EDUC 386 History

8/14/2019 EDUC 386 History

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The History of Global Higher Education:The View from Ancient Egypt to Edwardian Cambridge

Les Goodchild, Santa Clara University


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Welcome to the History andPhilosophy of Higher Education

Overview of Todays Class

Introductions

Review of Course Syllabus

Using Technology (Websites, Angel Postings,and Wiki Team Discussions) and FieldtripsAssistance of Gloria Hofer, Media Librarian

Global History of Higher EducationQuestionnaireWhat Do You Know?


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Welcome to the History andPhilosophy of Higher Education

Discussing Course Themes:

History, Philosophy, and Goal of the Course

Lecture on History of Higher Education:

Ancient Schools, Greece, Rome, CathedralSchools in the Middle Ages, EuropeanUniversities, and Cambridge University

Small Group Discussions

Next weeks explorations in the history andphilosophy of higher education


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Overview of Course Themes

Overview lecture: What does it meanto be an educated person?

Each era offers its own idea

For example, the University of Oxford

and the medieval mindtheUniversitys motto: God Illumine Me

What do we mean by history?

What do we mean by philosophy?

Society, culture, and unique institutions

schools and universities Forces in social life: knowledge,

power, and imagination


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Five Eras: Ancient Beginnings

Origins of Ancient HigherEducationReligious andPriestly/Scribe Egyptpalaces, temples, and the

school for priest-scholars

Mesopotamiascribes and libraries

India1500 BC intellectual class of

the Brahmins who read the

Vedas and Upanishadsrise ofsciences, medicine, astronomy,engineering, and mathematics

China12th-8th BC centuries andChou dynastywriting, math, and

music


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Second Era: Ancient GreekHigher Education

Higher education in ancient Greece tied to citizenshipeducation, 500 BC to 1 AD

First schools at Croton and Miletusmedicine and astronomers

Pythagorass schools of philosophy at Metapontus and CrotonFormal Schools

Organized instruction, separate buildings, internal rules andlaws, and regular meetings

Educate whole person and student adopts new way of life Aim is to produce capable statesmanperson of arete (valor) to

assume political leadership to promote democracy in Athens


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Second Era: Ancient GreekHigher Education

Recruitmentphilosophers sought out students bytraveling to different towns

Curriculum tied to educating the whole person

Course of study 3 to 4 years Dialecticsdiscourses in argumentation

Rhetoricrules for and forms of writingargumentation

School set standard for educational institutions in ancientGreecePlatos Academy, School of Epicurus (342-270),and Aristotles (384-322) Lyceum all follow the model


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Second Era: Greek PedagogicalCentury, 450-350 BC

Classical Pedagogical Traditions Arise Gorgias (c.490-) School of Sophistscontinue Pythagoras

tradition of teaching political knowledge throughrhetorical argumentation

Socrates (c.470-399) and Plato (427-348) Academy Can political virtue be taught? Quest for finding

wisdom and truth that leads to arete within the polis

Dialecticsmethod for finding truth throughanalytical discourses (e.g., Republic, Laws, and Sophist)

Organization5 to 10 years of training after age of 20,study of mathematics, dialectics, metaphysics, andphilosophy, equity of education (men and womenreceive separate training), interior search for truththrough training, and philosophical useless ideal of

knowledge for political life for the polis


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Second Era: Greek PedagogicalCentury, 450-350 BC

Isocrates (436-338) School Formation of an intellectual elite through literary

educationhow to live properly and lead the city-state (polis)

The rhetorical and oratorical ideal of citizenshiptraining where achieving the good for the polis is thegoaldeveloping the best solutions through ethics

Curriculumphilosophers training comprised of:logic (theory of knowledge), physics (doctrines about

the physical world), ethics (a sense of moralitywhatis good for the polis)

Aim to educate the whole person for political life inthe polis following epic hero values of arete and ethics


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Second Era: Greek PedagogicalTradition, 350 BC1 AD

From the three schools, the development of acommon ideal of a liberal arts education arosethe tradition of enkuklios paideia General education for free citizens with leisure time to

study involving intellectual training and militaryservice

Seven liberal arts

three involve the study of language using the noblevalues of past heroes (adopted from Isocrates):rhetoric, logic, and grammar

four involve mathematics (adopted from Plato inhis Republic): arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, andmusic

The seven liberal arts tradition developed andfollowed b the Romans


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Third Era: Rome until 450

Roman Schools and the beginning of universityidea

Roman schools and artes liberalisSchool of Rhetoric inRome under the direction of Plotuis Gallus

Goal training good citizens to form an elite to leadsociety through training following prescribed valuesand standards for character and conduct

Curriculum follows classical texts following more theoratorical ideal learning personal and civic virtues

Respect for Roman values (e.g., absolute power of thefather in family life,paterfamilias; manliness, virtus;obligation to parents,pietas, education of girls, etc.)


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Third Era: Rome until 450

The Beginning of the University Ideal Educational renaissance in North Africa with Latin

schools and the rise of Christianityfounding of theUniversity of Carthage in 259

Eastern Roman Empire and the University ofConstantinople in 425

Curriculum in Latin, Greek, grammar, philosophy,and law

Rise of separate faculty for individual subject areas (3

Latin rhetoric, 5 Greek rhetoric, 10 Latin grammar, 10Greek grammar, 1 philosophy, and 2 law)

Becomes the first state university to be operated bytaxes in 1053


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Fourth Era: Buddhist andIslamic Universities, 450-1150

Buddhist Universities in India In Patna, Buddhist monks gather during the monsoons to study In 450, Sir Nalanda Mahavihara forms with some 20 monasteries

sending their monks to develop many learning communities (i.e.,colleges, vihara) to educate lay students about Buddhism

By 600, 1,500 monks taught10,000 lay students (only 25% ofthe students applying wereaccepted!) there

CurriculumBuddhistscriptures with language studyin Sanskrit and Pali

Formal library created


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Fourth Era: Buddhist andIslamic Universities, 450-1150

Islamic Universities, 750-1150 Mosques developed schools of lawwhere faculty (shaikh) created studycircles (students in a round) onreligious doctrine and legal issues

30 Islamic universities laterdeveloped. For example, in Spainand Egypt: Cordoba in 929 and Al-Azhar in Cairo in 970. Curriculaexpanded to include all the sciencesas well as law, professors dividedinto ranks of assistant, associate, and

full, and libraries were created(400,000 volumes in Cordoba!) In 1064, madrassah (colleges)formed with instructors, libraries,scholars, scholarships, andendowments


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Fifth Era: Catholic MedievalUniversities, 1119-1550

Cathedral SchoolsThe origins of Catholic medieval universities began with the creation ofcathedral schools at major cathedrals in Europe, especially in France andEngland.

Pope Alexander III in 1179 required cathedrals to establish schoolsand then Pope Innocent III in 1215 required these schools to be headedby a priest who had earned a master of theology degree. This demand

fueled the need for schools

of theology at universities

The origins of theuniversities at Paris,Oxford, and Bologna camefrom such schools


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University Organizational

Terms Universitasa group with particular skills related to an

occupation, such as a medieval guild Scholars at the Cathedral School at Notre Dame used

this term to identify themselves as a teaching guild Master of Art degreed scholar head of guild

Facultasability to do referred to a subject divisionwithin the guild, i.e., faculty of theology, medicine, etc.

Studium Generalea building or place dedicated tolearning where students were accepted to study from allregions within Europe

Later studium generale became universities College--Student residences came about when religious

communities sent their students to live together in aparticular boarding hall in town. Later these hallswere called colleges. The College de Dix-huit at Parisbecame the model for many others.


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Bologna, Paris, and Oxford: Modelsof University Development

Studium at Bologna focused only on the study of law, began in 1119

Bologna developed a unique model of governance where studentsactually hired and paid the rector (head of the studium) and the faculty

Later, the students developed nation schools (Lombard, Tuscany,

Roman, UltramontaneGerman lands), still students hired the rectors


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University of Paris

Paris is model for medieval universities wherefaculty control institution

Origins begin in 1170 where cathedral masters teach laystudents in an upstairs boarding hall

By 1180 students take over the boarding hall, the Collegede Dix-huit From 1200 to 1215, faculty draw up organization as a

studium generalePope Gregory IX approves theinstitution in 1231, gives it autonomy, approves facultyauthority over students, and grants it rights to offer the

doctorate, and finally formal charter approved in 1291 Curriculum is comprised of faculty lecturing (lectio) on

and discussing texts (e.g., Bible and papal decrees) andcommenting on their meanings

Great debates are held two times a year among faculty on

theological topics calledquaestiones disputatae


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Students and Degrees at Paris

Three Types of Degree Students Students from the cathedral schools at ages 16 to 19 could

attend a studium where after 2 to 6 years they studied andthen earned a bachelor of arts (baccalarius artium), afterpassing a comprehensive verbal examination (adetermination). Curriculumthe liberal artscomprisedof: Triviumrhetoric, logic, and grammar Quadriviumarithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and

music Masters level had two types of degrees. After two years

of study and lecturing, they received a licentiate (license).After six more months, admitted to masters guild,earning a master of arts and given a biretta (cap) andbook.

Next they studied law, medicine, or theology for 5 yearsand lectured for 3 years. They were given ajus ubiquedocendi (able to teach anywhere)doctor of philosophy.


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University of Oxford, 1133

Oxford begins as a cathedral school, although students gather under amaster for higher studies in 1133.

In 1200 formally chartered as a universitas magistrorum etscolariumOxoniesociety of

masters and scholars atOxford.

Follows Paris pattern asa center of theologicalstudy for priests, its first

college, Merton, foundedin 1264


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Cambridge University, 1231

Cambridges Historic Role in American Higher Education

Similar to Oxford, masters and students formed a studiumat Cambridge in 1231 and by 1318 it receive a papalcharter to offer the doctorateunlike Oxford

After Henry VIII and Elizabeth I separatedwhat wouldbecomethe Anglican Church from Rome, these Englishuniversities became the center for Protestant theologicaleducation as well as other studies after 1581.

A group of strong evangelicals called Puritans gathered

for study at Cambridges Emmanuel College. Later 100 ofthese graduates would come to Plymouth and Boston andeventually found Harvard College in 1636.


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Harvard College, 1636

Next Week: The History of Harvard College/University http://www.news.harvard.edu/guide/intro/hist2.html

http://www.news.harvard.edu/guide/intro/index.html
http://www.news.harvard.edu/guide/intro/hist2.htmlhttp://www.news.harvard.edu/guide/intro/index.htmlhttp://www.news.harvard.edu/guide/intro/index.htmlhttp://www.news.harvard.edu/guide/intro/index.htmlhttp://www.news.harvard.edu/guide/intro/hist2.html


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References

Bowen, J. (1981).A history of western education. Vol. 1, Theancient world: Orient and Mediterranean, 2000 B.C.A.D.1054. New York: St. Martins Press.

Bowen, J. (1981).A history of western education. Vol. 2,Civilization of Europe, sixth to sixteenth century. New York:

St. Martins Press.Bowen, J. (1981).A history of western education. Vol. 3, The

modern west, Europe and the new world. New York: St.Martins Press.

Goodchild, L. F. (1992/1997). Religious vocations (theological

schools and seminaries). In The Encyclopedia of HigherEducation. Vol. 2:Analytic Perspectives: The InstitutionalFabric of the Higher Education System. 4 vols. Oxford:Pergamon Press, pp. 1200-1217.

Stanton, M. S. (1990). Higher learning in Islam: The classicalperiod, A.D. 700-1300. Savage, MD: Rowman & Littlefield


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Academic Ethics as anApplied Ethic

An applied ethic is an attempt to bringethical theory to bear on real problems invarious settings, such as, medicine, law,

business, or

in our case

schools and colleges

Academic ethics or educational ethics

addresses the moral problems which ariseby suggesting various principles topromote what is good and right in

resolving these difficulties.


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Theory and Method

Classical ethical theories offer two major perspectivesto help us resolve dilemmas:

Kant's universal moral rules (deontology)a duty to keep ones promises

Bentham's measuring the consequencesof action (consequentialism)what is the great good for the greatest

number of people?

These theories provide useful principles indetermining a morally justified outcome.

Moreover, such an ethical decision requires anexplicit method of justification. Employing ethicalprinciples and a method of justification represent thecore of applied ethics.


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Ethical Stress Points

The need for an ethic can be particularly acute whenschools and communities or colleges and universities,and other educational groups are faced with economicdifficulties.

Questions may arise about some of these concerns: students difficulty in paying for tuition, fees, and

books, lower pay for some teachers and adjunct faculty, truthfulness in marketing or disclosure of test rests, advising students on degree and credentialprograms,

disadvantaged schools, or rural colleges, pressure for grades and graduation to secure jobs

encourages cheating on exams and papers, providing for adequate staff in schools and college

campuses, as well as prohibiting gifts, gratuities, and other

compensation among faculty and staff.


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Limits to LegalConsiderations

First, "where the law is silent, anything goes" is a mentality oftentaken when the questions of cost win over concerns for humangood and welfare.

Second, law of its very nature is not so much a matter of reason as it

is a product of communal will. Law is a product of the courts andthe legislature rather than a weighing of rational arguments forcorrect behavior which considers entitlements and humanrelationships.

Third, using the law as bases for ethical judgment assumes conceptsof fairness or justice may be equated with law (Stevens, 1979, pp.118-222). Such moral legalism falls far short of promotinguniversalizable principles which insure the betterment for all.


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Limits to LegalConsiderations

Decisions and actions derived from the law are often confined to the letter of the law.

This limitation underscores how ethics goes beyond the law. Ethics is not confined to prescriptivemandates, but may consider all aspects of a particular moral dilemma. Ethical judgments, based onrational principles, focus on the good for others. These characteristics point to the professionalorientation of applied ethics.

Responsible persons acting in professional capacities must act ethically:They must be guided by their clients' interests rather than their own; and

They need to pursue their occupational activities according to certainuniversal norms, rules, and principles.

These needs should be the driving force in developing a comprehensive ethic among our partners

and our students.


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Academic Ethics Sources

Four basic sources of ethical principles enable us to make ethical decisions within schools,colleges, universities, and other educational organizations.

First, educational ethics & academic ethics support professional codes from associations to promoteethical behavior among teachers and administrators within schools and academe.

The second source of ethical theories, which have historically been the strongest in moral reasoning,are: (a) the classical ethical theories of virtue, deontology, and consequentialism as well as (b)

contemporary ethical theories of rights and justice.

A third source of ethical principles comesfrom psychological studies of moral reasoning(e.g., Kohlbergs conventional morality).

A fourth source of ethical principles comesfrom religious ethical theories (e.g., Judaism,Catholicism, Islam, Protestantism, etc.)


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The Idea of Applied Ethics andIts Meaning for Us as Professionals

Oxford English Dictionarythe Greeketymology of the word ethikos is to do

The Greek idea of community, the polis, waswhere one learned about what type of actions

where approvedi.e., what was valued

Everything we doevery actthus has avalues and an ethical implication for ourcommunityethics can be best seen for ourpurposes as rules or norms of conduct in

leading our professional lives


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Ourselves and our Values

As human beings who were born andraised in various communities, our valuesare the beliefs and attitudes of a personforming our frames of reference.

Clyde Kluckhohn further wrote: A

value is a conception, explicit or implicit,distinctive of an individual orcharacteristic of a group, of the desirable,which includes the selection fromavailable modes (types of actions) means(ways of actions) and ends (reasons

why) of action.


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Favorite References

Bauchamp, T. (2001). Philosophical ethics: An introduction tomoral philosophy, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Harrod, H. (1981). The human center: Moral agency in thesocial world. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.

Kultgen, J. (1988). Ethics and professionalism. Philadelphia:

University of Pennsylvania Press. MacIntyre, A. (1984). After virtue, 2nd ed. Notre Dame,

IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

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EDUC 386 History