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Educational Psychology CP 105
__________________________________________________________________________________
HEART Trust / NTA
VOCATIONAL TRAINING DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE(VTDI)
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
NO. OF CREDITS: 3
COURSE CODE CP 1O5
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
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Educational Psychology CP 105
__________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION 6
Expectation of Students 7
Course Aim and Course Outcomes 7
Course Schedule 8
Required Text and Supplementary Texts 11
Learning and Teaching Approaches 11
Method of Assessment 11
MODULE 1 THE TEACHER AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Overview and Objectives 12WEEK1 Session 1. Definition of Key Terms/Introduction 14
What is teaching? 17What is learning? 18
What is pedagogy? 22
What is andragogy? 22
WEEK 2
Session 2 The Expert Teacher 23
What makes a good teacher? 27
What is the task of the teacher? 27
Can good teaching be taught? 28
Who is an Intentional teacher? 29
What key behaviours are associated with outstanding teachers? 30
Developing as a teacher? 31
Session 3 Research in Educational Psychology 32How do we know what we know in Educational Psychology? 40
REFERENCES 43
MODULE 2 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
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Educational Psychology CP 105
__________________________________________________________________________________Overview and Objectives 44
WEEK 3
Session 4 The Meaning of Development 45
Piaget’s Cognitive Development 46
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Perspective 51
WEEK 4
Session 5 PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 56
Session 6 MORAL DEVELOPMENT – Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg 58
REFERENCES 62
MODULE 3 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
Overview and Objectives 63
WEEK 5-6
Session 7 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
Classical Conditioning 64
B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning 67
Premack Principle 68
Intrinsic and Intrinsic Reinforcers 69
Immediacy of Consequences 70
Shaping 70
Extinction 71
Schedule of Reinforcement 71
The role of Antecedents 72
Session 8 Applied Behaviour Analysis (Behaviour Modification) 73
WEEK 7Session 9 COGNITIVE APPROACH TO LEARNING
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Educational Psychology CP 105
__________________________________________________________________________________What is the information – processing model? 75
Short – term or Working Memory 77
Long -term memory 77
What causes people to remember or forget? 77
How do meta-cognitive skills help students learn? 78
WEEK 8Session 10 SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING
Modelling and Observational learning 79
Constructivist Views of Learning 80
Creating a Constructivist Classroom 81
Applying Cognitive Constructivism in the Classroom 82
Constructivist Teaching Methods 84
REFERENCES 88
MODULE 4 MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR
MANAGEMENT
Overview/Objectives 89
WEEK 9
Session 11
Motivation 90
Theories of Motivation 93
Social Learning Approaches to Motivation 99
Motivation as Growth 101
WEEK 10
Session 12 Classroom Management in Perspective 106
Characteristics of Effective Classroom Managers 109
What are some Strategies for Managing Routine misbehavior 112
Session 13 Using Applied Behavior Analysis 113
Seven Principles for the effective and humane use of Punishment 115
REFERENCES 118
MODULE 5 EXCEPTIONALITIES AND CLASSROOM INCLUSION
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Overview/Objectives 119
WEEK 11
Session 14 Who are learners with exceptionalities? 120
Understanding Intelligence 121
Week 12
Session 15 Characteristics of students with learning disabilities 129
Characteristics of gifted and talented students 135
Week 13
Session 16 The teacher’s role in the inclusive classroom 137
Lesson planning for inclusion
WEEKS 14-15 FINAL ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
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Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105
__________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTION
Welcome to Educational Psychology. This course is designed to introduce psychological principles, theories,
and methodologies to issues of teaching and learning in schools. It focuses on human growth and development
in educational settings and involves the study of such questions as: How do people learn? How do the
characteristics of the learner (individual differences, personality, cultural background,) influence learning? How
can classrooms and schools be organized to facilitate learning? What are the most effective ways to teach?
How should teachers approach classroom management and discipline? How can principles of developmental,
social, and cognitive psychology be applied to education? It includes topics like child development, learning,
motivation and creating learning environments.
This course consists of five (5) modules. At the beginning of each session is a brief overview of the course
along with the course objectives. The course objectives highlight what learners should achieve. Each module
covers major areas of competencies and comprises an overview that specifies knowledge, performance and
attitudinal requirements.
Learners will be assessed, based on the Competency Based Education and Training strategies. It therefore,
becomes necessary for learners to participate in all activities. Participants are also encouraged to purchase a
copy of the prescribed text and to read other Educational Psychology texts for additional information.
Remember this manual is just a skeleton of your course and does not eliminate the reading from other sources.
I trust you will find this manual informative and useful. If you have any queries and/or corrections do not
hesitate to make contact at the address given below:
Ruby L. Bramwell (Mrs.)
Vocational Training Development Institute
6 Gordon Town Road Kingston 6
Telephone # 9771700 - 5 EXT 2108
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Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105
__________________________________________________________________________________EXPECTATIONS OF STUDENTS
Participants are expected to display the attitudes that will best facilitate their progress in the course. It is
expected that all students should be punctual, attend classes regularly and participate as is required by the
lecturer or the formulated class groups. It is important, that work be submitted on time and that students who
have good reason to be absent take the initiative to update themselves on the class they missed, collect all
materials that were established and complete the required assignments. If assignments are to be completed on
time and with the required level of accuracy and quality, working groups must be willing to meet and do
extensive work outside of contact time. Only students who participate in group presentations in their assigned
groups will be awarded grades. All students are expected to submit their best work
COURSE AIM
The goal of this course is to provide students with an understanding of ways educational and psychological
principles are beneficial in working with others in a teaching, advising, or counselling capacity.
COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of this course, participants should be able to:
demonstrate knowledge of Educational Psychology and effective teaching interactions
demonstrate understanding of the processes by which people learn
define learning and compare and contrast the factors that cognitive, behavioral, and humanistic
theorists believe influence the learning process, giving specific examples of how these principles could
be used in the classroom.
demonstrate understanding of theories of motivation and differentiate between the different theories
develop and internalise appropriate attitudes towards teaching, learning and learners
discuss the major components and techniques of classroom planning, management and instruction that
have been addressed in the study of the teaching/learning process as well as how these general
techniques can be modified to address individual differences.
evaluate the impact of Educational Psychology on the teaching/learning environment
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Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105
__________________________________________________________________________________DATE MODULES REFERENCES
Module 1
Week 1
Week 2
THE TEACHER AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
What is Educational Psychology?
What is teaching?
What is learning?
What is pedagogy?
What is andragogy?
THE EXPERT TEACHER
What makes a good teacher?
What is the task of the teacher?
Can good teaching be taught?
Who is an intentional teacher?
What are the qualities of outstanding teachers?
What key behaviours are associated with good teaching?
How can you develop as a teacher?
RESEARCH AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
What is the goal of research in Educational psychology?
What is the role of research in Educational psychology?
How do we know what we know in Educational
Psychology?
Slavin: Chapter 1
Woolfolk: Chapter 1
Ormrod: Chapter 1
Matalon: Chapter 1
Elliott Chapter 1
Slavin: Chapter 1
Woolfolk: Chapter 1
Ormrod: Chapter 1
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Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105
__________________________________________________________________________________DATE MODULES REFERENCES
Module 2
Week 3
Week 4
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LANGUAGE
Development: Some general principles
Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Perspective
PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Slavin: Chapter 2
Woolfolk Chapter2
Slavin: Chapter 5
Woolfolk: Chapter
Module 3
Weeks 5- 6
Weeks 7- 8
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
Understanding Learning
Behavioural Views of Learning
Cognitive Views of Learning
SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF
LEARNING
Social Learning and Cognitive Theories
Constructivism and Situated Learning
Slavin Chapter 6
Woolfolk: Chapter 7
Slavin: Chapter 8
Woolfolk: Chapter 9
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Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105
__________________________________________________________________________________Module 4
Week 9
Weeks 10
MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING
What is motivation?
Theories of motivation
What affects students’ motivation
How can teachers increase students’ motivation
CLASROOM BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
Physical environment
Psycho-social environment
CREATING A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Procedures
Rules
Consequences
DEALING WITH MISBEHAVIOURS
Reducing unwanted behaviours
Benign procedures for reducing unwanted
behaviours Effective use of punishment
Slavin: Chapter 9
Woolfolk: Chapter 10
Matalon: Chapter 5
Slavin, Chapter 11
Woolfolk, Chapter 12
Matalon: Chapter 6
Slavin, Chapter 13
Woolfolk, Chapter 8
Matalon: Chapter 5
Module 5
Weeks 11-13EXCEPTIONALITIES AND CLASSROOM INCLUSION
Who are learners with exceptionalities?
Understanding Intelligence
Characteristics of students with learning
disabilities
Characteristics of gifted and talented students
The teacher’s role in the inclusive classroom
Lesson planning for inclusion
Slavin Chapter 12
Eggen Chapter 5
Ormrod Chapter 5
O’Donnell Chapter 4
Weeks 14 -15FINAL ASSESSMENT
REQUIRED TEXT
Slavin, Robert E. (2000). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.
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SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS
Biehler, Robert F. and Jack Snowman (1993) Psychology applied to teaching. Houghton Mifflin Co: Boston
Elliott.et.al. (2000) Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning.McGraw Hill: Boston
Matalon, Barbara A. (1998) Classroom and Behaviour Management. Stephenson’s Litho Press. Kingston
O’Donnell Angella.et.al. (2004) Educational Psychology: Reflection for Action. Wiley Press NJ
Ormrod, Jeanne . (2003) Educational Psychology. Pearson Education: New Jersey
Sternberg, Robert. (2002) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Boston
Woolfolk, Anita. (2004) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Boston
Internet Sources
LEARNING AND TEACHING APPROACHES
Group Projects
Small group learning (cooperative)
Self - instruction
Lectures
Individual Research
Case Studies
Discussions
Brainstorming
METHOD OF ASSESSMENT
Course work and Presentations 60%
Final - Oral Presentation 40%
100%
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Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105
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MODULE 1
THE TEACHER AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
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OVERVIEW
This module seeks to bring to the fore one very important attribute of all outstanding teachers:
intentionality or the ability to do things for a reason, purposefully. In achieving this focus, the module
sets the framework by looking first at some basic but important definitions and then dives into the
different faucets of intentionality.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this module, you should be able to do the following:
define educational psychology and the areas of study that it includes
enumerate the goals of educational psychology, and apply these goals to educational practice.
enumerate the traits of a good teacher and assess their personal trait understand the steps one must accomplish to become an effective and intentional teacher.
describe how teaching requires a balance of reflection and technique
critically evaluate the qualities of different teachers in one’s experience
identify the concerns of beginning teachers, and describe how these concerns change
developmentally
discuss the role of educational psychology in teaching
understand the role of research in teaching and learning
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Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
EDUCATIONALEDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY
TEACHER!
TEACHING!
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY!
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Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105
__________________________________________________________________________________WEEK 1
SESSION 1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
INTRODUCTION:
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
So you want to teach?So you want to teach?
• Why exactly have you decided to teach?
• Do you enjoy working with young people?
• Do you like a particular subject?
• Do you enjoy working in an environment
where people want to learn?
No matter what your reason is, you undoubtedly
have reached one firm conclusion:
YOU WANT TO BE THE BEST TEACHER YOU CAN POSSIBLE BE!!!!!
What I am sure of, is that you have done some form of teaching whether formal or informal. Perhaps you
have already given an oral presentation in one of your classes or have helped a friend who has little
knowledge of a course or topic in which you are competent. You might have taught a child how to ride a
bicycle, paint a picture or comb his/her hair. Whatever you have done in this area, might be? considered
teaching.
Reflect for a moment on the kinds of teaching experiences you have had.
What strategies did you use in your attempt to help someone learn?
Did you provide verbal explanations, demonstrate certain actions, ask your “students” to practice
what you taught them, or give them feedback about their performance?
What assumptions about how people learn influenced the way that you chose to teach?
Did you assume that your students could learn something from listening to you describe it, or did
you believe that demonstrating an action would be more effective?
Did you think that “practice makes perfect?”
Did you assume that feedback was essential for learning and motivation?
Helping others learn – and, in the process, helping them become more productive members of society – is
what teaching is all about.
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VTDIVTDI
““EFFECTIVE TEACHERS CAN, EFFECTIVE TEACHERS CAN, INDEED, MAKE A DIFFERENCE INDEED, MAKE A DIFFERENCE IN THEIR STUDENTSIN THEIR STUDENTS’’ LIVES!LIVES!””
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMSTeacher
TeachingEducational Psychology
There is much discussion about what young people should do in their childhood and youth to prepare
them for success in adulthood. Once we have determined the desired end results or the prerequisites for
success, we need to determine the means or the conditions by which those can be brought about.
Education and Psychology are two terms that are often associated with these conditions.
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
Towards a definition of Towards a definition of Educational PsychologyEducational Psychology
• Education begins at birth and continues throughout life
• Educational Psychology is a combination or overlapping of two separate fields of study –Psychology and Education
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
Psychology and EducationPsychology and Education
• Psychology refers to the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes
• Education refers more specifically, schooling
• Educational Psychology therefore, is scientific study of mental processes and behaviour in the context of formally socializing and developing the potential of individual human beings
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
Educational PsychologyEducational Psychology
• Scientific discipline within Psychology that includes both methods of study and a resulting knowledge base
• Concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching and learning that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving the affiliated operations and procedures
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
Educational Psychologists are Educational Psychologists are interested in…….interested in…….
• Learning theories
• Teaching methods
• Motivation
• Cognition
• Emotional and moral development
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
Elliott’s definition of Educational Elliott’s definition of Educational PsychologyPsychology
• “…the application of psychology and psychological methods to the study of development, learning, motivation, instruction, assessment.”
(Elliott et.al. 2)
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
Woolfolk’sWoolfolk’s definition of definition of Educational PsychologyEducational Psychology
• “…that branch of psychology that has the understanding and improvement of education as its primary goal.”
(Woolfolk, 12)
Elliott further states that the second field of study with which educational psychology aligns itself is
education or more specifically schooling. This Huitt defines as the process of –
(1) developing the capacities and potential of the individual so as to prepare that individual to be
successful in a specific society or culture. From this perspective, education is serving primarily an
individual development function.
(2) the process by which society transmits to new members the values, beliefs, knowledge, and symbolic
expressions to make communication possible within society. In this sense, education is serving a social
and cultural function. W. Huitt, (1999)
WHAT IS TEACHING?
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
What is teaching?What is teaching?
• “…the intention to bring about learning” and if this broad definition is adopted it may be seen that “any activity that is performed in order to produce learning, however it is conducted, may be considered to be teaching”
(Hirst and Peters, 1970)
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT AND SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT AND DISCUSSDISCUSS
Teacher Training vs. on the Job Training
• Which is more important in teaching, being able to use a number of techniques and methods well or being able to solve teaching problems, evaluate solutions, and learn from your mistakes?
In education, teachers are those who help students or pupils learn, often in a school. The objective is
typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill, including learning and thinking skills. The
different ways to teach are often referred to as the teacher's pedagogy. When deciding what teaching
method to use, a teacher will need to consider students' background knowledge, environment, and their
learning goals as well as standardized curriculum as determined by their school district.
(Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)
Huitt’s further suggests the following about teaching-
The purposeful direction and management of the learning process.
Note that teaching is not giving knowledge or skills to students; teaching is the process of
providing opportunities for students to produce relatively permanent change through the
engagement in experiences provided by the teacher. (W. Huitt, 1999)WHAT IS LEARNING?
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
What is Learning?What is Learning?
• “Learning is an interactive mix of intelligence, motivation, experience, psychological factors and brain chemistry.
• It can be as simple as touching a hot stove and learning not to touch it again or as complex as trying to understand the theory of relativity and its application to the space programme, or as confounding as trying to understand why people behave the way they do
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
Learning (contd.)Learning (contd.)
• Learning is an ongoing process of continual adaptation to our environment, assimilation of new information and accommodation of new input to fit with prior knowledge.
• Usually, we say learning has occurred when behaviour and or/attitude have changed and modified.”
(Hamachek, 228)
Atkinson and Atkinson (1993) further explains learning as a relatively permanent change in
behaviour that results from practice; behaviour changes that are due to maturation (rather than
practice), or to temporary conditions of the organism (such as fatigue or drug-induced states) are
not included.
(Atkinson, 1993)
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
How does learning occur?How does learning occur?
• Learning is at the heart of psychology, since in almost all situations we have the potential for some kind of learning. Psychologists use three approaches:
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Cognitive Learning
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Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning
• Neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by a different stimulus
• For example, a baby learns that the sight of a breast will be followed by the taste of milk
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning
• Consequences that follow some behaviour increases or decreases the likelihood of that behaviour occurring in the future
• For example, a young child learns that striking a sibling will be followed by disapproval from parents
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning
• Learning that involves mental processes, such as attention, memory, and may not involve any external rewards or require the person to perform any observable behaviours.
• For example, learning through imitation or observation
Two fundamental assumptions that underlie formal education systems are that students (a) retain knowledge
and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can apply them in situations outside the classroom. But are these
assumptions true? What do you think?
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
How People LearnHow People Learn
Methods by which knowledge, skills and attitudes are acquired and internalised:
• History
• Intuition
• Tenacity
• Experience
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How People Learn (contd.)How People Learn (contd.)
• Maturity
• Significant Persons
• Common sense
• Scientific
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Scientific Methods of LearningScientific Methods of Learning
• Qualitative
• Quantitative
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Factors which affect learning Factors which affect learning (contd.)(contd.)
• Aptitude
• Achievement
• Self concept
• Interest
• Ability
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1.1. Knowledge of the ContentKnowledge of the Content
We can only teach what we understand
To teach a topic, we must not only know the basic facts about the topic, but also how it relates to other aspects of the topic
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
Factors which affect LearningFactors which affect Learning
• Motivation
• Orientation
• Needs
• Attitudes towards learning
• Frustration
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Instructional StrategiesInstructional Strategies
• Teachers must understand different ways of involving students in learning activities, techniques for checking their understanding and strategies for keeping lessons running smoothly.
• Questioning is an important example
• Provide feedback about understanding of a topic
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
3.3. General Pedagogical General Pedagogical KnowledgeKnowledge
• Involves an understanding of instruction and management that transcends individual topics or subject matter areas
• Your study of educational psychology will help you understand how instructional strategiespromote learning and how classroom management contributes to productive learning environment
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
EDUCATOREDUCATOR
• BE A MENTOR –
• BE AN EXPLAINER
• MAKE YOUR SUBJECT INTERESTING
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
4. Knowledge of Learners and 4. Knowledge of Learners and LearningLearning
• Knowledge of learners and learning is essential, “arguably the most important knowledge a teacher can have.”
(Eggen, Kauchak, 12)
Important are:
Knowledge of learners
Knowledge of learning
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CLASSROOM TEACHERCLASSROOM TEACHER
• Provide the materials, information and other activities to enable the learner to acquire new behaviours most effectively
• Set up a classroom in which the students feel secure – physically and emotionally
• Expect success from your students
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
MANAGERMANAGER
• It consists of all of the teacher’s action that create an orderly environment and promote learning:
• Recordkeeping
• Planning and organizing lessons and classroom movement
• Routine procedures for handling disruptions
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CLASSROOM TEACHERCLASSROOM TEACHER
• Provide the materials, information and other activities to enable the learner to acquire new behaviours most effectively
• Set up a classroom in which the students feel secure – physically and emotionally
• Expect success from your students
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI
Classroom ManagementClassroom Management
• Teachers must know how to create classroom environments that are orderly and focused on learning
• Teachers must know how to plan, implement and monitor rules and procedures, organize groups, deliver meaningful lessons and react to misbehaviour
WHAT IS PEDAGOGY?
Pedagogy (pèd-e-go´jê) literally means the art and science of educating children and often is used as a
synonym for teaching. More accurately, pedagogy embodies teacher-focused education.
In the pedagogic model, teachers assume responsibility for making decisions about what will be learned, how
it will be learned, and when it will be learned. Teachers direct learning.
(Conner, Internet)
WHAT IS ANDRAGOGY?
Andragogy a term originally used by Alexander Kapp (a german educator) in 1833 and developed into
a theory of adult education by the american educator, Malcolm Knowles is the art and science of
helping adults learn
Knowles' theory can be stated as four simple postulates:
Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction (Self-concept and
Motivation to learn).
Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities (Experience).
Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal
life (Readiness to learn).
Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented (Orientation to learning).
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
WEEK 2
SESSION 2 THE EXPERT TEACHER
INTRODUCTION
Sandy is all nervous anticipation as she starts her first day as a junior high school science teacher. Within the
first few minutes, however, she finds her motivation challenged. By the end of the day, she is worn out and
worried about how she’ll ever survive as a teacher. Luckily, she meets expert teacher Danielle. Danielle
recognizes in Sandy all the symptoms of a tough first day, and she offers to help Sandy. Over the course of
her first year, Sandy relies on Danielle’s sage advice for help in many difficult situations. Sandy emerges at the
end of her first year feeling wiser and more in control, as well as deeply grateful to Danielle.
You may be worried you’ll feel the same way Sandy does when you begin teaching. The purpose of section is
to help you avoid her predicament. You’ll find out what it takes to be an expert teacher like Danielle. What do
expert teachers know and what do they do?
(Sternberg, 2004)
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
1. EXPERT TEACHERS HAVE EXPERT KNOWLEDGE
1. EXPERT TEACHERS HAVE EXPERT KNOWLEDGE
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Types of Expert Knowledge
CONTENT KNOWLEDGE-
knowledge of the subject being taught
CONTENT KNOWLEDGE-
knowledge of the subject being taught
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PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE –
knowledge of how to teach. Knowledge of how to enhance student motivation, classroom management and how to design and administer tests
Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE –
knowledge of how to teach what is specific to what is being taught, such as knowledge of how to explain particular concepts ( for example, negative numbers in math)
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
3. EXPERT TEACHERS HAVE CREATIVE INSIGHTS
3. EXPERT TEACHERS HAVE CREATIVE INSIGHTS
-apply knowledge and analysis to solve problems. Experts do not simply solve the problem at hand; but redefine the problem – that is they do not take the problem at face value but instead cast the problem in a new light or see it from a new perspective
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
2. EXPERT TEACHERS ARE EFFICIENT
2. EXPERT TEACHERS ARE EFFICIENT
-the ability to solve problems efficiently-the ability to do more in less time usually with less effort
How do experts accomplish this?1. Experts automatize i.e. develop the ability to perform
important tasks without thinking about them-like driving a car
2. Experts effectively plan, monitor, and revise their approach to problems
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERT STUDENTS/LEARNERS
1. USE OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES
1. USE OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES
-use of efective learning strategies-Use of strategies to help them learn, remember and use information
- may acquire these strategies through direct instruction from classroom teachers
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
2. INCREMENTAL VIEW OF INTELLIGENCE
2. INCREMENTAL VIEW OF INTELLIGENCE
- research shows that intelligence can be increased through training and effort (Sternberg, 2002)
-motivation to achieve is linked to the belief that intelligence can be increased
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
Teachers become experts by learning from experience about the content of the subjects they teach, about general methods for teaching and about specific methods that work to teach their content areas
Teachers become expert by growing in efficiency as they “think about thinking” and learn to make daily tasks and routines automatic
Teachers become experts by developing their insight and ability to solve problems by understanding the important aspects of problems, understanding how other solutions in the past can be used to solve problems in the present, and understanding how to reorganize problems to make them easier to solve
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
- may learn strategies from other students and friends by studying in groups
- parents can provide a source of strategies, as can other adults, such as librarians, tutors and even child care professionals
- expert students sometimes invent their own strategies
3. HIGH ASPIRATIONS
3. HIGH ASPIRATIONS
- beliefs about what we can become in life are important motivators that propel us toward future accomplishments, or, conversely, limit our efforts and accomplishments (Markus and Nurius, 1986)
-expert students believe they can achieve highly in life, and they work to make these achievements happen
- even when discrimination and/or poverty, might limit students’ participation in education, students can be encouraged to develop realistically high aspiration to increase their chances for success
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
- Another important finding about self-efficacy is that people tend to tolerate failures better when they have a previous record of success in an area – but that failure can be devastating to self-efficacy when it accompanies a first try at a new goal.
Students tend to be more vulnerable to failure and criticism when they try something new compared with when they try to move up a level in doing something they can already do well. Thus, it is important to create a record of success for yourself when you work at developing proficiency in an area
SPECIFIC STRATEGIES USED BY BOTH EXPERT TEACHERS AND EXPERT STUDENTS
THE ANALYTICAL TEACHER: James sits down at the end of the week and evaluates which lessons worked the best for his students, which did not work well, and why.
THE ANALYTICAL STUDENT: When Marcia recognizes his work is slipping, he reviews a list of key study habits (handed out by his teacher) in order to determine what he is doing wrong
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
- Self-efficacy tends to be found in particular domains so is not usually experienced for everything one might possibly attempt. For example an individual might have high self-efficacy in English and low self-efficacy in Math.
-A practical suggestion for students who want to become more expert in an area is to focus on good performances in areas already mastered to bolster confidence and enhance effort when confronting a weaker area
FINDINGS ABOUT SELF EFICACY
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
6.RESPONSIBILITY FOR SELF AND ACTIONS
6.RESPONSIBILITY FOR SELF AND ACTIONS
- expert students must be willing to take control of a task, to criticize themselves, and, conversely to take pride in their best work
INTERNAL PERSONALITY PATTERN – tend to take responsibility for their lives. When things go well, take credit for their efforts but when things do not go well tend to take responsibility and try to make things go better
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
THE CREATIVE TEACHER: James cuts the teacher of the week profile out of his teaching newsletter, and he adapts three ideas from the profile to use in his classroom
THE CREATIVE STUDENT: Marcia challenges himself by writing down and striving to meet different goals on a day-to-day basis to keep his study time from becoming boring and repetitive
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
5. PURSUIT OF A TASK TO COMPLETION
5. PURSUIT OF A TASK TO COMPLETION
- often students get started on a task, but then, in the middle of the task, they lose momentum – because of frustration, inability to find necessary information, slow rates of progress and other factors – and fail to finish
-expert students use many different methods to help them through stumbling blocks and see tasks through
WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER
Is it warmth, humor, and the ability to care about people? Is it
planning, hard work, and self-discipline? What about
leadership, enthusiasm, a contagious love of learning, and
speaking ability? Most people would agree that all of these
qualities are needed to make someone a good teacher, and
they would certainly be correct. But these qualities are not
enough.
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
THE PRACTICAL TEACHER: James watches and listens to his colleagues, and listens to what students say about his colleagues, in order to learn from his colleagues’ accomplishments and mistakes
THE PRACTICAL STUDENT: Marcia organizes study groups with his friends, in which they help one another and push each other to work harder
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
7. ABILITY TO DELAY GRATIFICATION
7. ABILITY TO DELAY GRATIFICATION
-an expert student will work on a project or task for a long time without immediate rewards.
-students must learn that rewards do not always come immediately
- to be expert, students must learn to delay gratification, because there are clear benefits in doing so
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
Expert teachers work to help their students become expert learners. These teachers recognize that development of expertise in any area is a process that takes time, patience and hard work
Expert students use strategies to help them learn, know that intelligence can be increased, have high aspirations and see themselves as capable of achieving these aspirations, see tasks through to completion, take responsibility for themselves and their actions and understand the value of delaying gratification
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Subject matter knowledge is important. But effective teachers can also communicate their knowledge to
students. The link between what teachers want students to learn and learning is called instruction, or pedagogy.
Effective instruction is a matter of one person with more knowledge transmitting this knowledge to the other.
Slavin (2003)
WHAT IS THE TASK OF THE TEACHER?
Motivating students, managing the classroom, assessing prior knowledge, communicating ideas effectively,
taking into account the characteristics of the learners, assessing learning outcomes, and reviewing information
—must be attended to at all levels of education, in or out of schools.
Slavin (2003)
CAN GOOD TEACHING BE TAUGHT?
The answer is definitely yes. Good teaching has to be observed and practiced, but there are principles of good
teaching that teachers need to know, which can then be applied in the classroom. The major components of
effective instruction are:
Knowledge of subject and teaching resources
Critical thinking and problem-solving skills
Knowledge of students and their learning
Teaching and communication skill
Slavin, (2003)
COMPONENTS OF GOOD TEACHING
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http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t1.html
WHO IS AN INTENTIONAL TEACHER?
One attribute seems to be characteristic of outstanding teachers and that is intentionality. Intentionality means
doing things for a reason, on purpose.
Intentional teachers constantly think about the outcomes they want for their students and about how
each decision they make moves children toward those outcomes.
Intentional teachers know that maximum learning does not happen by chance.
Intentional teachers are constantly asking themselves what goals they and their students are trying to
accomplish; whether each portion of their lesson is appropriate to students’ background knowledge,
skills, and needs; whether each activity or assignment is clearly related to a valued outcome; whether
each instructional minute is used wisely and well.
Intentional teachers trying to build students’ synonym skills during follow-up time might have them work
in pairs to master a set of synonyms in preparation for individual quizzes.
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Intentional teachers achieve a sense of efficacy by constantly assessing the results of his or her
instruction -
o constantly trying new strategies if their initial instruction didn’t work
o constantly seeking ideas from colleagues, books, magazines, workshops, and other sources to
enrich and solidify their teaching skills.
Slavin (2003)
WHAT ARE THE QUALITIES OF OUTSTANDING TEACHERS?
Ernest Boyer (1990) identified several characteristics that he believed made highly effective teachers
They employ language clearly and efficiently. If teachers present their ideas in colourful, exciting
writing and express themselves precisely in their oral language, students have superb models from
which to learn. These teachers talked to their students, not at them.
They are well informed and comfortable with the history and frontiers of their disciplines, so they
provide students not only with facts but also with a way of thinking that serve them well in a complex
world. For example, the teacher who presents basic genetic facts and then goes on to show how this
knowledge can lead to the future cure of serious diseases breathes real life into what may seem to
students to be remote, abstract facts
They relate what they know to their learners so that students become aware of the beauty, the power
and the application of knowledge
WHAT KEY BEHAVIOURS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH GOOD TEACHING?
Lesson Clarity. Lesson clarity means that students understand you. If you organize material
carefully, give precise directions, link the present lesson to past work, use instructional strategies that
are appropriate for students’ ages and cognitive levels, you will be one of those instructors who
maintain the attention of students and communicate effectively
Instructional Variety. Effective teachers use instructional variety. Dynamic teachers experiment,
evaluate, read the feedback from students and switch techniques when a lesson seems to be stalled.
They are alert to the signals their students are giving and use these clues to change from recitation to
discussion, from seatwork to physical activity
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Task Involvement. Good teachers are acutely aware of their students’ task orientation and
engagement in the learning process. Good teachers display a remarkable ability to keep students
actively involved with a task, which is one of the most significant predictors of students’ academic
success. Ideally, students should be actively engaged with a task if learning is to occur. Just sitting at
a desk surrounded by books, either at school or at home, and daydreaming is not engagement with a
task
Praise carefully. Be careful how you praise. Praise can be a mixed blessing. Non-contingent
praise is praise that is not linked to a specific behaviour. Do not let a student’s personal qualities,
rather than achievement, be the occasion for praise. You will find this becomes self defeating when
students discern the hollow nature of the praise. In their own way students are astute readers of
human nature. Empty praise inevitably produces a challenge to their self-esteem and begins to erode
appreciation of honest achievement
Consistent Classroom Guidelines. Good teachers avoid double standards – what is right for the
pupil (politeness, punctuality) is right for the teacher. Teachers who refuse to use threats and
intimidation know that students cannot learn or acquire self-discipline in a tense, hostile environment.
Instead they try to understand the purpose of the misbehaviour to establish a relationship based on
trust and mutual respect. Teachers who treat their students as “nearly equal” gain their respect and
establish relationships that lead to honest dialogue and fewer problems. Remember: Emphasize the
positive and refuse to take misbehaviour personally
Periodic feedback. Students need to know how well they are doing and what they need to
improve on. Effective teachers provide students frequent feedback about their work efforts and
performances. Assessment of student learning plays a central role in providing students
meaningful information on what they are doing well and what they need to work on more.
(Elliott, 6-7)
DEVELOPING AS A TEACHER
As a beginning teacher, you may initially find your role a bit overwhelming. After all, you may have twenty-five
to thirty-five students in your classroom at any one time, and they are likely to have different backgrounds,
ability levels and needs. This course describes many ways you can help your students learn and develop. But
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it is equally important that you learn and develop as well. Here are several strategies to help you do so:
continue to take courses in education – sure way of keeping up to date on the latest theoretical
perspectives and research results related to classroom practice.
learn as much as you can about the subject matter you teach
learn as much as you can about specific strategies for teaching your particular subject matter
learn as much as you can about the culture(s) of the community in which you are working
conduct your own research.
KEY CONCEPTS TO ALWAYS REMEMBER:
o Characteristics of an effective teacher.
Knows subject matter.
Combine research and common sense.
Mastered pedagogical skills.
Consistent.
Enthusiastic.
Firm.
Fair.
Working knowledge of relevant research
Reflective, that is determines the effectiveness of present practices and makes
changes where necessary.
SESSION 3 RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Educational psychology involves the study of cognitive, emotional, and social learning processes that underlie
education and human development across the lifespan. Research in educational psychology advances scientific
knowledge of those processes and their application in diverse educational and community settings. This
section looks at the impact of research in education. This power point presentation is W. Huitt’s postulate of
research in Educational psychology. Read Chapter 1 in Educational Psychology by Robert Slavin.
Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105
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Educational Psychology
Define and contrast descriptive, correlational and experimental studies, giving examples of how each of these have been used in educational psychology.
Define the four basic methods used to collect data in educational psychology (systematic observation, participant observation, paper/pencil, and clinical), giving an example of how each has been used in the study of important variables in educational psychology.
There are a variety of ways of validating truth:
• Intuition
• Religious scripture and interpretation
• Philosophy and logical reasoning
• Science and the scientific method
• Social and/or cultural consensus
• Personal experience
Research in Educational Psychology
Educational Psychology
In your discussion, define and differentiate the following terms: fact, concept, principle, hypothesis, theory, and law.
Developed by W. Huitt (1999)
In order for a process to be described as “scientific” it must meet three criteria:
• knowledge must be grounded in experience
• knowledge must be grounded in a paradigm or exemplar
• any hypothesis must be potentially falsifiable
Research in Educational Psychology
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Some scientists argue that the only appropriate phenomena to study using the scientific method is behavior that is observable by others
However, other scientists believe that personal and interpersonal subjective experiences can also be studied using the scientific method
Research in Educational Psychology
The scientific method can be used to engage in
• Research
where the objective is to gain understanding of a particular phenomena
OR
• Evaluation
where the objective is to make a judgement of worth or value
Research in Educational Psychology
There are three different types of studies used in scientific investigations
Used when we have little knowledge of a phenomena and we want to describe it accurately and truthfully
• Descriptive study
Research in Educational Psychology
Educational psychology offers a fertile opportunity for scientists to demonstrate the validity of these opposing viewpoints
Sample topics that have been addressed include:
• Cognitive development
• Teaching methods for concept development
• Language development
Research in Educational Psychology
Assessment
Qualitative QuantitativeMeasurement
Research Evaluation
Research in Educational Psychology
There are three different types of studies used in scientific investigations
Used when we want to understand the relationships among variables and make predictions from present circumstances to future ones
• Correlational study
Research in Educational Psychology
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There are three different types of studies used in scientific investigations
Correlation coefficient describes the strength of the relationship
• Correlational study
Range is from -1 to +1
Research in Educational Psychology
Example of A Zero Correlation
Example of A Positive Correlation
Example of A Perfect Correlation
There are three different types of studies used in scientific investigations
Correlation coefficient describes the strength of the relationship
• Correlational study
Range is from -1 to +1
Type of relationship is determined by sign
Research in Educational Psychology
Example of A Negative Correlation
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There are three different types of studies used in scientific investigations
Correlation coefficient describes the strength of the relationship
• Correlational study
Range is from -1 to +1
Type of relationship is determined by sign
Strength of relationship is determined by absolute value
Research in Educational Psychology
There are three different types of studies used in scientific investigations
Used when we have a fairly good understanding of predictive relationships and we want to demonstrate cause/effect relationships
• Experimental study
Research in Educational Psychology
Research in Educational Psychology
.60 > .40 (Regardless of sign)
There are three different types of studies used in scientific investigations
Must have at least two groups
• Experimental study
Subjects must be randomly assigned
One group must experience a treatment
The INDEPENDENT variable is manipulated
Change (if any) is observed in the DEPENDENT variable
Research in Educational Psychology
There are three different types of studies used in scientific investigations
• Experimental study
Research in Educational Psychology
Only Results from Experimental StudiesCan Demonstrate Cause and EffectRelationships
There are four levels of scientific investigation:
Action -- What is the relationship of A and B or what is the impact of A on B?
Example -- What are the best teaching methods that can be used to motivate students to learn?
Research in Educational Psychology
There are four levels of scientific investigation:
Interaction -- What is the impact of A @ B1, A @ B2, etc.?
Example -- Does using cooperative learning in gender-mixed classrooms impact girls the same way it impacts boys?
Research in Educational Psychology
There are four levels of scientific investigation:
Transaction -- What is the relationship between A and B over time?
Example -- If a teacher has successfully used a behavior modification technique, but has since stopped, what does the child do the next time the teacher uses that same technique?
Research in Educational Psychology
There are four basic methods used to gather data to be used in scientific studies. Each of the methods can be used in all three types of studies:
• Paper/pencil -- any information gathered by asking the subject a question
• Systematic observation -- trained recorder gathers data on prearranged variables
Research in Educational Psychology
There are four levels of scientific investigation:
Transaction -- What is the relationship between A and B over time?
Example -- What are the processes by which a mother’s educational level impacts the parent-child interaction and subsequent characteristics of the child when he or she enters a classroom at a later date?
Research in Educational Psychology
There are four levels of scientific investigation:
Transformation -- How do qualitative changes in A impact qualitative changes in B; also B1 on A1, etc.
Example -- How does parent involvement in a training program designed to impact a child’s classroom behavior impact the siblings of the child and the sibling’s subsequent interactions with the parent and future classroom behavior?
Research in Educational Psychology
There are four basic methods used to gather data to be used in scientific studies. Each of the methods can be used in all three types of studies:
Research in Educational Psychology
• Participant observation -- the person collecting the data participates in the process being observed
• Clinical -- specially-trained practitioners gather data as part of a diagnostic/prescriptive activity
Use of the scientific method results in an increasingly sophisticated knowledge base:
FACT
• names and dates of important activities; population of the United States in the latest census
• an idea or action that can be verified
Research in Educational Psychology
Use of the scientific method results in an increasingly sophisticated knowledge base:
PRINCIPLE
• relationship(s) between/among facts and/or concepts
• the number of children in the family is related to the average scores on nationally standardized achievement tests for those children
Research in Educational Psychology
Use of the scientific method results in an increasingly sophisticated knowledge base:
THEORY
• set of facts, concepts, and principles that allow description and EXPLANATION
• Piaget's theory of cognitive development,Erikson's theory of socioemotionaldevelopment, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning
Research in Educational Psychology
Use of the scientific method results in an increasingly sophisticated knowledge base:
CONCEPT
• rules that allow for categorization of events, places, people, ideas, etc.
• a DESK is a piece of FURNITURE designed with a flat top for writing; a CHAIR is a piece of FURNITURE designed for sitting; a CHAIR with a flat surface attached to it that is designed for writing is also called a DESK
Research in Educational Psychology
Use of the scientific method does not necessarily invalidate information gathered through other means.
However, when data from science seem to contradict data from personal experience, intuition, social or cultural consensus, religious scripture and interpretation, or philosophy and rational thinking, an opportunity for learning has presented itself.
Research in Educational Psychology
AN IMPORTANT CAVEAT
Only a small amount of the principles and theories developed in educational psychology have support from a body of research developed through the use of experimental studies.
Therefore, most of the concepts, principles, and theories discussed in this course must be considered as best-first-guess hypotheses.
Research in Educational Psychology
As stated previously, educational psychology is a SCIENTIFIC approach to the study of the teaching/learning process.
You will be expected to support your opinions developed through another source with data collected using the scientific method.
Research in Educational Psychology
HOW DO WE KNOW WHAT WE KNOW IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?
As in any scientific field, knowledge comes from many sources. Sometimes researchers study schools, teachers,
or students as they are, and sometimes they create special programs, or treatments study their effects on one or
more variables (anything that can have more than one value, such as age, sex, achievement level, or attitudes).
The principal methods educational researchers use to learn about schools, teachers, students, and instruction are
experiments, correlational studies, and descriptive research. Perhaps the most frequently used research method
in education is the correlational study. In contrast to an experiment, in which the researcher deliberately changes
one variable to see how this change will affect the other variables, in correlational research the researcher studies
variables as they are to see whether they are related.
http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t2.h
ADVANTAGES OF THE CORRELATIONAL METHOD
Variables can be positively correlated, negatively correlated, or uncorrelated. An example of a positive correlation
is the relationship between reading achievement and mathematics achievement. Generally, someone who is
better than average in reading is also likely to be better than average in Math. When one variable is high, the
other tends also to be high. An example of a negative correlation is days absent and grades. The more days a
student is absent, the lower his or her grades will tend to be.
DISADVANTAGE OF THE CORRELATIONAL METHOD
The principal disadvantage of correlational methods is that while they may tell us that two variables are related,
they do not tell us what causes what. Indeed, correlation does not imply causation-this is a frequent pitfall for
novice researchers.
Action research is a particular form of descriptive research that is carried out by educators in their own classrooms
or schools. In action research, a teacher or principal might try out a new teaching method or school organization
strategy, collect information about how it worked, and communicate this information to others. Because the people
involved in the experiment are the educators themselves, action research lacks the objectivity sought in other
forms of research, but it can provide deeper insight from front-line teachers or administrators than would be
possible in research done by outsiders.
CORRELATIONS DO NOT SHOW CAUSATION
When research shows that broken homes and crime are correlated, it does not show causation. In this
illustration, poverty, a third variable, may be correlated to both crime and broken homes. Determining
the requires demonstrating that there are no other correlated effects (other possible causes) and that the
cause actually precedes the effect. http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t3.html
REFERENCES
Elliott, Stephen N. et.al. (2000).Educational Psychology; Effective Teaching, Effective.Learning.McGraw Hill.
Boston
Ormrod Jeanne Ellis. (2003) Educational Psychology – Developing Learners.
Merrill Prentice Hall. New Jersey
Slavin, Robert E. (2000). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.
Sternberg, Robert. (2002) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Bosto
Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology. Pearson. Boston
http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan98/talk.html
http://my.execpc.com/~presswis/candid.html
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/TA/char.html
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/TA/char.htm
http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t3.html
http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t2.html
Module 2: Theories of Development CP 105
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MODULE 2
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
OVERVIEW
This Module is concerned with how people grow, adapt, and change over the course of their lifetimes,
through physical development, personality development, socio-emotional development, cognitive
development (thinking), and language development. This module presents five major theories of
human development that are widely accepted: Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive and moral
development, Lev Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, Erik Erikson’s theory of personal and
social development, and Lawrence Kohlberg’s theories of moral development.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this module, you should be able to do the following:
understand some general principles of human development
demonstrate knowledge of Piaget’s four stages of development
summarize the key ideas in Vygotsky’s theory
analyze Vygotsky’s belief that culture powerfully shapes cognitive development
identify the major points on which Piaget and Vygotsky disagree
understand the implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories for teaching students of
different ages
understand Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development and their implications for teaching
distinguish between Piaget’s Cognitive development and Erikson's Psycho-social
development
understand Kohlberg’s stages of moral development and how teachers can respond to
cheating and aggression in the classroom
evaluate moral development in terms of value systems impacted by environmental issues
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WEEK 3
SESSION 4 THE MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT
The term development in its most general psychological sense refers to certain changes that occur in
human beings (or animals) between conception and death. The term is not applied to all changes, but
rather to those that appear in orderly ways and remain for a reasonably long length of time.
Human development is divided into a number of different aspects:
Physical Development changes in the body
Personal Development changes in an individual’s personality
Social Development changes in the way an individual relates to others
Cognitive Development changes in thinking
NATURE-NURTURE CONTROVERSY:
Is development predetermined at birth, by hereditary factors, or do experience and other environmental
factors affect it?
Nature – an organism’s biological inheritance
Nurture – environmental experiences
Today, most developmental psychologists believe that nature and nurture combine to influence
biological factors playing a stronger role in some aspects, such as physical development, and
environmental factors playing a stronger role in others, such as moral development
CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS THEORIES:
Is human development like a seedling gradually growing into a giant oak? Or is it more like a
caterpillar suddenly becoming a butterfly?
Continuity of Development.(quantitative development) – development involves gradual cumulative change from conception to death.
Module 2: Theories of Development CP 105
______________________________________________________________________________________Discontinuity of Development (qualitative development) – development through distinct stages in the life
span.
According to the discontinuity perspective, each of us passes through a sequence of stages in which
change is qualitatively, rather than quantitatively different. As a mahoe tree moves from seedling to giant
tree, it becomes more oak – its development is continuous. As a caterpillar changes into a butterfly, it
becomes not just more caterpillar but a different kind of organism – its development is discontinuous. For
example, at a certain point, a child moves from not being able to think abstractly about the world to being
able to do so. This is qualitative, discontinuous changes of development, not quantitative, continuous
development. Santrock (1996)
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. People develop at different rates – in your classroom your students will attest to this.
Some will be larger, some will be more matured in their thinking and social
relationships.
2. Development is relatively orderly – people develop abilities in a logical order
3. Development takes place gradually.
4. Development is continually affected by both nature (heredity) and nurture
(environment).
SESSION 5 JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Born in Switzerland in 1896, Piaget is the most influential developmental psychologist in the history
of psychology.
Piaget explored both why and how mental abilities change over time. For Piaget, development
depends in large part on the child's manipulation of and active interaction with the environment.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that a child's intellect, or cognitive abilities,
progresses through four distinct stages. The emergence of new abilities and ways of processing
information characterize each stage.
BASIC TENDENCIES IN THINKING
Organization
Ongoing process of arranging information and experience into mental systems or categories
Module 2: Theories of Development CP 105
______________________________________________________________________________________Adaptation
Adjustment to the environment
Assimilation
The cognitive process by which a person integrates new information into existing schema, or pattern
of behaviour
Accommodation
Occurs when new information cannot be assimilated into an existing schema. Must create new
schema or modify an existing schema.
Equilibration
Search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from environment
Disequilibrium
..the ‘ off balance’ state that occurs when a person realizes that his/her current ways of thinking are
not working to solve a problem or understand a situation
Schema
Cognitive or mental structures by which people intellectually adapt and organize the environment
Used to process and organize incoming information
Developing Schemes
Cognitive Development is guided by two innate components
1. Organization - The combining of basic building blocks (schemes) into coherent systems that
become stages of behavior
2. Adaptation-
The way the children adjust to the environment.
Module 2: Theories of Development CP 105
______________________________________________________________________________________ Mechanisms for adjusting to the environment
1. Assimilation – occurs when new experiences can be incorporated into existing
schemes
2. Accommodation – occurs when an existing scheme must be modified to
incorporate new experience.
Accommodation is the force that drives the cognitive system through stage changes
Organization and adaptation are designed to produce equilibrium – a sense of cognitive balance that the
individual strives for.
STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The Sensorimotor Stage (ages 0-2)
Sensorimotor – exploration of their world by using their senses and their motor skills.
By the end of the sensorimotor stage, children have progressed from their earlier trial-and-error
approach to a more planned approach to problem solving.
Another hallmark of the sensorimotor period is the development of a grasp of object permanence.
Object permanence is the awareness that an object continues to exist even when it is not in view.
In young infants, when a toy is covered by a piece of paper, the infant immediately stops and
appears to lose interest in the toy. This child has not yet mastered the concept of object
permanence. In older infants, when a toy is covered the child will actively search for the object,
realizing that the object continues to exist.
Educational Implications
Provide multiple objects of various sizes, shapes, and colours for babies to use
Actively engage children with environmental objects.
Babies must touch them, mouth them, pull them, drop them, squeeze them, throw them and perform
any other conceivable actions since infants learn through sensory and motor activities.
The Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7).
Children begin to represent to represent the world with words, images and drawings – symbolic
thought goes beyond simple connections of sensory information and motoric.
Module 2: Theories of Development CP 105
______________________________________________________________________________________Features of the Preoperational Thought
Realism
Animism
Artificialism
Transductive Reasoning
Limitations of the Preoperational Period
Centering
Egocentricism
Irreversibility
Educational Implications
Deferred Imitation
Symbolic play
Drawing
Mental Image
Language (talking)
Concrete operational stage (ages 7-11)
Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples
Features of the Concrete Operational Period
Conservation (understanding reversibility)
Seriation
Classification
Number concept
Educational Implications
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______________________________________________________________________________________ They can assimilate and accommodate material they encounter but only at their level. They are
capable of representational thought, but only with the concrete and tangible.
Formal Operational Stage (ages 11 to adulthood).
Increased ability to think hypothetical ways produces unconstrained thought with unlimited possibilities
Features of the Formal Operational period
Ability to separate real from possible
Propositional thinking
Gathering much information and then making combinations of variables to solve a
problem (hypothetico-deductive reasoning)
Egocentricism
Thinking of possibilities
Thinking about abstracts
Thinking in multidimensional terms
Seeing knowledge as relative
Educational Implications
Can students separate the real from the possible? Some student will still have a difficult time.
Are they comfortable with the propositional thinking needed? Can they take the concrete
material they’ve learned and transform it into abstract, even contradictory, ideas?
Can they gather as much data as is needed and combine many and varied ideas forming
new propositions?
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
Lev Semionovich Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who, though a contemporary of Piaget, died in 1934. His
work was not widely read in English until the 1970s.
Basic assumptions:
Complex mental processes begin as social activities; as children develop, they gradually
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Children simultaneously have two important levels of development:
- their actual developmental level which is the level at which they can perform activities
with no assistance
- their potential developmental level which is the level at which they can perform
activities with assistance
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
LEV VYGOTSKY
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Vygotsky’sDevelopment
Instructed by private tutors who used Socratic dialogue – question and answer approach
These sessions combined with study (literature) and teaching experience convinced him of two factors in devt.:– social interaction and language in
human development (sociocultural view)
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Who was Lev Vygotsky?
Born in Russia (1896 –1934)
Educated at Moscow University where his work in educational psychology started.
Greatly influenced by Marxism
Work became influential in the 1970’s long after his death from tuberculosis
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Vygotsky’s View of Human Development
Discontinuous – cognitive development occurs in stages
Domain general – cognitive development occurs simultaneously in many areas e.g. unlikely for a child to get A in reading and Fin English
Domain Specific – development occurs at different rates in different areas e.g. student can be expert in one area and novice in another
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Core Assumptions of Marxism that
Influenced Vygotsky
Activity generates thinking
Development advances by dialectical exchanges
Development is a historical process within cultural contexts
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Basic Themes in Vygotsky’s Theory
Intellectual development can be understood only in terms of the historical and cultural contexts children experience
Intellectual development depends on the sign systems that individuals grow up with: the symbols that cultures create to help people think, communicate and solve problems. For example a culture’s language, writing system, or counting system
Module 2: Theories of Development CP 105
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Internalization
The absorption or taking in of knowledge from the social contexts in which it is observed, so that one can use it for oneself.
Students just entering school will learn how to form a lunch line if they observe older students forming lunch lines
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Extract from VygotskyHimself
Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of ideas. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57).
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
How development occurs
LEARNING PRECEDES DEVELOPMENT
Learning involves the acquisition of signs by means of instruction and information from others
Development involves the child’s internalization of these signs so as to be able to think and solve problems without the help of others – SELF REGULATION
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Development of Self Regulation and
Independent Thinking
Stage 1. A baby learns that when he reaches for an object it is interpreted by others as a signal that he wants the object. Child will next begin to associate certain words with meaning
Stage 2. The infant practices gestures that will get attention. The preschooler will enter into conversations with others to master language
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Stage 3. Using signs to think and solve problems without the help of others. At this point, children become self-regulating and and the sign system has become internalized
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
•Egocentric Speech – (age 3) a form of speech in which children talk, whether anyone is listening or not
•Inner Speech – (age 5) speech turns inward and serves an important function in guiding and planning behaviour. In many cases children who are not permitted these vocalizations can’t accomplish the task!
Module 2: Theories of Development CP 105
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Zone of Proximal Development
An area in which a child/adolescent would have trouble solving a problem alone, but can succeed with help from someone more knowledgeable – competent peer or adult.
Higher mental functioning usually exists in conversation and collaboration among individuals before it exists within the individual
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Vygotsky and Language Development
Pre-intellectual speech – elementary processes that develop into speech
Naive Psychology – children begin to label the objects around them and acquire the syntax of their speech
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Role of Adults and Peers
Serve as guides to support cognitive growth
Zone of proximal development: a range from a child’s actual to potential abilities
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Scaffolding
The process of providing a child or adolescent with a good deal of support during the time they are learning something.
This support is reduced as the learner becomes able to deal with the task independently, resulting in his taking on increasing responsibility for his learning
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Implications for Teaching
Children learn by internalizing external dialogue
Children almost never operate at the peak of their capacity
Language and thought are intimately and inextricably related
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Applying Vygotsky’sIdeas
Tailor scaffolding to the needs of students
Make sure students have access to tools that support thinking
Capitalize on dialogue and group learning
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Zone of Proximal Development is useful because it enables a teacher to consider what a learner can do at a particular time, as well as the “zone” within which they can master new material
Scaffolding involves social supports for learning (Collaborative learning) in which learners work together in (heterogenous groups) to solve problems
Socio-cultural dimensions – learning is a culturally and socially mediated process, therefore a child brings with him knowledge as well as conceptions of learning from his family and cultural background so there needs to be connections between the child’s in-school learning and these cultural foundations of knowledge
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Focus
For group discussion:
What are the differences between the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky and how do they complement one another?
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
Food for Thought
How do you see your role in the socio-cultural development of children?
Implications for Teaching
Determine where the child’s actual developmental level i
Provide scaffolded instruction designed to move the child through the zone of
proximal development
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WEEK 4
SESSION 6 PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Erickson believes that personality emerges from a series of inner and outer conflict, which if resolved result in a
greater sense of self. These crises arise at each of eight stages of life and each crises results in a period of
increased vulnerability and heightened potential and can lead either to maladjustment or increased psychic
strength.
The Eight Psycho-social Stages
Trust versus Mistrust (birth to year) Infant must form a loving, trusting, relationship with caregiver or
develop a sense of mistrust
Autonomy versus Shame, Doubt ( 2-3 years)
Initiative versus Guilt (4-5 years)
- the role of play
- play and cognitive development
- play and social development
- play and emotional development
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Industry versus Inferiority (6-11 years)
Identity versus Identity Confusion (12-18 years)
Identity Statuses (James Marcia)
- Identity Diffusion (-crisis, -commitment)-confusion about who you are and what you want
- Identity Foreclosure (-crisis, + commitment) –acceptance of parental life choices without
consideration of options
- Identity Achievement (+crisis, + commitment) – strong commitment to life choices after free
consideration of alternatives
- Identity Moratorium ( suspension of choices because of struggle)
Intimacy versus Isolation (18-35)
Generativity versus Stagnation (35-65)
Integrity versus Despair (over 65 years)
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
In Europe, a woman is near death from a special kind of cancer. There is one drug that the doctors
think might save her. It is a form of radium that a druggist in the same town has recently discovered.
The drug is expensive to make, but the druggist is charging ten times what the drug cost him to make.
He paid $200 for the radium and is charging $2000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's
husband, Heinz, goes to everyone he knows to borrow the money, but he can get together only about
$1000, which is half of what it costs. He tells the druggist that his wife is dying and asks him to sell the
drug cheaper or let him pay later. The druggist says, "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make
money from it." Heinz is desperate and considers breaking into the man's store to steal the drug for his
wife.
1. Should Heinz steal the drug? Why or why not?
2. If Heinz doesn't love his wife, should he steal the drug for her? Why or why not?
3. Suppose the person dying is not his wife but a stranger. Should Heinz steal the drug for a
stranger? Why or why not?
4. Suppose it is a pet animal he loves. Should Heinz steal to save the pet animal? Why or why
not?
5. Why should people do everything they can to save another's life?
6. It is against the law for Heinz to steal? Does that make it morally wrong? Why or why not?
Why should people generally do everything they can to avoid breaking the law? How does this relate
to Heinz's case? (Colby, 1979: Form A)
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JEAN PIAGET'S AND LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Acguiring a Sense of Right and Wrong
Prepared by Ruby BramwellLecturer V.T.D.I.
JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Heteronomous Morality(or morality imposed by the rules of others) is characterized by the view that rules are absolute, children pay attention to the actions of others but not to the intention underlying their actions. Also called moral realism.
For example someone who breaks 15 glasses while trying to steal sugar from a canister will be judged more harshly than someone who breaks just one glass
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Students encounter moral dilemmas constantly. Should they cheat on a test? Should they report a student whom they observed cheating? Should they violate a confidence, such as a confession of a crime made to them in confidence?
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
…The process by which individuals acquire a sense of right and wrong, to use in evaluating their own actions and the actions of others
Moral development begins early and continues throughout the life span
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Autonomous Morality is the level at which children understand that people both make up rules and can change the rules, which are now seen as the product of people’s agreement. This is also called moral relativism or the morality of cooperation. At about age 8, children are able to understand that rules and laws are not absolute, but rather are formed by the agreement of groups of people; rules can be changed in the same way if people agree a new rule is needed
Influenced by the work of Piaget and John Dewey, Lawrence Kohlberg (1929-1987), a Harvard educator and psychologist, used dilemmas to study moral reasoning.
Like Piaget, Kohlberg concluded that morality develops in stages, and all people pass through all the stages in the same order but at different rates
Kohlberg described moral development as existing in three levels consisting of two stages each
These levels represent the perspectives people take as they wrestle with moral dilemmas or problems. The stages are outlined thus:
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
Stage 1: Punishment-obedience
Punishment and obedience are an individual’s main concerns
Individuals make moral decisions based on their chances of getting caught and being punished
They determine right and wrong by the consequences of an action e.g. if the child is punished, the act is morally wrong; if not, the act is right
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
People focus on the consequences of an action for themselves but reciprocity is involved. Rules are followed if they are in the individual’s best interest “An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth” or “Don’t bite the hand that feeds you” reflect morality at his stage, and you do something for me and I’ll do something for you” is a key characteristic.
A naïve hedonism is used to judge morality at this stage
Aspects of the political system exists a this stage. Political patronage, the tendency of succesful office seekers to give supporters the best jobs regardless of qualifications
Level 11: Conventional Morality
As egocentricism declines and development progresses, students become better able to see from others’ points of view
Moral reasoning becomes linked to the perspectives of, and concerns for, others
Values such as loyalty, others’ approval, family expectations, obeying the law and social order become prominent
Sample answer to Heinz Dilemma:
“No, Heinz shouldn’t take the radium because he might get caught and thrown into jail."
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Sample answer to Heinz dilemma:
“Yes, Heinz was right to steal the drug because the druggist was unwilling to make a fair deal; he was trying to ‘rip Heinz off’ and refuses to make a deal that will benefit both people
Stage 3: Good interpersonal relationships
Individuals operating at this level do not manipulate people to reach their goals. Rather, the interpersonal harmony stage is characterized by conventions, loyalty and living up to the expectations of others
Person is oriented toward maintaining the affection and approval of friends and relatives by being a ‘good’ person.
Sometimes called the ‘nice girl/good boy’ stage
People try to do what is expected of them
Sample answer to Heinz Dilemma
“Yes, Heinz should steal the drug. A good husband takes care of his wife. He would seem cold and heartless if he wasn’t willingto risk a litle jail time to help his wife live. Besides, it is the druggist’s fault, he is unfair, trying to overcharge and lettingsomeone die.”
Sample answer to Heinz Dilemma
“Heinz should not steal the drug. If everyone disobeyed the laws against theft, society would be in chaos. What would happen if we all started breaking laws whenever we felt we had a good reason? Society couldn’t function.”
Stage 5: Social contract and Individual rights
Person understands that a society of rational people needs socially agreed-on laws in order to function. Laws are not accepted blindly or for their own sake; rather, they are based on the principle of utility, or “the greatest good for the greatest number,” and are followed because they adhere to rights such as life, liberty, and the dignity of the individual
Stage 4: Law and Order
The ethics at this stage points out that law and order exist to guide behaviour and should be followed uniformly
Emphasis is placed on obeying the law, respecting authority, and performing one’s duties so that the social order is maintained
The individual becomes more broadly concerned with society as a whole
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Level 111: Postconventional Morality (Principled Morality)
A person reasoning at this level has transcended both the individual and societal levels and makes moral decisions based on principles
Individuals follow rules but also see that, at times, rules need to be changed or ignored
Only a small portion of the population attains this level, and most don’t before mid to late 20s
Sample answer to Heinz Dilemma
“Yes, Heinz should take the drug, because the value of human lifeoutweighs the druggist’s individual right to own property. It is the husband’s duty to save his wife. The fact that her life is in danger transcends every other standard you might use to judge his action. Life is more important than property
Stage 6: Universal Principles
Reasoning is based on abstract and general principles above society’s rules.
People define rightness in terms of internalized universal standards that go beyond concrete laws
Individuals adopt an orientation toward universal principles of justice which exist regardless of a particular society’s rules
Putting Theory into Perspective
Every person’s moral reasoning passes through the same stages in the same order
People pass through the stages at different rates
Development is gradual and continuous, rather than sudden and discrete
Implications for Teaching
Teachers need to expect a level of moral thought and behaviour that is appropriate to the child’s age
Having classroom discussion of moral dilemmas help challenge student’s moral reasoning
Sample answer to Heinz Dilemma
“Yes, Heinz should take the drugs because the value of human life outweighs any other consideration.”
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Once a stage is attained, a person continues to reason at that stage and rarely regresses to a lower stage
Intervention usually results in moving only to the next higher stage
Self assessment will help teachers assess their own level of moral development to better understand how they perceive the thinking and behaviour of their students
Teachers need to realize that no one theory of moral development is universally accepted
Teachers need to encourage and develop thinking that is not just moral but also, wise
REFERENCES
Elliott, Stephen N. et.al. (2000).Educational Psychology; Effective Teaching, Effective.Learning.McGraw Hill.
Boston
Ormrod Jeanne Ellis. (2003) Educational Psychology – Developing Learners.
Merrill Prentice Hall. New Jersey
Slavin, Robert E. (2000). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.
Sternberg, Robert. (2002) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Boston
Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon. Boston
http://classweb.gmu.edu/awinsler/ordp/cogdev.html
http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/piaget.html
http://teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piagtuse.html
http://teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html
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MODULE 3
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
OVERVIEW
Human learning is a complex multi-faceted process that often involves changes in both thinking and
behaviour. Understanding how students learn and complex thinking skills are the main foci of this
module. In addition, this module is to define learning and then to present behavioural and social
learning theories, explanations for learning that emphasize observable behaviours. Behavioural
learning theories focus on ways in which pleasurable or unpleasant consequences of behaviour
change individuals’ behaviour over time and ways in which individuals model their behaviour on that
of others. Social learning theories focus on the effects of thought on action and action on thought.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this module, you should be able to do the following:
distinguish between classical and operant conditioning
understand the similarities and differences among contiguity, classical conditioning and
operant conditioning
recognize how students may acquire fears through classical conditioning
identify the major elements of operant conditioning
understand how the principles of reinforcement and punishment can be used in the
classroom
demonstrate how applied behaviour analysis can be used to solve common academic or
behaviour problems
apply the principles of social cognitive theory to your instructional techniques
identify a model of information processing
recognize elements of instruction that affect student memory
identify activities and teaching methods that can facilitate students’ construction of
knowledge
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WEEK 5
SESSION 7 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
WHAT IS LEARNING?
Learning has already been defined in Module 1 so this is just a refresher. But let me say, again, that
learning is usually defined as a change in an individual caused by experience.
Changes caused by development (such as growing taller) are not instances of learning.
Humans do so much learning from the day of their birth (and some say earlier) that learning and
development are inseparably linked.
The problem educators face is not how to get students to learn (students are already engaged in
learning every waking moment) but how to help students learn particular information, skills, and
concepts that will be useful in adult life.
How do we present students with the right stimuli on which to focus their attention and mental effort so
that they will acquire important skills? That is the central problem of instruction.
IVAN PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Pavlov and his colleagues studied the digestive process in dog in the late 1800s and early 1900s.
Pavlov observed that if meat powder was placed in or near the mouth of a hungry dog, the dog would
salivate.
Because the meat powder provoked this response automatically, without any prior training or
conditioning, the meat powder is referred to as an unconditioned stimulus.
Because salivation occurred automatically in the presence of meat, also without the need for any
training or experience, this response of salivating is referred to as an unconditioned response.
Pavlov's experiments showed that if a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned
stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and gains the power to prompt a
response similar to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In other words, after the bell and the
meat are presented together, the ringing of the bell alone causes the dog to salivate. This process is
referred to as classical conditioning.
Pavlov's emphasis on observation and careful measurement and his systematic exploration of several
aspects of learning helped to advance the scientific study of learning. Pavlov also left other behavioral
theorists with significant mysteries, such as the process by which neutral stimuli take on meaning.
Before conditioning
Module 3: Approaches to Learning CP 105
________________________________________________________________________________________ In order to have classical or respondent conditioning, there must exist a stimulus that will automatically
or reflexively elicit a specific response.
This stimulus is called the unconditioned Stimulus or UCS because there is no learning involved in
connecting the stimulus and response.
There must also be a stimulus that will not elicit this specific response, but will elicit an orienting
response. This stimulus is called a neutral stimulus or an orienting stimulus.
During conditioning
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus will first be presented, followed by the unconditioned stimulus.
Over time, the learner will develop an association between these two stimuli (i.e., will learn to make a
connection between the two stimuli.)
After Conditioning
After conditioning, the previously neutral or orienting stimulus will elicit the response previously only
elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
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________________________________________________________________________________________ The stimulus is now called a conditioned stimulus because it will now elicit a different response as a
result of conditioning or learning.
The response is now called a conditioned response because it is elicited by a stimulus as a result of
learning.
The two responses, unconditioned and conditioned, look the same, but they are elicited by different
stimuli and are therefore given different labels.
In the area of classroom learning, classical conditioning primarily influences emotional behavior. Things
that make us happy, sad, angry, etc. become associated with neutral stimuli that gain our attention. For
example, if a particular academic subject or remembering a particular teacher produces emotional
feelings in you, those emotions are probably a result of classical conditioning.
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html.
B. F. SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING
Skinner proposed that reflexive behaviour accounts for only a small proportion of all actions.
Skinner proposed another class of behaviour, which he labeled operant behaviours because they
operate on the environment in the apparent absence of any unconditioned stimuli, such as food. For
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example, if an individual's behaviour is immediately followed by pleasurable consequences, the
individual will engage in that behaviour more frequently. The use of pleasant and unpleasant
consequences to change behaviour is often referred to as operant conditioning.
PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING
Principles of behavioural learning include the role of consequences, reinforcers, punishers, immediacy
of consequences, shaping, extinction, schedules of reinforcement, maintenance, and the role of
antecedents.
Pleasurable consequences strengthen behavior; unpleasant consequences weaken it.
REINFORCERS
A reinforcer is defined as any consequence that strengthens (that is, increases the frequency of) a
behavior.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REINFORCERS
Reinforcers fall into two broad categories:
Primary reinforcers satisfy basic human needs. Some examples are food, water, security, warmth,
and sex.
Secondary reinforcers are reinforcers that acquire their value by being associated with primary
reinforcers or other well-established secondary reinforcers.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCERS
Reinforcers that are used in schools are things given to students. These are called positive
reinforcers and include praise, grades, and stars.
Reinforcers that are escapes from unpleasant situations are called negative reinforcers. WHAT DO YOU THINK?
A child approaches a dog and is bitten. From that point on, the child is filled with fear and runs
away whenever a dog approaches. Think about the classically conditioned aspect as well as the
operantly conditioned aspect of the example
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PREMACK PRINCIPLE
One important principle of behaviour is that we can promote less-desired (low-strength) activities by
linking them to more-desired activities. In other words, access to something desirable is made
contingent on doing something less desirable. For example, a teacher might say, "As soon as you finish
your work, you may go outside" or "Clean up your art project, and then I will read you a story." These
are examples of the Premack Principle.
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC REINFORCERS
The most important reinforcer that maintains behaviour is the pleasure inherent in engaging in the
behaviour.
People like to draw, read, sing, play games, hike, or swim for no reason other than the fun of doing it.
These are called intrinsic reinforcers.
Intrinsic reinforcers are contrasted with extrinsic reinforcers, praise or rewards given to motivate people
to engage in a behavior that they might not engage in without it. There is evidence that reinforcing
children for certain behaviors they would have done anyway can undermine long-term intrinsic
motivation.
PUNISHERS
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________________________________________________________________________________________ Consequences that weaken behaviour are called punishers. For example, some students like being
sent to the principal's office or out to the hail, because it releases them from the classroom, which they
see as an unpleasant situation. As with reinforcers, the effectiveness of a punisher cannot be assumed
but must be demonstrated
Punishment can take two primary forms.
Presentation Punishment
Presentation punishment is the use of unpleasant consequences, or aversive stimuli, as when a
student is scolded
Removal Punishment
Removal punishment is the withdrawal of a pleasant consequence. Examples include loss of a
privilege, having to stay in during recess, or having to stay after school. One frequently used form of
removal punishment in classrooms is time out, in which a student who misbehaves is required to sit in
the corner or in the hall for several minutes.
IMMEDIACY OF CONSEQUENCES
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
Recall an instance of punishment that you have experienced at some time during your life.
What were your feelings when you were being punished? Did the punishment work? What are
some other negative effects of punishment? If punishment is ineffective and also produces
negative side effects, why do so many teachers rely on it so much?
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________________________________________________________________________________________ Consequences that follow behaviors closely in time affect behavior far more than delayed
consequences do. A smaller reinforcer that is given immediately generally has a much larger effect than
does a large reinforcer that is given later.
Immediate feedback serves at least two purposes.
- it makes clear the connection between behavior and consequence.
- it increases the informational value of the feedback.
SHAPING
When teachers guide students toward goals by reinforcing the many steps that lead to success, they
are using a technique called shaping.
EXTINCTION
By definition, reinforcers strengthen behavior. but what happens when reinforcers are withdrawn?
eventually, the behavior will be weakened, and ultimately, it will disappear.
Behavior intensifies when the reinforcer is first withdrawn, then rapidly weakens until the behavior
disappears. still, the behavior may return after much time has passed.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
The effects of reinforcement on behavior depend on many factors, one of the most important of which is the
schedule of reinforcement..
FIXED RATIO (FR)
A reinforcer is given after a fixed number of behaviors. For example, a teacher might say, "As soon as
you finish ten problems, you may go outside." Regardless of the amount of time it takes, students are
reinforced as soon as they finish 10 problems.
VARIABLE RATIO (VR)
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________________________________________________________________________________________ The number of behaviors required for reinforcement is unpredictable, although it is certain that the
behaviors will eventually be reinforced. In the classroom a variable-ratio schedule exists when students
raise their hands to answer questions. They never know when they will be reinforced by being able to
give the correct answer, but they may expect to be called on about I time in 30 in a class of 30.
FIXED INTERVAL (FL)
In fixed-interval schedules, reinforcement is available only at certain periodic times. The final
examination is a classic example of a fixed-interval schedule.
VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI)
In a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement is available at some times but not at others, and we have
no idea when a behavior will be reinforced. An example of this is a teacher making spot checks of
students who are doing assignments in class.
Students are reinforced if they are working well at the particular moment the teacher comes by. Since
they cannot predict when the teacher will check them, students must be doing good work all the time.
MAINTENANCE
The principle of extinction holds that when reinforcement for a previously learned behaviour is
withdrawn, the behavior fades away. Does this mean that teachers must reinforce students' behaviors
indefinitely or they will disappear?
THE ROLE OF ANTECEDENTS
Cueing
Antecedent stimuli, events that precede a behavior, are also known as cues, because they inform us
what behaviour will be reinforced and/or what behavior will be punished. Cues come in many forms and
give us hints as to when we should change our behavior and when we should not.
DISCRIMINATION
For students to learn discrimination, they must have feedback on the correctness or incorrectness of
their responses.
Studies of discrimination learning have generally found that students need to know when their
responses are incorrect as well as correct.
GENERALIZATION
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For generalization to occur, it usually must be planned for. A successful classroom management
program used in social studies class may be transferred to English class to ensure generalization to
that setting.
Students may need to study the use of symbolism by many authors in many cultures before they
acquire the skill to interpret symbolism in general.
TECHNIQUES FOR INCREASING GENERALIZATION
Slavin in his book Educational Psychology quotes Schloss and Smith (1998) as describing 11
techniques for increasing the chances that a behavior learned in one setting, such as a given class, will
generalize to other settings, such as other classes or, more important, real-life applications. Some of
these strategies involve teaching in a way that makes generalization easier. For example, arithmetic
lessons involving money will probably transfer better to real life if they involve manipulating real or
simulated coins and bills than if they involve only problems on paper.
After initial instruction has taken place, there are many ways to increase generalization. One is to repeat
instruction in a variety of settings. For example, after teaching students to use a given test-taking strategy in
mathematics, such as "skip difficult problems and go back to them after answering the easy ones," a teacher
might give students the opportunity to use this same strategy on a science test, a grammar test, and a health
test.
APPLIED BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS/BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
Applied behaviour analysis is the application of behavioural learning principles to understand and shape
behaviour. The method is sometimes called behaviour modification which is the systematic application of
antecedents and consequences to change behaviour.
STEPS IN APPLIED BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS
Identify target behaviour
Establish a baseline for the target behaviour
Choose reinforcers and punishers (if necessary)
Measure changes in the target behaviour
Gradually reduce the frequency of reinforcers as behaviour improves
METHODS FOR ENCOURAGING BEHAVIOURS
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Reinforcement with teacher attention
Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle
Shaping
Positive Practice
COPING WITH UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOUR
Negative Reinforcement
Satiation
Reprimands
Response cost
Social Isolation
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Week 6
Session 8 COGNITIVE APPROACH TO LEARNING
WHAT IS AN INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL?
Information constantly enters our minds through our senses even though most of this information is
almost immediately discarded. and we may never even be aware of much of it.
Some is held in our memories for a short time and then forgotten. For example, we may remember the
seat number on a football ticket until we find our seats, at which point we will forget the number.
Some information is retained much longer, perhaps for the rest of our lives. What is the process by
which information is absorbed, and how can teachers take advantage of this process to help students
retain critical information and skills?
SENSORY REGISTER
Incoming information meets is the sensory register.
Information is received from each of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste) and held for a very
short time, no more than a couple of seconds. If nothing happens to information held in a sensory
register, it is rapidly lost.
There are two important educational implications at work here:
- People must pay attention to information if they are to retain it.
- It takes time to bring all the information seen in a moment into consciousness. For example, if
students are bombarded with too much information at once and are not told which aspects of
the information they should pay attention to, they may have difficulty learning any of the
information at all.
- PERCEPTION
Perception of stimuli involves mental interpretation and is influenced by our mental state, past
experience, knowledge, motivations, and many other factors.
We perceive different stimuli according to rules that have nothing to do with the inherent characteristics
of the stimuli. If you are sitting in a building, for example, you may not pay much attention to, or even
hear, a fire engine's siren.
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building waiting for the fire fighters to arrive, you pay even more attention.
ATTENTION
When teachers say to students, "Pay attention" or "Lend me your ears," they are using the words pay
and lend appropriately. Like money, attention is a limited resource.
An experienced speaker knows that when the audience looks restless, its attention is no longer focused
on the lecture but might be turning toward considerations of lunch or other activities; it is time to
recapture the listeners' attention.
GAINING ATTENTION
Use cues that indicate "This is important." Some teachers raise or lower their voices, use gestures,
repetition, or body position to communicate the same message.
Another way to gain attention is to increase the emotional content of material.
Unusual, inconsistent, or surprising stimuli also attract attention. For example, science teachers often
introduce lessons with a demonstration or magic trick to engage student curiosity.
Informing students that what follows is important to them will catch their attention. For example,
teachers can ensure attention by telling students, "This will be on tomorrow's test."
SHORT-TERM OR WORKING MEMORY
Short-term memory can hold a limited amount of information for a few seconds.
It is the part of memory in which information that is currently being thought about is stored.
When we stop thinking about something, it disappears from our short-term memory.
Information may enter working memory from sensory registers or from the third basic component of the
memory system: long-term memory.
One way to hold information in working memory is to think about it or say it over and over.
Rehearsal is important in learning because the longer an item remains in working memory, the greater
the chance that it will be transferred to long-term memory.
Because working memory has a limited capacity, information can also be lost from it by being forced
out by other information.
Teachers must allocate time for rehearsal during classroom lessons.
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Long-term memory is that part of our memory system where we keep information for long periods of
time.
In fact, many theorists believe that we may never forget information in long-term memory; rather, we
might just lose the ability to find the information within our memory..
Theorists divide long-term memory into at least three parts:
- episodic memory
- semantic memory
- procedural memory.
Episodic memory is our memory of personal experiences, a mental movie of things we saw or heard.
Most things that are learned in class lessons are retained in semantic memory.
Procedural memory refers to "knowing how" in contrast to "knowing that." The abilities to drive, type,
and ride a bicycle are examples of skills that are retained in procedural memory.
Factors that enhance long-term memory
Contrary to popular belief, people retain a large portion of what they learn in school. Long-term
retention of information that is learned in school varies a great deal according to the type of information.
Several factors contribute to long-term retention. One very important factor is the instructional strategies
that actively involve students.
WHAT CAUSES PEOPLE TO REMEMBER OR FORGET?
Most forgetting occurs because information in working memory was never transferred to long-term memory.
However, it can also occur because we have lost our ability to recall information that is in long-term memory.
Interference
Retroactive Inhibition
Proactive inhibition
HOW CAN MEMORY STRATEGIES BE TAUGHT?
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Verbal learning
Paired-associate
Serial learning
Free-recall learning
Paired-associate learning
HOW DO METACOGNITIVE SKILLS HELP STUDENTS LEARN?
The term metacognition means knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn.
Thinking skills and study skills are examples of metacognitive skills.
Students can be taught strategies for assessing their own understanding, figuring out how much time
they will need to study something, and choosing an effective plan of attack to study or solve problems.
Teaching metacognitive strategies to students can lead to a marked improvement in their achievement.
WHAT STUDY STRATEGIES HELP STUDENTS LEARN?
Note-taking
Underlining
Writing to learn
Outlining and mapping
WEEK 7
SESSION 9 SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING
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________________________________________________________________________________________How has social learning theory contributed to our understanding of human learning?
Developed by Albert Bandura, social learning theory accepts most of the principles of behavioral
theories but focuses to a much greater degree on the effects of cues on behavior and on internal
mental processes, emphasizing the effects of thought on action and action on though
Modeling and observational learning
Bandura's (1986) analysis of observational learning involves four phases:
attention
retention
reproduction
motivational
Observational Learning and Teaching
Directing attention
Fine-tuning already learned behaviour
Strengthening or weakening inhibitions
Teaching new behaviours – modelling
Arousing emotion
Vicarious learning
People learn by seeing others reinforced or punished for engaging in certain behaviours.
Classroom teachers use the principle of vicarious learning all the time. When one student is fooling
around, teachers often single out others who are working well and reinforce them for doing a good job.
The misbehaving student sees that working is reinforced and (it is hoped) gets back to work.
Self-regulated Learning
People observe their own behaviour, judge it against their own standards, and reinforce or punish
themselves.
Students can be taught to use self-regulation strategies, and they can be reminded to do so in a variety
of contexts so that self-regulation becomes a habit. For example, students might be asked to set goals
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goals.
WEEK 8
SESSION 10
CONSTRUCTIVISM
CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING
Constructivism is the view that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and
making sense of information. It is a theory about learning, not a description of teaching. Learners
construct their own understanding of the world. This is not about a change in teaching technique but,
rather, the way we think about knowledge acquisition and the assessment of that knowledge.
(Elliott et.al, 15)
Constructivism emphasizes the importance of the knowledge, beliefs, and skills an individual brings to
the experience of learning. It recognizes the construction of new understanding as a combination of
prior learning, new information, and readiness to learn. Individuals make choices about what new ideas
to accept and how to fit then into their established views of the world. (Woolfolk, 326)
THE THEORY OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
The basic tenets of constructivism are that:
Knowledge is constructed from and shaped by experience.
Students must take an active role and assume responsibility for their learning.
Learning is a collaborative process and students create their own meaning from obtaining multiple
perspectives.
Learning should occur in a realistic setting.
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Content should be presented holistically, not broken into separate smaller tasks.
(www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art3_6.htm - 9k -)
CREATING A CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM
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Along with having a constructivist teacher you also need to have a constructivist classroom. “Creating a
constructivist classroom requires that the classroom teacher must be in position to:
Influence or create motivating conditions for students
Take responsibility for creating problem situations
Foster acquisition and retrieval of prior knowledge
Create a social environment that emphasizes that attitude of learning to learn
The learning process not the product of learning is the primary focus of constructivism. The constructivist
teacher has to be the ‘guide on the side and not the sage n the stage.”
The student has to make their own meanings and decisions. They are not to be handed to them by the
teacher. To facilitate real learning, teachers need to organize their classroom and their curriculum so that
students can collaborate, interact, and raise questions of both classmates and the teacher.
The whole idea of a constructivist classroom is characterized by the mutual respect between the teacher and
the children. In most classrooms the respect is one way. The children have to respect the teacher. A
constructivist teacher respects the children by allowing the children rights to their feelings, ideas, and
opinions. The teacher refrains from using their power unnecessarily. .
Epstein, Maureen (2002) Constructivism: Using Information Effectively in Education: Research Paper
APPLYING COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM
The chart below compares the traditional classroom to the constructivist one. You can see significant
differences in basic assumptions about knowledge, students, and learning. (It's important, however,
to bear in mind that constructivists acknowledge that students are constructing knowledge in
traditional classrooms, too. It's really a matter of the emphasis being on the student, not on the
instructor.)
TRADITIONAL CLASSROOM CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM
Curriculum begins with the parts of the whole.
Emphasizes basic skills.
Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with
the whole and expanding to include the parts.
Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly
valued.
Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued.
Materials are primarily textbooks and workbooks. Materials include primary sources of material and
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manipulative materials.
Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what the student
already knows.
Teachers disseminate information to students;
students are recipients of knowledge.
Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping
students construct their own knowledge.
Teacher's role is directive, rooted in authority. Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in negotiation.
Assessment is through testing, correct answers. Assessment includes student works, observations,
and points of view, as well as tests. Process is as
important as product.
Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with
our experiences.
Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.
www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html - 15k -
HOW DO YOU USE CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH IN YOUR CLASSROOM?
1. Pose problems of emerging relevance to students.
Students should come to class with a question of burning interest, relevant to the topics that particular
course was to cover
2. Structure learning around primary concepts
Identify the “big ideas” that are important for the students to come to understand and structure
teaching around them
3. Seek and value students’ points of view
Constructivists encourage teachers to listen more than they talk
Students’ points of views are windows into their reasoning
4. Adapt curriculum to address students’ current understanding
If the curriculum doesn’t fit the students, change the curriculum. Adapt it to the best fit the student’s
current understanding as well as to best guide the student’s further knowledge development.
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_______________________________________________________________________________________5. Assess student learning in the context of teaching
Try to understand how answers correct and incorrect, were arrived at. Did the student perhaps
interpret the question differently than it was intended? Does the student’s response indicate a partial
understanding of the concept, one that could be built upon and elaborated?
Asking Students to explain their answers and really listening to their explanations are the only ways
teachers can get such information.
CONSTRUCTIVIST’S TEACHING METHODS
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
•• Discovery learning Discovery learning •• Discovery learning is an important component of modern Discovery learning is an important component of modern
constructivist approaches that has a long history in educatioconstructivist approaches that has a long history in education n innovation. In discovery learning, students are encouraged to innovation. In discovery learning, students are encouraged to
learn largely on their own through active involvement with learn largely on their own through active involvement with concepts and principles, and teachers encourage students to concepts and principles, and teachers encourage students to
have experiences and conduct experiments that permit them to have experiences and conduct experiments that permit them to
discover principles for themselves. discover principles for themselves.
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
•• SelfSelf--regulated learning regulated learning •• A key concept of constructivist theories of learning is a A key concept of constructivist theories of learning is a
vision of the ideal student as a selfvision of the ideal student as a self--regulated learner. regulated learner. SelfSelf--regulated learners are ones who have knowledge of regulated learners are ones who have knowledge of
effective learning strategies and how and when to use effective learning strategies and how and when to use them. For example, they know how to break complex them. For example, they know how to break complex
problems into simpler steps or to test out alternative problems into simpler steps or to test out alternative solutions; they know how and when to skim and how solutions; they know how and when to skim and how
and when to read for deep understanding; and they know and when to read for deep understanding; and they know
how to write to persuade and how to write to inform. how to write to persuade and how to write to inform.
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
•• Scaffolding Scaffolding •• Scaffolding is a practice based on Scaffolding is a practice based on Vygotsky'sVygotsky's concept of concept of
assisted learning. According to assisted learning. According to VygotskyVygotsky, higher mental , higher mental functions, including the ability to direct memory and functions, including the ability to direct memory and attention in a purposeful way and to think in symbols, attention in a purposeful way and to think in symbols, are mediated behaviours. Mediated externally by culture, are mediated behaviours. Mediated externally by culture, these and other behaviors become internalized in the these and other behaviors become internalized in the learner's mind as psychological tools. In assisted learner's mind as psychological tools. In assisted learning, or mediated learning, the teacher is the cultural learning, or mediated learning, the teacher is the cultural agent who guides instruction so that students will master agent who guides instruction so that students will master and internalize the skills that permit higher cognitive and internalize the skills that permit higher cognitive functioning. The ability to internalize cultural tools functioning. The ability to internalize cultural tools relates to the learner's age or stage of cognitive relates to the learner's age or stage of cognitive development. Once acquired, however, internal development. Once acquired, however, internal mediators allow greater selfmediators allow greater self--mediated learning. mediated learning.
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
•• In practical terms, scaffolding might include giving In practical terms, scaffolding might include giving
students more structure at the beginning of a set of students more structure at the beginning of a set of
lessons and gradually turning responsibility over to lessons and gradually turning responsibility over to themthem
to operate on their own. For example, students can be to operate on their own. For example, students can be
taught to generate their own questions about material taught to generate their own questions about material
they are reading. Early on, the teacher might suggest they are reading. Early on, the teacher might suggest thethe
questions, modeling the kinds of questions students questions, modeling the kinds of questions students might ask, but students later take over the questionmight ask, but students later take over the question--generating task generating task
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
•• Cooperative learning Cooperative learning •• Constructivist approaches to teaching typically make Constructivist approaches to teaching typically make
extensive use of cooperative learning, on the theory that extensive use of cooperative learning, on the theory that students will more easily discover and comprehend students will more easily discover and comprehend difficult concepts if they can talk with each other about the difficult concepts if they can talk with each other about the problems.problems.
•• Again, the emphasis on the social nature of learning and Again, the emphasis on the social nature of learning and the use of groups of peers to model appropriate ways of the use of groups of peers to model appropriate ways of thinking and expose and challenge each other's thinking and expose and challenge each other's misconceptions are key elements of Piaget's and misconceptions are key elements of Piaget's and Vygotsky'sVygotsky'sconceptions of cognitive change. conceptions of cognitive change.
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI
How is cooperative learning used in How is cooperative learning used in instruction?instruction?
–– In cooperative learning instructional methods, students In cooperative learning instructional methods, students work together in small groups to help each other learn. work together in small groups to help each other learn. Many quite different approaches to cooperative learning Many quite different approaches to cooperative learning exist. Most involve students in fourexist. Most involve students in four--member, mixedmember, mixed--ability groups, but some methods use dyads and some use ability groups, but some methods use dyads and some use varying group sizes. varying group sizes.
–– Typically, students are assigned to cooperative groups Typically, students are assigned to cooperative groups and stay together as a group for many weeks or months. and stay together as a group for many weeks or months. They are usually taught specific skills that will help them They are usually taught specific skills that will help them work well together, such as active listening, giving good work well together, such as active listening, giving good explanations, avoiding putdowns, and including other explanations, avoiding putdowns, and including other people. people.
REfERENCES
Elliott, Stephen N. et.al. (2000).Educational Psychology; Effective Teaching, Effective.Learning.McGraw Hill.
Boston
Good, Thomas L and Jere Brophy (1995) Contemporary Educational Psychology. Longman Publishers: USA
Ormrod Jeanne Ellis. (2003) Educational Psychology – Developing Learners.
Merrill Prentice Hall. New Jersey
Slavin, Robert E. (2000). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.
Sternberg, Robert. (2002) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Boston
Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon. Boston
Woolfolk, Anita. (2005). Educational Psychology – Active Learning Edition. Allyn and Bacon.
Boston
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory) - 73k -
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MODULE 4
MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING/CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
WEEK 9
SESSION 10
OVERVIEW
What is motivation? Psychologists define motivation as an internal process that activates, guides,
and maintains behaviour over time. Motivation can vary in both intensity and direction. The
intensity and direction of motivations are often difficult to separate. The intensity of a motivation to
engage in one activity might depend in large part on the intensity and direction of motivations to
engage in alternative activities. You are about to look at all the possibilities of using motivation in
getting students to engage in academic activities. Students should also get a clear understanding
of how achievement motivation can be enhanced.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module you should be able:
define motivation
describe, compare and contrast several major theories of motivation. explore how achievement motivation can be enhanced. evaluate the role of teacher expectations and their relation to student achievement. examine and evaluate several strategies that teachers can be used to reward
performance, effort and improvement.
demonstrate what teachers can do to increase students' motivation to learn.
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What is Motivation (cont’d) ….desire or want that energizes and directs
goal-oriented behavior
… influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.
(Internet Source)
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5. What is the individual thinking and feeling while engaged in the activity?
Is the student enjoying Shakespeare, feeling competent or worrying about an upcoming test?
What is Motivation? (contd.)
…an internal state that arouses, directs and maintains behaviour
(Anita Woolfolk, 2002)
To be or not to be? – 5 Questions 1. What choices do people make about their
behaviour?
Why do some children focus on their homework and others watch television?
3. What is the intensity or level of involvement in the chosen activity?
Once the school bag is opened , is the student absorbed and focused or just going through the motions?
4. What causes a person to persist or to give up?
Will a student read the entire assignment or just a few pages?
Facts about Motivation Think of motivation as internal psychic
energy or as a mental force that helps a person achieve a goal
Motivation is important to teachers because of the relationship between motivation and academic achievement
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Extrinsic MotivationExtrinsically Motivated
students undertakeactivities in order to obtain
some reward oravoid some punishment
external to the activity itself, such as praise
Motivation directs an individual toward certain goals. It affects choices people make and the results they find rewarding
Motivation promotes initiation of certain activities and persistence in those activities. It increases the likelihood that people will begin something on their own, persist in the face of difficulty and resume a task after temporary interruption
How Motivation Affects Learning and Behaviour
It directs behaviour toward particular goals
It leads to increased effort and energy
Enthusiastically/wholeheartedly
Apathetically/lackadaisically
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Both Positive and Negative
Reinforcement
strengthen behaviour
while both Punishment
and Extinction
weaken behaviour
BEHAVIOURAL APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION:
Operant Conditioning is the term used by
B.F. Skinner to describe the effects of the
consequences of a particular behavior on
the future occurrence of that behavior.
behavior.
Reinforcer Any event that
follows a behaviour and increases the chances that the behaviour will occur again
There are four types of Operant Conditioning:
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction.
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Forms of Positive Reinforcement Concrete Reinforcer – a toy
Social Reinforcer – smile
Activity Reinforcer – Premack Principle
Positive Feedback
Suppose on Monday, a student misbehaved in your class and was sent to the Dean of
Discipline. On Tuesday her misbehaviour occurs even sooner than it did on Monday,
and you send her out again. Your intent was to stop the misbehaviour, but in fact you negatively reinforced her. We know
that her behaviour has been reinforced because she misbehaved sooner on Tuesday than she did on Monday
(behaviour is increasing)
Punishment A consequence that decreases the
frequency of the response it follows
Presentation Punishment – demerits, laps
Removal Punishment – take away privilegesBEHAVIOURISM: Motivation
as Reinforcement Guide in selecting reinforcers:
Consider the age, interests and needs of students. Pieces of candy are not too motivating for adolescents, but they must be great for first graders
List potential reinforcers that you think would be desirable
Extinction …a particular behavior is weakened by the
consequence of not experiencing a positive condition or stopping a negative condition.
e.g.the class clown whose jokes are ignored might stop telling jokes
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Using Rewards in Secondary Classrooms
High test scores and good grades Teacher comments on papers, praising
good work Teacher compliments delivered quietly and
individually Phone calls to parents or other caregivers
complimenting student work or attitudes Free time to talk to classsmates
Attribution Theory: Bernard Weiner
Cognitive theories emphasize intrinsic motivation
Attribution theory seeks to understand people’s explanations and excuses, particularly when applied to success or failure (greatest importance to education)
Cognitive theorists explain motivation by pointing to our need to understand, strive, excel, succeed,
advance and continue to challenge ourselves
Some students sit for hours and work on a tough problem without even noticing the passage of time. Why do some people have such strong motivation? Why do people enjoy doing puzzles and making up
limericks? Why do people push forward when it would be easier just to relax and enjoy life?
Cognitive Approach to Motivation:The Need to Understand
Cognitive theories stress what goes on inside the student’s head
Cognitive views of motivation focus on what students think, how they think, and how their thoughts create or reduce motivation to act
Cognitive theories emphasize the importance of intrinsic, as opposed to extrinsic, motivation
Implications for Motivation These three dimensions have implications
for motivation because they affect expectancy and value
For example the stability dimension is closely related to expectations about the future
If students attribute their failure to stable factors such as difficulty of the subject, they will expect to fail in that subject in the future
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A central assumption of attribution is that people will attempt to maintain a positive self image
When they do well, they are likely to attribute their success to their own effort or abilities, but when they do poorly, they will believe that their failure is due to factors over which they had no control (locus, location of the cause)
When failure is attributed to lack of effort (a controllable cause), the sequence is:
Failure Lack of effort controllableResponsible guilt EngagementPerformance Improves
Cognitive views of motivation also help explain a variety of other behaviours:
Why people are intrigued by brain teasers and other problems with no practical application
Why people are curious when something occurs unexpectedly
Why students ask questions about incidental and unrelated aspects of lessons
Why people persevere on activities and quit after they have mastered the task
Why people want feedback about their performance, even if its negative feedback
Most explanations for success or failure have three characteristics -whether the cause is seen as internal (within
the person) or external to the person
-whether it is seen as stable or unstable
-whether it is perceived as controllable or not
The controllability dimensions is related to emotions such as anger, pity, gratitude or shame
If we feel responsible for our failures, we may feel guilt
If we feel responsible for our successes, we may feel proud
Failing at a task we cannot control can lead to sham and anger
When failure is attributed to lack of ability, and ability is considered uncontrollable, the consequence of motivation is:
Failure Lack of ability
Uncontrollable Not Responsible Shame, Embarrassment Withdraw Performance Declines
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Teacher Actions and Student Attributions
Teachers also make attributions about the causes of other students’ successes and failures.
When teacher assumes failure is attributable to forces beyond the student’s control, the teacher tend to respond with sympathy and avoid giving punishment
Expectancy x Value Theories This theory takes into account both the
behaviourists’ concern with the effects or outcomes of behaviour and the cognitivists’ interest in the impact of individual thinking
Motivation is seen as the product of two main forces: the individual’s expectation of reaching a goal and the value of that goal to him/her
Apathy is a logical reaction to failure if students believe the causes are stable, unlikely to change, and beyond their control
In addition, students who view their failures in this light are less likely to seek help; they believe nothing and no one can help
Attribution for others: Students are more likely to respond to a classmate’s request for help if they believe the request is made because of a temporary uncontrollable factor such as getting hurt in a football game than if they believe help is needed because of a controllable factor like failure to study
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Questions
If I try hard, can I succeed?
If I succeed, will the outcome be valuable or rewarding to me?
People engage in activities to maintain their identities and their interpersonal relations within a community
Students are motivated to learn if they are members of a classroom or school community that values learning
HUMANISTIC THEORIES Views motivation as people’s attempts to
fulfill their total potential as human beings
Everything that affects the person, including thoughts, feelings and aspects of the environment, can create or affect motivation
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Much the same as we learn to speak and dress and conduct ourselves in restaurants, churches or shopping malls by being socialized – watching and learning from more capable members of the culture – we also learn to be students by watching and learning from members of our community
In other words we learn by the company we keep
Being Needs 3 higher level needs
When these are met, a person’s motivation does not cease, instead, it increases to seek further fulfillment
Unlike the deficiency needs, these being needs can never be completely filled. E.g. the more successful you are in your efforts to develop as a teacher, the harder you are likely to strive for even greater improvement
Criticism aside, Maslow’s theory does give
us a way of looking at the whole student as, physical, emotional and intellectual needs are interrelated
A child whose feelings of safety and sense of belonging are threatened by divorce may have little interest in learning to divide fractions
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If a school is a fearful, un predictable place where neither teachers nor students know where they stand, they are more likely to be more concerned with security and less with learning and teaching
Belonging to a social group and maintaining self-esteem within that group, for example, are important to students. If doing what the teacher says conflicts with group rules, students may choose to ignore the teacher’s wishes or even defy the teacher
1. The Student-Teacher Relationship
Effective teachers should have the following qualities
They are genuine people, without personas or facades, who embrace their feelings as their own
They are accepting, viewing students as worthy individuals in their own rights
They are empathetic, able to consider teaching-learning experiences from students’ points of view
MOTIVATION AND NEEDS A need is a real or perceived lack of
something necessary
A need can be obvious such as the need for food as signalled by hunger
Complex or abstract, such as the need for order and understanding – the foundation of cognitive theories of motivation
PROMOTING GROWTH: IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
If classes are personally meaningful, students are motivated to learn, if not they aren’t
Good teaching is the process of inviting students to see themselves as able, valuable and self directing and of encouraging them to act in accordance with these self-perceptions
Two elements of the teaching-learning process are essential to humanistic psychologist -
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2. Classroom Climate Humanistic classrooms are safe
environments where students believe they can learn and are expected to do so
Standards remain high but attainable
All learners are valued because they are innately valuable human beings
Needs from both humanistic and cognitive perpectives include:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
Social and Emotional needs
Cognitive learning needs
Social and Emotional Needs The need for relatedness – the need to feel
connected to others in a social environment and to feel worthy and capable of love and respect
The need for approval – the need to secure acceptance and positive judgements from others
The need to reduce anxiety – general uneasiness and feeling of tension
The need to understand successes and failures: Attribution Theory – an attempt to systematically describe explanations for success and failure in classroom situations
Three dimensions:
1. Locus (the location of the cause) – inside
or outside of the learner
Ability and effort are within the learner,
luck and task difficulty are outside
Impact of Attributions on Learners
Emotional reactions to success and failure (doing poorly and feeling guilty)
Expectations for future success (what can be done to change the failures)
Future effort (change can result in doing better in the future)
Achievement (depending on effort achievement can increase or decrease)
Cognitive Learning Needs The need for autonomy – being self
directed and in control of our environment
The need to achieve – a need to excel in learning tasks and the capacity to experience pride in accomplishment
2. Stability ( whether the task stays the same or can change) – ability remains the same but effort and luck are unstable because they can change
3. Control ( the extent to which students accept responsibility for their successes or failures, or are in control of the learning situation. Learners have control over their effort but not luck or task difficulty
When people attribute outcomes to controllable causes, motivation increases, uncontrollable causes decreases motivation
If teachers believe that learners are succeeding as a result of their teaching efforts, they are likely to continue making effort. If they believe that learners are doing poorly because of causes beyond their control, their teaching efforts often decrease
Learned Helplessness – the feeling that no amount of effort can lead to success. This perspective leads to overwhelming feelings of shame and self-doubt that result in giving up without even trying
Students with learned helplessness have low self esteem and often suffer from anxiety and depression. They expect to fail, so they don’t take advantage of opportunities to increase understanding and develop skills
M. Seligman, 1995 recommends “immunizing children against pessimism by providing them with successful mastery experiences
MOTIVATION AND BELIEFS Beliefs about ability
Attribution theory presents an entity view of ability – ability is stable and uncontrollable
Other research indicates the incremental view that hat ability can be improved with effort (Eggen. 2001
Factors influencing Self-Efficacy
Part performance – history of success
Modelling – observing others
Verbal Persuasion – teacher’s comment
Psychological State - hunger
The need to protect self- worth – the search for self acceptance is the highest human priority
Strategies students use to protect self worth:
1. Setting unrealistically high goals - failure can be attributed to task difficulty
2. Procrastination – making excuses even suggesting that the teacher was poor or the test was tricky
3. Anxiety – “I understand the stuff but I get nervous in tests
Motivation about Capability: Self Efficacy
Focus is on expectations and beliefs
The role of expectations is explained with expectancy x value theories - that learners are motivated to work on a task to the extent that they
(a) expect to succeed
(b) value achievement on the task. If both are present learners may develop a sense of self efficacy,which is learners’ beliefs about their capability of succeeding on specific tasks
How teachers can influence self -efficacy
Attributional Statements – comments teachers make about causes of student’s performance “That’s a very good effort. I know that these
problems are difficult for you.”
“I believe if you tried a little harder, you’d be able to solve this problem.”
Praise and criticism
Emotional displays
Helping
Social Learning – A mix of extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcers based on expectations and the personal value of goals (understanding how to set workable, effective goals that that can be attained; understanding the likelihood of reaching a goal and the payoff once the goal is reached; knowing ho to choose goals and payoffs that are personally meaningful
Remember the four theories of Motivation?Incentives to enhance motivation
Behavioural – extrinsic reinforcers in the form of rewards and punishments (high grades/low grades; praise/criticism; free time/detention; awards/demerits)
Cognitive – Intrinsic reinforcers based on beliefs, attribution and expectations (understanding the purposes of schoolwork and homework,; believing in one’s ability to succeed; attributing success to hard work; expecting to do well as a function of effort invested
Humanistic – Intrinsic reinforcers based on the human needs to achieve, excel and self-actualize ( a meaningful educational environment in which students are encouraged to see themselves as capable; development of self esteem; teachers acting warm and supportive; explaining why things must be done a certain way – no rules for the sake of rules
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WEEK 10
SESSION 11
CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
OVERVIEW
What is an effective learning environment? Providing an effective learning environment includes strategies
that teachers use to create a positive, productive classroom experience. Often called classroom
management, strategies for providing effective learning environments include not only preventing and
responding to misbehavior but also, more important, using class time well, creating an atmosphere that is
conducive to interest and inquiry, and per-miffing activities that engage students’ minds and imaginations.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you should be able:
describe what constitutes an effective learning environment.
analyze the impact of time on learning. define and apply practices that contribute to effective classroom management. evaluate strategies for managing routine student misbehavior. examine how applied behavior analysis can be used to manage more serious behavior problems. describe and apply principles of applied behavior analysis. describe and evaluate strategies and programs designed to prevent serious behavior problems.
Module 4: Motivation in Teaching and learning &Classroom Behaviour Management CP 105
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell
Classroom Management Classroom Management in Perspectivein Perspective
Prepared by Ruby Bramwell
Roles and Responsibilities of Roles and Responsibilities of the classroom teacher the classroom teacher (cont’d)(cont’d)
•• As a manager: arranging As a manager: arranging classrooms, allocating time for c lassrooms, allocating time for teaching, implementing rules, teaching, implementing rules, organizing student movement organizing student movement within c lass and school, within c lass and school, orchestrating interactions and orchestrating interactions and relationships of all aspects of relationships of all aspects of the c lassroom, ensuring the classroom, ensuring appropriate behavioursappropriate behaviours
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Keeping Control of your Classroom (cont’d)
•• visualize possible challenges visualize possible challenges (imagine and review challenges)(imagine and review challenges)
•• make expectations c lear from make expectations c lear from beginningbeginning
•• model positive behaviourmodel positive behaviour
Keeping control of your Keeping control of your Classroom (cont’d)Classroom (cont’d)
•• be consistentbe consistent
•• keep students busy and challengedkeep students busy and challenged
•• listen to students’ suggestionslisten to students’ suggestions
•• showshow respect to their needs
K eeping Control of your K eeping Control of your Classroom (cont’d)Classroom (cont’d)
•• never get into power struggle never get into power struggle with your studentswith your students
•• you won’t damage your you won’t damage your students’ psyche by taking the students’ psyche by taking the lead and being the boss of your lead and being the boss of your own classroomown classroom
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Keeping Control of your Keeping Control of your Classroom (cont’d)Classroom (cont’d)
• it’s not what you teach but how you teach it that makes the difference
• Not every student will like you…. and you won’t like every student either
Keeping Control of your Keeping Control of your Classroom (cont’d)Classroom (cont’d)
•• avoid putting problem children avoid putting problem children in the front of the c lassin the front of the c lass
•• make sure not to hold on to make sure not to hold on to grudges from the day beforegrudges from the day before
•• introduce a positive introduce a positive reinforcement schedulereinforcement schedule
SESSION 12
WHAT PRACTICES CONTRIBUTE TO EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT?
Research has consistently shown that basic commonsense planning and groundwork go a long way toward
preventing discipline problems from ever developing. Simple measures include starting the year properly,
arranging the classroom for effective instruction, setting class rules and procedures, and making expectations of
conduct clear to students.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGERS
More effective managers had a clear, specific plan for introducing students to classroom rules and procedures
and spent as many days as necessary carrying out their plan until students knew how to line up, ask for help,
and so on.
1. More effective managers had a clear, specific plan for introducing students to classroom rules and
procedures and spent as many days as necessary carrying out their plan until students knew how to
line up, ask for help, and so on.
2. More effective managers worked with the whole class initially (even if they planned to group students
later). They were involved with the whole class at all times, rarely leaving any students without
something to do or without supervision.
3. More effective managers spent extra time during the first days of school introducing procedures and
discussing class rules (often encouraging students to suggest rules themselves). These teachers
usually reminded students of class rules every day for at least the first week of school.
4. More effective managers taught students specific procedures. For example, some had students
practice lining up quickly and quietly; others taught students to respond to a signal, such as a bell, a
flick of the light switch, or a call for attention.
5. As first activities, more effective managers used simple, enjoyable tasks. Materials for the first lessons
were well prepared, clearly presented, and varied. These teachers asked students to get right to work
on the first day of school and then gave them instructions on procedures gradually, to avoid overloading
them with too much information at a time.
6. More effective managers responded immediately to stop any misbehaviour.
One of the first management-related tasks at the start of the year is setting class rules. Three principles govern
this process. First, class rules should be few in number. Second, they should make sense and be seen as fair
by students. Third, they should be clearly explained and deliberately taught to students. One all-purpose set of
class rules follows:
1. Be courteous to others. This rule forbids interrupting others or speaking out of turn, teasing or laughing
at others, fighting, and so on.
2. Respect others’ property.
3. Be on-task. This includes listening when the teacher or other students are talking, working on seatwork,
continuing to work during any interruptions, staying in one’s seat, being at one’s seat and ready to work
when the bell rings, and following directions.
4. Raise hands to be recognized. This is a rule against calling out or getting out of one’s seat for
assistance without permission.
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
You are a new teacher and it is a week before school starts. While you are sitting in the warm sun at a local beach, you spot this sign:
You then slowly begin to think about discipline and become understandably anxious. To alleviate your
anxious feelings, you begin writing the strategies you would utilize so that most of your time is spent
teaching not simply correcting misbehaviour.
Share your thinking about behaviour/classroom management. (Please remember you must demonstrate
that you have completed the readings assigned to this module).
Slavin (2003)
WHAT ARE SOME STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING ROUTINE MISBEHAVIOUR?
Provision of interesting lessons, efficient use of class time, and careful structuring of instructional activities will
prevent most such minor behavior problems—and many more serious ones as well. Time off-task can lead to
more serious problems; many behavior problems arise because students are frustrated or bored in school.
Instructional programs that actively involve students and provide all of them with opportunities for success might
prevent such problems.
The great majority of behavior problems with which a teacher must deal are relatively minor disruptions, such as
talking out of turn, getting up without permission, failing to follow class rules or procedures, and inattention—
nothing really serious, but behaviors that must be minimized for learning to occur.
In dealing with routine classroom behavior problems, the most important principle is that a teacher should
correct misbehaviors by using the simplest intervention that will work. Many studies have found that the amount
of time spent disciplining students is negatively related to student achievement. The teacher’s main goal in
dealing with routine misbehavior is to do so in a way that is both effective and avoids unnecessarily disrupting
the lesson.
Teachers can eliminate much routine classroom misbehavior without breaking the momentum of the lesson by
the use of simple nonverbal cues. Making eye contact with a misbehaving student might be enough to stop
misbehavior. For example, if two students are whispering, the teacher might simply catch the eye of one or both
of them. Moving close to a student who is misbehaving also usually alerts the student to shape up.
Praise can be a powerful motivator for many students. One strategy for reducing misbehavior in class is to
make sure to praise students for behaviors that are incompatible with the misbehavior you want to reduce. That
is, catch students in the act of doing right.
If a nonverbal cue is impossible or ineffective, a simple verbal reminder might help to bring a student into line.
The reminder should be given immediately after the student misbehaves; delayed reminders are usually
ineffective. If possible, the reminder should state what students are supposed to be doing rather than dwelling
on what they are doing wrong.
When a student refuses to comply with a simple reminder, one strategy to attempt first is a repetition of the
reminder, ignoring any irrelevant excuse or argument. Canter and Canter (1992), in a program called Assertive
Discipline, call this strategy the broken record. Teachers should decide what they want the student to do, state
this clearly to the student (statement of want), and then repeat it until the student complies.
When all previous steps have been ineffective in getting the student to comply with a clearly stated and
reasonable request, the final step is to pose a choice to the student: Either comply or suffer the consequences.
Examples of consequences are sending the student out of class, making the student miss a few minutes of
recess or some other privilege, having the student stay after school, and calling the student’s parents. Before
presenting a student with a consequence for noncompliance, teachers must be absolutely certain that they can
and will follow through if necessary.
SESSION 13
HOW IS APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS USED TO MANAGE MORE SERIOUS BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS?
Simply put, behavioral learning theories hold that behaviors that are not reinforced or are punished will diminish
in frequency. A basic principle of behavioral learning theories is that if any behavior persists over time, some
reinforcer is maintaining it. To reduce misbehavior in the classroom, we must understand which reinforcers
maintain misbehavior in the first place.
The most common reinforcer for classroom misbehavior is attention—from the teacher, the peer group, or both.
Students receiving one-to-one tutoring rarely misbehave, both because they already have the undivided
attention of an adult and because no classmates are present to attend to any negative behavior. Another very
common reason that students misbehave is to get the attention and approval of their peers. The classic
instance of this is the class clown, who is obviously performing for the amusement of his or her classmates.
As students enter adolescence, the peer group takes on extreme importance, and peer norms begin to favor
independence from authority. When older children and teenagers engage in serious delinquent acts (such as
vandalism, theft, and assault), a delinquent peer group usually supports them.
There are two primary responses to peer-supported misbehavior. One is to remove the offender from the
classroom to deprive her or him of peer attention. Another is to use group contingencies, strategies in which the
entire class (or groups of students within the class) is rewarded on the basis of everyone’s behavior. Under
group contingencies, all students benefit from their classmates’ good behavior, so peer support for misbehavior
is removed.
The best solution for misbehaviors arising from boredom, frustration, or fatigue is prevention. Students rarely
misbehave during interesting, varied, engaging lessons. Actively involving students in lessons can head off
misbehaviors due to boredom or fatigue. Use of cooperative learning methods or other means of involving
students in an active way can be helpful.
The behavior management strategies outlined earlier (e.g., nonverbal cues, reminders, mild but certain
punishment) might be described as informal applications of behavioral learning theories. These practices, plus
the prevention of misbehavior by the use of efficient class management and engaging lessons, will be sufficient
to create a good learning environment in most classrooms.
In classrooms in which most students are well behaved but a few have persistent behavior problems, individual
behavior management strategies can be effective. In classrooms in which many students have behavior
problems, particularly when there is peer support for misbehavior, whole-class strategies or group
contingencies might be needed.
The first step in implementing a behavior management program is to observe the misbehaving student to
identify one or a small number of behaviors to target first and to see what reinforcers maintain the behavior(s).
Another purpose of this observation is to establish a baseline against which to compare improvements.
Typical classroom reinforcers include praise, privileges, and tangible rewards. Praise is especially effective for
students who misbehave to get the teacher’s attention. It is often a good idea to start a behavior management
program by using praise for appropriate behavior to see whether this is sufficient. However, be prepared to use
stronger reinforcers if praise is not enough.
Punishment of one kind or another is necessary in some circumstances, and it should be used without qualms
when reinforcement strategies are impossible or ineffective. However, a program of punishment for misbehavior
(e.g., depriving a student of privileges, never physical punishment) should always be the last option considered,
never the first. Common punishers used in schools are reprimands, being sent out of class or to the principal’s
office, and detention or missed recess. Corporal punishment (e.g., spanking) is illegal in some states and
districts and highly restricted in others, but regardless of laws or policies, it should never be used in schools.
SEVEN PRINCIPLES FOR THE EFFECTIVE AND HUMANE USE OF PUNISHMENT:
1. Use punishment sparingly.
2. Make it clear to the child why he or she is being punished.
3. Provide the child with an alternative means of obtaining some positive reinforcement.
4. Reinforce the child for behaviors that are incompatible with those you wish to weaken (e.g., if you
punish for being off-task, also reinforce for being on-task).
5. Never use physical punishment.
6. Never punish when you are in a very angry or emotional state.
7. Punish when a behavior starts rather than when it ends.
One effective punisher is called time out. The teacher tells a misbehaving student to go to a separate part of the
classroom, the hall, the principal’s or vice principal’s office, or another teacher’s class. If possible, the place
where the student is sent should be uninteresting and out of view of classmates. One advantage of timeout
procedures is that they remove the student from the attention of her or his classmates. Therefore, time out may
be especially effective for students whose misbehavior is motivated primarily by peer attention.
Home-based reinforcement strategies and daily report card programs are examples of applied behavioral
analysis involving individual students. A group contingency program is an example of an applied behavioral
analysis in which the whole class is involved. Some of the most practical and effective classroom management
methods are home-based reinforcement strategies. Teachers give students a daily or weekly report card to take
home, and parents are instructed to provide special privileges or rewards to students on the basis of these
teacher reports. Home-based reinforcement has several advantages over other, equally effective behavior
management strategies.
A group contingency program is a reinforcement system in which an entire group is rewarded on the basis of
the behavior of the group members. One important advantage of group contingencies is that they are relatively
easy to administer. Most often, the whole class is either rewarded or not rewarded, so the teacher need not do
one thing with some students and something else with others. The theory behind group contingencies is that
when a group is rewarded on the basis of its members’ behavior, the group members will encourage one
another to do whatever helps the group gain the reward.
Some people object to applied behavior analysis on the basis that it constitutes bribing students to do what they
ought to do anyway. However, all classrooms use rewards and punishers (such as grades, praise, scolding,
suspension). Applied behavior analysis strategies simply use these rewards in a more systematic way and
avoid punishers as much as possible. Applied behavior analysis methods should be used only when it is clear
that preventive or informal methods of improving classroom management are not enough to create a positive
environment for learning. It is unethical to over-apply these methods, but it might be equally unethical to fail to
apply them when they could avert serious problems.
HOW CAN SERIOUS BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS BE PREVENTED?
Serious behavior problems are not evenly distributed among students or schools. Most students who are
identified as having severe behavior problems are male; from 3 to 8 times as many boys as girls are estimated
to have serious conduct problems. Serious delinquency is far more common among students from
impoverished backgrounds, particularly in urban locations. Students with poor family relationships are also
much more likely than other students to become involved in serious misbehavior and delinquency, as are
students who are low in achievement and those who have attendance problems.
As noted earlier in this chapter, the easiest behavior problems to deal with are those that never occur. There
are many approaches that have promise for preventing serious behavior problems. One is simply creating safe
and prosocial classroom environments and openly discussing risky behaviors and ways to avoid them. Another
is giving students opportunities to play prosocial roles as volunteers, tutors, or leaders in activities that benefit
their school and community.
Even though some types of students are more prone to misbehavior than others, these characteristics do not
cause misbehavior. Some students misbehave because they perceive that the rewards for misbehavior
outweigh the rewards for good behavior. Some put their energies into sports, others into social activities. Over
time, students who fail in school and get into minor behavior difficulties could fall in with a delinquent subgroup
and begin to engage in serious delinquent or even criminal behavior. The role of the delinquent peer group in
maintaining delinquent behavior cannot be overstated. Delinquent acts among adolescents and preadolescents
are usually done in groups and are supported by antisocial peer norms.
Truancy and delinquency are strongly related; when students are out of school, they are often in the community
making trouble. There are many effective means of reducing truancy.
Tracking (between-class ability grouping) should be avoided if possible (see Chapter 9). Low-track classes are
ideal breeding grounds for antisocial delinquent peer groups. Similarly, behavioral and academic problems
should be dealt with in the context of the regular class as much as possible, rather than in separate special-
education classes.
Classroom management strategies should be used to reduce inappropriate behavior before it escalates into
delinquency. Improving students’ behavior and success in school can prevent delinquency. Involve the
student’s home in any response to serious misbehavior. When misbehavior occurs, parents should be notified.
If misbehavior persists, parents should be involved in establishing a program, such as a home-based
reinforcement program, to coordinate home and school responses to misbehavior.
Avoid the use of suspension (or expulsion) as punishment for all but the most serious misbehavior. Suspension
often exacerbates truancy problems, both because it makes students fall behind in their work and because it
gives them experience in the use of time out of school. In-school suspension, detention, and other penalties are
more effective. Loss of privileges maybe used. However, whatever punishment is used should not last too long.
It is better to make a misbehaving student miss two days of football practice than to throw him off the team, in
part because once the student is off the team, the school could have little else of value to offer or withhold.
Every child has within himself or herself the capacity for good behavior as well as for misbehavior. The school
must be the ally of the good in each child at the same time that it is the enemy of misbehavior.
Slavin 1993
REFERENCES
Elliott, Stephen N. et.al. (2000).Educational Psychology; Effective Teaching, Effective.Learning.McGraw Hill.
Boston
Ormrod Jeanne Ellis. (2003) Educational Psychology – Developing Learners.
Merrill Prentice Hall. New Jersey
Slavin, Robert E. (2003). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.
Sternberg, Robert. (2002) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Bosto
Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology. Pearson. Boston
http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan98/talk.html
http://my.execpc.com/~presswis/candid.html
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/TA/char.html
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/TA/char.htm
http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t3.html
http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t2.html
Module 5: Exceptionalities and Classroom Inclusion CP 105
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MODULE 5````
EXCEPTIONALITIES AND CLASSROOM INCLUSION
WEEK 11
SESSION 14
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OVERVIEW
Students differ in many ways, and effective teachers consider these differences when they plan and
teach. In many cases the differences are of such that special help and resources are needed to
assist students to attain their full potential. In this way the students are considered to have
exceptionalities. Exceptional learners have characteristics that differentiate them from the general
population of young people. This module focuses on the unique characteristics, strengths and
needs of students with exceptionalities, including learning disabilities, mental retardation, autism,
blindness, deafness, traumatic brain injury, emotional/behavioral disorders, and giftedness. It
emphasizes understanding of how various teaching strategies, materials, modifications and
accommodations can assist students with exceptionalities to function and succeed in the regular
classroom
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this session the learner should be able to:
describe students’ exceptionalities in the classroom
explain how different exceptionalities affect learning
define inclusion and describe the role of the general education teacher in working with
special needs learners;
apply successful classroom management techniques with students in an inclusive
classroom
observe the different instructional methods used in the Jamaican context
explore different instructional strategies that can be adapted to meet the needs of divergent
learners
Module 5: Exceptionalities and Classroom Inclusion CP 105
______________________________________________________________________________________WHO ARE LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES?
Students are different. Some are good athletes; others are popular. Some have a good idea of
their strengths and weaknesses; others do not have a clue. As a teacher, how would you work
with a diverse group of students? What is your responsibility in terms of understanding their
strengths and weaknesses and making what you teach relevant to their lives.
The term learners with exceptionalities may be used to describe any individuals whose physical,
mental, or behavioral performance is so different from the norm-either higher or lower- that
additional services are need to meet the individuals' needs.
The terms disability and handicap are not interchangeable. A disability is a functional limitation a
person has that interferes with the person's physical or cognitive abilities. A handicap is a
condition imposed on a person with disabilities by society, the physical environment, or the
person's attitude. For example, a student who uses a wheelchair is handicapped by a lack of
access ramps. Handicap is therefore not a synonym for disability.
Exceptional Learners are, “those who require special education and related services if they are to
realize their full human potential.”
Exceptionalities may involve and of the following abilities:
– Sensory
– Physical
– Emotional
– Communicative
– Behavioral
Changes in the Way Teachers Help Students with Exceptionalities
Students in today’s classrooms vary in their abilities, motivation and background. In the past,
students with exceptionalities were often segregated from the regular classroom and their non-
disabled peers and placed in special classrooms or schools. Instruction in these situations were
often inferior and students did not learn the social and life skills needed to live in the real world
Mainstreaming began the process of integrating them with non-disabled students, and inclusion
takes the process further by creating a web of services. Inclusion is most effective when regular
education and special education teachers closely collaborate on instructional adaptations for
learners with exceptionalities.
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Module 5: Exceptionalities and Classroom Inclusion CP 105
______________________________________________________________________________________O’Donnell draws from Dewey’s The child and the curriculum to point out that that “the child and
the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single process. Just as two points define a
straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define
instructions (O’Donnell, p.104).
Dewey was sure to point out that at one end of the continuum are subject areas that are varied
and complex. Children differ in temperament, enthusiasm, prior knowledge in different subjects,
distractibility, self concept, verbal ability, spatial reasoning, motivation and so on.
Your task as a teacher is to determine how to work with a roomful of highly diverse students to
help them acquire the knowledge, skills and abilities that you wish them to obtain.
UNDERSTANDING INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence is a theoretical construct that makes it easier to understand the (psychological world)
world. It is the ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting
the world.
DEFINITIONS
Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as the ability to:
• Reason logically and well.
• Read widely.
• Display common sense.
• Keep an open mind.
• Read with high comprehension
Siegler and Richards defined intelligence as ‘functions of developmental stages’.
Sir Francis Galton (1883) defined the most intelligent people as those who “were those
equipped with the best sensory abilities, for it is through the senses that one comes to know the
world.”
Galton also felt that intelligence was a number of distinct processes or abilities which had to be
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______________________________________________________________________________________measured separately.
Alfred Binet (1890) explicitly defined intelligence as “the components of intelligence are
reasoning, judgment, memory, and the power of abstraction.”
• Measured intelligence as “general mental ability of individuals in intelligent behaviors.”
• Described intelligence testing as classifying, not measuring.
David Wechsler (1958)
• “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to
think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment.
• The only way to measure intelligence is to evaluate quantitatively by the measurement of
the various aspects of these abilities.”
Jean Piaget
• An evolving biological adaptation to the outside world; as cognitive skills are gained,
adaptation increases, and mental trial and error replace actual physical trial and error.
• He believed that experiences require cognitive organization or reorganization in the
mental structure of SCHEMA.
Piaget’s 2 Mental Operations
Assimilation: actively organizing new information so that it fits in with what already is perceived
and thought.
Accommodation: changing already perceived thoughts to fit in with new information.
Binet, Wechsler, & Piaget - Interactionism in defining intelligence:
Heredity and environment are presumed to interact to influence the development of intelligence.
Factor Analysis
A statistical technique designed to determine if underlying relationships exist between sets of
variables/items measured by some instrument.
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Factor Analysis Schools
General:
Intelligence postulates the existence of general intellectual ability that is partially tapped by all
intellectual activities and numerous specific aptitudes.
Multiple Factor:
An individual’s intellect is composed of many independent abilities or faculties---such as verbal,
mechanical, artistic, and mathematical faculties.
Factor Analysts:
l Charles Spearman.
l E. L. Thorndike.
l Louis L. Thurstone.
l Raymond B. Cattell.
l J. P. Guilford.
Charles Spearman (1904)
Spearman examined his Theory of Universal Unity of the intellective function by correlating
intelligence tests into the “2 Factor Theory of Intelligence.”
G Factor (i.e., general intelligence) comes from general electrochemical mental energy from the
brain for problem solving.
E. L. Thorndike (1921) defined intelligence as a large number of interconnected intellectual
elements representing a distinct ability, known as the Multifactor Theory.
Thorndike’s 3 clusters of intelligence:
• social : deals with people.
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______________________________________________________________________________________• concrete : deals with objects.
• abstract : deals with verbal & mathematical symbols.
\Louis L. Thurstone (1938)
Intelligence is a composition of distinct abilities known as Primary Mental Abilities (PMA’s).
PMA’s comprise:
– Verbal meaning.
– Perceptual speed.
– Reasoning.
– Number facility.
– Role memory.
– Word fluency.
– Spatial relations.
Raymond B. Cattell (1971)
Raymond Cattell gave special significance to issues of cultural bias in mental testing.
Two Factor Theory of Intelligence:
Fluid Intelligence - non-verbal relatively culture free, independent of specific instruction (i.e.
memory of digits).
Crystallized Intelligence - acquired skills and knowledge that are dependant on exposure to a
culture as well as to formal and informal education (i.e. vocabulary).
.P. Guilford (1967)
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______________________________________________________________________________________• Guilford states there is NO general mental ability factor.
• Guilford also believed that ALL mental activities can be classified and explained.
• His proposed classification is the “3 Dimensional Structure of Intellect Model.”
Structure of Intellect Model:
• Operation.
• Content.
• Products resulting from the mental operation.
MEASURING INTELLIGENCE
The measurement of intelligence is defined as: sampling an examinee’s performance on different
types of tests and tasks as a function of developmental levels.
Measuring Intelligence of Infants:
l Infancy (birth - 18 months).
l Measurement is primarily by sensory motor development:
– non-verbal.
– motor skills of turning over.
– lifting their head.
– sitting up.
– eye movement following objects.
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______________________________________________________________________________________– reaching for objects.
Measuring Intelligence of Children:
• When individually testing children, their sensory motor development, verbal, and
performance abilities are looked at by observing the children’s response:
• Vocabulary words and language.
– social judgment.
– Reasoning.
– numerical concept.
– auditory and visual memory.
– concentration and attention.
– spatial visualization.
Measuring the Intelligence of Adults: What Abilities Should be Assessed?
General information retention?
Social judgment?
Quantitative reasoning?
Expressive language and memory?
Adult Testing Compared to Children
• Children’s intelligence tests focus on skill acquisition and learning potential assessment.
• It is more beneficial to focus on assessing skill application when testing adults.
• Motivations are different when adults are asked to do a task.
• The purpose of adult intelligence testing is not for placement but rather to obtain a
measure of potential to be used with other information, perhaps in a clinical setting.
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______________________________________________________________________________________Intelligence Measures
• WISC-R.
• WPPI.
• WAIS-R.
• Stanford-Binet.
• Kauffman Assessment Battery for Children.
• Kauffman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Scale.
• Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery.
The Effect of Psychological Disorders on Intelligence Testing
Schizophrenia
• Tend to score lower than people in general on intelligence tests.
• The cognitive deficits of schizophrenia, such as inappropriate levels of abstraction, lower
scores on intelligence measures.
• Those with schizophrenia give inconsistent responses. They can score high on several
items and then do poorly on others.
Other Disorders or Conditions Affecting Performance on Intelligence tests
• Dementia.
• Alzheimer’s disease.
• Alcoholism.
• Head Injury.
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______________________________________________________________________________________Identifying the Gifted - “one whose performance is consistently remarkable in any
positively valued area”
How do we identify Gifted Individuals?
Base your assessment of giftedness on the goals of the program in which the
gifted will be placed.
• Nominating techniques.
• Behavior rating scales.
• Comprehensive case study
IDENTIFYING STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
Different interpretations of the many definitions of learning disability have led country and local
school to vary widely in their eligibility requirements and provisions for students with learning
disabilities.
Education professionals have the task of distinguishing students with learning disabilities from
students who are nondisabled low achievers and students with mild mental retardation. In some
areas a student who falls more than two grade levels behind expectations and has an IQ in the
normal range is likely to be called learning disabled. According to Robert Slavin (2002) some
characteristics of students with learning disabilities follow:
Normal intelligence or even giftedness
Discrepancy between intelligence and performance
Delays in achievement
Attention deficit or high distractibility
Hyperactivity or impulsiveness
Poor motor coordination and spatial relation ability
Difficulty solving problems
Perceptual anomalies, such as reversing letters, words, or numbers
Difficulty with self-motivated, self-regulated activities
Overreliance on teacher and peers for assignments
Specific disorders of memory, thinking, or language
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______________________________________________________________________________________ Immature social skills
Disorganized approach to learning
Definitions of learning disabilities have historically required that there be a serious discrepancy
between actual performance and the performance that might have been predicted on the basis of
one or more tests of cognitive functioning, such as an IQ test.
In practice, many children are identified as having a learning disability as a result of having
substantial differences between some subscales of an IQ test and others or between one ability
test and another. This emphasis on discrepancies has increasingly come under attack in recent
years, however. These studies have undermined the idea that there is a sharp-edged definition of
learning disabilities as distinct from low achievement.
For the great majority of children with learning disabilities, effective prevention and treatment
focuses far more directly on the problems that brought the child to the attention of the special
education system-most often reading problems, which are involved in more than 90 percent of
referrals for students with possible learning disabilities.
WEEK 12
SESSION 15 CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
On the average, students with learning disabilities tend to have lower academic self-esteem than
do nondisabled students, although in nonacademic arenas their self-esteems are like those of
other children.
On most social dimensions, children with learning disabilities resemble other low achievers. Boys
are more likely than girls to be labeled as learning disabled.
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______________________________________________________________________________________Children from families in which the head of household has not attended college tend to be over-
represented in special education classes, while female students are under-represented.
Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have difficulties maintaining attention
because of a limited ability to concentrate. ADHD includes impulsive actions and hyperactive
behavior. These characteristics differentiate students with ADHD from students with learning
disabilities, who have attention deficits for other unknown reasons. Children with attention deficit
disorders do not qualify for special education unless they also have some other disability
condition that is defined in the law.
There is much debate about whether ADHD exists as a distinct diagnostic category. Prevalence
estimates for ADHD suggest that 3 to 5 percent of all children might have the disorder. Research
indicates that males with ADHD outnumber females in ratios varying from 4:1 to 9:1.
Children with ADHD are usually impulsive, acting before they think or without regard for the
situation they are in, and they find it hard to sit still. They are often given a stimulant medication,
such as Ritalin. More than a million children take Ritalin, and this number has been rising in
recent years. These drugs usually do make some hyperactive children more manageable and
might improve their academic performance. They can also have side effects, such as insomnia,
weight loss, and blood pressure changes.
Students with speech or language impairments
Some of the most common disabilities are problems with speech and language. About 1 in every
40 students has a communication disorder serious enough to warrant speech therapy or other
special education services.
Although the terms speech and language are often used interchangeably, they are not the same.
Language is the communication of ideas using symbols and includes written language, sign
language, gesture, and other modes of communication in addition to oral speech.
It is quite possible to have a speech disorder without a language disorder or to have a language
disorder without a speech disorder.
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______________________________________________________________________________________The most common are articulation (or phonological) disorders, such as omissions, distortions, or
substitutions of sounds. For example, some students have difficulty pronouncing r's, saying
"sowee" for "sorry." Others have lisps, substituting th for s, saying "thnake" for "snake."
Misarticulated words are common and developmentally normal for many children in kindergarten
and first grade but drop off rapidly through the school years. Moderate and extreme deviations in
articulation diminish over the school years, with or without speech therapy.
Speech disorders of all kinds are diagnosed by and treated by speech pathologists or speech
therapists. The classroom teacher's role is less important here than with the mental disabilities.
However, the classroom teacher does have one crucial role to play: displaying acceptance of
students with speech disorders.
Language disorders are impairments of the ability to understand language or to express ideas in
one's native language. Problems due to limited English-speaking proficiency (LEP) for students
whose first language is not English are not considered language disorders.
Difficulties in understanding language (receptive language disorders) or in communicating
(expressive language disorders) might result from such physical problems as hearing or speech
impairment. If not, they are likely to indicate mental retardation or learning disabilities.
Preschool programs that are rich in verbal experience and direct instruction in the fundamentals
of standard English have been found to be effective in overcoming language problems that are
characteristic of children from disadvantaged homes.
Students with emotional and behavioral disorders
All students are likely to have emotional problems at some point in their school career; but about
1 percent have such serious, long-lasting, and pervasive emotional or psychiatric disorders that
they require special education. As in the case of learning disabilities, students with serious
emotional and behavioral disorders are far more likely to be boys than girls, by a ratio of more
than 3 to 1. Students with emotional and behavioral disorders have been defined as ones whose
educational performance is adversely affected over a long period of time to a marked degree by
any of the following conditions:
An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
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______________________________________________________________________________________An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.
Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
A general, pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression
A tendency to develop physical symptoms, pains, or fears associated with personal or school
problems.
CAUSES OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
Serious and long-term emotional and behavioral disorders may be the result of numerous
potential causal factors in the makeup and development of an individual. Neurological functioning,
psychological processes, a history of maladaptations, self-concept, and lack of social acceptance
all play a role.
Some of the same factors, including family dysfunction and maltreatment, also play a role in
disturbances that might temporarily affect a child's school performance.
One problem in identifying serious emotional and behavioral disorders is that the term covers a
wide range of behaviors, from aggression or hyperactivity to withdrawal or inability to make
friends to anxiety and phobias. And it is often hard to tell whether an emotional problem is
causing the diminished academic performance or school failure is causing the emotional problem.
CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL
DISORDERS
Scores of characteristics are associated with emotional and behavioral disorders. The important
issue is the degree of the behavior problem. Virtually any behavior that is exhibited excessively
over a long period of time might be considered an indication of emotional disturbance. However,
most students who have been identified as having emotional and behavioral disorders share
some general characteristics.
These include poor academic achievement, poor interpersonal relationships, and poor self-
esteem.
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______________________________________________________________________________________Quay and Werry (1986) noted four general categories:
conduct disorder
anxiety-withdrawal
immaturity, and
socialized-aggressive disorder
For example, children with conduct disorders are frequently characterized as disobedient,
distractible, selfish, jealous, destructive, impertinent, resistive, and disruptive.
Quay and Werry noted that the first three of these categories represent behaviors that are
maladaptive or sources of personal distress. However, socialized-aggressive behavior, which
relates to frequent aggression against others, seems to be tied more to poor home conditions that
model or reward aggressive behavior and might therefore be adaptive (though certainly not
healthy or appropriate).
The inclusion of conduct disorders in classifications of emotional and behavioral disorders is
controversial. By law, students with conduct disorders must also have some other recognized
disability or disorder to receive special-education services.
STUDENTS EXHIBITING AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
Students with conduct disorders and socialized-aggressive behaviors might frequently fight, steal,
destroy property, and refuse to obey teachers.
These students tend to be disliked by their peers, their teachers, and sometimes their parents.
They typically do not respond to punishment or threats, though they might be skilled at avoiding
punishment.
Aggressive children not only pose a threat to the school and to their peers, but also put
themselves in grave danger. Aggressive children, particularly boys, often develop serious
emotional problems later in life, have difficulty holding jobs, and become involved in criminal
behavior.
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______________________________________________________________________________________STUDENTS WITH WITHDRAWN AND IMMATURE BEHAVIOUR
Children who are withdrawn, immature, low in self-esteem, or depressed typically have few
friends or play with children much younger than themselves. They often have elaborate fantasies
or daydreams and either very poor or grandiose self-images. Some might be overly anxious
about their health and feel genuinely ill when under stress.
Students with autism
In 1990, autism became a formal category of disability. The U.S. Department of Education (1991)
defined autism as a developmental disability that significantly affects social interaction and verbal
and nonverbal communication. It is usually evident before the age of 3 and has an adverse affect
on educational performance.
Children with autism are typically extremely withdrawn and have such severe difficulties with
language that they might be entirely mute. They often engage in self-stimulation activities such as
rocking, twirling objects, or flapping their hands.
However, they might have normal or even outstanding abilities in certain areas. For unknown
reasons, autism is far more prevalent among boys than among girls.
There are promising treatments for autism, including methods of teaching people with autism to
build relationships with others and teaching them alternative means of communicating.
Students with sensory, physical, and health impairments
Sensory impairments are problems with the ability to see or hear or otherwise receive information
through the body's senses. Physical disorders include conditions such as cerebral palsy, spina
bifida, spinal cord injury, and muscular dystrophy. Health disorders include, for example, acquired
immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS); seizure disorders; diabetes; cystic fibrosis; sickle-cell
anemia (in African American students); and bodily damage from chemical addictions, child abuse,
or attempted suicide.
STUDENTS WITH VISUAL DISABILITIES
Most students' visual problems are correctable by glasses or other types of corrective lenses. A
vision loss is considered a disability only if it is not correctable. It is estimated that approximately
1 out of every 1,000 children has a visual disability. Individuals with such disabilities are usually
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______________________________________________________________________________________referred to as blind or visually impaired.
It is a misconception to assume that individuals who are legally blind have no sight. More than 80
percent of students who are legally blind can read large- or regular-print books. This implies that
many students with vision loss can be taught by means of a modification of usual teaching
materials. Classroom teachers should be aware of the signs that indicate that a child is having a
vision problem.
Several possible signs of vision loss include the following: (1) Child often tilts head; (2) child rubs
eyes often; (3) child's eyes are red, inflamed, crusty, or water excessively; (4) child has difficulty
reading small print or can't discriminate letters; (5) child complains of dizziness or headaches
after a reading assignment.
STUDENTS WHO ARE DEAF OR HARD OF HEARING
Hearing disabilities can range from complete deafness to problems that can be alleviated with a
hearing aid. The appropriate classification of an individual with hearing loss depends on the
measures required to compensate for the problem. Simply having a student sit at the front of the
classroom might be enough to compensate for a mild hearing loss. Flexner (2001) argues that a
broad range of children can benefit from amplification of the teacher's voice. Following are
several suggestions to keep in mind:
Seat children with hearing problems in the front of the room, slightly off center toward the
windows. This will allow them to see your face in the best light.
If the hearing problem is predominantly in one ear, students should sit in a front corner seat so
that their better ear is toward you.
Speak at the student's eye level whenever possible.
Give important information and instructions while facing the class. Avoid talking while facing the
chalkboard.
Do not use exaggerated lip movements when speaking.
Learn how to assist a child who has a hearing aid.
STUDENTS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED
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______________________________________________________________________________________Giftedness was once defined almost entirely in terms of superior IQ or demonstrated ability, such
as outstanding performance in mathematics or chess, but the definition now encompasses
students with superior abilities in a wide range of activities, including the arts.
High IQ is still considered part of the definition of gifted and talented, and most students who are
so categorized have IQs above 130. However, some groups are under-identified as gifted and
talented, including females, students with disabilities, underachievers, and students who are
members of racial or ethnic minority groups.
The 1978 Gifted and Talented Act stated that the gifted and talented are children. . . who are
identified. . . as possessing demonstrated or potential abilities that give evidence of high
performance capabilities in areas such as intellectual, creative, specific academic or leadership
ability or in the performing or visual arts and to by reason thereof require services or activities not
ordinarily provided by the school (Public Law 95-561, Section 902).
CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS
Intellectually gifted children typically have strong motivation. They also are academically superior;
usually learn to read early; and, in general, do excellent work in most school areas. One of the
most important studies of the gifted, begun by Lewis Terman in 1926, followed 1,528 individuals
who had IQs over 140 as children.
Terman's research exploded the myth that high-IQ individuals were brainy but physically and
socially inept. In fact, Terman found that children with outstanding IQs were larger, stronger, and
better coordinated than other children and became better adjusted and more emotionally stable
adults.
Gifted students also have high self-concepts, although they can suffer from perfectionism.
EDUCATION OF GIFTED STUDENTS
How to educate gifted students is a matter of debate. Research on the gifted provides more
support (in terms of student achievement gains) for acceleration than for enrichment. However,
this could be because the outcomes of enrichment, such as creativity or problem-solving skills,
are difficult to measure.
Acceleration programs for the gifted often involve the teaching of advanced mathematics to
students at early ages. A variation on the acceleration theme is a technique called curriculum
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______________________________________________________________________________________compacting, in which teachers may skip over portions of the curriculum that the very able
students do not need.
Enrichment programs take many forms. Many successful enrichment programs have involved
self-directed or independent study. Others have provided gifted students with adult mentors.
Renzulli (1994) suggests an emphasis on three types of activities: general exploratory activities,
such as projects that allow students to find out about topics on their own; group training activities,
such as games and simulations to promote creativity and problem-solving skills; and individual
and small-group investigations of real problems, such as writing books or newspapers,
interviewing elderly people to write oral histories, and conducting geological or archaeological
investigations.
An additional responsibility is to promote social acceptance for students with disabilities through
modeling, practice, and feedback. Attitudes of other students can be improved through
instructional approaches focusing on increased understanding and through strategies such as
peer tutoring and cooperative learning, which provide students with opportunities to interact in
productive ways.
WEEK 13
SESSION 16 THE TEACHER'S ROLE IN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS & LESSON
PLANNING FOR INCLUSION
Teachers’ responsibilities in inclusive classrooms include identifying learners with exceptionalities
and adapting instruction for them. In the process of identification, teachers describe and
document learning problems and strategies they’ve tried. Effective instruction for students with
disabilities uses characteristics of instruction effective with all students. In addition, teaches
provide additional instructional support, modify homework assignments and reading materials,
and help students acquire learning strategies.
Today there is a growing number of new adaptive technologies such as cursor and mouse
enhancements, key definition programs, magnification software, and so on. These and many
regular word processing programs can be used with a specific purpose for students with
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______________________________________________________________________________________disabilities. Using the buddy system and peer tutoring will also assist in the process of learning to
use these various techniques. As stated above, the recent updates in IDEA as of 2004,
encourage the spending of funds for the early intervention and prevention of
disabilities/disparities. The use of adaptive technologies might be able to assist in this process.
REFERENCES
Eggen, Paul. (2004) Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms. Pearson. NJ
Elliott, Stephen N. et.al. (2000).Educational Psychology; Effective Teaching, Effective.Learning.McGraw Hill. Boston
O’Donnell Jacqueline.et.al. (2004) Educational Psychology:Reflection for Action. Wiley Publishers. NJ
Ormrod Jeanne Ellis. (2003) Educational Psychology – Developing Learners.
Merrill Prentice Hall. New Jersey
Slavin, Robert E. (2000). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.
Sternberg, Robert. (2002) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Bosto
Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology. Pearson. Boston
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