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Locke, Don C. Parker, Larry D.A Multicultural Focus on Career Education.Information Series No. 348.ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and VocationalEducation, Columbus, Ohio.Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),Washington, DC.91

RI8806200545p.

Center on Education and Training for Employment, 1900Kenny Road, Columbus, OH 43210-1090 (order no. IN348:$5.25).Information Analyses - ERIC Clearinghouse Products(071)

MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.*Career Counseling; Career Development; *CareerEducation; *Cultural Awareness; Cultural Background;Cultural Differences; *Cultural Pluralism; Ethnicity;Intercultural Communication; Minority Groups;*Multicultural Education; Population :rends

The purpose of this literature review is toillustrate the implications of cultural diversity for careereducation and development. Discussed first are census datademonstrating the rapid increases in population of such groups asAsians/Pacific Islanders, African Americans, Native Americans, andHispanics. Differences in world view are explored next, with anexplanation of how differences in Locus of Control and Locus ofResponsibility are influenced by cultural heritage and lifeexperiences. The relevance for diverse populations of careerdevelopment theories based on a white male, middle-class populationis questioned. Appropriate intervention methods for specific groups,the unique challenges facing culturally diverse women, andcommunication issues are discussed. The cross-cultural awarenesscontinuum is presented as a tool career personnel can use to gaugetheir growth in intercultural competence. The levels of the continuumare as follows: (1) self-awareness; (2) awareness of one's ownculture; (3) awareness of racism, sexism, and poverty; (4) awarenessof individual differences; (5) awareness of other cultures; (6)

awareness of diversity; and (7) career education skills/techniques. Asystem focus on cultural diversity involves two sets of strategiesfor improving career education/development programming:recommendations for multicultural program content and processstrategies to improve multicultural competence. (SK)

************************W**********************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.

Information Series No. 348

A MULTICULTURAL FOCUS ONCAREER EDUCATION

Don C. LockeNorth Carolina State University

Larry D. ParkerEast Carolina University

U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION()ewe of Educabonai Research and improvement

E U CATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION4CENTER (ERIC;

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FUNDIN G INFORMATION

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and VocationalEducation

RI88062005

41 USC 252 (15) and P.L. 92-318

Office of Educational Research and ImprovementU.S. Department of EducationWashington, DC 20208

Center on Education and Training for EmploymentThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio 43210-1090

Ray D. Ryan

This publication was prepared pursuant to a contract with theOffice of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Depart-ment of Education. Contractors undertaking such projectsunder government sponsorship are encouraged to express freelytheir judgment in professional and technical matters. Points ofview or opinions do not, therefore, necessarily represent officialU.S. Department of Education position or policy.

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states: "No person inthe United States shall, on the grounds of race, color, or nation-al origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied thebenefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any programor activity receiving federal financial assistance." Title IX ofthe Education Amendments of 1971 states: "No person in theUnited States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from par-ticipation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to dis-crimination under any education program or activity receivingfederal financial assistance." The ERIC Clearinghouse project,like every program or activity receiving financial assistance fromthe U.S. Department of Education, must be operated in compli-ance with these laws.

3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

FOREWORD vii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ix

INTRODUCTION 1

An Overview of the Problem 2Definitions of Terms 2U.S. Demographics: Projections of Exponential Change 4

THE WORLD VIEW COMPONENT OF CULTURAL IDENTITY

The Dimensions of Locus of Control 7The Dimension of Locus of Responsibility 8Sue's Formation of World Views 9

CAREER ISSUES FOR A DIVERSE POPULATION 11

Career Development and Educational Programming 11Diversity in School and Work: Economic Implications 12

A MULTICULTURAL FOCUS ON CAREER DEVELOPMENTAND CAREER EDUCATION 15

General Trends 15Gender Issues 17Communication Issues 19Culturally Diverse Populations in Transition 20

IMPROVING THE MULTICULTURAL COMPETENCEOF CAREER SPECIALISTS 27

The Cross-Cultural Awareness Continuum 28Strategies: Conclusions in Content and Process 31

REFERENCES 35

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Percentage of change in population, by race and Hispanic origin,for the United States: 1960 to 1990 5

2. Percentage of U.S. population, by 'race and Hispanicorigin: 1970 to 1990 6

Percentage of distribution of race and Hispanic origingroups, by region: 1990 6

4. Cross-cultural awareness continuum 28

FOREWORD

The Educational Resources Information Center Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Voca-tional Education (ERIC/ACVE) is 1 of 16 clearinghouses in a national information systemthat is funded by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), U.S. De-partment of Education. This publication was developed to fulfill one of the functions ofthe clearinghouse--interpreting the literature in the ERIC database.

ERIC/ACVE would like to thank Don C. Locke and Larry D. Parker for their work inpreparing this paper. Dr. Locke is Professor and head of the Department of CounselorEducation at North Carolina State University, where he has taught since 1975. He has alsoserved as a high school counselor, social studies teacher, and president of the SouthernAssociation for Counselor Education and Supervision. Among his numerous publicationsis the chapter, "State of the Art in Cross-Cultural Counseling," in The Social Relevance ofCounseling.

Dr. Parker is Assistant Professor of Counselor Education at East Carolina University. Hisprevious positions include counselor in the University Transition Program, North CarolinaState University; at the Ber.xeley Manor Elementary School, a Department of DefenseDependents' School; and in the Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services.With Dr. Locke, he is the author of the chapter, "Improving the Multicultural Competenceof School Personnel," in the forthcoming Counseling in Schools: A Practical Handbook

ERIC/ACVE also acknowledges the following people for their critical review of the manu-script: Court land Lee, Associate Professor, University of Virginia; Mark Newton, Directorof Organizational Development, Cincinnati Gas and Electric; Louise Vetter, Senior Re-search Specialist emerita, Center on. Education and Training for Employment (CETE);and Marcia Fear-Fenn, director of the Sex Equity Section, Vocational Instructional Mate-rials Laboratory, CETE.

Publication development was coordinated by Susan Imel. Sandra Kerka edited the manu-script, and Janet Ray served as word processor operator.

Ray D. RyanExecutive DirectorCenter on Education and

Training for Employment

f;

vii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A substantial portion of the population of the United States are members of culturally di-verse groups, a vast reserve of human potential. A multicultural focus on career educationand development is a vehicle to tap into that reserve. The purpose of this review and syn-thesis of literature related to career education and multicultural issues is to acquaint readerswith the implications of diversity for career programming. The literature review encom-passes such fields as education, counseling, psychology, and sociology.

Discussed first are fensus data demonstrating the rapid increases in population of suchgroups as Asians/Pacific Islanders, African Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanics.The data also show regional differences in cultural diversity across the United States. Dif-ferences in world view are explored next, with an explanation of how different combinationsof the dimensions of Locus of Control and Locus of Responsibility are influenced by cul-tural heritage and life experiences. Career educators are encouraged to recognize theworld views of themselves and culturally diverse students.

The relevance for diverse populations of career development theories based on a whitemale, middle-class population is questioned. The rates of success in school and work ofindividuals from diverse backgrounds demonstrate the disparate experiences of these stu-dents compared to white students.

Studies and theories that support a multicultural focus for career education are presentedto give career educators a knowledge base with which to change practice. Appropriateintervention methods for specific groups, the unique challenges facing culturally diversewomen, and communication issues are discussed.

The final chapter explores the dimensions of the cross-cultural awareness continuum, whichcareer personnel can use to gauge their growth in intercultural competence, a lifelong,ongoing process. The levels of the continuum are as follows:

Self-awarenessAwareness of one's own cultureAwareness of racism, sexism, and povertyAwareness of individual differencesAwareness of other culturesAwareness of diversityCareer education skills/techniques

Two sets of strategies for improving career education/development programming constitutea system focus on cultural diversity. One set makes recommendations for multiculturalprogram content, and the other includes process strategies to improve multiculturalcompetence.

ix7

Information on multiculturalism and career education may be found in the ERIC databaseusing the following descriptors: *Career Counselors, Career Development, *Career Educa-tion, *Qi Rural Awareness, Cultural Background, Cultural Differences, 'Cultural Pluralism,Ethnicity, Intercultural Communication, Minority Groups, *Multicultural Education, Popula-tion Trends. Asterisks indicate particularly relevant descriptors.

INTRODUCTION

A major goal of educational and vocation-al leaders for most of this century hasbeen to prepare youth successfully for theworld of work. One could argue that thedegree of success of that endeavor is cor-related with diversity because disparateexperiences (educational and otherwise)have served to develop differences in thesocial and economic status of diversegroups. As the need for career develop-ment throughout the life span is betterunderstood, the challenge to prepareyouth for work is compounded by at-tempts to understand and address theneeds of a rapidly changing workplace andwork force.

Educators and policy makers in theUnited States are finding that economictransitions and demographic factors havegained in both proportion and signifi-cance. From production to consumption,a substantial percentage of Americans aremembers of culturally diverse groups whoplay a vital role in the country's economicwell-being. It is safe to say that govern-ment, industry, and small business willcontinue to need skilled and productiveemployees, and the applicant pool ofpotential employees will increasingly becomposed of members of culturally di-verse groups. That factor is a greatstrength: If the greatest natural resourceof a nation is in its people, then theUnited States holds a vast reserve ofhuman potential. A multicultural focus incareer education and development is avehicle to tap into that reserve. Oneresult could be a nation moving toward aworld marketplace in which cultural,

social, and eduational issues are intri-cately intertwined.

This paper is a review and synthesis ofselected literature related to career educa-tion and career development with a focuson multicultural issues. The purpose ofthis paper is to discuss strengths of currentcareer and vocational programming, indi-cate areas of needed research and empha-sis, and make inferences for educationalprogramming. The information is orga-nized so the reader will become acquaint-ed with specific issues as they relate todiverse populations. The literature dis-cussed was selected from over 200 articlesread by the authors from numerous fieldsthat included education, counseling, psy-chology, sociology, and career education.Articles were selected on the basis ofrelevance to current issues, representative-ness of current research and instructionalemphasis, and significance to practice.

Discussed first are changing demographicsthat clarify the increasing diversity of thetotal population of the United States.The data have implications for vocationalissues and training programs across allgroups. Diverse world views, the need fortraining in career development, and therole of theory follow. Next, critical issuesin career education and career develop-ment for diverse populations are identifiedand discussed. The paper concludes withsuggestions for additional research andrecommendations for school personnel.

An Overview of the Problem

In 1991, the United States drew and thenreinforced a "line in the sand" againstpolitical tyranny in the Middle East.From the authors' viewpoint, it is equallyimportant to make such an assertionagainst forces and practices from withinthat may work to deny individuals andgroups access to the rewards and mobilityoffered through education and careeralternatives. Though it may sound grand-iose, we would hope, for example, that allAmericans could obtain jobs most suitedto their desires and abilities, enjoy ade-quate health care, meet their humanneeds, and feel good about their ability tocare for themselves and their families.The evidence that such situations existtoday, particularly across all groups, islacking.

The issues of concern for diverse cultures,women, single-parent families, immigrants,and those living in poverty cannot be ade-quately addressed from a narrow perspec-tive. Ours is a dynaniic society with com-plex problems that require complex solu-tions. As technology and internal diversityincrease, problem solving as a processmust be addressed. Career developmentcompetencies, career education, and voca-tional training (vital components of prep-aration for change) will be more meaning-ful when designed with input from multi-ple viewpoints.

As representatives of agencies or institu-tions, counselors and educators, are inpivotal positions to facilitate or promoteprogram improvements. They are en-gaged in what must become a multidisci-plinary effort to address multiculturalissues in the career education process.Career education programs and interven-tion strategies cannot follow a "majorityrule" mentality but must provide strategiesthat take into account the differencesbetween and among diverse cultures. In

2

addition, service delivery systems mustalso include an ongoing evaluative com-ponent that incorporates flexibility andcreativity. Such efforts would become aproactive stance targeted at those individ-uals or groups not benefiting from previ-ous efforts.

Multiculturalism, as a point of view orperspective, is not easily defined becauseit is in the process of evolving. Therefore,multiculturalism is not understood or em-braced by all; those who least understandthe benefits and strengths of a diversesociety also lack an understanding of thebroad-based efforts necessary to work withthe complexities encountered therein.Ultimately, it is in the interest of all todevelop and conduct policies and practicesbeneficial across groups. Multiculturalismcan become a lifelong goal toward whichto work, though all goals may never befully accomplished.

People are identified and associated withwhat they do, especially in terms of theirvocations. In this society, introductionsoften include information about one's ca-reer: An early question in new social en-counters is "What do you do?" In theUnited States, a career serves as a meansto understand the world around us andserves as a basis for others to understandus. Everyone is affected by the dynamicsof the world of work in some manner.Work, as a human endeavor, has elementsof commonality across cultures. It is inthe career development and educationarena that a multicultural focus has tre-mendous potential because career issuescan serve as a common ground among di-verse cultures.

Definitions of Terms

Unless otherwise noted, the followingdefinitions are taken from the NationalVocational Guidance Association's

clarification of career terminology widelyused by educators, counselors, psycholo-gists, and others (Sears 1982).

Career--The totality of work one does inone's lifetime. Super's (1976) defini-tion of career also provides insight intothe concept: Career is the course ofevents that constitutes a life.

Career Counseling--A relationship be-tween counselor and client with thegoal of helping the client integrate andapply an understanding of self and theenvironment to make the most ap-propriate career decisions andadjustments.

Career Development--The total constella-tion of psychological, sociological,educational, physical, economic, andchance factors that combine to shapethe career of any given individual,throughout the lifespan.

Career Development Theories--Theoreti-cal bases for understanding how indi-viduals develop, solve problems, avoidblocks, and progress with efficiency andsatisfaction in their careers.

Career Education--An infusion of careerdevelopmental concepts into instruc-tional content and method by whichacademic subject matter can be maderelevant to work or self-exploration(Herr and Cramer 1988).

Career Information--Information relatedto the world of work that can be usefulin the process of career development,including educational, occupational,and psychosocial factors related toworking (for example, availability oftraining, the nature of the work, andstatus of workers in differingoccupations).

3

1 1

InterestIndications of what an individualwants to do or considers satisfying.

Job--A group of similar, paid positionsrequiring some similar attributes in asingle organization.

Occupation--A group of similar jobs foundin various industries or organizations.Occupations, trades, and professionsexist independently of any person. Ca-reers exist only when people are pursu-ing them (Super 1985).

Vocation--An occupation with commit-ment, distinguished primarily by itspsychological as well as economicmeaning.

Vocational Education--A structured, se-quential, and developmental compon-ent of a school curriculum (kinder-garten through postsecondary) thatprovides information and training toboth college and noncollege-bound stu-dents in those competencies and occu-pational skills that prepare for thestudents' transition and adjustment tothe world of work.

Work--Conscious effort (other than thathaving as its primary purpose eithercoping or relaxation) aimed at produc-ing benefits for oneself or others.

Words with a multicultural focus are moredifficult to clarify and can vary widely intheir content. The following terms areput forth as working definitions for thepurposes of this paper.

Culture--Knowledge; shared and lea: :ledpatterns of information a goup uses inorder to generate meaning among itsmembers. Every culture develops ex-plicit and implicit systenis to shareknowledge, facilitate communication,and survive. The systems are the pro-ducts of ecological, historical, and

contemporary adaptive needs that en-compass beliefs, attitudes, and values;entail verbal and nonverbal language;and have material dimensions (Wurzel1988).

Ethnicity--A shared sociocultural heritagethat includes similarities of religion,history, and comm: ancestry (Peder-sen 1988).

Ethnocentrism--A view that one's group iscentral to everything else and that allother groups are rated in reference toone's own.

Minority--A group receiving differentialand unequal treatment because of col-lective discrimination or oppression,regardless of numerical criteria(Pedersen 1988).

Multiculturalism--A style of thinking andfeeling that is tolerant of cultural di-versity, the ambiguities of knowledge,and variations in human perspective; astyle of learning that invites inquiry; aquestioning of the arbitrary nature ofone's own culture and acceptance ofthe proposition that others who areculturally diverse can enrich one'sexperience; to be aware and able to in-corporate and synthesize different sys-tems of cultural knowledge into one'sown (Wurzel 1988).

Race--A pseudobiological system of clas-sifying persons by a shared genetic his-tory or physical characteristics such asskin color (Pedersen 1988).

U.S. Demographics: Projectionsof Exponential Change

According to recenlly published informa-tion from the U.S. Department of Com-merce's (USDC) Bureau of the Census,

the number of people residing in theUnited States in 1990 was 248.7 million(USDC 1991a). A decision was made byUSDC not to adjust statistically the countfor a projected 5 million individuals notrepresented in the census data (many ofwhom have culturally diverse back-grounds). The currently accepted figuresshow a 9.8 percent increase in the totalpopulation, when compared to the 1980total population of 226.5 million. Figure1 compares U.S. gromh rates over thepast 3 decades and demonstrates a declinein overall rate of increase. All of thecensus data for 1990 are on computertapes. Most of the data included herewere published in 1990 Census Profile(USDC 1991a). For additional informa-tion about their publication program, con-tact Customer Services, U.S. Bureau ofthe Census, Washington, DC 20233, (301)763-4100.

Due to differing mr.thods of gatheringinformation, census data are not totallycomparable between censuses but can beused to establish trends:

The 1990 Asian or Pacific Islanderpopulation of 7.3 million is more thandouble the 1980 population of 3.5million, largely due to immigration.

The Hispanic origin population (of anyrace) increased by 53 percent (from14.6 million to 22.4 million), alsolargely due to a high level ofimmigration.

A rapid increase (38 percent) in theAmeri:an Indian, Eskimo, or Aleutpopulation was found when the 1990figure of nearly 2 million was com-pared to the 1980 figure of 1.4 million(due, in part, to an increasing willing-ness by residents to identify with thepopulation).

13.3 11.5 9.8 11.9 6.0 6.0-1-7 17r-771Total

*Not available

127.5

White Black

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce (1991a)

American Indian, Asian or Pacific Hispanic originEskimo, or Aleut Islander (of any race)

Figure 1. Percentage of change in population, by race and Hispanic origin,for the United States: 1960 to 1990.

The African-American population fig-ure of nearly 30 million in 1990demonstrates a growth rate about one-third higher than that of the totalpopulation.

The number of whites increased from188.4 million to 199.7 million, a growthrate of 6.0 percent.

The growth rates, across races, demon-strate an increased proportion of thetotal population by nonwhites (seefigure 2).

There are significant differences in thedistribution of racial groups, although thewhite population appeared somewhat

5

1960 to 19701970 to 19801980 to 1990

equally distributed over the varyingregions (see figure 3). Racial diversity isgreatest in the West and lowest in theMidwest, and racial populations were con-centrated differently by region. Projec-tions based on growth rates are tentativebut two trends can be detected from the1990 census data: (1) the trend towardincreasing diversity of the U.S. populationis predicted to continue, and (2) popula-tion growth rates have been found to varyaccording to region and that trend willprobably continue. Thus, an overview ofthe U.S. population (according to 1990census data) confirms that the populationis increasing in diversity and is made morecomplex by regional differences in culturaldlvcrsity.

1 3

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11.1 11.7 12.1

0.4 0.6 0.8 0.7 1.5 2.9

9 06'4

r-1White Black American Indian, Asian or Pacific

Eskimo, or Aleut Islander

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce (1991a)

Total

White

Black

Hispanic origin(of any race)

Figure 2. Percentage of U.S. population, by race and Hispanic origin: 1970 to 1990

American Indian,Eskimo, or Aleut

Asian or PacificIslander

Hispanic origin(of any race)

20.4 24.0 34.4 21.2

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197019801990

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Figure 3. Percentage of distribution of race and Hispanic origin groups, by region: 1990

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce (1991a) ':-

6

4

THE WORLD VIEW COMPONENT OF CULTURAL IDENTITY

One who studies other cultures seriouslywill soon realize that members of groupsother than one's own often perceive na-ture, the importance of time, or the sig-nificance of community through an entire-ly different point of view. Therefoi z, ascareer educators encounter students fromdiverse backgrounds, they must come tounderstand the concept and implicationsof a "world view" approach. Jackson(1975) and Sue (1975) defined world viewas how a person perceives his or her rela-tionship with the world. World views arecomposed of attitudes, values, opinions,and beliefs. World views are influencedby cultural heritage and life experiences,and subsequently they affect how a per-son thinks, makes decisions, behaves, ordefines events (Sue 1981).

Throughout the history of the UnitedStates, members of the dominant culturalgroup have been in a position to maintainworld views indicative of a Eurocentricperspective. The result for AfricanAmericans, Native Americans, AsianAmericans, Mexican Americans, and otherculturally diverse people has been to findthemselves in a subordinate position with-in society and thus subjected to discrimi-natory practices. To understand betterthe relevance of this practice to differentcultures, the concept of world view mustinctude the interactional effects of manyvariables such as socioeconomic condi-tions, religious beliefs, and gender issues(Sue 1981).

Interactional conditions vary within cul-tural groups as well as between groups.They help explain why all members of a

particular culture do not share identicalviews of the world. An example would beworld views of an upper-socioeconomicclass African-American family residing inthe Atlanta suburbs compared to theworld views of a lower-socioeconomicclass African-American family residing ininner-city Chicago. The career educatorinteracting with children of these twofamilies is advised to approach the taskof cross-cultural understanding and effec-tive communication through the use of aworld view matrix based on Sue's (1981)model. Without such effort, career educa-tors will probably interact and respond inaccordance with their own conditionedvalues, assumptions, and perspectives ofreality.

The Dimensions of Locus of Control

Internal Control (IC) and External Con-trol (EC), dimensional concepts derivedfrom the work of Rotter (1966), are appli-cable as an approach to multiculturalunderstanding. Internal Control refers tothe belief that people can determine theshape of their fate, that their actions arereinforcements to or a catalyst of events.External Control, on the other hand, re-fers to the belief that the future is deter-mined more by luck or chance, that theactions of people are independent of rath-er than precipitators of events.

Rotter further stated that people tend tolearn one of two world views: the locusof control rests with themselves or restswith some external corce. Individualsfound to be high on a scale of internal

control (Lefcourt 1966; Rotter 1975) ex-hibited the following traits: (1) greaterattempts at mastering the environment;(2) superior coping strategies; (3) bettercognitive processing of information;(4) higher achievement motivation;(5) greater social action involvement; and(6) greater value placement on skill-determined rewards. Additional research(Sanger and Alker 1972; Strickland 1973)found that culturally diverse groups andwomen are overrepresented on .he exter-nal end of the IC-EC continuum. The im-plication for career education personnelis that culturally diverse students mayexhibit a high external orientation ('Thereis nothing I can do about it," "It's no usefighting the system"), which may be mis-read as apathy, laziness, or uncoopera-tiveness.

Although the Internal-External dimensionis a useful starting point in developingmulticultural understanding, it places littleconsideration on specific cultural differ-ences or life experiences. For that reasonSue (1981) modified the IC-EC dimensionfor use with diverse cultural groups. Theimplication for career educk.ti!in personnelis that they should not assume high exter-nality as an indicator of motivation whenworking with culturally diverse groups. Infact, high externality may be due tochance, cultural dictates .that are viewedas benevolent, or the influence of prejud-ice and discrimination. An examplewould be an educator who works with aNative American student whose culturalvalues dictate an external orientation andwho also faces an historical expeiience ofoppression in the United States. To viewthe Native American student as high inexternal control, with all the assumptionsof that trait attached, discounts the poten-tial influence of realistic obstacles.

8

1 t;

The Dimension of Locus of Responsibility

Attribution theory is a collection of ideasabout when and how people form causalinferences; it examines how individualscombine and use information to reachcausal judgments (Fiske and Taylor 1984).Research concerned with how people goabout understanding other people andthemselves was being conducted duringthe same period that Rotter drew his con-clusions about individual orientationtoward environment (externals) or towardself (internals).

When considered as a dimension, locus ofresponsibility is a measure of degree ofblame or acceptance of responsibility,placed upon the individual or environ-ment. An example would be the over-representation of African Americans wholive at or below the poverty level in theUnited States whose lower standard of liv-ing could be attributed to personal inade-quacies or attributed to discrimination andlack of opportunities. Envision locus ofresponsibility as a contint.um where atone end blame is placed on the individualand at the other end blame is placed onthe system. Is blame placed only at eitherend of the continuum adequate as an ex-planation for poverty? Is blame placedonly at either end of the continuum ade-quate for use with culturally differentgroups?

Rather than use a simplistic view of locusof responsibility, Sue (1981) suggested thatpeople refrain from perpetuating the mythabout a person's ability to control his orher own fate. Career educators mustcome to understand that a young African-American male may be quite realisticwhen he reports that institutional racismprevented his employment. It has notbeen a part of the history of this countryfor all people to be able to "make it ontheir own."

Sue's Formation of World Views

Sue's (1981) matrix of Locus of Controlshows how both locus of control and locusof responsibility may be placed to inter-sect and thus form four quadrants:

1. Internal Locus of Control - InternalLocus of Responsibility (the IC-IRposition)

2. External Locus of Control - InternalLocus of Responsibility (EC-IR)

3. Internal Locus of Control - ExternalLocus of Responsibility (IC-ER)

4. External Locus of Control - ExternalLocus of Responsibility (EC-ER)

If career educators knew a student's de-gree of internality of externality on thetwo dimensions, it would be theoreticallypossible to place the student into aquadrant.

Quadrant I (IC-IR) is a view typical ofWestern culture: There are feelings ofhigh internal personal control combinedwith personal attributions for success orfailure ("I made it happen," "I am success-ful"). A high value is placed on self-reliance, pragmatism, individualism, statusthrough achievement, and control overnature and others. The individual is heldaccountable for all that transpires. Mostmiddle-class white Americans would fallinto the IC-IR quadrant. Career educa-tors must recall that culturally diversestudents may not be self-assertive or ableto benefit from a self-help instructionalapproach.

Individuals in quadrant II (EC-IR) aremost likely to accept the dominant cul-ture's definition of self-responsibility yetexhibit very little control over how theirrole is defined by others. EC-IR individ-uals work hard at not being different but

do not really participate in the majorityculture. An example would be anAfrican-American student who was notselected for a summer internship at alocal business, was told she lacked skills ininterviewing, and later discovered that, ifselected, she would have been the firstand only African American to work forthe firm. The key point is the dominant-subordinate nature of the relations be-tween the two cultures.

In quadrant III, EC-ER individuals feelvery little cap be done about prejudiceand discrimination. Injustice is out oftheir control and not their responsibility.They likely will either give up or try toplacate those in power. EC-ER is a factorin "learned helplessness" and can becomea never-ending cycle; individuals exposedto prolonged lack of control in their livesmay develop negative expectations aboutfuture events that are indeed controllable.An example would be a Native Americanwho selects his/her seat in the rear of theclassroom because it is his/her "place."

IC-ER (quadrant IV) individuals are cul-turally different people who do not accepttheir difference as due to their inherentweakness. They believe they can shapetheir future if given the chance; however,they are realistic about the barriers (pre-judice and discrimination) to be faced andovercome. Racial pride, close identitywith their cultural group, and perhapssome degree of militancy may be seen inthe IC-ER position. IC-ER individualstend to see problems external to the per-son and demand action on the part ofothers. Career educators are likely to beseen as a part of the establishment thathas oppressed culturally diverse groups;issues of credibility and trustworthinessare likely to be raised.

Education in this country tends to fall inthe IC-IR quadrant. Students are seen asable to take action and be responsible for

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their behaviors (both success and failure).Career educators need to recognize thequadrant most reflective of their teachingstyle and to recognize and legitimize thequadrant in which others' world views mayfall.

Students in the IC-ER position may bevery difficult to work with in the schoolsetting. They may require action in thecommunity such as setting up job inter-views or helping fill out job applications.The EC-IR student may feel self-hatred,and a reeducative process may be neces-sary to make the student aware of thewider sociopolitical forces at work. EC-ER students must be taught new copingskills to deal with people. Career educa-

tors may be required to "engineer"successful experiences for students in thisquadrant.

The culturally effective career educator isthe one most able to generate the widestrepertoire of skills consistent with the life-styles and values of culturally differentstudents. A balance must be reached be-tween questioning and giving sunestions.Career educators need to understand thateach world view has positive aspects. Therole of the career educator is to help cul-turally diverse students integrate aspectsof each world view that will maxirnize heror his effectiveness and well-being (Sue1981).

10 1 s

CAREER ISSUES FOR A DIVERSE POPULATION

The rapid shift in the United States dur-ing the late 1800s and early 1900s froman independent, agriculture-based societyof small farmers to that of an interdepen-dent, industrial-based society of employeesresulted in extensive social change(Purkey and Schmidt 1987). From theturn of this century, vocational guidanceand career education programs wereimplemented to help individuals deal withboth interpersonal and job training issues.These programs were heavily influencedby or were a product of historical eventssuch as the Industrial Revolution, thesocial reform movement of the early1900s, the influence of World Wars I andII on psychometric testing and placement,civil rights legislation, political actioncommittees, and other events.

Many authors (Herr and Cramer 1988;Super 1980; Zunker 1990) have definedcareer development as an aspect of theinteraction of psychological, sociological,economic, physical, and chance factorsthat separate work roles, settings, andevents from other roles. The increasingcomplexity and interrelatedness of rolesenacted by individuals within the contextof society bring such definitions into ques-tion. How relevant for diverse popula-tions are current definitions (and prac-tices), especially those based primarily ona white male, middle-class population?

Career Development and EducationalProgramming

The evolving concept of career develop-ment serves to summarize, explain., and

predict a variety of personal choices re-lated to an individual's total life-style.Examples of these personal choices in-clude occupation, education, personal andsocial behavior, learning how to learn,social responsibility, and leisure-timeactivities. Theory must be examined toenable understanding of the behavior ofindividuals, with regard given to culturalgroup affiliation, and to make suggestionsabout appropriateness of use of specifictechniques and labor market information(National Occupational Information Coor-dinating Committee 1986).

A number of theoretical orientations (suchas learning theory, personality develop-ment, or behavior change) have formedthe basis of educational practices andprograms within career education andhave met with varying degrees of success.The effect has been a continuing, yet re-solved, effort to prepare students andadults adequately for contemporary worksettings. It must be pointed out thattheories predominantly derived by whitemales for a white male, middle-class pop-ulation may have limited value for cultur-ally diverse populations. Practice must bedriven by theory that attends to how cul-tural values and influences unfold in edu-cation and the world of work.

Developmental theorists have had a signif-icant impact upon career education duringthe last half of this century. Havighurst(1952) and others identified programmingand age-related developmental tasks thatvocational and career educators can use asan indication that a problem-solving skillhas been acquired. Developmental tasks

can be employed to assist students inmaking varied educational, social, andcareer decisions. Career developmenttheorists appreciate how intraindividualdifferences affect growth and developmentthroughout the life span (Ginzberg 1972;Super 1984). The developmental ap-proach was in part a reaction to structuraltheories that focus on the structure ofindividual differences in a person's char-acteristics as they influence career behav-ior (Crites 1981; Holland 1985).

Career development theories acknowl-edged the importance of self-concept andpromoted the resolution of individualidentity issues. Both elements are crucialfor career development and career educa-tion of culturally diverse individuals."Diagnostic" terminology has often workedagainst diverse cultures but is circum-vented or unnecessary when a develop-mental approach is used as a base forcareer education programming. Finally,relevance and practicality (connectedness)to real-world experience is especiallyimportant to culturally diverse popula-tions; both are provided through self-understanding, in occupational terms, oflife roles.

Although career education and careerdevelopment are not synonymous terms,efforts made in one domain by necessityinvolve the other. Typically, the missionof career education in the public schoolsis to provide programs for all youth andadults who need, want, and can benefitfrom offerings that (1) are capable ofmeeting students needs, interests, abilities,and aspirations; and (2) are responsive toactual or anticipated opportunities foremployment or practical life application.The specific purposes of career educationare to (1) prepare for initial employmentor further education; (2) prepare for mak-ing informed consumer decisions and ap-plying practical life skills; (3) assist inmaking educational and occupational deci-

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sions; and (4) assist persons who are dif-ferently abled because of academic, socio-economic, or physical influences thataffect their ability to succeed (NorthCarolina Departmeat of Public Instruction1987).

Individual states have targeted specificgroups to receive career education evenwhen resources are limited; thus groups ofstudents have been "prioritized" to receiveservices. In order of priority, these groupsmay include the following (ibid.):

Students at risk of dropping out ofschool or desiring immediate employ-ment upon graduation

Students in training or education belowthe baccalaureate degree level

Students seeking skills for use in ef-forts where monetary compensation isnot normally received such as home-maker or volunteer work

Students engaged in collegiate effortsin fields related to vocationaleducation

College students engaged in programsnot directly related to vocational edu-cation but desiring to acquire variouscareer skills for personal or otherreasons

Diversity in School and Work:Economic Implications

It appears there is little in state or federalmandates that would stand to impedemembers of specific cultures; yet there isgreat variation in success among culturallydiverse students. High school graduationrates and economic factors are limited butare important indicators of what could becalled "rates of success" among culturallydiverse students.

In order to make comparisons, assumethat most young adults over age 24 willhave terminated their secondary schoolexperiences due to graduation (highschool diploma or equivalent) or will havedropped out. Recent data indicate that86.2 percent of all U.S. citizens (aged 25-34) report Iv :ng attained 4 years or moreof high school (USDC 1991b). In com-parison, similar figures for African Ameri-cans and Hispanics are 80 percent and 58percent, respectively (USDC 1990b;USDC 1991b).

Economic indicators, in terms of level ofincome, could arguably be called an indi-cator of success of educational program-ming. After adjusting for inflation,African-American and white family in-come was not significantly different in1987 than it had been in 1979. The rela-tionship in 1987 between African-Ameri-can median family incnme ($18,100) andwhite median family income ($32,270) hasnot changed significantly in the lastdecade. African-American families wereabout three times more likely to be poorthan white families (USDC 1990a).

Income and earnings figures from 1989disclose that the median income of His-panic families ($23,400) was less thannon-Hispanic families ($35,200). Morethan double the proportion of Hispanicfamilies lived below the poverty line in1989 (23.4 percent) than non-Hispanicfamilies (9.2 percent) (USDC 1990b).Therefore, poverty and disparate levels ofincome (when compared to the white pop-ulation) are very real issues for AfricanAmericans and Hispanics.

The rates of success among individualswith diverse backgrounds appear to

change slowly. The coming century isprojected to be characterized by social,demographic, and economic circumstancesreminiscent of those that gave rise to thecounseling and vocational education pro-fession at the turn of the last century.Demographic changes could lead to un-precedented employment opportunities fcrculturally diverse individuals who areeducationally and vocationally prepared.However, if present educational and occu-pational trends continue, minorities willcertainly face a greater likelihood of un-employment or employment in lower pay-ing jobs. Career educators and counsel-ors, unlike their predecessors, have accessto a body of knowledge that underlies theimpact of gender, race, and social class onbehavior (Hawks and Muha 1991).

When broad categories of concerns re-ceive limited resources, the results arecurtailed distribution of funds, materials,and efforts. Education (particularly pre-ventative measures) has not received theemphasis or priority necessary to bringabout true change for significant numbersof people. Despite sincere efforts, therecurrently exists an unacceptably high drop-out rate in both public schools and at thecollege level. This underachievementmeans a loss of human potential that isincalculable and real-world experiencesthat result in disparate income levels andlife-styles for culturally diverse groups. Asmentioned earlier, elected officials, earlyin 1991, took a stand against politicaltyranny and oppression abroad. Theyshould do no less to eradicate poverty andoppression on the home front by increas-ing the emphasis on education and sub-sequent opportunities for meaningfulemployment.

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A MULTICULTURAL FOCUS ON CAREER DEVELOPMENTAND CAREER EDUCATION

Earlier chapters presented an overview ofthe multicultural nature of U.S. societyand discussed the implications of diverseworld views for career development andcareer education. This chapter examinesin more detail studies and theories thatsupport a multicultural focus in careereducation and development.

General Trends

Spokane and Hawks (1990) reviewed se-lected career development literature pub-lished in 1989 and conducted research toascertain who seeks career services, whatinterventions are employed, and what con-ceptual models or frameworks are usedfor delivery of services. Of particularconcern was that very small percentages ofAfrican American, Hispanic, Asian Ameri-can, and Native American clients were re-ported as being seen. Slightly morewomen (55.3 percent) received servicesthan did men (44.5 percent). The averageclient seeking services for career issueswas characterized by practitioners ashighly educated, white, affluent, and highlymotivated. Though the literature on at-risk and culturally diverse clients hasexpanded considerably, in practice fewculturally diverse clients actualiy receiveservices. Populations most in need ofcareer services may be those least likely toreceive them.

Intervention method clearly affects theattractiveness of the strategy when work-ing with culturally diverse students orclients. For example, structured family

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methods were more effective with Hispan-ics than was a psychodynamic approach(ibid.). It was suggested that highly struc-tured approaches to intervention may bemore beneficial for culturally diverse cli-ents. Very little work has been done todesign career developmental systems withthe specific needs of diverse populationsin mind. In way of practice, individualcareer counseling was found to be by farthe most common intervention mode. In-terventions often consisted of exploration,assessment, narrowing of the range ofalternatives under consideration, integra-tion of needs with labor market con-straints, and engagement of an actionplan. Although career education, careerdevelopment, and career counseling arevigorous, growing, and sophisticated fields,practice reflects a reliance on the familiarand the comfortable: practice does notreflect all of the advances in the field ofvocational behavior, nor does it seem par-ticularly responsive to pressing societalneeds (Spokane and Hawks 1990).

Baker's (1990) practical guide redefinesthe role of the classroom teacher andoffers suggestions and activities on how toimprove the classroom environment foracademically at-risk students. Many ofBaker's suggestions are useful for teachingstudents from diverse backgrounds. Theguide contains strategies to motivate dis-couraged and disengaged youth but ac-knowledges the need for restructuring thetraditional educational system. No addi-tional training or materials are required toemploy the techniques discussed.

All contributors to Baker's work wereinterviewed and observed in the class-room. The guide assumes that there isvisible administrative support for teachers'efforts and that the classroom teacher isinstrumental in bringing about an effectivelearning environment. Included in theguide are sections that emphasize the fol-lowing: (1) relevance of curriculum tostudent needs; (2) individualized instruc-tion, active learning, and role modeling;(3) counseling, advocacy, and improvedstudent-teacher relationships; (4) com-munity relationships that connect theclassroom to the real world; and (5) ca-reer preparation for living in a multicul-tural world. "Essential ingredients" arelisted for each subject area and containrecommendations from practitioners(Baker 1990).

Several major trends have been identifiedby Johnson and Packer (1987) for the U.S.work force by the year 2000:

Growth in the population and the workforce will be slower than in the pasthalf century.

The population and work force will beolder and the pool of young workerswill be smaller.

Women will continue to enter the workforce in significant numbers.

There will be more culturally diversepeople and immigrants in the workforce.

The result of these changes is greater di-versity; in fact, only 15 percent of the newentrants in the work force in the UnitedStates are projected to be white men.

Pine and Hilliard (1990) pointed out thatracism appears to be increasing. Althoughthe United States is a multicultural soci-ety, it is far from being pluralistic. To

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function in a pluralistic world, educatorsmust provide all students with a high-quality education that will enable them tofunction successfully in an interdependent,multiethnic, multicultural, and rapidlychanging world and workplace. Diversityin the student population exists but is notappreciated or valued.

School statistics demonstrate that studentsof color experience a disproportionatelyhigh rate of dropping out of school, sus-pension, expulsion, placement in classesfor mentally or behaviorally handicapped,and placement in other than college prep-aration tracks. Public schools are mono-cultural with a curriculum dominated bythe attitudes, beliefs, and value systems ofone race and class of people. Children ofcolor face the expectations by educatorsto be bicultural, bilingual (if English is nottheir primary language), and bicognitive.Pine and Hilliard (1990) suggested thateducators establish goals that work towardexamining and appreciating individual dif-ferences. Some of these goals could beto confront and challenge racism (begin-ning with their own internalized fears ofdiversity), increase the pool of culturallydiverse teachers, implement a multicul-tural curriculum, improve pedagogicalpractice, teach character development, andimprove self-esteem.

Stimulated by the impact of California'sincreasing growth, economic development,and cultural diversity, McCune, Apolloni,and Meucci (1989) assessed the currentability of California's educational systemto meet the needs of students who arelimited in English proficiency and who areacademically and economically disadvan-taged or handicapped. Rapid changes inthe economy (such as those experienced inthe early 1990s) can pose potential threatsto a state's economic well-being (a possi-ble decline in industry and manufacturing,reductions in exports, worldwide competi-tion, and others). An essential element

for the maintenance and expansion of Cal-ifornia's (and any other state's) economyis a weil-educated and well-trained workforce. The report recommends that provi-sions of special needs education programsbe used to redesign vocational and careereducation programs.

Gender Issues

Arbona and Novy (1991) reported an un-even distribution of occupations in thelabor market according to both Hollandtypology and educational level. The Hol-land typology (1985) assumes that in thisculture, people and work environmentscan be categorized by personality andwork demands, respectively: Realistic,Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising,and Conventional. Realistic jobs (in-volved with technical and mechanicalcompetencies) are the most abundant andrequire low levels of education, whereasArtistic (involved with unstructured andcreative acts) and Investigative (involvedwith the observation and creative investi-gation of phenomena) jobs are scarce andoften require at least a college degree.There is more even distribution of workamong the Social (involved in activities toinform or train others), Enterprising (in-volved with the manipulation of others toobtain organizational or self-interestgoals), and Conventional (involved in con-ventional activities such as keeping dataordered, keeping records, or operatingbusiness machines) categories. Addition-ally, various types and levels of work areunevenly distributed among gender andethnic group:- Women, in general, tendto be overrepresented in the Social andConventional jobs, whereas African-American and Hispanic men and womenare overrepresented in low-level Realisticjobs and underrepresented in all othertypes of work.

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Career aspirations are defined, for thepurposes of Arbona and Novy's (1991)study, as the occupation students wantedto pursue if there were no reality con-straints; career expectations were definedas the occupation students expected topursue, taking into account reality factors.With these two definitions in mind,Arbona and Novy undertook an investiga-tion that examined the correspondence ofethnic group membership and gender tobeginning college students' career aspira-tions and expectations and the correspon-dence between students' expectations andthe distribution of jobs in the labormarket. The results suggested thatAfrican-American, Mexican-American, andwhite beginning college students (whethermale or female) did net differ markedly interms of the Holland career type to whichthey aspired. Thus, although the associa-tion between ethnicity and career expecta-tions was statistically significant, thereappeared to be other factors besidesethnicity related to students' careerexpectations.

In analysis of the findings, few differenceswere found in the career aspirations andexpectations among African-American,Mexican-American, and white students.Gender was more closely associated withcareer choice than ethnicity for MexicanAmericans and whites; gender was moreclosely associated with career expectationsthan with asp.irations. The implicationsfor career educators and counselors re-volve around issues concerned with col-lege women who aspire to nontraditionalcareers but who do not expect to be ableto pursue such careers. In summary, ca-reer education and career counselingtheory, research, and practice need to gobeyond exploring the characteristics ofindividuals and examine the broader socialand economic context in which studentswill attempt to act on their career choices(Arbona and Novy 1991).

The Women's Educational Equity ActProgram (WEEA) findings (EducationDevelopment Center 1980) of a decadeago remain accurate and bring painfulawareness of how little progress has beenmade in career education for nontradi-tional occupations. By the first or secondgrade, children are already aware of ster-eotypical racial and gender roles. Theresult is a tendency to eliminate from con-sideration many career possibilities. Tra-ditional career patterns can be unwittinglyreinforced in educational institutionswhere students are formally introduced toa variety of occupational role modelsunless a concerted effort is made to dootherwise. Occupational segregation intotraditional female roles creates a doublelimitation on women of color becausetheir career outlook is restricted by bothrace and gender.

Trabajamos! (Education DevelopmentCenter 1980) is a series of games andactivities designed by WEEA to help por-tray non-sex-stereotyped, nontraditionaloccupational roles for Hispanic females.Available in both Spanish and Englishversions, the three-part, three-week pro-gram introduces students to individualsemployed in nontraditional positions (den-tist, bus driver, nurse, secretary, principal,fire fighter, letter carrier, police officer,construction worker, doctor, and others).The series is intended to encourage awider range of occupational choices basedon the child's interests and abilities, topresent positive role models from the His-panic female's culture, and to enhancedevelopmental skills while maintainingand cultivating the child's own languageand culture. The materials are sensitiveto the cultural, linguistic, and regionaldifferences among Spanish speakers. Theprogram is appropriate for use in bothsocial studies or language arts classes. Ateacher's guide is included that containslesson plans, objectives, follow-up activ-ities, and means of evaluation.

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Evans and Herr (1991) stated that, inchoosing a career, African-Americanwomen may be influenced by perceptionsof both racism and sexism. A large per-centage of African-American women'saspirations have clustered in career areasthat provide services primarily for theAfrican-American community and tradi-tionally include the fields of education,social science, medicine, and law. Theadditive effect of racism and sexism placesAfrican-American women in occupationaldouble jeopardy and at a developmentalplateau. To survive dual discrimination inthe workplace, African-American womenhave developed a system of coping thatanticipates such discrimination, lowers oralters career goals, and internalizes atti-tudes that cause deterioration of self-esteem and self-confidence. To avoid theadverse effect of racism and sexism on ca-reer aspirations, the authors suggest thatAfrican-American women decline to par-ticipate in a particular activity that mayhave a negative impact on career develop-ment, modify life-styles, or redirect ambi-tions and goals. The perceptions held byAfrican-American women present uniquechallenges for the professional who coun-sels or provides career education for thispopulation (Evans and Herr 1991).

Yang (1991) pointed out that AsianAmericans have been referred to as the"model minority, forgotten minority, oradvantaged minority." Many stereotypesof Asian Americans are often generalizedto the various Asian cultures but onlyserve to limit understanding. For exam-ple, Chinese-American women are a sub-group whose cultural values and specificcareer needs remain unexpressed and un-resolved. Yang attempts to describe theingrained cultural values that have had animpact on Chinese-American women,identifies vocational barriers, and providesimplications for counseling and careereducation.

Failure to recognize the complex histori-cal, social, political, and economic con-straints of Chinese-American women'sexperiences contributes to mystification intheir treatment. Career development bar-riers include universal women's issues butare compounded by traditional reinforcingfactors such as discrimination in politics,economics, and education; some socialsystems are viewed as an extension andprojection of patriarchal family dynamics.Yang (1991) assumes that much of herdiscussion could apply to other Asian-American women whose cultural heritagehas been similarly influenced by Con-fucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. Theconcepts presented may be more appli-cable to first and second generation immi-grants than to later generations who maybe thoroughly assimilated into U.S.culture.

Communication Issues

McCune, Apolloni, and Meucci (1989)recommended a wide range of strategiesand argued for a comprehensive view ofhigh quality career-vocational educationconsistent with the needs of a truly multi-cultural state. The report called for activ-ities that--

increase vocational educators' culturalself-awareness, awareness of diversepopulations, and factors influencingachievement;

provide educators with informationabout exemplary programs andpractices;

provide training to increase knowledgeand skill levels of educators to servestudents more effectively; and

increase career educational opportuni-ties for exceptional children.

The report examined the potential role ofcareer education in ensuring valued rolesin society for all children, including cul-turally diverse populations and those indi-viduals with special needs.

Project CAREERS, undertaken by theNew York City Board of Education(1986), was a multisite project thatprovided bilingual instruction in mathe-matics, science, and social studies withrelevance to career education for His-panic, Chinese, and Haitian students ingrades 9-12. Instructional goals included(1) basic academic skills instruction inboth English and students' native lan-guage; (2) increased self-concept throughstudy and appreciation of students' nativecultures; (3) encouragement of retention,academic achievement, and high schoolgraduation; and (4) acquisition of basicskills and orientation toward careers inhealth, law, business-related, and otherfields.

An analysis of Project CAREERS Ithowedthat students mastered criterion-referenced English language achievementgoals in excess of minimum expectations,obtained high passing rates in nativelanguage arts classes, met business andhealth career course objectives, and hadlower dropout rates when compared withstudents not participating in ProjectCAREERS (New York City Board of Ed-ucation 1986). Further refinement of theprogram could be made by additionalleadership involvement, additional staffcommunication and development, furthercurriculum development, career develop-ment that is more systematically incorpo-rated into classroom activities, additionaltechnological support (computers), andadequate facilities.

Lucas, Henze, and Donato (1990) foundeight features believed to be important inpromoting the academic success of stu-dents whose primary language is other

than English. Hispanic students com-prised the largest English-as-a-second-language (ESL) group of students in theresearch. Academic success was enhancedwhen--

OP.

IMPIR

OWN.

OP.

value was placed on the students' lan-guages and cultural diversity wascelebrated;

high expectations of students weremade in direct and concrete form;

school leaders made the education ofESL students a priority by demonstrat-ing a strong conunitment to raisingtheir achievement levels;

staff development was designed tohelp all staff serve students moreeffectively;

courses and programs were specificallydesigned for ESL students;

counseling programs targeted the stu-dents for services;

parents were encouraged to becomeinvolved in their children's education;and

school staff shared a strong com-mitment to empower ESL studentsthrough education.

The study of six schools, though limited innature and scope, reiterates the need forstrong school leadership, parent. involve-ment, a proactive counseling program, andongoing staff development. The work isespecially helpful due to specific anddetailed examples for implementation ofeach key feature. The :iuthors determinedthat schools that are successful with ESLstudents place a high priority on servicesand project nurturing attitudes that gobeyond academic instruction (Lucas,Henze, and Donato 1990).

Culturally Diverse Populationsin Transition

The National Occupational InformationCoordinating Committee (NOICC) laun-ched the National Career DevelopmentGuidelines initiative in 1986 (McCormac1990), which represented a nationwideeffort to foster career development at alldevelopmental levels using the bestmaterials developed by states, profes-sional associations, and local institutions.An extensive advisory, review, and valida-tion process resulted in statements ofdesired student outcomes, counselor com-petencies, and institutional capacities.The results of the efforts were to setstandards for career guidance andeducation.

Several specific factors bring McCormac's(1990) work to mind when providing ca-reer education for culturally diverseindividuals:

Career development is indeed a life-long process.

Business and economic environmentsare becoming increasingly complex.

Labor force demographics, gender rolechanges, and corporate reorganizationhave increasing influence on economicenvironments.

Social changes include more workinghours, more females and culturallydiverse individuals in the work force,and more frequent job or occupationchanges.

Many adults are now seeking careereducation and career guidance.

Increasingly, NOICC is finding that adultsof all ages and educational levels areseeking assistance with career decisionmaking. The latest National Career

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Development kssociation (1989) nationalsurvey found that 7 percent of adultsneeded help in the past year in selecting,changing, or getting a job. Differenceswere found on the basis of race with 6percent of whites, 8 percent of Hispanics,15 percent of African Americans, and 19percent of Asian Americans feporting aneed for assistance in the job market.Those in the 18- to 25-year-old groupwere most likely to express a need forassistance. Nearly two-thirds reportedthey would like to get more idormation ifthey could chart their career paths again(McCormac 1990).

By cultural group, African Americans (79percent), Hispanics (75 percent), andAsian Americans (71 percent) are morelikely than whites (63 percent) to expressa desire to get information about job andcareer options. Thus, the survey findingslead to some important conclusions: (1) asignificant number of workers need assis-tance in selecting, changing, or obtaininga job; (2) young workers and minoritiesare the ones who seem to be strugglingmost with getting a job; and (3) mostAmericans are not making adequateplans for entering the work force. Needsare identified that can only be addressedby an improved career education and ca-reer development delivery system. Highlytrained counselors and career educationspecialists must provide leadership andwork with teams at the local and statelevels. State departments of educationand professional organizations must con-tinue to conduct research related to careerdevelopment. To do otherwise will con-tinue the adverse effect of untappedhuman potential (McCormac 1990).

Herring (1990) stated that career myths(defined as irrational attitudes about thecareer developmental process) have beengenerated from historical, familial patternsof career ignorance, or negative careerexperiences. Among Native American

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youth, several factors influence the pre-sence of career myths: (1) limited re-search available on the psychological,philosophical, and career needs of NativeAmericans; (2) a continuation of NativeAmerican stereotypes; and (3) NativeAmerican youths' lack of career awarenessand weak understanding of the informa-tion needed to pursue a particular careerpath.

The implications include a need both toenlarge and enhance research efforts andliterature on all Native Americans (forexample, expand research applicable toNative Americans living outside Westernreservations). School materials must bepurged of any illustrations, photographs,and references that inaccurately depictNative Americans. A comprehensive ca-reer education program needs to be de-signed that presents Native American rolemodels for nontraditional career clusters(Herring 1990).

Vocational restlism can be defined as thecompromise between occupational aspira-tions and expectations or the extent towhich an individual's intelligence ismatched to the level needed to be suc-cessful in her or his expected, p. ferred,or aspired-to occupation. Fo. youngAfrican-American males, a number of fac-tors are related both to vocational devel-opment and vocational realism. Thesefactors affect both choice of college majorand expected occupation. Students be-come more vocationally realistic as theygrow older, but more information and re-search is needed about how that develop-ment occurs, especially for culturallydiverse populations (Bowman and Tinsley1991).

Cheatham (1990) recalled numerous ef-forts to analyze the limited progress madetoward reversing ie chronicity of prob-lems faced by African Americans. AfricanAmericans continue to experience dispro-

portionate underemployment and unem-ployment. In the past 2 decades, attemptsto reverse or improve labor market acces-sibility for African Americans have beenprimarily concerned with external forcessuch as hiring goals, educational programs,and graduation rates. Interventions fo-cused on the dynamics of internal forces(such as the indivilual's psychologicalmotivations, personal orientation, andsocial beliefs or values) have been morelimited. Through a seminar approach,counselors have attempted to increaseAfrican-American parenting skills, developmore positive self-concepts, and promoteleadership skills. Specific attempts havebeen made to encourage parents to spendmore time (quality and quantity) rearingand nurturing their male children, that is,to the extent of time spent with femalechildren.

Cheatham (1990) questioned the suffici-ency of practices that focus on developingindividual adequacy and competence orfail to take adequate account of the char-acteristics of the experience of African-American families in U.S. society. Cur-rent efforts to "help" African Americansassume that acquisition of personal com-petencies and skills or behaviors willreverse the negative effect of U.S. societalorganization, including labor marketforces. In fact, the prescriptions andmethods need concurrent analyses that en-able identification and incorporation ofAfrican Americans' values, truths, andmeanings.

In a heuristic model of Africentricity andcareer development, the Eurocentric so-cial order is infused with the Africentricsocial order to obtain a respectful portraitof the client. Distinct characteristics ofboth Africentrism and Eurocentrism areacknowledged with the suggestion that ca-reer education and counseling interven-tions be judged appropriate and meaning-ful to the individual's reality. The legacy

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of the African-American experience andresulting social order is compared andcontrasted with the effects of a parallelbut differing social order experienced bywhite society. For African Americans, notall outcomes are the same but as the twosocial orders evolve, experiences that maybe potentially disabling for one personmay be potentially enabling for another.Perhaps a Eurocentric social order hashad a predominant effect on the careerdevelopment process whereas theinfluence of the Africentric social orderhas been tentative and indirect. Recipro-city and complementarity of elements ofthe two orders better serve African Amer-icans' career development by shifting froma universal perspective that emphasizesconcepts that are applicable to all culturesto a culture-specific perspective that pro-motes respect and incorporates the valuesand truths of each of its co-cultures(Cheatham 1990).

Only fragmentary knowledge of Asian-American career development is evi-denced in the literature (Leong 1991).Most career development theoreticalorientations and career education inter-ventions have been derived from smallsamples of white, usually middle-class,men. There exists a deficit in the knowl-edge base in spite of an expressed highneed for career education and careercounseling services by Asian Americans.There has been an increasing recognitionof the important impact of the differentialattributes of clients on the outcome ofvarious career interventions. Culturalbackground is a dimension in which stu-dents may vary. The influence of clientattribute-treatment-interaction (ATI) maybe particularly relevant to career develop-ment given individuals' unique sets of cul-tural values and personality characteristics.

The purpose of Leong's (1991) study wasto determine whether Asian-American col-lege students have, compared to white

American college students, different ca-reer development attributes (career ma-turity, vocational identity, and decision-making styles). The data support somesignificant differences on career develop-ment attributes and occupational values:(1) Asian Americans exhibited higher lev-els of dependent decision-making styles;(2) Asian Americans exhibited lower lev-els of career maturity; and (3) AsianAmericans showed significant differencesin terms of placing greater emphasis onearning a good deal of money, gainingspecial status and prestige, and having astable, secure future (extrinsic and prag-matic occupational values). The implica-tion of the research for career educationand career counseling is that differencesin career development exists betweenwhite and Asian-American college stu-dents that may result in Asian-Americansexhibiting more dependent decision-making styles and lower levels of careermaturity. The results suggest a moredirective and structured approach tocareer education and counseling, and theysupport the idea that Asian Americansmay not expect or want to view careerchoice as implementation of one's self-concept (Leong 1991).

Haycock and Duany (1991) point out that1 of 10 public school students in theUnited States is of Latin heritage and thepercentage is expected to double by theyear 2030. Forty percent of Latino stu-dents do not graduate from high schooland half of those dropouts have com-pleted less than ninth grade. New censusdata find Latinos geographically concen-trated in nine states, mostly in the South-west. Schools cannot attribute lack ofachievement to personal, family, or cul-tural characteristics. The authors suggestthat schools appear to put less of every-thing into the education of Latino andother students of diverse backgrounds, interms of experienced and well-trainedteachers and administrators, a rich and

well-balanced curriculum, and adequatelyequipped laboratories and libraries. Forthose culturally diverse students whoattend schools with many resources, track-ing or "ability grouping" has essentially asegregating effect.

In order to increase achievement, a con-certed effort must be made to place highlycompetent, trained, and skilled educatorsalong with effective administrators in pub-lic schools, especially those with a cultur-ally diverse student population. Also,expectations and goals must be set realis-tically high; more must be expected ofLatino and indeed all students. Finally,parents must become involved in the edu-cational process and a stronger communitysupport system must evolve (Haycock andDuany 1991).

Kavanaugh and Retish (1991) found thatMexican Americans are among the poor-est of all culturally diverse groups in theUnited Stmt., ond they attend publicschools that are mostly segregated. Theyhypothesize that 10 to 15 percent of allHispanic students who attend school sufferfrom some degree of malnutrition. Thefollowing barriers often faced by Mexican-American students impede academicachievement:

Overcrowded and insufficiently staffedclassrooms

Parents who may project a less thanpositive outlook toward education

Bilingual difficulties where the need tocommand the English languageexceeds proficiency

Bicultural issues

Use and misuse of standardized testingDisproportionate placement in excep-tional children's programs

These and other barriers result in veryhigh (40 percent) dropout rates andunderrepresentation of Mexican Ameri-cans in college.

A lack of academic achievement is a pri-mary reason many Mexican-American stu-dents s re placed on a vocational educa-tion "track," take a lot of vocationallyrelated classes, and are not prepared forhigher education. Kavanaugh and Retishlisted seven specific public policyrecommerdations to include the Mexican-American experience in the classroom:

1. Include contributions of the culture.

2. Preclude thoughts of Mexican Ameri-cans as "culturally deprived."

3. Develop and interpret standardizedtests in an unbiased manner.

4. Develop and use teaching materialsthat are ethnically and culturallyunbiased.

5. Incorporate Mexican-American cultureinto curricula and subject materials.

6. Provide bilingual education for stu-dents who need it.

7. Increase the number of Mexican-American educators at all levels.

Scheetz (1990) summarized recruitingtrends and expectations of employers hir-ing new (1990-91) college graduates basedon an extensive study of 549 agencies,military services, and school districts. Ofsignificant interest to career educators ofculturally diverse students are anticipatedchanges in hiring trends, percentages ofindividuals with diverse backgrounds, qual-ities desired in new college graduates, andjob categories experiencing most growth.Other topics include job opportunities bygeographic region, starting salary averages

and anticipated increases, factors influ-encing the 1990-91 job market, influencesof political factors (such as the invasion ofKuwait), campus recruitment activities, ef-fect of career objectives on resumes, indi-cators of future job performance, changingattitudes and interests among college stu-dents, positions available to liberal artsmajors, technical job opportunities, turn-over rates, and job opportunities for grad-uates interested in changing careers. Ofcareer development relevance is advicefor first- and second-year college studentson preparation for initial work experiencesand the first 5 years on the job.

Additional survey analysis found that aslight majority of employers felt gradepoint average was a good indicator of fu-ture job performance in some fields, butmany felt it was just one of many indica-tors. Grade point average is not a goodindicator of future performance in fieldsthat require strong social, communication,or interpersonal skills. Nor are gradeshighly correlated with common sense, in-tegrity, cooperation, adjustment to theworkplace, or problem-solving abilities.Additional factors that influence futurejob performance were prior work experi-ence, a desire to excel, motivation toachieve, team player skills, willingness towork, overall college experience (includingextracurricular activities), people-oriented/interpersonal skills, and strong communi-cation ability (Scheetz 1990).

Treacy's (1981) work remains an impor-tant source of material and information.One of three in a series, the 1981 guidecontains listings of behavioral objectivesfor grades K-12 organized around eightcareer education themes (self-awareness,career awareness, educational awareness,economic awareness, decision making,beginning competencies, employabilityskills, and appreciation and attitudes), acareer education resource listing, andannotated bibliographies listing materials

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on school-to-work transitions, multi-cultural children, exceptional children, thedisadvantaged, and inservice training. Theguide consists of extensive teacher-devel-oped and teacher-tested learning activitiesfor use in grades 10-12. Activities in theguide can be incorporated into existingcurricula in the following subject areas:art, biology, business, chemistry, English,foreign languages, counseling, health, phy-sical education, home economics, indus-trial arts, mathematics, music, science,social studies, and special education.Activities address the eight themes andcan be infused into existing curricula.

Early vocational educators, who begantheir work during the enormous demo-graphic and economic transitions of theIndustrial Revolution, were committed tosocial change as well as the vocationaldevelopment of individuals. However,their absence of reference to the accom-plishments of diverse cultures may haveunintentionally set limitations for individ-uals with diverse backgrounds. Indicativeof unintentional bias were statements in

early vocational literature that describedItalians as suited for work in the confec-tionery industry due to the "adaptabilityand quickness or the race" to that kind ofwork (Hawks and Muha 1991).

With a solid knowledge base, career pro-fessionals have the potential to redresssome of the inequities perpetuated by eco-nomic and educational systems through arecommitment to career education, careerdevelopment, and career counseling; en-suring equal access to career services; andchanging the context of intervention inconsideration of individual variables.Recommendations for practice includefostering intrinsic motivation in studentsby emphasizing student-generated versuscounselor- or teacher-transmitted knowl-edge; incorporation of the student's lan-guage and culture into educational pro-grams; involving the culturally diversecommunity, especially parents, in theprogram; and advocating for students byviewing problems primarily as a result ofthe system rather than a flaw within thestudents (Hawks and Muha 1991).

IMPROVING THE MULTICULTURAL COMPETENCEOF CAREER SPECIALISTS

The status of culturally diverse students inschools has changed profoundly over thelast 3 decade s. These changes have beenexacerbated in the 1990s as many schoolsystems find themselves populated with amajority of students who are members ofculturally diverse populations. Educatorsconcerned with these changes have spentmany hours engaged in research, identifi-cation of strategies, or discussions de-signed to encourage culturally diverse stu-dents and to help them appreciate theirown worth and value. These collective ef-forts have led to significant changes in theschools and much has been accomplished.What has not been done, however, is aconsideration of the context in whichthese changes have taken place. What isneeded is change within the institutionalstructures to encourage and support theaccomplishments of all students.

Educational systems must engage in acareful and systematic examination of thevalues being taught and how these valuesaffect students. It is time for educationalsystems to become responsive to thevalues, ideas, beliefs, talents, hopes,dreams, and visions of all students, in-cluding children with culturally diversebackgrounds.

The magnitude of the task of reshapingeducational systems or the individuals whowork in them cannot be underestimated.The previous section reported many stud-ies and theories that focus on the careereducation of culturally diverse students.The recommendations made here are de-signed to mobilize individuals in educa-

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tional systems to rethink the way they dothings relative to the culturally diverse.

Although the focus will be primarily onimproving the competence of individualsworking in systems, there are a number ofinstitutional (system) priorities that mustbe clear if the people who work directlywith students are to implement changes.First, there must be a strong commitmentfrom the leadership of educational systemsto the career education and career coun-seling of culturally diverse students. Sec-ond, the system must be willing to investi-gate its practices in terms of which valuesare being promoted by which practices.Third, the system must ensure that thoseindividuals willing to implement changesare supported in their efforts. Fourth, theinstitution must communicate that itvalues diversity. Finally, school systemsneed to engage in a strategic planningprocess related to the career education ofculturally diverse students. School systemsneed to include as a part of this planningprocess the numbers of school personnelwho are culturally diverse, plans for im-proving the multicultural competence ofall its staff, goals for educational achieve-ment for culturally diverse students, andhow policies will be implemented relativeto culturally diverse students. Such aplanning process would include an ongo-ing evaluation of program effectiveness inmeeting the goals established in the plan-ning process. For direction in establish-ment of multicultural planning and settingstrategic goals, school administrators canseek input from professional organizationssuch as the National Career Development

Association (NCDA) and the AmericanSchool Counselor Association (ASCA).

The Cross-Cultural AwarenessContinuum

The cross-cultural awareness continuumdepicted in figure 4 (Locke 1986) servesto illustrate the levels of awarenessthrough which school personnel must pro-gress in order to provide effective andrelevant career education experiences for

Self-Awareness

Awarenessof Racism,

Sexism, Poverty

Culturally diverse students. The contin-uum is linear and arranged hierarchicallywith each level building upon those beforeit. Obtaining competence in cross-culturalrelationships is best described as a life-long, ongoing process, rather than a pro-duct of a knowledge base or previousexperience. Thus, the process of growthfrom self-awareness (Level 1) to acquiringcareer education skills/techniques (Level7) is flexible and accounts for the fact thatindividuals never achieve absolute masteryof any of the awareness levels.

Awarenessof Other

Cultu re(s)

Awarenessof One's

Own Culture

Self-Awareness

Awarenessof IndividualDifferences

Career EducationSkills/

Techniques

Awarenessof

Diversity

Figure 4. Cross-cultural awareness continuum

The first level through which school per-sonnel must pass is self awareness. Self-understanding is a necessary conditionbefore one begins the process of under-standing others. Both intrapersonal andinterpersonal dynamics must be consider-ed as important components in the projec-tion of beliefs, attitudes, opinions, andvalues. This process of introspection is avital element of understanding one's ownculture and is necessary before a frame-work can be created with which to explorecultural phenomena at the various levels.

Awareness of One's Own Culture

Educators bring cultural baggage to theeducational situation, baggage that maycause certain things to be taken for

granted or may create expectations aboutbehaviors and manners. For example,consider the reasons for choosing thecareer you selected. What messages werecommunicated to you via your culture thatcontributed to the process of selecting thatparticular career? What part did rolemodels play in the selection of your ca-reer? What basic cultural values are thefoundation of your career?

Awareness of Racism, Sexism,and Poverty

Racism, sexism, and poverty are allaspects of a culture that must be under-stood from the perspective of how oneviews their impact upon oneself and howone views one's own effect on others.The words themselves are obviouslypowerful terms and frequently evoke some

283 4

defensiveness (Locke and Hardaway1980). Even when racism and sexism aredenied as a part of one's personal beliefsystem, individuals exist as a part of thelarger culture. Even when the anguish ofpoverty is not felt personally, poverty is afactor with which the career educatormust come to grips in terms of personalbeliefs regarding financially less fortunatepeople. The educator must explore issuesthat relate to the cause of and solution tothe poverty status of individuals or groups.

Exploration of the issues of racism, sex-ism, and poverty may be facilitated by a"systems" approach. Such an explorationmay lead to examination of the differ-ences between individual behaviors andorganizational behaviors, or what might becalled the difference between personalprejudice and institutional prejudice. Theinfluence of organizationsl prejudice canbe seen in the attitudes and beliefs of theschool system in which the educatorworks. Similarly, the awareness thatchurch memberships frequently exist alongracial lines or that some social organiza-tions restrict their membership by genderor race should help school personnelcome to grips with the organizational pre-judice that they may be supporting solelyon the basis of participation in a partic-ular organization.

Awareness of IndividualDifferences

One of the greatest pitfalls of the noviceeducator is to overgeneralize thingslearned about a specific culture as appli-cable to all members of the culture. Asingle thread of commonality is often pre-sumed to be interwoven among the groupsimply because it is observed in one or afew member(s) of the culture. Most gen-eralized assumptions about people aresometimes true about some individuals insome circumstances. On the contrary, cul-

tural group membership does not requireone to sacrifice individualism or unique-ness. A response to the educator whofeels all students should be treated as"individuals" is that students must betreated as both individuals and membersof their particular cultural group.

Total belief in individualism fails to takeinto account the "collective family-com-munity" relationship that exists in manycultural groups. A real danger lies in thepossibility that school personnel may un-wittingly discount cultural influences andsubconsciously believe they understand theculturally diverse when, in fact, they viewothers from their own culture's point ofview. In practice, what is put forth as abelief in individualism can become a dis-regard for any culturally specific behaviorsthat influence student behaviors. In sum,educators must be aware of individual dif-ferences and come to believe in theuniqueness of the individual before mov-ing to the level of awareness of othercultures.

Awareness of Other Culture(s)

The four previously discussed levels of thecontinuum provide the background andfoundation necessary for school personnelto explore the varied dynamics of diversecultural groups. Most cross-culturalemphasis is currently placed upon AfricanAmericans, Native Americans, MexicanAmericans or Hispanics, and Asian Amer-icans. Language is of great significanceand uniqueness to each of these culturalgroups, rendering standard English lessthan complete in communication of ideas.Mastery of another language is indeedhelpful but not required for awareness ofother cultures. However, it is necessaryfor school personnel to be sensitive towords that are unique to a particular cul-ture as well as body language and other

2935

nonverbal behaviors to which culturalsignificance is attached.

Awareness of Diversity

The culture of the United States has oftenbeen referred to as a "melting pot." Thischaracterization suggests that people cameto the United States from many differentcountries and blended into one new cul-ture. Thus, old world practices werealtered, discarded, or maintained withinthe context of the new culture. Obviously,as change is a constant agent, some actual"melting" occurred. Yet, for the mostpart, many cultural groups did not fullyparticipate in the melting pot process.Thus, many African American, NativeAmerican, Mexican American, and AsianAmerican cultural practices were not wel-comed as the new culture formed. In fact,members of these culturally differentgroups have been encouraged to give uptheir cultural practices and to adopt thevalues, beliefs, and attitudes of the"melting pot."

Of more recent vintage is the term "saladbowl," which implies that the culture ofthe United States is capable of retainingaspects from all cultures (the variousingredients). Viewed in this manner,people are seen as capable of living, work-ing, and growing together while maintain-ing a unique cultural identity. "Rainbowcoalition" is another term used in a recentpolitical campaign to represent the sameidea. Such concepts reflect what manyhave come to refer to as a multiculturalor pluralistic society, where certain fea-'tures of each culture are encouraged andappreciated by other cultural groups.

Career Education Skills/Techniques

The final level on the continuum is toimplement what has been learned about

working with culturally diverse groups andadd specific techniques to the repertoireof career education skills of school per-sonnel. Before a career educator canwork effectively with students of diversecultural heritage, he or she must havedeveloped general competence as a facili-tator of personal growth. Passage throughthe awareness continuum constitutes pro-fessional growth and contributes to an in-crease in overall effectiveness but goesmuch further than that. School personnelmust be aware of learning theory and howtheory relates to the development of psy-chological-cultural factors. Educators andcounselors must understand the relation-ship between theory and strategies orpractices. Most important, school person-nel must have developed a sense of worthin their own cultures before attainingcompetence in providing meaningful ca-reer counseling for culturally diversestudents.

A level of cross-cultural understandingwill not substitute for demonstration ofspecific skills. If educators and counsel-ors lack competence in the professionalskills, no amount of multicultural aware-ness will compensate for this inadequacy.In fact, it appears that for effective multi-cultural educational experiences to occur,the advantage goes to the counselor whohas a great deal of counseling competencerather than to the counselor who has littlecounseling competence and a great deal ofmulticultural understanding.

Concerned educators have long wrestledwith issues of professional development.Issues of multicultural competence areimportant to the professional developmentof all educators. The recognition of thisneed implies acceptance by educators ofthe need to bring career education experi-ences into harmony with the culturalexperiences of students from diverse cul-tural backgrounds. This goal is not easysince it requires a focus on both content

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3 f;

and process. The change in content is

simple and easy. Educators need only toensure that curriculum materials reflectcontent related to various groups in theculture. Changing the process is not aseasy since it involves the beliefs, values,and attitudes of each educator,individually.

Strategies: Conclusions inContent and Process

The strategies that follow are divided bycontent and process. They can increasethe capacity of counselors and career edu-cators to educate students within their cul-tural context and thus make the most oftheir capabilities and talents. Strategiesfor improvement in multicultural contentinclude the following:

1. Develop attitudes, skills, and tech-niques so that knowledge of humanrelations, including racial and ethnicrelations, can be translated intolearning experiences for students.

2. Conduct surveys of present curricu-lum materials being used to ensureaccurate representation of racial andethnic groups in all careers.

3. Identify and use supplemental mate-rials that provide additional informa-tion on varying racial and ethnicgroups. Include curriculum materialsand information on all cultural groupspresent in the classroom, the school,or the school district.

4. Select subject matter content andmaterials that foster cultural plural-ism. Use diverse individual and com-munity characteristics and resourcesto supplement text material so thatstudents see a connection betweenthe subjects they are studying andtheir careers after graduation.

5. Evaluate ways in which topics relatedto racism, prejudice, and discrimina-tion can be reflected in instructionalmaterials.

6. Increase personal knowledge of othergroup customs, values, language, con-tributions to society, social structure,and other elements of racial and eth-nic identity.

7. Collect materials that portray cultur-ally diverse groups in positive waysand request that these materials beadded to school libraries.

Multicultural competence is much morethan ensuring that course content is reflec-tive of various racial and eAhnic groups.The process strategies that follow 'Locke1989) are aimed at providing career edu-cators and counselors additional ways toimprove multicultural competence. Thestrategies are as follows:

1. Be open and honest in relationshipswith culturally diverse students andencourage culturally different studentsto be open and honest with you aboutissues related to their cultures. Talkpositively with students about theirphysical characteristics and culturalheritage. Make it clear that a per-son's identity is never an acceptablereason for rejecting him/her.

2. Learn as much as possible about yourown culture. One can appreciateanother culture much more if there isfirst an appreciation of one's own cul-ture. Understand, honestly face, andimprove the knowledge of yourselfand this will lead to positive reactionsto others.

3. Seek genuinely to respect and appre-ciate culturally diverse attitudes andbehaviors. Demonstrate that youboth recognize and value different

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cultures. Provide opportunities forstudents to interact with other stu-dents who are racially and culturallydifferent from themselves. Help stu-dents learn the difference betweenfeelings of superiority and feelings ofself-esteem and pride in one'sheritage.

4. Take advantage of all available op-portunities to participate in activitiesof cultural groups in their communi-ties. Invite persons from the variouscommunities to your classroom orschool throughout the school year.Work to understand and analyze thedevelopment of students' social,home, and community relationships.Try to obtain direct involvement withmembers of racial and cultural groupsand/or with organizations working toimprove human relationships, includ-ing intergroup relations.

5. Keep in mind that all students areboth unique individuals and membersof their cultural group as well. Striveto keep a reasonable balance be-tween your views of students asunique beings and cultural groupmembers.

6. Eliminate all your behaviors that sug-gest prejudice, racism, or discrimina-tion against culturally diverse popula-tions and do not tolerate such behav-iors from your students or your col-leagues. Teach your students how torecognize stereotypes and how tochallenge biases. Involve students intaking relevant action on issuesimportant in their lives.

7. Encourage teachers and administra-tors to institutionalize practices ineach school that acknowledge thecontributions of various racial andethnic groups. Strive to work togeth-er toward agreed-upon soiutions and

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interactions with respect . fordifferences.

8. Hold high expectations of all studentsand encourage all who work with cul-turally diverse students to do likewise.Initiate activities to build identity andteach the value of differences amongpeople.

9. Ask questions about the culturally di-verse. Learn as much as you canabout the various cultural groups andshare what you learn with your class-es and your colleagues. Recognizethat the cultural heritage of the stu-dent is as much a part of what makesup that student as his or her physicalcharacteristics.

10. Develop culturally specific programsto foster the psychological develop-ment and the career development ofall children.

Educators have struggled long and hardwith a variety of approaches related tomulticultural career education. The issueshave been addressed from the perspectiveof a need for educational systems toexamine the values being taught and howthese values affect the dominant cultureand members of culturally diverse groups.Needed changes have been examinedfrom the perspective of both content andprocess. It is recognized that manyattempts at altering the educational sys-tem to educate all students have failedand some have even worked to the disad-vantage of culturally diverse students.

Any successful strategies must begin witha system focus on issues of cultural di-versity. System priorities must serve asthe foundation for any efforts by individ-ual educators. The commitment of thesystem to meaningful career education,coupled with a belief that students canlearn and want to learn, and educators

and counselors who value the worth anddignity of all students, will result insuccessful experiences for all. The picturethat emerges is one of a school where

333

teachers and counselors are interested instudents, students are interested in learn-ing, cultural diversity is valued, and careereducation goals are achieved,

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IN 348 $5.25

A Multicuizt!PAI 'Focus on Career Education, byDon C. Locke. arie Larry D. Parker.

The cultural diveriity of the United States makes amulticultural focus imperative for career educationand development. This review and synthesisdiscusses the implications for career educators ofincreases in diverse groups and their different worldviews. The relevance of existing career developmenttheories is questioned, and appropriate interventionsfor specific groups are identified. Also presented isthe cross-cultural awareness continuum, with whichcareer personnel can gauge their interculturalcompetence.

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