ED 260-Educational Psychology

Ashley Swanson

This Week’s TopicsModule 15-Behavioral

Theory

Module 16-Cognitive Theories

Module 17-Self Theories

Module 15- Behavioral Theory

Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement = increase in behaviors

Punishment = decreasing behaviors

MotivationExtrinsic Motivation: individuals engage

in an activity or behavior to obtain an external outcome, such as a praise or reward

Intrinsic Motivation: individuals engage in an activity or behavior for the internal satisfaction it provides, rather than the external reward

MotivationMany learning activities can

be both intrinsically and extrinsically motivating

Students’ intrinsic motivation decreases as they get older

MotivationLocus of Control: belief that

the result of one’s behavior is due to either external factors outside one’s control (external locus) or internal factors under one’s control (internal locus).

RewardsTeachers attempt to stimulate

students’ intrinsic motivation by using extrinsic motivators

Research has found rewards actually undermine intrinsic motivation

RewardsTo use rewards to enhance intrinsic

motivation teachers must consider:Purpose of rewardHow students perceive rewardContext in which reward is given

Task-contingent rewards= undermine intrinsic motivation

Performance-contingent rewards= encourage intrinsic motivation

Using Rewards Effectively Occasionally use unexpected rewards

Use expected, tangible rewards sparingly

Withdraw rewards ASAP

Use the most modest reward possible

Make rewards contingent on quality of work

Minimize authoritarian style teaching

Discuss with your group ways that you have seen rewards used in the classroom. Where they effective for intrinsically motivating students?

Classroom EconomyThis teacher’s classroom economy is one

example of an effective way of using rewards in the classroom and balancing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/top_teaching/2010/01/class-economy

PraisePraise: Positive feedback in the form of

written or spoken comments.

Has a limited window of effectiveness

Depending on the type of praise, how it is given, and how it is perceived, praise can have positive effects

UnexpectedFreeProvides encouragement and enhances self-

esteem

PraiseProcess Praise: Evaluation of the process

taken to complete the task

Performance Praise: Evaluation of the end product

Person Praise: judgment about a person’s attributes or behaviors

Using Praise EffectivelyMake praise specific to the behavior being

reinforced

Be sure praise is sincere

Give praise that is contingent on the behavior being reinforced

See Table 15.1 on page 271

Encourage students to praise each other

Be a “Bucket Filler”

Image from: http://www.derbyps.org/page.cfm?p=1448

Website: http://www.bucketfillers101.com

Intrinsically Motivating Learning Environment

Convey the importance/relevance of the lesson

Use enthusiasm and surprise to introduce lesson

Design tasks of optimal difficulty

Provide students with choices for learning activities

Allow students to work in collaborative groups

Display student work

Module 16- Cognitive Theories

Expectancy-Value TheoryExpectancies and values predict motivational

behaviors.

Expectancy: Students’ expectations for success

Can I complete this task?

Value: Reasons for undertaking a taskWhy should I want to do this task?

ExpectanciesDepends on students’ competency belief-

belief that one has the ability to perform a task or succeed at an activity

Compare ability in one domain to other domainsCompare ability to the abilities of peers

Competency beliefs are determined by:Past experiencesInterpretations of past experiencesSocial and cultural factors

ValuesIntrinsic Value: satisfying an interest, curiosity, or

enjoyment

Attainment Value: intrinsic importance of being good at a task

Utility Value: extrinsic usefulness for meeting short-term and long-term goals

A task can have more than one type of value.

The values students assign to a task can affect their achievement

Goal TheoryAchievement goal includes:

Reasons for choosing to perform a taskStandard constructed to evaluate performance

Goal orientation (what drives behaviors and choices) is made up of two types of mastery goals and two types of performance goalsMastery approach goalsPerformance approach goalsMaster avoidance goals Performance avoidance goals

Goal TheoryMastery (Self)

Performance (Comparison to others)

Approach

Focus: Mastering the task

Standards: Deep understanding, Self-Improvement

Outcomes: Intrinsic motivation, Help-seeking, Deep-level strategies, Lower anxiety

Focus: Being the smartest

Standards: Being the highest performer

Outcomes: Intrinsic motivation, Cheating, Superficial learning strategies, Lower anxiety

Avoidance

Focus: Avoiding not learning a task

Standards: Not performing incorrectly

Outcomes: Less intrinsically motivated, Avoidance of help-seeking, Disorganized studying, Higher anxiety

Focus: Avoiding looking stupid

Standards: Not being the lowest performer

Outcomes: Less intrinsically motivated, Avoidance of help seeking-cheating, Surface-level learning strategies, Self-handicapping strategies, Higher anxiety

Goal TheoryMastery and performance goals work

together to motivate students.

Mastery goals are important while students are acquiring a skill, while performance goals promote interest in the skill once it is developed.

Students who pursue both mastery and performance goals, tend to have greater intrinsic motivation

Attribution TheoryThree dimensions of attributions that influence

student motivation:Locus: where the cause of the outcome is placed (Internal

or External)Stability: whether the cause is stable or unstable

Expect future success when we attribute success to stable cause

Expectation for success decreases when failure is attributed to a stable cause

Controllability: personal responsibility for the cause of success or failure

Attribution TheoryAttributions made are affected by:

One’s beliefs in his/her abilities Evaluations made by others about one’s academic performance

Views on ability: Incremental view of ability: ability is perceived as unstable, controllable,

and ever-changing (Intrinsically motivated) Success attributed to ability= motivated to continue to improve knowledge Failure attributed to ability=motivate to improve for success next time

Entity view of ability: ability is stable, uncontrollable, and fixed (Extrinsically motivated) Success attributed to ability=continue to demonstrate competence if

competence is valued by others Failure attributed to ability= expectations for future success diminish and

students lose motivation

Attribution TheoryFor teachers it is easy to take an entity view of ability.

Pass judgment quickly based on initial performance Hold low expectations for students Students attribute failure to low ability or teacher bias

Important for teachers to be mindful of their reactions to student performance.

If student has an incremental view of their ability and they feel the are trying their hardest, a teacher can cause them to adopt an entity view. Ex) “I know you can do better than that”

“You are so smart”

Classroom ApplicationEnhancing students’ motivationsStudent-level techniques:

Change students’ attributions for success and failureRe-attribution training

Teach students to value challenge, improvement, and effort

Provide short-term goals and strategies for making progress toward larger goals

Classroom ApplicationEnhancing students’ motivationsClassroom-level techniques:

Reduce competitive atmosphere of the classroom

Use appropriate methods of evaluation and recognition

Emphasize the value of learning

Serious Motivational ProblemsLearned Helplessness: occurs when students

who have experienced repeated failures attribute their failures to causes beyond their control.

Reduce learned helplessness:Use of motivational techniquesProviding students with opportunities for

success

Serious Motivational ProblemsAnxiety: Mental thoughts related to worrying

and negative emotions such as nervousness or tension, which can impair academic performance.Emotional: nervousness, tension Cognitive: worry that interferes with learning

tasksPhysical: increased heart rate, sweaty palms,

shortness of breath

Serious Motivational ProblemsAnxiety can occur at three stages during instruction:

Preprocessing Processing Output

Sources of anxiety: Parents Student’s outlook Learning environment Subject matter

Chart 16.1 on page 294 for helpful tips on reducing student anxiety

Module 17- Self Theories

Self TheoriesThree main theories:

Self-Efficacy TheorySelf-Worth TheorySelf-Determination Theory

These theories have two major things in common:A competence that underlies motivationIntrinsic motivation

Comparing Self TheoriesSelf-Efficacy Self-Worth Self-Determination

Description

Expectations for success on

a particular task

Overall evaluation of our worth as an

individual

Feeling that we have choice in our actions

Core Needs

To believe we have the

knowledge or skills to

succeed on a task

To protect our perception of competence

To feel autonomous, competent, and related

Domain Specific Yes No Yes

FocusPerceived

competencePerceived

competenceNeed to develop

competence

Self-Efficacy TheorySelf efficacy: expectation that one is capable of

performing a task or succeeding in an activity

Self-efficacy influences motivation for a task

To be motivated, one must have high outcome and efficacy expectationsOutcome expectations: beliefs that certain actions

lead to certain outcomesEfficacy expectations: beliefs that one has the

requisite knowledge and skills to achieve the outcome

Self-Efficacy TheorySelf-efficacy is domain specific-a student can have high

self-efficacy in one subject, but low self-efficacy in another

Beliefs about self-efficacy are influenced by:Past performancesVicarious experiencesVerbal persuasionStates of emotional arousal

As students transition from elementary to middle to high school the increased emphasis on grades can cause students to reassess their self-efficacy

Self-Efficacy TheorySelf-regulation: the ability to control one’s

emotions, cognitions, and behaviors by providing consequences to oneself

Students with higher self-efficacy are more likely to engage in self-regulatory processes (goal setting, planning, strategy use, self-monitoring, & self-reflection)

Self-regulatory processes are linked to higher intrinsic motivation

Self-Efficacy TheoryTeacher efficacy: belief by teachers that they have

the necessary skills to effectively teach all students

Teachers with high efficacy:Spend more time planning and organizingAre willing to try new instructional methodsModify the curriculum for students with varying

abilitiesUse effective classroom management strategiesShow persistence when it comes to helping

struggling students

Self-Worth TheorySelf-worth: appraisal of one’s own value as a

person

Students’ perceptions of their abilities contribute to their self-worth.

Proving ability can become the main focus of students’ learning and can cause their motivation to shift from learning to avoiding negative consequences, such as looking incompetent

Self-Worth TheoryUnderstanding the difference between

“approaching success” and “avoiding failure” is key to understanding the motivation of different types of students.

Four main types of students:Success-oriented studentsOverstriversFailure-avoiding students Failure-accepting students

Self-Determination TheoryHumans possess the innate need for autonomy,

competence, and relatedness.Autonomy: behavior is internally controlled and that we

have choices in our actionsCompetence: desire to explore and attempt the mastery

of skillsRelatedness: sense of being securely connected to others

When these needs are met, we feel a sense of self-determinationFreedom to pursue goals and activities that are

relevant and interesting to us

Self-Determination TheoryFeelings of competence increase intrinsic

motivation only when they are supported by autonomy.

Students are more likely to be intrinsically motivated when they feel relatedness.

Safe environmentBonded with a teacherClose relationships with classmates

Self-determination is specific to particular domains.

Classroom ApplicationStudents with high self-efficacy, positive self-worth,

and self-determination are more likely to be intrinsically motivated.

Teachers can enhance intrinsic motivation by:Capitalizing on interest and relevanceProviding choices among tasksTeach and model skills necessary for successFocus on masteryTeach student how to set appropriate goalsProvide appropriate feedbackBuild strong relationships with students

Main Sources:Bohlin, L., Durwin, C. C., & Reese-Weber, M. (2009). EdPsych:

Modules. New York: McGraw-Hill

Newingham, B. (2010). “My Classroom Economy: Bringing the “Real World” into the Classroom”. Retrieved from: http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/top_teaching/2010/01/class-economy