41633853 Educational Psychology

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Educational psychology

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, theeffectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the socialpsychology ofschools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology"

and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists arelikely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools orschool-related settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology isconcerned with the processes of educational attainment among the general populationand sub-populations such as gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities.

Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with otherdisciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that disciplineanalogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology inturn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, includinginstructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizationallearning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both

draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. Inuniversities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within facultiesof education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educationalpsychology content in introductory psychology textbooks.[1]

Contents

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1 Social, moral and cognitive development 2 Individual differences and disabilities 3 Learning and cognition

o 3.1 Behavioral perspectiveo 3.2 Cognitive perspectiveo 3.3 Social cognitive perspectiveo 3.4 Constructivist perspective

4 Motivation 5 Research methodology

o 5.1 Quantitative methodso 5.2 Qualitative methods

6 Applications in instructional design and technology 7 Applications in teaching 8 History

o 8.1 Influential educational psychologists and theorists

9 Careers in educational psychologyo 9.1 Education and trainingo 9.2 Employment outlook

10 Research journals 11 See also 12 External links

o 12.1 Careers in the United Kingdomo 12.2 Careers in the United Stateso 12.3 Textbooks

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13 References

Social, moral and cognitive development

An abacus provides concrete experiences for learning abstract concepts.

To understand the characteristics of learners in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, andold age, educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development.Often cast as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theoriesdescribe changes in mental abilities (cognition), social roles, moral reasoning, andbeliefs about the nature of knowledge.

For example, educational psychologists have researched the instructional applicability ofJean Piaget's theory of development, according to which children mature through fourstages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable ofabstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore youngerchildren need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers havefound that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur atthe same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics,but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships.Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively constructtheir understanding through a self-regulatory process.[2]

Piaget proposed a developmental theory ofmoral reasoning in which children progressfrom a naive understanding ofmorality based on behavior and outcomes to a moreadvanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development wereelaborated by Kohlberg into a stage theory of moral development. There is evidence thatthe moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moralbehavior. For example, other factors such as modeling (as described by the socialcognitive theory of morality) are required to explain bullying.

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Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitativelydifferent stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development ofepistemological beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms ofgradual changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixednessof ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People developmore sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity.[3]

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Individual differences and disabilities

An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test.

Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges thatresult from learning and development. These manifest as individual differences inintelligence, creativity, cognitive style, motivation, and the capacity to processinformation, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities foundamong school age children are attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder(ADHD), learningdisability,dyslexia, and speech disorder. Less common disabilities include mentalretardation, hearing impairment, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and blindness.

Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since Plato,

intelligence testing is an invention of educational psychology, and is coincident with thedevelopment of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligencerevolve on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single factor(Spearman'sgeneral intelligence), multiple factors (as in Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligenceand Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences), or whether it can be measured at all. Inpractice, standardized instruments such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC arewidely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need ofindividualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided withaccelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided withenhanced education in specific skills such as phonological awareness.

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Learning and cognition

Two fundamental assumptions that underlie formal education systems are that students(a) retain knowledge and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can apply them insituations outside the classroom. But are these assumptions accurate? Research hasfound that, even when students report not using the knowledge acquired in school, aconsiderable portion is retained for many years and long term retention is stronglydependent on the initial level of mastery.[4] One study found that university students whotook a child development course and attained high grades showed, when tested 10

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years later, average retention scores of about 30%, whereas those who obtainedmoderate or lower grades showed average retention scores of about 20%.[5] There ismuch less consensus on the crucial question of how much knowledge acquired in schooltransfers to tasks encountered outside formal educational settings, and how suchtransfer occurs.[6] Some psychologists claim that research evidence for this type offartransferis scarce,[7][8] while others claim there is abundant evidence of far transfer in

specific domains.[9] Several perspectives have been established within which thetheories of learning used in educational psychology are formed and contested. Theseinclude Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Social Cognitivism, and Constructivism. This sectionsummarizes how educational psychology has researched and applied theories withineach of these perspectives.

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Behavioral perspective

Applied behavior analysis, a set of techniques based on the behavioral principles ofoperant conditioning, is effective in a range of educational settings.[10]For example,teachers can improve student behavior by systematically rewarding students who followclassroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangable for sundry items.[11][12] Despitethe demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education hasbeen criticized by proponents ofself-determination theory, who claim that praise andother rewards undermine intrinsic motivation. There is evidence that tangible rewardsdecrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already hasa high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior.[13] But the resultsshowing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations,such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard ofperformance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation.[14]

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Cognitive perspective

Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely heldthan the behavioral perspective perhaps because it flexibly admits causally relatedmental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations and emotions. Cognitivetheories posit memory structures that are thought to determine how information isperceived, processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten. Among the memory structurestheorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systemsdescribed by Paivio's dual coding theory. Educational psychologists have used dualcoding theory and cognitive load theory to explain how people learn from multimedia

presentations.

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Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis and Glover[16] demonstrated the advantageof delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one week (distributed) compared with nodelay between readings (massed).The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported bypsychological research, has broad applicability within education. [17] For example,students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passagewhen a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure).[16]

Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to education of other

findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using mnemonics forimmediate and delayed retention of information.[18]

Problem solving, regarded by many cognitive psychologists as fundamental to learning,is an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought tointerpret a problem by assigning it to a schema retrieved from long term memory. Whenthe problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequentlydirected away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assignedschema.[19]The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existingschema is often cited as supporting the centrality ofanalogical thinking to problemsolving.

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Social cognitive perspective

Social cognitive theory is a highly influential fusion of behavioral, cognitive and socialelements that was initially developed by educational psychologist Albert Bandura. In itsearlier, neo-behavioral incarnation called social learning theory, Bandura emphasizedthe process ofobservational learning in which a learner's behavior changes as a resultof observing others' behavior and its consequences. The theory identified several factorsthat determine whether observing a model will affect behavioral or cognitive change.These factors include the learner's developmental status, the perceived prestige andcompetence of the model, the consequences received by the model, the relevance of

the model's behaviors and consequences to the learner's goals, and the learner's self-efficacy. The concept of self-efficacy, which played an important role in laterdevelopments of the theory, refers to the learner's belief in his or her ability to performthe modeled behavior.

An experiment by Schunk and Hanson[20], that studied grade 2 students who hadpreviously experienced difficulty in learning subtraction, illustrates the type of researchstimulated by social learning theory. One group of students observed a subtraction

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demonstration by a teacher and then participated in an instructional program onsubtraction. A second group observed other grade 2 students performing the samesubtraction procedures and then participated in the same instructional program. Thestudents who observed peer models scored higher on a subtraction post-test and alsoreported greater confidence in their subtraction ability. The results were interpreted assupporting the hypothesis that perceived similarity of the model to the learner increases

self-efficacy, leading to more effective learning of modeled behavior. It is supposed thatpeer modeling is particularly effective for students who have low self-efficacy.

Over the last decade, much research activity in educational psychology has focused ondeveloping theories ofself-regulated learning (SRL) and metacognition. These theorieswork from the central premise that effective learners are active agents who constructknowledge by setting goals, analysing tasks, planning strategies and monitoring theirunderstanding. Research has indicated that learners' who are better at goal setting andself-monitoring tend to have greater intrinsic task interest and self-efficacy;[21] and thatteaching learning strategies can increase academic achievement.[22]

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Constructivist perspective

Constructivism refers to a category of learning theories in which emphasis is placed onthe agency and prior knowledge of the learner, and often on the social and culturaldeterminants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (orpsychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's learning theory, from socialconstructivism. A dominant influence on the latter type is Lev Vygotsky's work onsociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, andcognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. Elaborating on Vygotsky'stheory, Jerome Brunerand other educational psychologists developed the importantconcept ofinstructional scaffolding, in which the social or information environment offerssupports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.

Vygotsky's version ofconstructivist theory has led to the view that behavior, skills,attitudes and beliefs are inherently situated, that is, bound to a specific socioculturalsetting. According to this view, the learner is enculturated through social interactionswithin a community of practice. The social constructivist view of learning has spawnedapproaches to teaching and learning such as cognitive apprenticeship, in which the tacitcomponents of a complex skill are made explicit through conversational interactionsoccurring between expert and novice in the setting in which the skill is embedded.[23]

[edit]

Motivation

Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Educationalpsychology research on motivation is concerned with the volition orwill that studentsbring to a task, their level of interest and intrinsic motivation, the personally held goalsthat guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure.

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A form ofattribution theory developed by Bernard Weiner[24] describes how students'beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions andmotivations. For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability isperceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions ofshame andembarrassment and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. Incontrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as

controllable, they experience the emotion ofguilt and consequently increase effort andshow improved performance.

Motivational theories also explain how learners' goals affect the way that they engagewith academic tasks.[25] Those who have mastery goals strive to increase their ability andknowledge. Those who haveperformance approach goals strive for high grades andseek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who haveperformanceavoidance goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities areexposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positiveoutcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks,creativity and intrinsic motivation. Performance avoidance goals are associated withnegative outcomes such as poorconcentration while studying, disorganized studying,

less self-regulation, shallow information processing and test anxiety. Performanceapproach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomessuch as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing.

[edit]

Research methodology

The research methods used in educational psychology tend to be drawn frompsychology and other social sciences. There is also a history of significantmethodological innovation by educational psychologists, and psychologists investigatingeducational problems. Research methods address problems in both research design

and data analysis. Research design informs the planning of experiments andobservational studies to ensure that their results have internal, external and ecologicalvalidity. Data analysis encompasses methods for processing both quantitive (numerical)and qualitative (non-numerical) research data. Although, historically, the use ofquantitative methods was often considered an essential mark of scholarship, moderneducational psychology research uses both quantitative and qualitative methods.

[edit]

Quantitative methods

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Test scores and other educational variables often approximate a normal distribution.Perhaps first among the important methodological innovations of educational psychologywas the development and application offactor analysis by Charles Spearman. Factoranalysis is mentioned here as one example of the many multivariate statistical methodsused by educational psychologists. Factor analysis is used to summarize relationshipsamong a large set of variables or test questions, develop theories about mental

constructs such as self-efficacy or anxiety, and assess the reliability and validity of testscores.[26] Over one hundred years after its introduction by Spearman, factor analysishas become a research staple figuring prominently in educational psychology journals.

Because educational assessment is fundamental to most quantitative research in thefield, educational psychologists have made significant contributions to the field ofpsychometrics. For example, alpha, the widely used measure of test reliability wasdeveloped by educational psychologist Lee Cronbach. The reliability of assessments areroutinely reported in quantitative educational research. Although, originally, educationalmeasurement methods were built on classical test theory, item response theory andRasch models are now used extensively in educational measurement worldwide. Thesemodels afford advantages over classical test theory, including the capacity to produce

standard errors of measurement for each score or pattern of scores on assessments andthe capacity to handle missing responses.

Meta-analysis, the combination of individual research results to produce a quantitativeliterature review, is another methodological innovation with a close association toeducational psychology. In a meta-analysis, effect sizes that represent, for example, thedifferences between treatment groups in a set of similar experiments, are averaged toobtain a single aggregate value representing the best estimate of the effect of treatment.[27] Several decades afterPearson's work with early versions of meta-analysis, Glass[28]

published the first application of modern meta-analytic techniques and triggered theirbroad application across the social and biomedical sciences. Today, meta-analysis isamong the most common types of literature review found in educational psychology

research.

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Qualitative methods

Qualitative methods are used in educational studies whose purpose is to describeevents, processes and situations of theoretical significance. The qualitative methodsused in educational psychology often derive from psycholinguistics, anthropology orsociology. For example, the anthropological method ofethnography has been used todescribe teaching and learning in classrooms. In studies of this type, the researcher maygather detailed field notes as a participant observeror passive observer. Later, the notesand other data may be categorized and interpreted by methods such as groundedtheory. Triangulation, the practice of cross-checking findings with multiple data sources,is highly valued in qualitative research.

Case studies are forms of qualitative research focusing on a single person, organization,event, or other entity. In one case study,[29]researchers conducted a 150-minute, semi-structured interview with a 20-year old woman who had a history ofsuicidal thinkingbetween the ages of 14 to 18. They analyzed an audio-recording of the interview to

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understand the roles of cognitive development, identity formation and social attachmentin ending her suicidal thinking.

Qualitative analysis is most often applied to verbal data from sources such asconversations, interviews, focus groups, and personal journals. Qualitative methods arethus, typically, approaches to gathering, processing and reporting verbal data. One of

the most commonly used methods for qualitative research in educational psychology isprotocol analysis.[30] In this method the research participant is asked tothink aloudwhileperforming a task, such as solving a math problem. In protocol analysis the verbal datais thought to indicate which information the subject is attending to, but is explicitly notinterpreted as an explanation or justification for behavior. In contrast, the method ofverbal analysis[31] does admit learners' explanations as a way to reveal theirmentalmodel ormisconceptions (e.g., of the laws of motion). The most fundamental operationsin both protocol and verbal analysis are segmenting (isolating) and categorizing sectionsof verbal data. Conversation analysis and discourse analysis, psycholinguistic methodsthat focus more specifically on the structure of conversational interchange (e.g., betweena teacher and student), have been used to assess the process of conceptual change inscience learning.[32]Qualitative methods are also used to analyse information in a variety

of media, such as students' drawings and concept maps, video-recorded interactions,and computer log records.

[edit]

Applications in instructional design and technology

Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives: categories in the cognitive domain[33]

Instructional design, the systematic design of materials, activities and interactiveenvironments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology theories andresearch. For example, in defining learning goals or objectives, instructional designersoften use a taxonomy of educational objectives created by Benjamin Bloom and

colleagues.[33]Bloom also researched mastery learning, an instructional strategy in whichlearners only advance to a new learning objective after they have mastered itsprerequisite objectives. Bloom[34] discovered that a combination of mastery learning withone-to-one tutoring is highly effective, producing learning outcomes far exceeding thosenormally achieved in classroom instruction. Gagn, another psychologist, had earlierdeveloped an influential method oftask analysis in which a terminal learning goal isexpanded into a hierarchy of learning objectives[35] connected by prerequisite relations.

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Intelligenttutoring system Educationaltechnology John R.Anderson Cognitive tutor Cooperativelearning Collaborativelearning problem-based learning Computersupportedcollaborativelearning William Winn

[edit]

Applications in teaching

A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 ormore years in the early grades increased high school graduation of students from lowincome families.[36]

Research on classroom management and pedagogy is conducted to guide teachingpractice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroommanagement are to create an environment conducive to learning and to developstudents' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives tocreate positive teacher-student and peer relationships, manage student groups tosustain on-task behavior, and use counselling and other psychological methods to aidstudents who present persistent psychosocial problems.[37]

Specialeducation

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Lesson plan

[edit]

History

William James

Educational psychology cannot claim priority in the systematic analysis of educationalprocesses. Philosophers of education such as Democritus, Quintilian, Vives andComenius, had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries

before the beginnings of psychology in the late 1800s. Instead, aspirations of the newdiscipline rested on the application of the scientific methods of observation andexperimentation to educational problems. Even in the earliest years of the discipline,educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. In his famousseries of lectures Talks to Teachers on Psychology, published in 1899 and nowregarded as the first educational psychology textbook, the pioneering Americanpsychologist William James commented that:

Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate artsdirectly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application,by using its originality.[38]

According to Berliner[39]

educational psychology theorists' attitude to the world ofeducational practice has shifted from initial interest to disdain, and eventually to respect.

CharlesHubbard Judd

In 1912, Thorndike, who developed the theory ofinstrumental conditioning, presagedlater work on programmed instruction, mastery learning and computer-based learning:

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If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to himwho had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and soon, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print.[40]

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Influential educational psychologists and theorists

The following persons were selected and featured in a recent biographical history ofeducational psychology[41] as having made significant contributions to the field:

Albert Bandura 1925- Alfred Binet1857-1911 Benjamin Bloom1913-1999 Ann Brown1943-1999

Jerome Bruner1915- Lee Cronbach1916-2001 John Dewey 1859-1952 Nathaniel Gage 1917- Robert Gagn1916-2002 William James1842-1910 Maria Montessori 1870-1952 Jean Piaget1896-1980 Herbert Simon19162001 Burrhus Frederic Skinner1904-1990 Charles Spearman1863-1945 Lewis Terman1877-1956 Edward L. Thorndike 1874-1949 Lev Semenovich Vygotsky1896-1934

[edit]

Careers in educational psychology

[edit]

Education and training

A person may be considered an educational psychologist if he or she has completed agraduate degree in educational psychology or a closely related field. Universities

establish educational psychology graduate programs in either psychology departmentsor, more commonly, faculties of education. Psychologists who work in a k-12 schoolsetting are usually trained at either the masters or doctoral (PhD orEdD) level. Inaddition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services such asacademic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher consultation, and crisisintervention.

[edit]

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology#_note-thorndike%23_note-thorndikehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology#_note-zimmerman2%23_note-zimmerman2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bandurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1925http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Binethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1857http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Bloomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1913http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Brownhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1943http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Brunerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1915http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Cronbachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Deweyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1859http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Gagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1917http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_M._Gagn%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jameshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1842http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1910http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessorihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1870http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piagethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Simonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1904http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Spearmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1863http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Termanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1877http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_L._Thorndikehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1874http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1934http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_degreehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master's_degreehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology#_note-thorndike%23_note-thorndikehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology#_note-zimmerman2%23_note-zimmerman2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bandurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1925http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Binethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1857http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Bloomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1913http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Brownhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1943http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Brunerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1915http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Cronbachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Deweyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1859http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Gagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1917http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_M._Gagn%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jameshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1842http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1910http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessorihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1870http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piagethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Simonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1904http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Spearmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1863http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Termanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1877http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_L._Thorndikehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1874http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1934http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_degreehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master's_degreehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=18


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Employment outlook

Employment for psychologists in the United States is expected to grow faster than mostoccupations through the year 2014, with anticipated growth of 18-26%. One in fourpsychologist are employed in educational settings. In the United States, the mediansalary for psychologists in

primary and secondaryschools is $58,360 as ofMay 2004.[42]

In recent decades theparticipation of women asprofessional researchersin North Americaneducational psychologyhas risen dramatically.[43]

The percentage of femaleauthors of peer-reviewed

journal articles doubledfrom 1976 (24%) to 1995(51%), and has sinceremained constant.Female membership oneducational psychology

journal editorial boardsincreased from 17% in1976 to 47% in 2004.Over the same period, theproportion of chief editorpositions held by women

increased from 22% to70%.

[edit]

Research journals

Although not exhaustive, the table to the right lists peer-reviewed journals in educationalpsychology and related fields. The impact factoris the average number ofcitations perarticle in each journal.

[edit]

See also

Educational psychologists Articles related to educational psychology Important publications in educational psychology Educational research Philosophy of education

Journal Impact*

Educational Psychologist 3.72

Journal of the Learning Sciences 2.28

Learning and Individual Differences 2.17

Review of Educational Research 1.96

Journal of Educational Psychology 1.69

Learning and Instruction 1.62

Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics 1.35

Educational Psychology Review 1.23

American Educational Research Journal 1.10

British Journal of Educational Psychology 0.92

Cognition and Instruction 0.80

Contemporary Educational Psychology 0.75

Journal of Experimental Education 0.73

Instructional Science 0.66

Journal of Educational Measurement 0.47

Educational Technology Res and Dev 0.20

European Journal of Psychology of Education 0.18

Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology 0.08

* Citations per article from 2004 ISI JCR

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School psychologist List of education topics American Educational Research Association American Psychological Association British Psychological Society Association for Psychological Science International Society of the Learning Sciences Evolutionary educational psychology

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External links

Educational Psychology Resources by Athabasca University Division 15 of the American Psychological Association Psychology of Education Section of the British Psychological Society School Psychology on the Web Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database Classics in the History of Psychology The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing Educational psychology at The Psychology Wiki

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Documents

41633853 Educational Psychology