Effects of Alternative Protein Sources on Nutrient Digestibility, Performance, Carcass Traits and Serum Hormone Profiles of Growing-Finishing Pigs

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TAVS 1-1 (2010) 1-11

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Trends in Animal Veterinary Sciences

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Original Article

Effects of Alternative Protein Sources on Nutrient Digestibility, Performance,

Carcass Traits and Serum Hormone Profiles of Growing-Finishing Pigs

Philip THACKER1*

1Department of Animal Science, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5A8

Received:28.07.2010 Accepted:10.08.2010 Published:13.08.2010

Abstract

This trial was conducted to compare nutrient digestibility, performance, carcass traits and serum hormone profiles of pigs fed four alternative

protein sources with that of pigs fed soybean meal. Sixty crossbred pigs weighing an average of 24.3+ 2.6 kg were assigned on the basis ofsex, weight and litter to one of five dietary treatments in a 2 x 5 factorial design experiment (N=12). The main effects tested were sex of pig(barrows vs. gilts) and protein source. The control diet was formulated using ground barley and soybean meal while four experimental dietswere formulated in which 20% of canola meal, wheat distillers grains with solubles, or 50:50 combinations of co-extruded full-fat flax seed

and peas (Linpro) or co-extruded canola seed and peas (Extrapro) was substituted for barley and soybean meal. During the entireexperimental period (24.3-112.5 kg), there were no differences in weight gain or feed intake due to treatment. Feed conversion wassignificantly (P


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ethanol. This in turn will lead to substantial quantities of

wheat distillers grains with solubles being made available to

the livestock industry for use as animal feed.

Full-fat canola (rapeseed) and flax (linseed) contain

approximately 20-25% crude protein and 40-43% oil (Novus

1994). The oils of these seeds are also rich in -linolenic acidwith canola and flax containing 10-12% and 48-52% -

linolenic acid respectively (Lee et al. 1991). -Linolenic acid

is a metabolic precursor for the synthesis of the omega-3 fatty

acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid

(Romans et al. 1995ab). Health authorities in many countries

are advising people to consume more of these fatty acids

because they are thought to be important for normal growth

and development (Simopoulos 1999). Incorporation of full-

fat flax and canola seeds into diets fed to swine has been

shown to significantly increase the incorporation of omega-3

fatty acids into carcass tissues (Cunnane et al. 1990; Romans

et al. 1995ab; Mathews et al. 2000). Consumption of pork

from pigs fed these products could be a potential mechanism

with which to increase the levels of omega-3 fatty acids in the

human diet.

It can be difficult to incorporate full-fat canola and flax

into swine diets as the meshed screen on a hammer mill has a

tendency to become plugged when processing these products.

Handling problems during grinding and storage attributed to

the high oil content of these seeds can be counteracted by

mixing these products with other ingredients such as ground

peas (Thacker and Qiao 2002; Thacker et al. 2004).

An additional concern with canola and flax seeds is the

presence of anti-nutritional factors. Canola seed contains

glucosinolates, sinapine and tannins (Bell 1993; Campbell

and Schone 1998) while flax contains mucilage, phytic acid,

goitrogens, and anti-pyridoxin (Thacker et al. 2004; Bhattyand Cherdkiatgumchai 1990). As a consequence, the

performance of pigs fed full-fat canola seed and flax may be

improved by heating. One method of providing heat is

through extrusion processing (ODoherty and Keady 2000).

Two alternative feeds have recently been developed involving

50:50 combinations of co-extruded full-fat flax seed (Linpro)

or canola seed (Extrapro) and peas (Thacker and Qioa 2002;

Thacker et al. 2004, Kiarie and Nyachoti 2007). The

objective of the present trial was to compare the nutrient

digestibility, performance, and carcass traits of pigs fed these

alternative protein sources with that of pigs fed soybean meal.

In addition, the effect of the two high -linolenic acid feeds

on serum hormone profiles was determined.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Acquisition of Protein Sources

The two high -linolenic acid containing feeds tested

during this experiment are recently developed, commercially

available products marketed under the brand names of

Linpro and Extrapro (Oleet Processing Ltd., Regina,

Saskatchewan). Linpro is an extruded product produced

using a combination (50:50) of full-fat flax and peas, while

Extrapro is an extruded blend (50:50) of full-fat canola seed

and peas. In order to produce the final product, the

appropriate amount of peas were ground, mixed with thevarious high oil products and then the mixtures were

extruded for 5-10 sec using an Instapro Extruder (Instapro

Inc., Des Moines, Iowa) at a temperature of 120-135 C. The

wheat distillers grains with solubles (DDGS) used in this

study were obtained from the Husky/Mohawk ethanol plant

located in Minnedosa, Manitoba. The canola meal was

obtained from a local feed mill (Cargill Crush Plant, Clavet,

Saskatchewan). A chemical analysis of the main ingredients

used in this experiment is shown in Table 1.

Growth Trial

The pigs used in this study were housed and managed

according to the Canadian Council on Animal Care (1993)

guidelines. A total of 60 crossbred pigs (Camborough 15

Line female x Canabred sire, Pig Improvement Canada Ltd,

Airdrie Alberta) weighing an average of 24.3+ 2.6 kg were

assigned on the basis of sex, weight and litter to one of five

dietary treatments in a 2 x 5 factorial design experiment. The

main effects tested were sex of pig (barrows vs. gilts) and

protein source in diet.

The control diet was formulated using ground barley and

soybean meal while four experimental diets were formulated

in which 20% of canola meal, wheat distillers grains with

solubles, Linpro or Extrapro was substituted for barley and

soybean meal. During the growing period (24.3 to 55.6 kg),

the experimental diets were formulated to supply 1.10%

lysine, 0.70% threonine and 0.75% methionine and cystinewhile in the finishing period (55.6-112.5 kg), the diets were

formulated to supply 0.70% lysine, 0.55% threonine, and

0.60% methionine and cystine. These amino acid levels met

the requirements for pigs with a lean growth potential of 325

g day-1 as recommended by the National Research Council

(1998). Synthetic lysine was added to some diets to ensure

that all diets provided a similar balance of amino acids.

Canola oil was also added where necessary to ensure that all

diets provided a similar level of energy as the control diet.

All diets were supplemented with sufficient vitamins and

minerals to meet or exceed the levels recommended by the

National Research Council (1998). The diets were pelleted

using low-pressure steam at approximately 60o

C.The pigs were housed in unisex groups of four in 2.7 x 3.6 m

concrete floored pens and were provided water adlibitum.

The pens were equipped with four individual feeders. Each

pig was allowed access to its own individual feeder for 30-

min twice daily (08:00 h and 15:00 h). Individual body

weight, feed consumption and feed conversion were recorded

weekly.


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Table 1Chemical and amino acid analysis of ingredients used to determine the effects of alternative protein sources on nutrient

digestibility, performance and carcass traits of growing finishing pigs 1

BarleySoybean

MealLinpro Extrapro

Canola

Meal

Wheat

DDGS

Chemical analysis (% as fed)

Moisture 9.59 7.89 7.77 7.50 10.56 7.35

Ash 1.91 6.54 3.35 4.11 7.26 4.61Crude Protein 10.91 47.43 21.36 19.91 36.61 35.67

Neutral detergent fibre 17.46 8.67 13.50 16.50 25.84 33.16Ether extract 1.89 1.04 19.24 20.50 2.27 5.38Calcium 0.05 0.34 0.19 0.22 0.65 0.18

Phosphorus 0.34 0.72 0.45 0.52 1.14 0.91

Amino acid analysis (% as fed)

Arginine 0.57 3.58 1.79 1.34 2.41 1.59

Histidine 0.32 1.21 0.48 0.53 0.99 0.77Isoleucine 0.39 2.41 0.57 0.94 1.49 1.42Leucine 0.85 3.91 1.24 1.65 2.62 2.45

Lysine 0.38 3.15 1.12 1.40 2.06 0.92Methionine+cysteine 0.45 1.51 0.60 0.68 1.67 1.50Phenylalanine 0.48 2.30 0.74 0.86 1.49 1.03Threonine 0.33 1.93 0.80 0.81 1.77 1.12Valine 0.58 2.43 0.68 1.21 1.87 1.64

1All analysis were conducted in duplicate

Six castrates and six gilts were fed each diet. Pigs were

assigned to feeders in such a way as to minimize the potential

for treatment effects to be confounded with environmental

effects.

At the conclusion of the experiment, all pigs on the

soybean, Extrapro and Linpro treatments were bled by vena

cava puncture. Approximately 10 ml of blood was collected

from each pig into a heparinised vacutainer tube (BectonDickinson Vacutainer Systems, Franklin Lakes, NJ). The

samples were centrifuged (2500 x g for 10 min) to separate

plasma. The plasma from each pig was stored at -80oC until

analysis.

Digestibility Determination

Total tract digestibility coefficients for dry matter, crude

protein and gross energy were determined using four barrows

per treatment starting at an average weight of 41.8 + 2.60 kg.

The pigs were housed under identical conditions as those used

in the growth trial and were fed the same diets as those used

during the growing stage modified only by the addition of

0.35% chromic oxide as a digestibility marker. Marked feedwas provided for a seven-day acclimatization period,

followed by a three-day faecal collection. Faecal collections

were made by bringing animals into a clean room

immediately after feeding and recovering freshly voided

feces. The faecal samples were frozen for storage. Prior to

analysis, the samples were dried in a forced air oven dryer at

66oC for 60 h, followed by fine grinding (0.5-mm screen).

Digestibility coefficients were calculated using the equations

for the indicator method described by Schneider and Flatt

(1975).

Carcass Measurements

All pigs were slaughtered at a commercial abattoir at an

average weight of 112.5 + 2.9 kg. Carcass weight was

recorded and dressing percentage calculated. Carcass fat andlean measurements were obtained with a Destron PG 100

probe placed over the 3rd and 4th last ribs, 70 mm off the

midline. These values were then used in calculating Carcass

Value Indices according to the table of differentials in effect

at the time of the experiment (Saskatchewan Pork

International 2005).

Chemical Analysis

Samples of the main ingredients as well as the grower

and finisher rations were analyzed according to the methods

of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (2007).

Analyses were conducted for moisture (AOAC method

930.15), crude protein (AOAC method 984.13), ash (AOACmethod 942.05), ether extract (AOAC method 920.39) and

neutral detergent fibre (AOAC method 202.04) The calcium

and phosphorus content of the experimental rations were

determined using the nitric-perchloric acid digestion method

of Zasoski and Burau (1977) with calcium determined on a

Perkin-Elmer Model 4000 Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometer (AOAC method 968.08) and total


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phosphorus determined colorimetrically (Pharmacia LKB

Ultrospec III, Uppsala, Sweden) using a molybodovanadate

reagent (AOAC method 965.17). Amino acids were assayed

using ion-exchange chromatography with an automatic

Amino Acid Analyser (L-8800 Hitachi Automatic Amino

Acid Analyzer, Tokyo, Japan) after hydrolyzing with 6 MHCl for 24 h at 110 C. Sulphur-containing amino acids were

analyzed after cold formic acid oxidation for 16 h before acid

hydrolysis.

Digestibility Determination

For digestibility determinations, samples of the grower

diets and feces were analyzed for moisture, gross energy,

crude protein and chromic oxide. An adiabatic oxygen bomb

calorimeter (Parr; Moline, Illinois) was used to determine

gross energy content while chromic oxide was determined by

the method of Fenton and Fenton (1979).

Hormone Analysis

All hormone analysis were conducted with commercially

available kits. Plasma interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 were

analyzed using a swine interleukin ELISA kit (Bio-Source,

Camarillo, CA). The minimum detectability of interleukin

was 15 pg/ml with an inter-assay CV less than 10%. Plasma

prostaglandin E2, cortisol, growth hormone and IGF-1 were

analyzed using 125I radioimmunoassay kits. Porcine

prostaglandin was analyzed with a kit obtained from the

College of Medical Science of Suzhou University (Jiansu,

China) and the minimum detectability of prostaglandin E2 was

6.25 pg/ml with an intra-assay CV less than 10%. Plasma

cortisol was analyzed using a kit from the Beijing Beimian

Dongya Institute of Biological Technology (Beijing, China)

and the minimum detectable dose of cortisol was 1 ng/ml withan intra-assay coefficient of variation of 5%. Plasma growth

hormone was measured using a kit from the Beijing North

Institute of Biological Technology (Beijing, China). The

assay used human growth hormone and antibodies against

human growth hormone as the standard. The assay was

sensitive to 0.1 ng/ml of growth hormone with an intra-assay

CV of less than 10%. Plasma IGF-1 was analyzed using a kit

from Biocode S.A. (Liege, Belgium). In the assay,

recombinant human IGF-1 and mouse anti-IGF-1

monocolonal antibody were used as the standard. Recovery

ranged from 92.3 to 110.0%. The within assay CV was less

than 10% and the minimum detectable concentration of IGF-1

was 5 ng/ml.

Statistical Analysis

The data from the performance trial and carcass data

were analysed as a 2 x 5 factorial using the General Linear

Model procedure of the Statistical Analysis System

Institute, Inc. (SAS 1999) with the factors in the model

consisting of diet and sex of pig as well as their interaction.

Digestibility data were analysed as a one-way ANOVA.

Differences were considered significant when P


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Table 2Ingredient composition and chemical analysis of grower diets (24.3 to 55.6 kg) formulated to determine the effect of

alternative protein sources on nutrient digestibility, performance and carcass traits of growing-finishing pigs

Soybean

MealLinpro Extrapro

Canola

meal

Wheat

DDGS

Ingredients (% as fed)

Barley 69.19 58.07 60.74 60.54 60.58Protein source 0.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00Soybean meal 22.82 16.94 14.61 10.37 11.08Limestone 0.91 0.94 0.94 0.97 1.27

Dicalcium phosphate 1.11 1.05 0.99 0.64 0.71Salt 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50Vitamin-mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00Canola oil 4.47 1.50 1.22 5.98 4.55

Lysine-HCl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.31

Chemical analysis (% as fed)

Moisture 10.14 9.85 9.83 9.92 8.98

Ash 6.12 5.67 6.21 6.32 6.11Crude protein 19.60 19.37 19.25 20.44 20.27

Neutral detergent fibre 17.31 16.57 16.82 19.81 21.17Ether extract 6.93 6.85 8.24 10.10 8.38

Calcium 0.88 0.77 0.85 0.91 0.89Phosphorus 0.69 0.60 0.69 0.63 0.65

1Supplied per kilogram of diet: 8250 IU vitamin A; 825 IU vitamin D3; 40 IU vitamin E; 4 mg vitamin K; 1 mg thiamine; 5 mg riboflavin; 35 mg

niacin; 15 mg pantothenic acid; 2 mg folic acid; 12.5 g vitamin B12; 0.2 mg biotin; 80 mg iron; 25 mg manganese; 100 mg zinc; 50 mg Cu; 0.5

mg I; 0.1 mg selenium.2All analysis were conducted in duplicate

Table 3 Ingredient composition and chemical analysis of finisher diets (55.6-112.5 kg) formulated to determine the effect of

alternative protein sources on nutrient digestibility, performance and carcass traits of growing-finishing pigs

Soybean

MealLinpro Extrapro

Canola

Meal

Wheat

DDGS

Ingredients (%)Barley 80.70 69.59 72.25 72.07 71.46

Protein source 0.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00

Soybean meal 12.79 6.91 4.58 0.33 1.22

Limestone 0.94 0.96 0.97 1.00 1.20

Dicalcium phosphate 0.72 0.66 0.60 0.24 0.34

Salt 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50

Vitamin-mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

Canola oil 3.35 0.38 0.10 4.86 3.97

Lysine-HCl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.31

Chemical analysis (% as fed)2

Moisture 9.93 9.28 10.19 10.82 9.22

Ash 4.28 4.43 4.32 4.61 4.36

Crude protein 15.77 15.60 15.23 16.60 15.79

Neutral detergent fibre 15.61 15.52 15.84 19.35 19.83

Ether Extract 3.59 5.61 5.98 6.65 6.57

Calcium 0.64 0.81 0.67 0.81 0.74

Phosphorus 0.48 0.51 0.44 0.51 0.491Supplied per kilogram of diet: 8250 IU vitamin A; 825 IU vitamin D3; 40 IU vitamin E; 4 mg vitamin K; 1 mg thiamine; 5 mg riboflavin; 35 mg niacin; 15

mg pantothenic acid; 2 mg folic acid; 12.5 g vitamin B12; 0.2 mg biotin; 80 mg iron; 25 mg manganese; 100 mg zinc; 50 mg Cu; 0.5 mg I; 0.1 mgselenium2All analysis were conducted in duplicate


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During the finishing period (55.6-112.5 kg), there were

no significant differences in pig performance due to dietary

treatment. However, again there was a trend (P=0.06) for the

feed conversion of pigs fed Extrapro, canola meal and wheat

distillers grains with solubles to be poorer than pigs fed

soybean meal or Linpro. Barrows consumed significantly

more feed and had higher weight gain than gilts (P


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Table 6Plasma hormone levels in growing-finishing pigs fed alternative protein sources 1

Soybean

MealLinpro Extrapro SEM Barrows Gilts SEM Treatment Sex T x S

Growth hormone (ng/ml 3.89 3.68 4.06 0.25 3.83 3.92 0.20 0.55 0.73 0.14IGF-1 (ng/ml) 233.90 205.58 201.50 14.41 205.01 222.31 11.77 0.24 0.31 0.11Cortisol (pg/ml) 68.17 46.90 49.09 12.06 52.95 56.50 9.85 0.40 0.80 0.05

Prostaglandin E (pg/ml) 31.18a 38.12 40.03 2.33 35.62 37.62 37.26 0.03 0.54 0.58Interleukin-1 (ng/ml) 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.01 0.18 0.19 0.01 0.95 0.45 0.05)

Table 7Performance of growing-finishing pigs fed diets based on alternative protein sources 1

Soybean

Meal

Linpro Extrpro Canola

Meal

Wheat

DDGS

SEM Barrows Gilts SEM Treatment Sex T x S

Growing Period (24.3 to 55.6 kg)

Weight gain (g/day) 0.93 0.93 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.03 0.90 0.89 0.02 0.34 0.58 0.99Feed intake (g/day) 1.67 1.68 1.60 1.65 1.64 0.07 1.64 1.66 0.04 0.91 0.79 0.79

Feed conversion 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.89 1.88 0.03 1.82 1.87 0.02 0.11 0.05 0.18

Finishing period (55.6 to 112.5 kg)

Weight gain (g/day) 1.18 1.14 1.09 1.09 1.03 0.04 1.16a 1.05b 0.03 0.08


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The nutritional value of canola meal has been evaluated

many times for pigs and the vast majority of the published

information indicates that best results are obtained if canola

meal supplies only one half of the supplementary protein in

diets fed to growing pigs while it can be used to completely

replace all of the supplementary protein supplied by soybeanmeal in diets fed to finishing pigs, (Baidoo et al. 1987; Bell et

al. 1988; Thacker 1990). The results of the current

experiment confirm these findings.

Feeding 20% wheat distillers grains with solubles as a

replacement for soybean meal significantly reduced the

digestibility of dry matter, crude protein and energy. These

findings support our previous work (Thacker 2006) and those

of others (Nyachoti et al. 2005; Lan et al. 2008; Widyaratne et

al. 2009) who have reported reductions in nutrient

digestibility of a similar magnitude to those observed in the

present study when wheat distillers grains with solubles

substituted for soybean meal in diets fed to growing pigs.

These findings are also consistent with other experiments

where increasing dietary fibre has reduced nutrient

digestibility (Bell et al. 1983; Kennelly and Aherne 1980).

In the present experiment, the significant reductions in

nutrient digestibility which occurred as a result of feeding

wheat distillers grains with solubles were not accompanied by

significant reductions in weight gain, feed intake or carcass

traits. However, over the entire experimental period, feed

conversion was significantly poorer for pigs fed diets

containing wheat distillers grains than soybean meal. These

findings support our previous work (Thacker 2006) and that

of others (Widyaratne et al. 2009) who reported significant

reductions in pig performance as a result of feeding high

levels (


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traits supports our earlier work in which we concluded that

Linpro was an acceptable alternative to soybean meal as a

protein supplement for use in growing-finishing swine diets

and can be incorporated at levels as high as 22.5% in the

grower period and 18% in the finisher period without

detriment affects on pig performance or carcass quality(Thacker et al. 2004). Similarly, Htoo et al. (2008) reported

no negative effects on nutrient digestibility from dietary

inclusion of co-extruded flaxseed and field pea.

In addition to providing an alternative to soybean meal as

a protein supplement, several of the ingredients tested in the

current experiment may have beneficial effects on human

health. -Linolenic acid is a metabolic precursor for the

synthesis of the long chain fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid

and docosahexaenoic acid (Romans et al. 1995a). These

omega-3 fatty acids are thought to be important for normal

growth and development, and in decreasing or delaying a

number of chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease

and hypertension as well as autoimmune, allergic and

neurological disorders (Klatt 1986; Leaf and Weber 1988;

Goodnight 1993; Simopoulos 1999). As a result of these

benefits, several studies in meat producing animals have been

completed that have aimed at increasing the polyunsaturated

fatty acid content, and in particular the omega-3 content, of

meat and meat products (Enser et al. 1996; Wood et al. 2003;

Raes et al. 2004). The aim is to increase the polyunsaturated

fatty acid/saturated fatty acid ratio (P/S) of meat above 0.4

and to decrease the n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio to less than 4

(Wood et al. 2003).

One way of increasing the polyunsaturated content of pig

meat is to include -linolenic acid in the pigs diet (Mathews

et al. 2000). Full-fat canola (rapeseed) and flax (linseed) are

rich in -linolenic acid with canola and flax containing 10-12% and 48-52% -linolenic acid respectively (Lee et al.

1991). Incorporation of full-fat canola and flax into diets fed

to pigs has been shown to significantly increase the

incorporation of omega-3 fatty acids into carcass tissues

(Castell and Falk 1980; Myer et al. 1992; Romans et al.

1995). This may make meat from swine fed flax and canola

seed a potential source of omega-3 fatty acids for the human

diet (Cunnane et al. 1990; Romans et al. 1995ab; Mathews et

al. 2000).

Although the potential to incorporate omega-3 fatty acids

into carcass tissues may be sufficient justification to

recommend the use of Linpro and Extrapro in swine diets,

there may be additional advantages to their use. It is possiblethat the use of high-fat Linpro and Extrapro could play a role

in reducing dust levels in swine barns as Chiba et al. (1985)

reported significant reductions in aerial dust levels in swine

units when diets contained additional lipid. The

prepackaged fat in Linpro and Extrapro may also be of

benefit to swine producers who mix their own feed, and who

may not have sufficient production volume to justify keeping

a heated fat tank at their feed mixing facility.

Another potential benefit from the use of the alternative

protein sources Extrapro and Linpro is their potential effects

on the immune system. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

are important immuno-modulators of immune reactions

(Miles and Calder 1998). Human and animal studies have

provided a great deal of evidence that feeding diets rich inomega-3 fatty acids alters the production of cytokines and

the functional properties of macrophages, lymphocytes and

other immuno-competent cells (Calder et al. 2002). Feeding

diets rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids generally

reduces inflammatory reactions and the production of

interleukin-1, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor (James

et al. 2000). Feeding omega-3 fatty acids to humans has

been shown to reduce plasma growth hormone, insulin and

cortisol levels (Bhathena et al. 1991) while -linolenic acid is

a precursor for eicosapentaenoic acid formation which is a

precursor for prostaglandin synthesis (Petit and

Twagiramungu 2006). Unfortunately, under the conditions

of the present experiment, the only hormone which was

significantly affected by feeding the high omega-3

containing protein sources was prostaglandin.

CONCLUSIONS

The overall results of this experiment indicate canola

meal, wheat distillers grains with solubles, Extrapro and

Linpro all have considerable potential to replace soybean

meal in diets fed to growing-finishing pigs. Although, some

of the protein sources reduced nutrient digestibility, the

growth rate, feed intake and carcass traits of pigs were not

affected by the various protein sources. Further research

should be conducted to determine whether or not dietary

inclusion of protein sources containing high levels of omega-3 fatty acids, alters immune function in pigs.

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Effects of Alternative Protein Sources on Nutrient Digestibility, Performance, Carcass Traits and Serum Hormone Profiles of Growing-Finishing Pigs