
Through the medium of the Holy Spirit
God has revealed to mankind the plan tobe used in the governing of His Church ...(This) plan is perfect and if conscien-tiously followed, His children will live inharmony and their work will be doneregularly, systematically and enthusias-tically.?
This perception of elderships is managerial,very business-like. The church has a task to do, andGod has revealed the most effective way to organizeit so that it can accomplish that task. My ownperception of what Paul prescribes, in light of thesimilarities to typical elderships, is that Paul is notconcerned so much with giving us a divinely-or-dained "structure" or "plan" as he is trying to createa community ofbelievers. He wanted a communityto emerge where one had not existed before, consist-ing of people previously unrelated, but now related(a family) in a very special way.
I hope that the church can recapture that com-munity mentality. This will require more thanadherence to certain structural patters so that thingscan run smoothly. It will require a renewed spirit offamily, true family, among church members. Therole which elders play in this is very important.They must earn and maintain the respect of themembers of their congregations by modelling theChristian life to those members. They must modellives ofgenerosity and hospitality, lives ofexemplarymoral and ethical character. They must be reposi-tories of knowledge and wisdom for their congrega-tion, and they must constantly work for unity andconsensus. They are not a governing board or anadministrative structure. They are shepherds (IPeter 5:1-3) and fathers (Deuteronomy 32:7). Theyare respected senior leaders of a community, of afamily of believers.
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