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Eco-Tourism
Paper VI, Second Year
MADURAI KAMARAJ UNIVERSITY
MA Tourism Management 6018
PTMT06
i
Contents Unit-1 ................................................................................................................................................1
1. What do you understand by the following terms? .....................................................................1
a. What is Ecology?......................................................................................................................1
b. What is an Ecosystem?.............................................................................................................1
c. What Is the Environment? ........................................................................................................1
2. Discuss the importance of habitat diversity and biodiversity from tourism point of view..............2
3. Discuss the importance of carrying capacity and absorbing capacity from tourism point of view. .3
4. Write short notes on ................................................................................................................5
a. Properties of Ecosystems .........................................................................................................5
b. Ecosystems processes, goods and services ................................................................................5
5. State the five basic laws of Ecology. In what ways these laws are related to /affected your life
style and your immediate surroundings? Discuss with examples from tourism................................6
Unit 2.................................................................................................................................................8
1. Discuss the conditions under which tourism is causing negative impacts in India. What are your
suggestions for reducing them? ...................................................................................................8
2. What are the impacts of tourism activities on water resources? How the negative impacts can be
controlled? .................................................................................................................................9
3. Discuss how various tourism activities either directly or indirectly cause air pollution. Describe
their impacts and control measures............................................................................................ 10
4. List the sources and types of solid wastes generated by various tourism activities. What are the
impacts? How would you manage solid wastes?.......................................................................... 14
5. Define noise pollution. Describe the causes and impacts of noise pollution. .............................. 19
6. List 10 major ways to conserve water on a personal level. Which, if any, of these practices do you
now use or intend to use?.......................................................................................................... 23
Unit 3............................................................................................................................................... 25
1. Write short notes on .............................................................................................................. 25
a) Acid rain................................................................................................................................ 25
b) Ozone depletion .................................................................................................................... 25
2. In what ways’ tourism activities can be linked to global environmental problems? Discuss with
suitable examples along with remedial measures ........................................................................ 26
3. Give an account of Indian monsoons. Describe the monsoon tourism in India. .......................... 27
4. Write short notes on .............................................................................................................. 30
ii
a) Natural hazards ..................................................................................................................... 30
b) Globalization and Tourism...................................................................................................... 31
5. Describe the most serious manmade hazards in India. In what ways they influence /are
influenced by the tourism activities. ........................................................................................... 31
Unit 4............................................................................................................................................... 32
1. You are entrusted with the task of performing EIA of expanding tourism activities in remote
islands with tribal communities. Discuss in detail the methodologies you would follow. ................ 32
2. Write short notes on .............................................................................................................. 33
a) Environmental Management Plans (EMP): .............................................................................. 33
b) Indicators.............................................................................................................................. 34
3. Discuss the various methods of EIA using a highway construction in a coastal area. ................... 35
4. Are you satisfied with the way in which EIAS are performed in our country? What improvements
you would suggest for undertaking EIA of tourism projects in protected areas? ............................ 37
Unit 5............................................................................................................................................... 38
1. Define conservation from tourism perspective and discuss its relevance for evolving responsible
tourism strategies for remote mountain ecosystems with pristine ecosystems and cultures. ......... 38
2. Write short notes on .............................................................................................................. 39
a) Tourism codes and conducts .................................................................................................. 39
b) Conservation and tourism ...................................................................................................... 40
3. Discuss the global code of ethics and discuss the potentials and constraints for adapting the same
in the Indian context.................................................................................................................. 41
4. Write short notes on .............................................................................................................. 42
a) Tourism and Biodiversity conservation.................................................................................... 42
b) NRM ..................................................................................................................................... 43
UNIT 6.............................................................................................................................................. 43
i. Explain why you agree or disagree with the following propositions (with examples wherever
necessary):................................................................................................................................ 43
◦ Tourism is a smokeless industry in third world countries ........................................................... 43
◦ there is unlimited potential for tourism development in third world countries ........................... 44
◦ Participation of local communities is not required for tourism planning..................................... 44
ii. Write short notes on .............................................................................................................. 44
Tourism and Sustainable development ....................................................................................... 44
Equity issues and tourism development...................................................................................... 45
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iii. Discuss the basic guide lines for sustainable tourism in a remote island. .................................. 45
iv. Define integrated energy planning. Discuss its importance in the promotion of sustainable
tourism. .................................................................................................................................... 46
v. What are the constraints for implementing sustainable development strategies in our country?
How can we overcome them? .................................................................................................... 47
vi. Discuss the meaning of sustainability from tourism point of view............................................. 47
vii. Compare and contrast different property use regimes. Give suitable examples for each category.
................................................................................................................................................ 49
viii. Define common property resources. How would you differentiate them from common? ........ 50
ix. Pool resources? Is the tragedy of the commons inevitable? Discuss with examples from tourism.
................................................................................................................................................ 51
xi. Discuss the basic management strategies for common property resources with suitable examples
................................................................................................................................................ 52
x. Write short notes on .............................................................................................................. 53
1. Historical review of common property resources in India ......................................................... 53
2. Global commons.................................................................................................................... 54
xii. Write short notes on prisoner's dilemma game CAMPFIRE...................................................... 55
xiii. Under what ideal conditions common property resource management regimes will be
successful? Why? Discuss with suitable examples........................................................................ 55
Unit 7............................................................................................................................................... 57
1. Compare and contrast mass tourism with Eco-tourism with appropriate examples.................... 57
2. Define Ecotourism. Discuss the potentials and constraints for introducing Ecotourism in India... 58
3. With an example of a successful case study of community based ET, explain the methods you
would adopt to evolve a similar venture in India. ........................................................................ 60
4. Trace linkages between Eco tourism and Environment/ socioeconomic factors. Discuss with
suitable examples...................................................................................................................... 61
5. Write short notes on .............................................................................................................. 61
a) Water sports ......................................................................................................................... 61
Unit 8............................................................................................................................................... 62
1. Describe the various UN initiatives on Ecology and Environment that are relevant for the tourism
sector. ...................................................................................................................................... 62
2. Write short notes on .............................................................................................................. 66
a. Integrated decentralized environmental planning.................................................................... 66
b. CRZ ....................................................................................................................................... 67
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3. Critically evaluate the Environmental planning process in our country. Discuss the potentials for
improvements........................................................................................................................... 67
Unit 9............................................................................................................................................... 69
1. Trace the linkages between human populations, natural resources and development and discuss
the issues involved from tourism perspective.............................................................................. 69
2. Describe the basic principles of Human Ecology. In what ways they can be related to tourism?.. 72
3. Write short notes on .............................................................................................................. 74
a) Non-equilibrium Ecology NEQ................................................................................................ 74
b) Integrated energy- environmental planning for tourism........................................................... 74
4. Discuss the constraints for energy /environment management in our country. Suggest suitable
remedial measures. ................................................................................................................... 75
5. Summarize the advantages and limitations of each of the following proposals for increasing
world food supplies and reducing hunger over the next 30 years. ................................................ 77
a. Cultivating more land by clearing tropical forests and irrigating arid lands ................................ 77
b. Catching more fish in the open sea ......................................................................................... 77
c. Producing more fish and shellfish with aquaculture ................................................................. 78
d. Increasing the yield per area of cropland................................................................................. 78
1
Unit-1
1. What do you understand by the following terms?
a. What is Ecology?
Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their
physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals
and the world around them. Ecology also provides information about the benefits of ecosystems
and how we can use Earth's resources in ways that leave the environment healthy for future
generations.
Ecologists study these relationships among organisms and habitats of many different sizes,
ranging from the study of microscopic bacteria growing in a fish tank, to the complex
interactions between the thousands of plant, animal, and other communities found in a desert.
Ecologists also study many kinds of environments. For example, ecologists may study microbes
living in the soil under your feet or animals and plants in a rainforest or the ocean
b. What is an Ecosystem?
An ecosystem includes all of the living things (plants, animals and organisms) in a given area,
interacting with each other, and also with their non-living environments (weather, earth, sun,
soil, climate, atmosphere). Ecosystem simply means "ecological system" Ecology is the study of
ecosystems. In an ecosystem, each organism has its' own niche or role to play.
Consider a small puddle at the back of your home. In it, you may find all sorts of living things,
from microorganisms to insects and plants. These may depend on non-living things like water,
sunlight, turbulence in the puddle, temperature, atmospheric pressure and even nutrients in the
water for life.
c. What Is the Environment?
The environment is something you are very familiar with. It's everything that makes up our
surroundings and affects our ability to live on the earth—the air we breathe, the water that covers
most of the earth's surface, the plants and animals around us, and much more.
In recent years, scientists have been carefully examining the ways that people affect the
environment. They have found that we are causing air pollution, deforestation, acid rain, and
other problems that are dangerous both to the earth and to ourselves. These days, when you hear
people talk about ―the environment‖, they are often referring to the overall condition of our
planet, or how healthy it is.
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2. Discuss the importance of habitat diversity and biodiversity from tourism point of view.
Every species requires a certain set of environmental conditions to be able to move around, feed
and reproduce. Whether it‘s in the forest, grassland, desert, tundra, or ocean, the place where
each species finds the conditions it needs to live and thrive is called its habitat.
Why Conserving Habitats Is Important
When habitats are threatened, so are the animals who live there. For example, wolverines and
bears roam across vast distances, so when their habitat is broken up by roads or other
commercial development, their ability to survive is jeopardized. And we‘ve all seen what can
happen to wildlife, such as birds, sea turtles and marine mammals, when an oil disaster strikes,
like the one in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. By protecting habitats, we‘re protecting wildlife.
Major Threats
Climate Change
Our warming planet is playing havoc habitats around the world. For example, melting sea ice in
the Arctic prevents polar bears from finding food and shelter, while changing rain patterns put
forests and the animals that live there at greater risk from wildfires.
Habitat Loss & Degradation
Agriculture. Industrial development. Urban sprawl. These are all factors that have contributed to
the extensive loss and fragmentation of prime wildlife habitat, which in turn has brought many
animals to the brink of extinction, like the critically endangered jaguar or Florida panther. Even
habitats that are large enough to support the wildlife living there can suffer negative impacts that
affect wildlife. Every day, habitats are subjected to pollution from pesticides, oil spills and
agricultural runoff.
What Defenders Is Doing to Help Protect Habitats
For decades, Defenders of Wildlife has played a leading role in helping shape smart conservation
policies for managing national wildlife refuges, national forests, and other public lands because
these areas, owned by all Americans, represent some of the last best places for wildlife to thrive.
We also work with state agencies and private landowners to help develop and implement
conservation plans that will preserve environmentally important areas long into the future.
And our in-house experts are working to help wildlife adapt to the impacts of climate change and
ensure renewable energy projects are developed in ways that don‘t harm important habitats.
What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity or Biological diversity is a term that describes the variety of living beings on earth.
In short, it is described as degree of variation of life. Biological diversity encompasses
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microorganism, plants, animals and ecosystems such as coral reefs, forests, rainforests, deserts
etc.
Biodiversity also refers to the number, or abundance of different species living within a
particular region. It represents the wealth of biological resources available to us. It‘s all about the
sustaining the natural area made up of community of plants, animals, and other living things that
is begin reduced at a steady rate as we plan human activities that is being reduced by habitat
destruction.
Why is Biodiversity Important?
Biodiversity has a number of functions on the Earth. These are as follows:
Maintaining balance of the ecosystem: Recycling and storage of nutrients, combating
pollution, and stabilizing climate, protecting water resources, forming and protecting soil and
maintaining ecobalance.
Provision of biological resources: Provision of medicines and pharmaceuticals, food for the
human population and animals, ornamental plants, wood products, breeding stock and diversity
of species, ecosystems and genes.
Social benefits: Recreation and tourism, cultural value and education and research.
The role of biodiversity in the following areas will help make clear the importance of
biodiversity in human life:
Biodiversity and food: 80% of human food supply comes from 20 kinds of plants. But humans
use 40,000 species for food, clothing and shelter. Biodiversity provides for variety of foods for
the planet.
Biodiversity and human health: The shortage of drinking water is expected to create a major
global crisis. Biodiversity also plays an important role in drug discovery and medicinal
resources. Medicines from nature account for usage by 80% of the world‘s population.
Biodiversity and industry: Biological sources provide many industrial materials. These include
fiber, oil, dyes, rubber, water, timber, paper and food.
Biodiversity and culture: Biodiversity enhances recreational activities like bird watching,
fishing, trekking etc. It inspires musicians and artists.
3. Discuss the importance of carrying capacity and absorbing capacity from tourism point of
view.
Carrying capacity
4
Tourism carrying capacity is a now antiquated approach to managing visitors in protected areas
and national parks which evolved out of the fields of range, habitat and wildlife management. In
these fields, managers attempted to determine the largest population of a particular species that
could be supported by a habitat over a long period of time. Many authors, such as Buckley,
Wagar, Washburne, McCool, and Stankey have critiqued the concept as being fatally flawed in
both the conceptual assumptions made and its limited practical application. For example, the
notion of a carrying capacity assumes the world, such as the social-ecological systems in which
protected areas and tourism destinations are situated, are stable. But we know they are
dynamically complex and impossible to predict. We know that to implement a carrying capacity
on a practical level, assumes a level of control of entries into a destination or protected area not
usually found in the real world. We know that a carrying capacity, if one could be determined,
requires considerable financial and technical resources to administer; and we know that when
demand exceeds a limit, the ways in which scarce opportunities are allocated are contentious.
"Tourism Carrying Capacity" is defined by the World Tourism Organisation as ―The maximum
number of people that may visit a tourist destination at the same time, without causing
destruction of the physical, economic, socio-cultural environment and an unacceptable decrease
in the quality of visitors' satisfaction‖. Whereas Middleton and Hawkins Chamberlain (1997)
define it as ―the level of human activity an area can accommodate without the area deteriorating,
the resident community being adversely affected or the quality of visitors experience
declining‖[2] what both these definitions pick up on is carrying capacity is the point at which a
destination or attraction starts experiencing adverse as a result of the number of visitors.
Unfortunately, there are no studies which support this notion of visitor management. For
example, in areas which have an objective of maintaining pristine conditions, any level of visitor
use creates adverse or negative impacts, suggesting that the carrying capacity is zero.
Fundamentally, acceptable conditions are a matter of human judgment, not an inherent quality of
a particular site. Understanding these acceptable conditions is the focus of the limits of
acceptable change planning process referred to later in this article.
There are number of different forms of carrying capacity referred to in tourism, however this
article will focus on the four most commonly used. However, these conceptions are useful only
to the extent they focus discussion and discourse, not practical application.
Absorbing capacity
Absorbing capacity of the ecosystem is defined as a capacity of the ecosystem to withstand the
negative environmental impacts mostly in the form of degradation/pollution without any major
effects on the ecosystem yield. There are a few organisms which can tolerate the degradation /
pollution (e.g.Chironomous larvae) and there are some other organisms which can detoxify the
pollutants generated by human activities (eg. some plants such as water hyacinth and certain
microbes). However, they can function only within certain limits.
5
The absorbing capacity make the earth regenerative; the living organisms (plants, animals and
microbes) absorb, recycle and regenerate the organic wastes and to some extent the inorganic
wastes, thus maintaining the life support systems. Thus, absorbing capacity is one of the
important ecosystem properties for tourism planning, especially in environmentally fragile areas
such as mountains, island / coastal ecosystems, which incidentally draw a large number of
tourists.
4. Write short notes on
a. Properties of Ecosystems
Management of the environment with an ecosystem perspective should also consider that
systems have emergent properties that are not possessed by their individual components, i.e. they
are more than the sum of their parts. One example is the resilience of an ecosystem to absorb
disturbance and return to its original structure and functioning, such as resilience to the
harvesting of crops, animals or timber. Ecosystems can be transformed to a different level of
functioning if a change in ecosystem structure crosses some threshold level. Such structural
changes can be the removal of predators or other levels from the food web, or simplification of
vegetation or soil structure. Thresholds can also be crossed when valued species are lost or the
functioning of the water and mineral cycles significantly changes. Local climate, soils and
topography are also major determinants of ecosystem resilience.
b. Ecosystems processes, goods and services
Ecosystems can be studied using modeling. Ecosystems provide us with the following essential goods/materials and services/functions:
Ecosystem processes (Ecosystem functions – non- monetary values)
Energy and carbon enter ecosystems through photosynthesis, are incorporated into living tissue,
transferred to other organisms that feed on the living and dead plant matter, and eventually released through respiration. Most mineral nutrients, on the other hand, are recycled within
ecosystems. • Hydrologic flux and storage
• Biological productivity
• Biogeochemical cycling & storage
• Decomposition and Maintenance of Biodiversity
Ecosystem goods (monetary values)
Ecological goods are the products of the processes and interactions (described above) of natural systems. For example, plants capturing energy from the sun, combined with water and nutrients from the soil and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, are able to manufacture food for use by
all other organisms. The food is considered a good.
• Food, fuel, fodder & fertilizer
• •Construction materials
6
• Medicinal plants
• Wild genes
• Tourism and recreation
Ecosystem services
The natural world provides us with the essential services we require for life. These services are called ecological services – the interactions among organisms and their natural environments,
including the cycling of water and basic nutrients that humans are able to use and capitalize on. Ecological services include:
Purification of air and water Mitigation of floods and droughts
Detoxification and decomposition of wastes Generation and renewal of soil and natural vegetation
Pollination of crops and natural vegetation Control of the vast majority of potential agricultural pests Dispersal of seeds and translocation of nutrients
Maintenance of biodiversity Protection from the sun‘s harmful ultraviolet rays
Partial stabilization of climate Moderation of temperature extremes and the force of winds and waves Support of diverse human culture
Providing aesthetic beauty and intellectual stimulation that lift the human spirit.
5. State the five basic laws of Ecology. In what ways these laws are related to /affected your
life style and your immediate surroundings? Discuss with examples from tourism
Barry Commoner, the author of the book ―The closing circle‖, proposes the following four basic
laws of ecology:
i. Everything including humans and non-humans, is interconnected, interdependent, and
interactive and intermingled with everything else.
We are all in it together a common human notion, however, is that nature is assembled like a
machine, acts like a machine, and thus can be treated like a machine, which has interchangeable
parts, like a car, not necessarily related or interconnected. The end result of such a
mechanistic/reductionist approach most often comes down to misunderstanding how humans
interact with their environment and then miscalculation in efforts to protect against or remedy
environmental damage. E.g. intensifying tourism activities on mountain slopes (buildings, roads
etc.) will destroy soil cover, decrease biodiversity, increase soil-erosion/floods, and affect the
low land settlements / Agro ecosystems. This is exactly what we are witnessing in popular hill
stations like Ooty and Kodaikanal.
7
ii. Everything must go somewhere
Any human activity (including that of tourism), will result in a waste product and it will pollute
the surroundings–e.g. transportation modes, consumption of water and production and
consumption of energy and food.
iii. There is no such thing as a free lunch
You have to pay the environmental cost of development - although unequally because of lack of
equity in our societies. You may reduce the negative costs of development, but you may not be
able to completely eliminate it. E.g. industrial production and pollution of air, water and soil as a
consequence of development activities.
iv. Nature knows Best
It is preferable to conserve or sustainably mange the unspoiled /undisturbed habitats/ Ecosystems
as such without any human intervention, since nature has the innate capacity to heal /repair itself,
within certain limits. E.g. In spite of our successful attempts to land on the moon and to send
satellites around the earth's orbit, we still are not able to find and implement appropriate
solutions for the environmental problems caused by our greed to overexploit the natural
resources resulting in the loss of bio- diversity, soil erosion and pollution. If it has the potential
for Eco-tourism, an emerging all- inclusive sustainable type of tourism, we can introduce it
there, but with strict rules and regulations.
v. A fifth law is recently added which states that ―Nature is not only complex than we know, it is
more complex than we can know‖ i.e. in the complex zig -saw puzzles of the structure and
function of any natural ecosystem, we know the solutions for only a precious little but our
current knowledge indicates that it is the whole truth; it is only when we make new discoveries,
we are becoming aware of our ignorance. E.g. The disappearance of massive kelp beds (that one
way or another serve as feed for a wide a range of species from barnacles to bald eagles) in the
Alaskan coastal Pacific Ocean caused Governments and conservationists initially to hypothesize
that pollution and other man-made disturbances were potential culprits for their decline. It turned
out to be not that simple. In recent years, food of Pacific sea lions and seals have decreased due
to over fishing causing their population decline. These are a preferred prey of killer whales.
With decreases in food, whales started preying on sea otters that live in the giant kelp forests
along the Pacific coast. The sea otters prey on sea urchins, which in turn are a major consumer of
kelp. By the whales switching to sea otters for food, the otter populations consequently
decreased, and their feeding was no longer able to keep the urchin populations in check.
Thus, the urchins have overgrazed the kelp to the degree that these massive underwater forests
are now disappearing.
8
These five basic laws of ecology are important not only for the academic community but also
for people from all walks of life - the scientists, the policy makers / implementers, NGOs / other
local institutions dealing with any aspect of development, leave alone tourism.
Unit 2
1. Discuss the conditions under which tourism is causing negative impacts in India. What are
your suggestions for reducing them?
NEGATIVE IMPACTS
1. Undesirable Social and Cultural Change: Tourism sometimes led to the destruction of the
social fabric of a community. The more tourists coming into a place, the more the perceived risk
of that place losing its identity. A good example is Goa. From the late 60's to the early 80's when
the Hippy culture was at its height, Goa was a haven for such hippies. Here they came in
thousands and changed the whole culture of the state leading to a rise in the use of drugs,
prostitution and human trafficking. This had a ripple effect on the country.
2. Increase Tension and Hostility: Tourism can increase tension, hostility, and suspicion
between the tourists and the local communities when there is no respect and understanding for
each other‘s culture and way of life. This may further lead to violence and other crimes
committed against the tourists. The recent crime committed against Russian tourist in Goa is a
case in point.
3. Creating a Sense of Antipathy: Tourism brought little benefit to the local community. In
most all-inclusive package tours more than 80% of travelers‘ fees go to the airlines, hotels and
other international companies, not to local businessmen and workers. Moreover, large hotel
chain restaurants often import food to satisfy foreign visitors and rarely employ local staff for
senior management positions, preventing local farmers and workers from reaping the benefit of
their presence. This has often created a sense of antipathy towards the tourists and the
government.
4. Adverse Effects on Environment and Ecology: One of the most important adverse effects of
tourism on the environment is increased pressure on the carrying capacity of the ecosystem in
each tourist locality. Increased transport and construction activities led to large scale
deforestation and destabilisation of natural landforms, while increased tourist flow led to
increase in solid waste dumping as well as depletion of water and fuel resources. Flow of tourists
to ecologically sensitive areas resulted in destruction of rare and endangered species due to
trampling, killing, disturbance of breeding habitats. Noise pollution from vehicles and public
address systems, water pollution, vehicular emissions, untreated sewage, etc. also have direct
effects on bio-diversity, ambient environment and general profile of tourist spots.
9
Tourism that is not managed in a proper manner can severely impact the environment of the
tourist destination.
This is the reason behind a new form of tourism carried out in a manner that is sustainable for the
environment of the tourist destination and at the same time beneficial for the local population
being adopted worldwide and is commonly referred to as eco-tourism.
Some strategies by which the negative environmental impacts of tourism are reduced in eco-
tourism include:
Providing an option for tourists to stay with the locals instead of living in special resorts
and hotels that have to be constructed for them. This affects the environment to a much
smaller extent. In addition, tourists are able to share the way in which the locals live,
which could be totally different from their own. The locals who accommodate the tourists
have an incentive to not change for the sake of tourism as it is their original lifestyle that
the tourists come to see.
Educating tourists about their impact on the environment of the tourist destination and
telling them how they can keep it as low as possible.
Educating the local population on why their protecting the environment around them is
essential to maintain tourism and assure they continue to benefit from it.
Ensuring the number of tourists who visit the location is sustainable so that tourism does
not cause a damage which would soon make the place unattractive for tourists.
Enforcing strict laws on what the tourists can take back from the location and ensure that
they cause no damage.
2. What are the impacts of tourism activities on water resources? How the negative impacts
can be controlled?
Water pollution and measure
Water is one of the most basic needs for the survival of all living organisms. Besides the water
found in the body of the organisms water is used for agricultural, domestic community,
commercial, industrial and recreational purposes. The sources of water pollution include point
and non-point sources like discharges from industries and storm water respectively. While
pollution from point sources can be controlled, it is difficult to control pollution from non-point
sources such as agriculture run-off, leaching from waste disposal sites and storm water. Both the
surface and sub-surface waters are polluted due to various human activities such as use of agro-
chemicals, industrial wastes and pollutants and domestic sewage. Rapid increase in population,
intensive agriculture, growing industrialization and urbanization has resulted in progressive
deterioration in the quality of water in our natural reservoirs.
The following are the major types of water pollutants:
a. Organic wastes-domestic sewage, industrial sewage of plant / animal origin (Food processing
industries, distilleries) - high BOD and low 02 (optimum 02 level 4-6 ppm)
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b. Living agents - Bacteria, viruses and other micro-organisms can cause water-borne diseases
eg. Vibrio cholerae, Myco bacterium tuberculum, polio virusus and some algae
c. Plant nutrients -N2 and P from agricultural run-off and fertilizer factories -Eutrophication
(sewage also contain N2 and P)
d. Synthetic organic chemicals-Insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, nomatocides
with higher stability and persistence which aggravate the problems of pollution e.g. DDT,
dieldrin etc.
e. Inorganic chemical and mineral substances - cause hardness of water, corrosive effects -
metals, metal salts, acids, solid particulate matter etc. e.g. Mercury
f. Sediments-Deforestation and soil erosion -soil slips - suspended solids from sediments are at
least 700 times greater than those contributed by sewage; this will affect BOD, light,
respiration, food availability, behavior; this will also induce disruption of transport on roads,
siltation of dams, impacts on settlements and agro-ecosystems.
g. Radioactive materials from power stations, research centres/laboratories, industries, hospitals
h. Thermal pollution-hot water from power plants; the deep cold water from storage reservoirs
are used for cooling the power plants causing the surface water temperature to raise which
will have physiological effects on organisms e.g. Sacremont valley, California - rice growth
is affected.
Adopting the following strategies can control water pollution:
Prevention at source rather than end of the pipeline technologies i.e. pollution control at
source rather than pollution treatment.
Recycling the recyclable pollutants e.g. biogas from domestic sewage, refuse derived fuel
from municipal solid wastes etc.
Fiscal policy changes - pollution taxes, subsidies etc.
Adoption of appropriate pollution control technologies
Common effluent treatment plants (CFTP) for small scale industries
3. Discuss how various tourism activities either directly or indirectly cause air pollution.
Describe their impacts and control measures.
The World Health Organization defines air pollution as ―the presence of materials in the air in
such concentration which are harmful to man and his environment.‖
In fact air pollution is the occurrence or addition of foreign particles, gases and other pollutants
into the air which have an adverse effect on human beings, animals, vegetation, buildings, etc.
Cause of Air Pollution:
The various causes of air pollution are:
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(i) Combustion of natural gas, petroleum, coal and wood in industries, automobiles, aircrafts,
railways, thermal plants, agricultural burning, kitchens, etc. (soot, flyash, CO2, CO, nitrogen
oxides, sulphur oxides).
(ii) Metallurgical processing (mineral dust, fumes containing fluorides, sulphides and metallic
pollutants like lead, chromium, nickel, beryllium, arsenic, vanadium, cadmium, zinc, mercury).
(iii) Chemical industries including pesticides, fertilizers, weedicides, fungicides.
(iv) Cosmetics.
(v) Processing industries like cotton textiles, wheat flour mills, asbestos.
(vi) Welding, stone crushing, gem grinding.
Natural air pollutants include (a) pollen, spores, (b) marsh gas, (c) volcanic gases and (a)
synthesis of harmful chemicals by electric storms and solar flares. The major cause of pollution
in the urban areas is automobiles which inefficiently burn petroleum, releases 75% of noise and
80% of air pollutants. Concentration of industries in one area is another major cause of air
pollution.
Effect of Air Pollutants:
Air pollutants are broadly classified into particulate and gaseous. The particulate substances
include solid and liquid particles. The gaseous include substances that are in the gaseous state at
normal temperature and pressure. The air pollutants have adverse effect on human beings,
animals, vegetation, buildings. Air pollutants also change earth‘s climate. Aesthetic sense is also
influenced by air pollutants. The different air pollutants and their effects are as follows:
1. Particulate Matter:
It is of two types—settleable and suspended. The settleable dusts have a particle longer than 10
(am. The smaller particles are able to remain suspended for long periods in the air. The important
effects of particulate matter are.
(i) Dust and smoke particles cause irritation of the respiratory tract and produces bronchitis,
asthma and lung diseases.
(ii) Smog is a dark or opaque fog which is formed by the dust and smoke particles causing
condensation of water vapours around them as well as attracting chemicals like SO2, H2S, NO2,
etc. Smog harms plant life through glazing and necrosis besides reduced availability of light. In
human beings and animals it produces respiratory troubles.
(iii) Particulate matter suspended in air, scatters and partly absorbs light. In industrial and urban
areas, sunlight is reduced to 1/3 in summer and 2/3 in winter.
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(iv) At a concentration above 150 g/100m3, cotton dust in ginning process produces
pneumoconiosis or lung fibrosis called byssinosis. Lung fibrosis produced in other industries
includes asbestosis (in asbestos industry), silicosis (stone grinders), siderosis (iron mill), coal
miners‘ pneumoconiosis, flour mill pneumoconiosis, etc.
2. Carbon monoxide:
It accounts for 50% of the total atmospheric pollutants. It is formed by incomplete combustion of
carbon fuels in various industries, motor vehicles, hearths, kitchens, etc. Carbon monoxide
combines with haemoglobin of blood and impairs its oxygen carrying capacity. At higher
concentration, carbon monoxide proves lethal.
3. Sulphur Oxides:
They occur mainly in the form of sulphur dioxide. It is produced in large quantity during
smelting of metallic ores and burning of petroleum and coal in industries, thermal plants, home
and motor vehicles. In the air, SO2 combines with water to form sulphurous acid (H2SO3) which
is the cause of acid rain. It causes chlorosis and necrosis of vegetation. Sulphur dioxide, above 1
ppm, affects human beings. It causes irritation to eyes and injury to respiratory tract. It results in
discolouration and deterioration of buildings, sculptures, painted surfaces, fabrics, paper, leather,
etc.
4. Nitrogen Oxides:
They are produced naturally through biological and non-biological activities from nitrates,
nitrites, electric storms, high energy radiations and solar flares. Human activity forms nitrogen
oxides in combustion process of industries, automobiles, incinerators and nitrogen fertilizers.
Nitrogen oxides act on unsaturated hydrocarbons to form peroxy-acyl nitrates or PAN. It gives
rise to photochemical smog. They cause eye irritation, respiratory troubles, blood congestion and
dilation of arteries.
5. Carbon dioxide:
Due to excessive combustion activity, the content of C02 has been steadily rising. As carbon
dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere it absorbs more and more of the reflected infrared
radiation. This could cause an increase in temperature referred to as the green house effect.
Melting polar ice caps and glaciers could cause sea levels to rise, flooding most of the major
population centres and fertile lands.
6. Phosgene and Methyl Isocyanate:
Phosgene (COCl2) is a poisonous and suffocating volatile liquid which is employed in dye
industry and synthesis of organic compounds. Release of phosgene and MIC in industrial
accident of Bhopal (Dec. 2, 1984) killed over 2500 and maimed several thousand persons.
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7. Aerosols:
They are widely used as disinfectants. Other sources are jet plane emissions which contain
chlorofluorocarbons. Chlorofluorocarbons are also used in refrigeration and formation of certain
types of solid plastic foams. Burning of plastics produces polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The
latter are persistent and pass into the food chain. Chlorofluorocarbons and carbon tetrachloride
react with ozone layers of stratosphere and hence deplete the same.
8. Photochemical oxidants:
Hydrocarbons have carcinogen properties. Some of these are also harmful to plants because they
cause senescence and abscission. In the presence of sunlight, hydrocarbons react with nitrogen
oxides to produce ozone, peroxy-acyl nitrates, aldehydes and other compounds. Peroxy-acyl
nitrates are a major constituent of air pollution. They cause eye irritation and respiratory
diseases.
9. Automobile Exhausts:
They are one of the major sources of air pollution. The important pollutants are Carbon
monoxide, Benzpyrene, Lead, Nitrogen oxides, Sulphur compounds and Ammonia.
10. Pollen and Microbes:
Excess of microbes in the atmosphere directly damage the vegetation, food articles and causes
diseases in plants, animals and human beings. Excess of pollen causes allergic reactions in
several human beings. The common reactions are also collectively called hay-fever. The
important allergic pollen belong to Amaranthus spinosus, Chenopodium album, Cynodon
dactylon, Ricinus communis, Sorghum vulgare, Prosopis chilensis etc.
Control of Air Pollution:
1. Industrial estates should be established at a distance from residential areas.
2. Use of tall chimneys shall reduce the air pollution in the surroundings and compulsory use of
filters and electrostatic precipitators in the chimneys.
3. Removal of poisonous gases by passing the fumes through water tower scrubber or spray
collector.
4. Use of high temperature incinerators for reduction in particulate ash production.
5. Development and employment of non-combustive sources of energy, e.g., nuclear power,
geothermal power, solar power, tidal power, wind power, etc.
6. Use of non-lead antiknock agents in gasoline.
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7. Attempt should be made to develop pollution free fuels for automobiles, e.g., alcohol,
hydrogen, battery power. Automobiles should be fitted with exhaust emission controls.
8. Industrial plants and refineries should be fitted with equipment for removal and recycling of
wastes.
9. Growing plants capable of fixing carbon monoxide, e.g. Phaseolus vulgaris, Coleus blumei,
Daucus carota, Ficus variegata (Bidwell and Bebee, 1974).
10. Growing plants capable of metabolising nitrogen oxides and other gaseous pollutants, e.g.,
Vitis, Pimis, Jttniperus, Quercus, Pyrus, Robinia pseudo-acacia, Viburnum, Crataegus, Ribes,
Rhamnus.
11. Afforestation of the mining area on priority basis.
4. List the sources and types of solid wastes generated by various tourism activities. What
are the impacts? How would you manage solid wastes?
Solid waste management is a polite term for garbage management. As long as liumans have been living in settled communities, solid waste, or garbage, has been an issue, and modern societies generate far more solid waste than early humans ever did.
Daily life in industrialized nations can generate several pounds of solid waste per consumer, not
only directly in the home, but indirectly in factories that manufacture goods purchased by consumers.
Garbage: many broad categories of garbage are:
Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits.
Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide
containers, batteries, shoe polish.
Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, plastics.
Hospital waste such as cloth with blood
Types & Source of Solid Wastes:
Basically solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source:
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Effects of Solid Waste Pollution:
Municipal solid wastes heap up on the roads due to improper disposal system. People clean their
own houses and litter their immediate surroundings which affects the community including
themselves.
This type of dumping allows biodegradable materials to decompose under uncontrolled and
unhygienic conditions. This produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects and
infectious organisms besides spoiling the aesthetics of the site. Industrial solid wastes are sources
of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which may spread on land and can cause changes in
physicochemical and biological characteristics thereby affecting productivity of soils.
Toxic substances may leach or percolate to contaminate the ground water. In refuse mixing, the
hazardous wastes are mixed with garbage and other combustible wastes. This makes segregation
and disposal all the more difficult and risky.
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Various types of wastes like cans, pesticides, cleaning solvents, batteries (zinc, lead or mercury),
radioactive materials, plastics and e-waste are mixed up with paper, scraps and other non-toxic
materials which could be recycled. Burning of some of these materials produces dioxins, furans
and polychlorinated biphenyls, which have the potential to cause various types of ailments
including cancer.
3. Methods of Solid Wastes Disposal:
i. Sanitary Landfill
ii. Incineration
iii. Composting
iv. Pyrolysis
i. Sanitary Land Filling:
In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay or
plastic foam. In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually
several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. The liner protects the ground water from being
contaminated due to percolation of leachate.
Leachate from bottom is pumped and sent for treatment. When landfill is full it is covered with
clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water. Several wells are drilled near the
landfill site to monitor if any leakage is contaminating ground water. Methane produced by
anaerobic decomposition is collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat. Sanitary Landfills
Site Selection:
i. Should be above the water table, to minimize interaction with groundwater.
ii. Preferably located in clay or silt.
iii. Do not want to place in a rock quarry, as water can leech through the cracks inherent in rocks
into a water fracture system.
iv. Do not want to locate in sand or gravel pits, as these have high leeching. Unfortunately, most
of Long Island is sand or gravel, and many landfills are located in gravel pits, after they were no
longer being used.
v. Do not want to locate in a flood plain. Most garbage tends to be less dense than water, so if the
area of the landfill floods, the garbage will float to the top and wash away downstream.
A large number of adverse impacts may occur from landfill operations. These impacts can vary:
i. Fatal accidents (e.g., scavengers buried under waste piles).
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ii. Infrastructure damage (e.g., damage to access roads by heavy vehicles).
iii. Pollution of the local environment (such as contamination of groundwater and/or aquifers by
leakage and residual soil contamination during landfill usage, as well as after landfill closure).
iv. Off gassing of methane generated by decaying organic wastes (methane is a greenhouse gas
many times more potent than carbon dioxide, and can itself be a danger to inhabitants of an
area).
v. Harbouring of disease vectors such as rats and flies, particularly from improperly operated
landfills.
ii. Incineration:
The term incinerates means to burn something until nothing is left but ashes. An incinerator is a
unit or facility used to burn trash and other types of waste until it is reduced to ash. An
incinerator is constructed of heavy, well-insulated materials, so that it does not give off extreme
amounts of external heat.
The high levels of heat are kept inside the furnace or unit so that the waste is burned quickly and
efficiently. If the heat were allowed to escape, the waste would not burn as completely or as
rapidly. Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to
combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for
disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water
management. This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to 30 per cent of the original
volume.
Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as
―thermal treatment‖. Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It
is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of
disposing of certain hazardous waste materials. Incineration is a controversial method of waste
disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
iii. Composting:
Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger cities, the biodegradable yard waste (kept separate
from the municipal waste) is allowed to degrade or decompose in a medium. A good quality
nutrient rich and environmental friendly manure is formed which improves the soil conditions
and fertility.
Organic matter constitutes 35%-40% of the municipal solid waste generated in India. This waste
can be recycled by the method of composting, one of the oldest forms of disposal. It is the
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natural process of decomposition of organic waste that yields manure or compost, which is very
rich in nutrients.
Composting is a biological process in which micro-organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria, convert
degradable organic waste into humus like substance. This finished product, which looks like soil,
is high in carbon and nitrogen and is an excellent medium for growing plants.
The process of composting ensures the waste that is produced in the kitchens is not carelessly
thrown and left to rot. It recycles the nutrients and returns them to the soil as nutrients. Apart
from being clean, cheap, and safe, composting can significantly reduce the amount of disposable
garbage.
The organic fertilizer can be used instead of chemical fertilizers and is better specially when used
for vegetables. It increases the soil‘s ability to hold water and makes the soil easier to cultivate. It
helped the soil retain more of the plant nutrients.
Vermi-composting has become very popular in the last few years. In this method, worms are
added to the compost. These help to break the waste and the added excreta of the worms makes
the compost very rich in nutrients. In the activity section of this web site you can learn how to
make a compost pit or a vermi-compost pit in your school or in the garden at home.
To make a compost pit, you have to select a cool, shaded corner of the garden or the school
compound and dig a pit, which ideally should be 3 feet deep. This depth is convenient for
aerobic composting as the compost has to be turned at regular intervals in this process.
Preferably the pit should be lined with granite or brick to prevent nitrite pollution of the subsoil
water, which is known to be highly toxic. Each time organic matter is added to the pit it should
be covered with a layer of dried leaves or a thin layer of soil which allows air to enter the pit
thereby preventing bad odour. At the end of 45 days, the rich pure organic matter is ready to be
used. Composting: some benefits
i. Compost allows the soil to retain more plant nutrients over a longer period.
ii. It supplies part of the 16 essential elements needed by the plants.
iii. It helps reduce the adverse effects of excessive alkalinity, acidity, or the excessive use of
chemical fertilizer.
iv. It makes soil easier to cultivate.
v. It helps keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter.
vi. It aids in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil covered.
vii. It helps in controlling the growth of weeds in the garden.
iv. Pyrolysis:
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Pyrolysis is a form of incineration that chemically decomposes organic materials by heat in the
absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure and at operating temperatures
above 430 °C (800 °F).
In practice, it is not possible to achieve a completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some
oxygen is present in any pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation occurs. If volatile or
semi-volatile materials are present in the waste, thermal desorption will also occur.
Organic materials are transformed into gases, small quantities of liquid, and a solid residue
containing carbon and ash. The off-gases may also be treated in a secondary thermal oxidation
unit. Particulate removal equipment is also required. Several types of pyrolysis units are
available, including the rotary kiln, rotary hearth furnace, and fluidized bed furnace. These units
are similar to incinerators except that they operate at lower temperatures and with less air supply.
Limitations and Concerns:
i. The technology requires drying of soil prior to treatment.
ii. Limited performance data are available for systems treating hazardous wastes containing
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and other organics. There is concern that systems
that destroy chlorinated organic molecules by heat have the potential to create products of
incomplete combustion, including dioxins and furans. These compounds are extremely toxic in
the parts per trillion ranges. The MSO process reportedly does not produce dioxins and furans.
iii. The molten salt is usually recycled in the reactor chamber. However, depending on the waste
treated (especially inorganics) and the amount of ash, spent molten salt may be hazardous and
require special care in disposal.
iv. pyrolysis is not effective in either destroying or physically separating in organics from the
contaminated medium. Volatile metals may be removed as a result of the higher temperatures
associated with the process, but they are not destroyed. By-products containing heavy metals
may require stabilization before final disposal.
v. When the off-gases are cooled, liquids condense, producing an oil/tar residue and
contaminated water. These oils and tars may be hazardous wastes, requiring proper treatment,
storage, and disposal.
5. Define noise pollution. Describe the causes and impacts of noise pollution.
Definition:
Sound, a normal feature of our life, is the means of communication and entertainment in most
animals, including human beings. It is also a very effective alarm system. A low sound is
pleasant whereas a loud sound is unpleasant and is commonly referred to as ‗noise‘. Noise can be
defined as an unpleasant and unwanted sound.
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Whether a given sound is as pleasant as music or as unpleasant as noise depends on its loudness,
duration, rhythm and the mood of the person. But loudness is definitely the most significant
criterion which converts sound into noise. Exposure to loud noise is indeed annoying and
harmful too.
Noise is a physical form of pollution and is not directly harmful to the life supporting systems
namely air, soil and water. Its effects are more directly on the receiver i.e. man. Noise pollution
is the result of modern industrialized urban life and congestion due to over population.
Even though noise pollution is not fatal to human life, yet its importance cannot be overlooked
because repeated exposure to noise reduces the sleeping hours and productivity or efficiency of a
human being. It affects the peace of mind and invades the privacy of a human being. The
importance of noise pollution as environmental problem is being recognised as the ill effects of
noise on human health and environment are becoming evident with each passing day.
Major causes / sources of noise pollution are:
(i) Industrial Sources:
Progress in technology (industrialization) has resulted in creating noise pollution. Textile mills,
printing presses, engineering establishments and metal works etc. contribute heavily towards
noise pollution. In industrial cities like Kolkata, Ludhiana, Kanpur etc., often the industrial zones
are not separated from the residential zones of the city especially in the case of small scale
industries.
These operate from workshops located on the ground floors of the residential areas and cause
annoyance, discomfort and irritation to the residents exposed to the noise that is inevitably
produced. The situation is much better in modern planned cities like Chandigarh where the
industrial area is kept away from the residential areas and both are separated from each other by
a sufficiently wide green belt.
(ii) Transport Vehicles:
Automobile revolution in urban centers has proved to be a big source of noise pollution.
Increasing traffic has given rise to traffic jams in congested areas where the repeated hooting of
horns by impatient drivers pierce the ears of all road users.
Noise from airplanes constitutes an increasing serious problem in big cities like Delhi &
Mumbai. Airport situated in the vicinity of population centres and the air planes pass over
residential areas. Heavy trucks, buses trains, jet-planes, motor-cycles, scooters, mopeds, jeeps—
the list of vehicles is endless but the outcome is same — noise pollution.
(iii) Household:
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The household is an industry in itself and is a source of many indoor noises such as the banging
of doors, noise of playing children, crying of infants, moving of furniture, loud conversation of
the inhabitants etc. Besides these are the entertainment equipment in the house, namely the radio,
record-players and television sets. Domestic gadgets like the mixer-grinders, pressure cookers,
desert coolers, air- conditioners, exhaust fans, vacuum cleaners, sewing and washing machines
are all indoor sources of noise pollution.
(iv) Public Address System:
In India people need only the slightest of an excuse for using loud speakers. The reason may be a
religious function, birth, death, marriage, elections, demonstration, or just commercial
advertising. Public system, therefore, contributes in its own way towards noise pollution.
(v) Agricultural Machines:
Tractors, thrashers, harvesters, tube wells, powered tillers etc. have all made agriculture highly
mechanical but at the same time highly noisy. Noise level 90 dB to 98 dB due to running of farm
machines have been recorded in the state of Punjab.
(vi) Defence Equipment:
A lot of noise pollution is added to the atmosphere by artillery, tanks, launching of rockets,
explosions, exercising of military airplanes and shooting practices. Screams of jet engines and
sonic booms have a deafening impact on the ears and in extreme cases have been known to
shatter the window panes and old dilapidated buildings.
(vii) Miscellaneous Sources:
The automobile repair shops, construction-works, blasting, bulldozing, stone crushing etc. are
other sources of noise pollution.
Effects of Noise:
Noise is generally harmful and a serious health hazard. It has far-reaching consequences and has
many physical, physiological as well as psychological effects on human beings.
(i) Physical Effects:
The physical manifestation of noise pollution is the effect on hearing ability. Repeated exposure
to noise may result in temporary or permanent shifting of the hearing threshold of a person
depending upon the level and duration of exposure. The immediate and acute effect of noise
pollution is impairment of hearing (i.e. total deafness.)
Human ears have sensory cells for hearing. If these cells are subjected to repeated sounds of high
intensity before they have an opportunity to recover fully, they can become permanently
22
damaged leading to impairment of hearing. Besides the sensory cells, the delicate tympanic
membrane or the ear drum can also be permanently damaged by a sudden loud noise such as an
explosion.
(ii) Physiological Effects:
The physiological manifestations of noise pollution are several as mentioned below:
(a) Headache by dilating blood vessels of the brain.
(b) Increase in the rate of heart-beat.
(c) Narrowing of arteries.
(d) Fluctuations in the arterial blood pressure by increasing the level of cholesterol in the blood.
(e) Decrease in heart output.
(f) Pain in the heart.
(g) Digestive spasms through anxiety and dilation of the pupil of the eye, thereby causing eye-
strain.
(h) Impairment of night vision.
(i) Decrease in the rate of colour perception.
(j) Lowering of concentration and affect on memory,
(k) Muscular strain and nervous breakdown.
(l) Psychological Effect
The psychological manifestations of noise pollution are:
(a) Depression and fatigue which considerably reduces the efficiency of a person.
(b) Insomnia as a result of lack of undisturbed and refreshing sleep
(c) Straining of senses and annoyance as a result of slow but persistent noise from motorcycles,
alarm clocks, call bells, telephone rings etc.
(d) Affecting of psychomotor performance of a person by a sudden loud sound
(e) Emotional disturbance
For a talkative person, the most important effect of noise pollution would invariably be that noise
interferes with our conservation. So, noise is annoying and the annoyance depends on many
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factors not merely the intensity of the sound but also repetition, because even a sound of small
intensity (e.g. dripping tap or clicking of clock) may become annoying, simply by repetition.
Some of the well- known effects of noise on human beings and the relation of noise pollution
level and its harmful effects are shown in Table respectively.
Table Noise Pollution Level and its Harmful Effects:
Level (in db) Effects
up to 23 ……………………….. No disturbance 30—60 ……………………….. Stress, tension, psychological (illness, heart
attact) effects especially at upper range. 60—90 ……………………….. Damage to health, psychological and
vegetative (disturbance in stomach-gall
function, pains in muscles, high blood pressure, disturbance in sleeping)
60—120 ……………………… Damages to health and ontological (ear diseases) effects
Above 120 ……………………. Painful effects in long run.
6. List 10 major ways to conserve water on a personal level. Which, if any, of these practices
do you now use or intend to use?
Here are ten simple things you can do to cut down on your water consumption today:
1. Consider the water footprint of your diet. Some foods require a lot more water to produce
than others. According to WaterFootprint, it takes 140 liters (35 gallons) of water to make just
one cup of coffee, 1,000 liters (270 gallons) to make one liter of milk, and 16,000 liters to make
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one pound of beef. Check out this online water footprint calculator to see how much water some
common foods need in order to be produced. The same principles of decreasing the carbon
footprint of your diet (eating local, eating organic, and eating less meat) are generally the same
principles for decreasing the water footprint.
2. Don’t leave the tap running needlessly. If you are washing your face and you need to get
the tap warm, use that initial cooler water to brush your teeth, and then wash your face
afterwards when the hot water starts coming out.
3. Choose and use your appliances wisely. Use energy star appliances whenever possible and
always use them at full capacity. Choose economy settings and don‘t run the dishwasher half-
full.
4. Convert your toilet to a dual flush, and don’t flush it more than necessary. If it‘s yellow
let it mellow, you know? But you still have to flush. Thankfully, converting your toilet to a dual
flush is easier than ever, thanks to the Tap-n-Flush. It‘s a remarkably easy installation, a very
intuitive device, and pays for itself in water savings super quickly. If you don‘t want to convert
and still want to save water, you might find this toilet tank insert super helpful, too…it‘ll reduce
the amount of water used every time you flush. But if you really want to up your water
conservation game, check out the TapNFlush‘s dual flush toilet converter review. The device is
simple to install, saves a ton of water, and pays for itself more than twice over in the first year
alone. Here‘s a video of the device.
5. Make sure every tap in your home has a high efficiency faucet aerator. Faucet aerators are
the little pieces of hardware that screw into the bottom of faucets. High efficiency aerators can
reduce flow by 1.5 gallons per minute or more…saving you piles of money and saving lots of
water. Check out this high efficiency faucet aerator product review from Green Living Ideas.
6. Stop that leaky toilet. Not only does it sound annoying, it wastes loads of water. Leaks can
often be fixed by making minor adjustments. Test your toilet using some dye tablets, available in
this all-in-one water conservation kit.
7. Repair dripping faucets by replacing washers. According to American Water & Energy
Savers, a faucet that drips at the rate of one drop per second will waste 2,700 gallons per year.
8. You don’t need to take shorter showers, necessarily, but some hardware will help cut the
water use every time you shower. At the very least replace your shower head with a high
efficiency one. These are designed to maintain water pressure while using much less water than
the old-fashioned sort. Treehugger says you will reduce your shower water use by 20 to 60
percent by doing so. Check out this high efficiency showerhead installation tutorial to see how
easy it is to cut your shower‘s water use (and save piles of money).
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9. Never throw water away. If you pour too much out or have some left in your glass, use it.
Pour the surplus into your dog‘s water dish, water a plant, or add it to your water kettle.
10. Set up a rain barrel this summer. You can collect rain water from your eaves to water your
garden.
There is so much that we as individuals can do to help conserve water. Our collective
conservation and advocacy efforts will not only reduce our monthly water bills, but will go a
long way towards alleviating this growing problem.
Unit 3
1. Write short notes on
a) Acid rain
In the 1970s the Trans boundary effects of industrial air pollution become known as acid rain.
Acid rain is a widespread term used to describe all forms of acid precipitation such as rain and
snow. Atmospheric pollutants, particularly oxides of sulphur and nitrogen react with water in the
atmosphere to form sulphuric and nitric acid, causing precipitation to become more acidic when
converted to sulphuric and nitric acids, hence the term acid rain. Acid deposition, acid rain and
acid precipitation - all relate to the chemistry of air pollution and moisture in the atmosphere.
Scientists generally use the term acid deposition but all three terms relate to the same issue.
Acid rain is particularly harmful to vegetation as the acid in the rain changes the pH of the soil
and leaches away important minerals. The amount of acid rain that an ecosystem can tolerate is
known as its critical load. After the sulphuric and nitric acids have formed in the atmosphere,
they can travel long distances with the wind before being deposited. In fact, much of the acid
rain found in Scandinavia originated from the UK. In response to these problems, a number of
agreements, including the Convention on Long- Range Transboundary Air Pollution (Geneva,
1979), have set out to reduce acid rain at the global level.
b) Ozone depletion
Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a
steady decline of about 4% in the total amount of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer),
and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions. The
latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric
phenomena, there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.
The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the most
important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens. The main source
of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photo dissociation of man-made halocarbon
refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-blowing agents (CFCs, HCFCs, freons, halons).
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These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the
surface. Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons
increased.
CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light
(UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in
ozone generated worldwide concern, leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the
production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride
and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in
sunburn, skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the
ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.
2. In what ways’ tourism activities can be linked to global environmental problems? Discuss
with suitable examples along with remedial measures
In this age of globalization, no matter where we live, we are affected by our own decisions - the
way we want to live - either sustainably or non- sustainably. Due to the increasing pressures on
globalization and the sheer momentum of the rate of development in developing countries in the
recent past, there is tremendous, insatiable demand for natural resources. In our mad rush for
development, we had forgotten the vital link between natural resources, technologies and 44
development. We have developed rapidly, recently. At the same time, sadly we have unwisely
degraded our precious natural resources. The changes we have inflicted on our mother nature are
no longer confined to only one region or even nation - they are becoming global.
Air pollution levels in a region are affected by wind, location, topography, and precipitation and
temperature inversions. Wind can carry pollutants to a distance of hundreds or perhaps thousands
of kms. Pollutants recognize no political boundaries. For instance, southern Norway and Sweden
get acid rain because of S02 blown from industries of England and other parts of Europe.
Similarly, in the case of Rhine River, the upstream countries are polluting the downstream
countries. Thus, the latter have to pay the environmental cost of pollutants, dumped by the
former.
Millions of tons of pollutants thrown into the atmosphere by USA are carried away by strong
winds to Canada and precipitate as acid rain. In India, sulphur dioxide released into the
atmosphere at Bombay flue stacks is carried away by South Westerly wind to Vorli and New
Bombay. Also in coastal areas land breezes carry pollution out to the sea and sea breeze bring
pollution back to the land.
Local wind pattern is affected by the topography and location of the region. High dispersion of
pollutants can be expected in plains and low dispersion in hills and mountains because they
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inhibit the flow of air leading to a buildup. Such conditions retard the escape of pollutants and
thus tend to concentrate them in a smaller area.
Under normal atmospheric conditions the air temperature drops steadily with increasing
elevations. When sunlight heats the earth, the heat is transferred to the air immediately above the
ground. Pollutants also rise up along with the warm air. Theoretically, a pollutant can be carried
right through the troposphere, but it cannot penetrate the stratosphere. In fact, air pollution is
confined to the first 100 meters of atmosphere above the ground. But the temperature at middle
elevations may become cooler or warmer than theoretical conditions. Then, in cooler conditions,
there is turbulence in the atmosphere because cool air, being denser than warm air, tends to fall.
If pollutants enter such atmosphere they get dispersed well and are diluted. However, during
warmer conditions, there is no turbulence and hence pollutants mix to lesser extent. When the
warm layer of air forms a ceiling over the denser cooler layer it leads to atmospheric inversion.
Then the pollutants will be trapped in the inversion layer because cool air is unable to rise. So the
concentration of air pollutants may reach dangerous levels. Sometimes, such inversions are local,
cover smaller area, and are short-lived. However, some inversions extend over thousands of
square Km.. These are common in mountain regions especially in winter, as the sun cannot
penetrate valley regions because of the shadow of mountains. In many industrialized countries,
severe air pollution episodes had occurred due to temperature inversion. For example, in 1952
nearly 4,000 people died in London in a five-day inversion at a height of 100-130m where
sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, and particulate sulphur were trapped. More such reports are
available from USA, Japan, London and Germany.
There are three major Global Environmental concerns that are created due to our non-sustainable
life-styles. They are global warming, acid rain and ozone depletion.
3. Give an account of Indian monsoons. Describe the monsoon tourism in India.
Indian monsoon, the most prominent of the world‘s monsoon systems, which primarily affects India and its surrounding water bodies. It blows from the northeast during cooler months and
reverses direction to blow from the southwest during the warmest months of the year. This process brings large amounts of rainfall to the region during June and July.
At the Equator the area near India is unique in that dominant or frequent westerly winds occur at
the surface almost constantly throughout the year; the surface easterlies reach only to latitudes near 20° N in February, and even then they have a very strong northerly component. They soon
retreat northward, and drastic changes take place in the upper-air circulation (see climate: Jet streams). This is a time of transition between the end of one monsoon and the beginning of the next. Late in March the high-sun season reaches the Equator and moves farther north. With it go
atmospheric instability, convectional (that is, rising and turbulent) clouds, and rain. The westerly subtropical jet stream still controls the flow of air across northern India, and the surface winds
are northeasterlies.
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India flourishes in all seasons and accordingly country has many vacation spots for different seasons. During the hot summer season tourists choose beach destinations like Goa, Kerala or
hill stations like Munnar, Darjeeling and Manali. During winters season many tourist choose Rajasthan, Goa and Kashmir as their vacation destinations. You will never be disappointed
whichever season you select for your India vacations.
June to September is the general monsoon period in India. In the beginning of June, long hot
summer comes to an end, the warm soil and dust cools down. The earth appears breezy and gives you much comfort in rainy seasons. The magic of monsoon surely works on everyone.
Tourists' love for monsoon and its growing fondness brought focus on monsoon tourism in India.
Due to the great demand for monsoon tourism, tour agents' offers attractive holiday packages. Monsoon vacations in India seem to be a great idea for budget conscious tourists. Indian tourism
sector appears to be blessed as it witnesses a sudden rise in the number of tourists at the beginning of the rainy season, when the clouds starts covering the sky.
Natural Tours and Travels proprietor Devendra Singh Setia shares, "We offer various types of packages for tours to places like Kashmir, Bengaluru, Koorg and Goa during monsoon. Last year they got excellent response and good appreciation from those who planned their tour with us.
This time we a have special highlight for the tour to Amarnath yaatra. The return journey shall be by helicopter."
Kashmir and Amarnath Yaatra
Amarnath yaatra is one of the most awaited events of our country. Located in the Indian state of
Jammu and Kashmir , Amarnath cave is a famous shrine in Hinduism. It is dedicated to Shiva.
The shrine forms an important part of Hinduism and is considered to be one of the holiest shrines
in Hinduism. Snowy mountains surround the cave. The cave itself is covered with snow most
time of the year except for a short period of time in summer when it is open for pilgrims .
Inside the 130 feet high Amarnath cave that faces south, is the Shiva Linga, which waxes during
May to August and gradually wanes thereafter. This lingam is said to grow and shrink with the
phases of the moon, reaching its height during the summer festival.
According a Hindu legend, this is the cave where Shiva explained the secret of life and eternity
to his divine consort Parvati. Two other ice formations represent Parvati and Shiva's son,
Ganesha.
The beautiful capital of Jammu & Kashmir, Srinagar is famous for its lakes and the numerous
houseboats that dot them. It is known as the Paradise on Earth and rightfully so. Its sparkling
rivers, gorgeous gardens and the overall natural beauty leave you completely spellbound.
Srinagar is also known for its traditional Kashmiri handicrafts and dry fruits. The spring season,
which extends from March to May, is possibly one of the most inviting times to visit this place.
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Showers are brief around this time, so it is advisable to carry light woolens.
Goa
Goa is an all time favourite destination for all seasons. Goa is especially beautiful from June to
September as nature flourishes here during this period. The rain brings romance in Goa and you
will feel this if you visit Dudhsagar Falls or take a cruise from Panaji. The aroma of the moist
vegetation at Periyar National Park during the monsoon gives a very special appeal.
Rajasthan
No other province eagerly awaits rains like the desert state of Rajasthan. After three long months
of summer, rains provide the much-needed relief to the land, which remains arid for most part of
the year. The month of Shravan (which coincides with July-August) is also the occasion for
several festive days. Celebrated to mark the advent of monsoon, traditionally, swings are hung
from trees for women to enjoy and pray for marital bliss. During monsoon you will get the real
flavour of Rajasthani culture.
Konkan
The entire Konkan stretch undergoes transformation with the first rains. Carpeted in a thick
blanket of green, Konkan is a sight to behold during monsoon. Besides natural beauty, Konkan is
rich in history. Of strategic importance, Konkan is closely associated with King Shivaji and the
Marathas. Littered with mountain forts and citadels, the pleasure of trekking to the historical
remnants during the rains is a perfect way to enjoy the season. Konkan also offers several scenic
beaches to enjoy the monsoon magic.
Kerala
The southern state is the first to receive the monsoon every year. Though Kerala remains covered
under a thick green cover through the year, the advent of rains adds a special hue to it. With
scores of tourists visiting Kerala during the rains, special packages are offered to entice visitors.
You might not be dry for too long during the monsoons in Kerala, but it's the ideal time for some
Ayurvedic rejuvenation. Imagine sitting on an easy chair and listening to the pitter patter of
rains. And we won't blame you for booking your tickets in minutes.
East India
The other famous destination for monsoon vacations in India is Shillong which is popularly
known as the 'Scotland of East'. There are many interesting places in Shillong that is a must
watch for tourists. Shillong has its own unique nature beauty. During monsoon, lakes and
waterfalls plays rhythmical music and wind whispers through dense forests. The attractions of
this beautiful place is Elephant Falls, Wards Lake, etc.
Ladakh
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Geographically, Ladakh is in the rain shadow area, which is why it is an ideal destination during
the monsoons. But a few rain-laden clouds do break through the mountains and the spectacle of
clouds kissing Himalayan peaks in the backdrop of the barren splendour of Ladakh is a sight to
behold.
North India
The most interesting place to visit during your monsoon vacations in India is the Valley of
Flowers National Park, which is located in state of Uttarakhand. It is open from the months of
April to October. It is best to visit during monsoon as the flowers are in full bloom. However,
before July you will not find any blossomed flowers, so try to make your plans accordingly.
4. Write short notes on
a) Natural hazards
A natural hazard is a naturally occurring event that might have a negative effect on people or
the environment. Natural hazard events can be grouped into two broad categories. Geophysical
hazards encompass geological and meteorological phenomena such as earthquakes, coastal
erosion, volcanic eruption, cyclonic storms, and drought. Biological hazards can refer to a
diverse array of disease and infestation. Other natural hazards such as floods and wildfires can
result from a combination of geological, hydrological, and climatic factors.
Many geophysical hazards are interrelated; for example, submarine earthquakes can cause
tsunamis, and hurricanes can lead to coastal flooding and erosion. It is possible that some natural
hazards are intertemporally correlated as well. A concrete example of the division between a
natural hazard and a natural disaster is that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was a disaster,
whereas living on a fault line is a hazard.
1 Geological hazards
1.1 Avalanche
1.2 Earthquake
1.3 Coastal erosion
1.4 Lahar
1.5 Landslide
1.6 Sinkholes
1.7 Volcanic eruption
2 Meteorological hazards
2.1 Blizzard
2.2 Drought
2.3 Hailstorm
2.4 Heat wave
2.5 Cyclonic storm
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2.6 Ice storm
2.7 Tornado
2.8 Climate change
2.9 Geomagnetic storm
2.10 Water spout
3 Flood
4 Wildfire
5 Disease
b) Globalization and Tourism
The current global recession is impacting the tourist industry worldwide and few places are
immune. Countries, such as the UAE, which boasted about its immunity in April 2008, saw massive lay-offs in construction in its capital Dubai, only a few months later due to fewer tourist dollars. While international travel is down, local and regional travel is doing relatively better as
people decide to travel closer to home.
Tourism is one of the largest industries worldwide, accounting for ten percent of the world GDP ($7-8 trillion) and ten percent of the US GDP ($1.2 trillion dollars). For many countries, such as
the Bahamas and other island economies, it is the main source of income and employment. About 240 million people worldwide are employed in travel and tourism.1
This analysis will address the impacts of tourism on culture, development, and the environment and will provide and in-depth case study of the impact tourism on the Polar Regions.
5. Describe the most serious manmade hazards in India. In what ways they influence /are
influenced by the tourism activities.
The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak incident in
India, considered the world's worst industrial disaster.
It occurred on the night of 2–3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL)
pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Over 500,000 people were exposed to methyl
isocyanate (MIC) gas and other chemicals. The toxic substance made its way into and around the
shanty towns located near the plant.
Estimates vary on the death toll. The official immediate death toll was 2,259. The government of
Madhya Pradesh confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release. A government
affidavit in 2006 stated that the leak caused 558,125 injuries, including 38,478 temporary partial
injuries and approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling injuries. Others estimate
that 8,000 died within two weeks, and another 8,000 or more have since died from gas-related
diseases.
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The cause of the disaster remains under debate. The Indian government and local activists argue
that slack management and deferred maintenance created a situation where routine pipe
maintenance caused a backflow of water into a MIC tank triggering the disaster. Union Carbide
Corporation (UCC) contends water entered the tank through an act of sabotage.
The owner of the factory, UCIL, was majority owned by UCC, with Indian Government-
controlled banks and the Indian public holding a 49.1 percent stake. In 1989, UCC paid $470m
($907m in 2014 dollars) to settle litigation stemming from the disaster. In 1994, UCC sold its
stake in UCIL to Eveready Industries India Limited (EIIL), which subsequently merged with
McLeod Russel (India) Ltd. Eveready ended clean-up on the site in 1998, when it terminated its
99-year lease and turned over control of the site to the state government of Madhya Pradesh.
Dow Chemical Company purchased UCC in 2001, seventeen years after the disaster.
Civil and criminal cases were filed in the District Court of Bhopal, India, involving UCC and
Warren Anderson, UCC CEO at the time of the disaster. In June 2010, seven ex-employees,
including the former UCIL chairman, were convicted in Bhopal of causing death by negligence
and sentenced to two years imprisonment and a fine of about $2,000 each, the maximum
punishment allowed by Indian law. An eighth former employee was also convicted, but died
before the judgement was passed. Anderson died on September 29, 2014.
6. What consumption patterns and other features of your lifestyle directly add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere? Which, if any, of those things would you be willing to give up to slow projected
global warming and reduce other forms of air pollution?
7. What consumption patterns and other features of your lifestyle directly and indirectly add ozone-
depleting chemicals to the atmosphere? Which, if any, of those would you be willing to give up to
slow ozone depletion?
8. Should the injection of hazardous wastes into deep underground wells be banned? Explain. What
would you do with these wastes?
Unit 4
1. You are entrusted with the task of performing EIA of expanding tourism activities in
remote islands with tribal communities. Discuss in detail the methodologies you would
follow.
The sustainability of tourism development can be further strengthened by more extensive and
effective use of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a requirement placed on developers.
EIA provides an internationally recognized and structured approach to obtaining and evaluating
environmental information about the potential impacts of a physical development; the EIA is
then used in decision-making in the development process.
It is particularly useful as an adjunct to the process of granting planning permission for new
development, and may be required of a potential developer in order to aid decision making. A
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particular strength of EIAs is the requirement to account for all stages and processes of a
proposed development, including upstream and downstream impacts. There is also a requirement
to consider alternative proposals that may lead to less harmful impact or provide greater
opportunity for benefit.
In many countries, use of EIA is required by law in situations where proposed development-
related actions are expected to be environmentally damaging, but its application to tourism varies
around the world. There is a lack of consistency in the selection of developments for which
specific EIA studies are required. Whether or not an EIA is required is likely to depend on the
size and nature of the project, the sensitivity of the location in which it is proposed, and the
perceived risk to the environment. Small scale projects are not included in most EIA systems
although their cumulative impacts may be significant over time.
The close relationship between social and environmental systems makes it imperative that social
impacts are identified, predicted and evaluated in conjunction with biophysical impacts. EIAs are
increasingly including prediction and evaluation of social, economic and health impacts as well
as environmental impacts. Emerging thinking and practice in the application of EIA is likely to
focus mainly on adapting and using EIA in conjunction with other tools as a means of testing
development proposals against pre-determined sustainability criteria.
Recommendations for improving EIA processes include:
• Clarifying the screening process that determines whether EIAs are required. The provision for
EIA should be based on legislation which is clear and explicit as to the nature and scope of
application and the type of approach to be taken.
• Reviewing how EIAs are applied to tourism development and whether coverage should be
extended. At present it is unlikely that an EIA will be required. Generally for all tourism
projects, but the kinds of project and location for which they are required should be clear to
developers.
• Providing helpful guidelines, relevant to tourism, on what is required in the EIA.
• Avoiding duplication or uncertainty between the agencies involved, and providing a swift
response, in order to prevent projects that do not comply from proceeding without a decision.
• Establishing a process to track compliance with any management and mitigation measures
proposed in the EIA and, where necessary, providing enforcement action.
2. Write short notes on
a) Environmental Management Plans (EMP):
An EMP for each of the contract packages detailing the measures to be taken for the
implementation of the various measures proposed. This includes the monitoring plan and gives
details of the resources budgeted and the implementation arrangements being taken up in
continuation of the TNHP, the same EA methodology has been adopted for the GTRP as well.
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However, As a learning from the experiences from, in addition to the EA process as adopted for
TNHP, a further in-depth study of the following issues has been carried out as part of the GTRP:
Addressal of direct and induced impacts on the various environmental components;
Specific designs for the mitigation measures provided;
Site specific enhancement designs for elements along the corridor, including cultural
properties, water bodies, bus stops etc;
Redevelopment of borrow areas;
Prediction of impacts due to the project on air I noise, and provision measures; Of
mitigation
Traffic management plans during construction; and
Monitoring mechanisms and indicators during construction and operation periods.
b) Indicators
An indicator is something that points to an issue or condition. Its purpose is to show you how well a
system is working. If there is a problem, an indicator can help you determine what direction to take to address the issue. Indicators are as varied as the types of systems they monitor.
However, there are certain characteristics that effective indicators have in common:
• They are relevant; they show you something about the system that you need to know. E.g. % soil vegetal cover for erosion rates
• They are easy to understand, even by people who are not experts. E.g. % native plant species (both relative and absolute densities)
• They are reliable; you can trust the information that the indicator is providing. E.g. reliability is
preferred to precision i.e. a reliable estimate of soil erosion is preferable to a cumbersome precise
measurement of the same
• Lastly, effective indicators are based on accessible data; the information is available or can be
gathered while there is still time to act.
Notable among the Ecological/ Environmental indicators are: • Vegetative composition, % vegetation cover and diversity,
• Indicators of pollution and disturbance
• % Treatment of wastes generated
• Invasion of exotic species
• Frequency and scale of Human- wildlife conflicts
• Bio-diversity of birds, butterflies and other flagship species.
The following Social/Economic indicators are very important: • Changes in the visitors‘ frequency of visits/stay duration
• Improvements in basic infra- structural facilities
• The number, % and level of local tour employees
• The relative distribution of benefits among community members
• Disposable income /debt burden and changes in life-style of the local communities,
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3. Discuss the various methods of EIA using a highway construction in a coastal area.
The following is an example of how to perform EIA for the construction of a highway. This
necessarily involves the following impacts:
i. E.ls related to aesthetics
ii. Circulation impacts
iii. Air quality impacts
iv. Water quality impacts
v. Noise impacts
vi. Impacts on wildlife
vii. Socio-economic Impacts
i. Els related to aesthetics:
The following are some of the important Els related to aesthetics:
• Blocking view lines along visual corridors, especially in valleys and beaches etc.
‗visualpollution‘ or ‗visual blight‘ E.g. Kodaikanal Kovalam (Tamil Nadu), (Kerela).
• Unattractive contrast between existing natural flora and revegetated / landscaped areas (if
improperly done)/ between natural landscapes and engineering features of the highways /
between the existing development patterns (urban, rural, coastal, hill etc.) and the highways
features.
ii. Circulation impacts
The circulation impacts will include:
• Blocking / impairing access along existing streets / paths so as to make inaccessible some vital
areas - eg. Irrigation, grazing, NTFP collection areas, recreation areas
• Physical separation of a habitat e.g. infra structural facilities for recreation and wildlife
corridors
• providing access to previously inaccessible areas, bringing market forces into the livelihoods of
the local communities - loss of incentives for local sustainable exploitation
• increasing traffic and traveling - causing an increased demand for travel related services -
trampling, degradation and pollution
iii. Air quality impacts
This will include Increase in the levels of dust / particulate matter (gases, smog, fumes and
odours) - their impacts on plants, animals (including man) and structures.
iv. Water quality impacts Water quality impacts will include the following:
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• Turbidity and silting of adjacent streams‖ of reservoirs due to erosion during construction /
maintenance operations; this will reduce the capacity, shorten the life of the aquatic water bodies
and cause damage to the biota and structures.
• Highway run off contamination - containing oil, petrol, tar, diesel, pesticides, fertilizers, animal
(Including human) wastes with impacts on water, land, flora and fauna.
Due to the closer and inseparable linkages between soil, vegetation and water resources, any
impact on one component would affect the other 2 components. Intensive road building activities
in mountain watersheds would disrupt the hydrology by removing the soil vegetal cover - the
vital link for conserving soil and water resource in such fragile ecosystems.
v. Noise impacts
Noise is created by the vehicles on the highways (buses, cars, vans, jeeps, Lorries and other four
wheelers and two wheelers). Noise will affect the behavior of animals and in severe cases can
cause physiological disorders. The impacts of noise seriously affect tourism. This is because of
the following factors:
• Possible recreational activities require quiet and serene conditions and
• There are areas sensitive to noise- hotels, hospitals, residences, schools and temples.
vi. Impacts on wildlife
This will include:
• Degradation/complete loss of wildlife habitats by habitat fragmentation and overexploitation by
the ‗settlers‘
• Physical degradation / disturbance of wildlife; their behavior, distribution and migration
patterns; displacement of wildlife.
Due to these factors, the feeding, breeding and nursery grounds are reduced, forcing the wild life
to raid cultivated crops and domesticated live-stocks; sometimes, there are instances of killing
and eating humans from the adjoining human settlements. This leads to ‗Human-wildlife
conflicts‘ and defeats the very purpose of conserving Biodiversity. We have come to realize that
we cannot save wildlife by simply preventing their poaching; we have to provide adequate
habitat for them to survive and reproduce.
vii. Socio-economic Impacts
This will include;
• Disturbance/displacement of forest and agricultural land uses, due to pressures from residential,
commercial, and industrial land uses; this raises many equity issues
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• Removal of structures /sites of aesthetic beauty (scenic/ historical / architectural importance)
• Loss of sites for potential use which may have more benefits in future
• Lower compensations and delay in payments; loss of local livelihoods
• Severance of interpersonal ties of displaced residents to the former neighborhood/ community.
4. Are you satisfied with the way in which EIAS are performed in our country? What
improvements you would suggest for undertaking EIA of tourism projects in protected
areas?
The environmental impact assessment for each of the project packages employed a reiterative
approach in which environmental issues have been identified in successive levels of detail and
specificity at each step in the process. Incorporation of feedback from the various stakeholders as
well as ‗public hearings‘ and analyzing their valuable inputs were essential features of this
methodology.
The following were the stages of environmental impact assessment of the project:
Preliminary Environmental and Social Screening (PESS):
• A PESS study of each of the Consultancy packages had been carried out as part of the
feasibility study, to categorise the corridor into sections based on environmental and social
sensitivity, and to screen significant environmental and social issues that needed to be addressed.
• Documentation of Baseline Conditions: The potentially affected area (PIA) was defined and the
baseline conditions were documented.
Assessment of Potential Impacts:
• Potential significant impacts were identified on the basis of an analytical review of baseline
data.
• Integration of Environmental Assessments in the Design Process: The design and decision-
making process integrated environmental and resettlement and rehabilitation issues and
prompted the early identification of appropriate actions, as shifts in alignments based on
awareness of the locations of cultural resources.
Assessment of Alternatives:
Alterative were continuously assessed throughout the process. A more formal assessment was
also undertaken as a part of the environmental assessment process, including the assessment of
the ‗No Action'.
Alternative, Mitigation and Enhancement Measures:
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Positive actions to not only avoid adverse impacts, but to capitalize on opportunities to correct
environmental degradation or improve environmental conditions were determined. The
mitigation measures would be directed towards the restoration of the dynamic balance of nature.
Community Consultation:
Consultations with concerned officials, agencies and potentially affected persons continued
through the process and will continue as the project proceeds. The issues raised by the
communities and the various stakeholders were incorporated, as far as possible, in the design and
construction/operation plan of the project highway.
Unit 5
1. Define conservation from tourism perspective and discuss its relevance for evolving
responsible tourism strategies for remote mountain ecosystems with pristine ecosystems
and cultures.
Conservation is the preservation, management and/or wise use of Biodiversity and natural
resources so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit for the present generations while
maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Conservation
depends on the continued health and productivity of local ecosystems. Thus, conservation
embraces preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization and restoration, and enhancement of
the natural environment. Hence, conservation problems are generally problems of exploitation
that involve careful planning implementation and monitoring, and as such are important for
promoting sustainable tourism strategies.
The following are the basic strategies that could be adopted for the conservation of Biological
diversity and natural resources, so that tourism activities/experiences can be enhanced:
Promote the rehabilitation and restoration of damaged ecosystems and the recovery of threatened
and endangered species by site specific strategies;
• Analyse the potentials and constraints for augmentation (increasing the supply - e.g.
afforestation in wastelands), substitution (substituting scarcer natural resources with abundant
ones- e.g. replace irewood with biogas, if needed) and conservation (reducing the wasteful use of
resources- e.g. improved wood stoves) of natural resources for long term sustainable
development
• Improve awareness, training and interpretation/demonstration programmes on best practice
case studies and field visits by horizontal transfer of appropriate technologies for conservation
• Actively involve the Iocal communities and other Stake- holders in evolving local, regional and
national strategies for conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of biological
resources for achieving livelihood/food/energy security with an analysis of relevant costs and
benefits, with particular reference to socio- economic aspects;
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• Evolve community based/run micro-enterprises using the local BD/natural resources such as
Eco-tourism so that they generate benefits (economic, social, and/or environmental) for a
community of stakeholders both in the short run and, with a high probability, in the long run.
• Integrate conservation and development (policies, legislation, implementation, participation
etc) based on a gender balanced approach
• Integrate the local strategies for the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use
of biological resources into national development policies, strategies and/or action plans
• Take appropriate measures for the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from research
and development and use of biological and genetic resources, including biotechnology, between
the sources of those resources and those who use them;
• Recognize and foster the traditional methods and the knowledge of indigenous people and their
communities, emphasizing the particular role of women, relevant to the conservation of
biological diversity and the sustainable use of biological resources, and ensure the opportunity
for the participation of those groups in the economic and commercial benefits derived from the
use of such traditional methods and knowledge;
• Evolve appropriate packages of incentives (e.g. subsidies, compensations, tax holidays etc.) and
disincentives (e.g. fines, taxes etc.) for encouraging all participants to adapt conservation
strategies
Despite our sincere efforts over the past 20 years, the loss of the world's biological diversity, and
degradation of vital natural resources such as soil, air and water, mainly from habitat destruction,
over-harvesting, pollution and the inappropriate introduction of foreign plants and animals, has
continued. Urgent and decisive action is needed to conserve and maintain the species and
ecosystems, with a view to their sustainable management. This is particularly true for the tourism
sector as it has the onerous responsibility to conserve and rationally utilize the species, habitats,
natural resources and ecosystems. This goal cannot be achieved without basic guidelines for
conservation that would include the elements of ethics, codes and conduct for various
stakeholders.
2. Write short notes on
a) Tourism codes and conducts
The principle of a Global Code of Ethics for tourism was evolved in the session of the
Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) in New York in April 1999. The following are
the ten principles (referred to as articles in the report) that were to be understood and respected:
• Tourism's contribution to mutual understanding and respect between peoples and societies -
evolving a symbiotic relationship between hosts (the local communities) and the guests (the
tourists)
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• Tourism as a vehicle for individual and collective fulfillment - of needs and aspirations
• Tourism, a factor of sustainable development - for local communities and the tourism sector
• Tourism, a user of the cultural heritage of mankind and contributor to its enhancement
• Tourism, a beneficial activity for host countries and communities
• Obligations of stakeholders in tourism development that include conservation and rational
utilization of biodiversity and natural resources
• Right to tourism-for both local and international tourists
• Liberty of tourist movements – focusing on the principles of democracy, transparency and
equity
• Rights of the workers and entrepreneurs in the tourism industry- for empowerment
• Participatory implementation mechanisms
b) Conservation and tourism
Nature conservation and tourism in the contemporary sense date from the first half of the
nineteenth century and, to a large extent, have developed parallel to one another. Their common
root was the ideology of romanticism with its new look at wild nature, no longer regarded as
sinister and repellent. Instead, nature became a value in itself and a quest for contact with it
became one of the factors that was responsible for development of tourism.
Society's attitude towards historical monuments evolved in a similar way. During the period of
romanticism, people acknowledged the value of relics of the past and started to set up museums.
The adjective "gothic" lost its pejorative meaning while "monument-discovering" was followed
by a natural need to explore them, thus giving a second boost to the development of tourism.
There was also feedback; the people who enjoyed tourism were finding new, interesting cultural
and natural objects in the course of their wanderings. By recording various threats, in many cases
they became the first defenders of nature and culture.
In the history of many European and North American countries, numerous examples can be
found of efforts by tourist organizations as a whole as well as those by their members to protect
the natural and cultural heritage.
At the end of the nineteenth century, however, there began to be signs that a rapidly developing
tourism industry, treated as a part of the economy, might threaten nature and culture. In 1913,
Prof. Jan Gwalbert Pawlikowski, a lawyer, alpinist and one of the most active nature protectors,
wrote in his prophetic work Culture and Nature: "Some people, moved by the beauty of nature,
wanted to share their impressions with others and started to facilitate access to it by building
roads, trails and shelters. A docile public understood that nature must be beautiful, for the spirit
of the epoch demanded it.... Seriously, modern man needs some comfort, so shelters were
replaced by hotels which the catering and alcoholic beverage business eagerly supported. Would
this not be in the interest of a superior level of excellence, since the public's love of nature would
contribute to the national wealth? So, the trails were equipped with railings and guide-posts,
41
narrow paths were turned into roads and, eventually, engineering skill achieved a miracle: in the
manner of Herostratus, it violated mountains by building railways up to their summits."
Unfortunately, subsequent development confirmed the accuracy of this diagnosis, and not only in
mountain regions. The next decades were dominated by economic and consumer interests that
disregarded the consequent environmental devastation. A certain disillusionment came about by
the end of the 1960s, a period that can be recognized as a turning-point for the awakening of
ecological consciousness on a global scale. People started to look for ways of reconciling
economic development with ecological security, a quest which, in a theoretical sense, has been
crowned with the World Conservation Strategy.
In terms of tourism, this change in emphasis was possible because, alongside the vast
commercial tourist industry, there had continued a strong trend of traditional nature tourism,
based on the knowledge, joy and satisfaction resulting from contacts with nature, historical
monuments and people of different cultures -a form of tourism where physical effort is not
viewed as a nuisance but as a source of satisfaction, that wonderful feeling that occurs on the top
of a mountain after long hours of climbing. Tourist adventures can be experienced either alone or
with companions. In the latter case, there is an additional humanistic aspect: the consciousness of
a close relationship with another person, a deep common emotion.
Essentially, therefore, ecotourism is not a new phenomenon. Rather, it is a return to roots and the
rediscovery of values that have been covered with concrete and drowned by the noise of cars.
3. Discuss the global code of ethics and discuss the potentials and constraints for adapting
the same in the Indian context.
The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (GCET) is a comprehensive set of principles whose
purpose is to guide stakeholders in tourism development: central and local governments, local
communities, the tourism industry and its professionals, as well as visitors, both international and
domestic.
The Code was called for in a resolution of the UNWTO General Assembly meeting in Istanbul in
1997. Over the following two years, a special committee for the preparation of the Global Code
of Ethics was formed and a draft document was prepared by the Secretary-General and the legal
adviser to UNWTO in consultation with UNWTO Business Council, UNWTO's Regional
Commissions, and the UNWTO .
The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development meeting in New York in April,
1999 endorsed the concept of the Code and requested UNWTO to seek further input from the
private sector, non-governmental organizations and labour organizations. Written comments on
the code were received from more than 70 UNWTO Member States and other entities. The
resulting 10 point Global Code of Ethics for Tourism - the culmination of an extensive
consultative process- was approved unanimously by the UNWTO General Assembly meeting in
Santiago in October 1999. Executive Council.
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1. The public and private stakeholders in tourism development should cooperate in the
implementation of these principles and monitor their effective application;
2. The stakeholders in tourism development should recognize the role of international
institutions, among which the World Tourism Organization ranks first, and non- governmental
organizations with competence in the field of tourism promotion and development, the protection
of human rights, the environment or health, with respect for the general principles of
international law;
3. The same stakeholders should demonstrate their intention to refer any disputes concerning the
application or interpretation of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism for conciliation to an
impartial third body known as the World Committee on Tourism Ethics.
4. Calls upon the stakeholders in tourism development - national, regional and local tourism
administrations, tourism enterprises, business associations, workers in the sector and tourism
bodies - the host communities and the tourists themselves to model their conduct on the
principles embodied in this Global Code of Ethics for Tourism and to implement them in good
faith. 97
5. Decides that the procedures for implementing the principles embodied in the Code will, where
necessary, be subject to guidelines for application, prepared by the World Committee on
Tourism Ethics, submitted to the Executive Council of WTO, adopted by the General Assembly
and periodically reviewed and adjusted in the same conditions;
4. Write short notes on
a) Tourism and Biodiversity conservation
Despite mounting efforts over the past 20 years, the loss of the world's biological diversity,
mainly from habitat destruction, over-harvesting, pollution and the inappropriate introduction of
foreign plants and animals, has continued. Biological resources constitute a capital asset with
great potential for yielding sustainable benefits. Urgent and decisive action is needed to conserve
and maintain genes, species and ecosystems, with a view to the sustainable management and use
of biological resources. Capacities for the assessment, study and systematic observation and
evaluation of biodiversity need to be reinforced at national and international levels. Effective
national action and international cooperation is required for the in situ (on site) protection of
ecosystems, for the ex situ (off site) conservation of biological and genetic resources and for the
enhancement of ecosystem functions. The participation and support of local communities are
elements essential to the success of such an approach.
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b) NRM
Natural resource management refers to the management of natural resources such as land,
water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of
life for both present and future generations (stewardship).
Natural resource management deals with managing the way in which people and natural
landscapes interact. It brings together land use planning, water management, biodiversity
conservation, and the future sustainability of industries like agriculture, mining, tourism,
fisheries and forestry. It recognises that people and their livelihoods rely on the health and
productivity of our landscapes, and their actions as stewards of the land play a critical role in
maintaining this health and productivity.
Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical understanding of
resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those resources. Environmental
management is also similar to natural resource management. In academic contexts, the sociology
of natural resources is closely related to, but distinct from, natural resource management.
UNIT 6
i. Explain why you agree or disagree with the following propositions (with examples
wherever necessary):
◦ Tourism is a smokeless industry in third world countries
In the 1960‘s, the tourism industry drew less attention as both scientific and media interests
heightened about the effects of human activity on the environment and the only mention of
tourism around that time was in the circumstances of a ‗smokeless industry‘ (Holden, 2005). The
‗smokeless industry‘ was appreciated by viewing the tourism industry in an eco-friendlier
manner in terms of acknowledging mountainous regions, wildlife conservations etcetera. Even
though there was an appraisal of the tourism industry being perceived a smokeless industry, it
still raised some criticism from critics who mentioned that viewing the tourism sector from a
wholly ecologic point of view is highly detrimental for the growth and development that the
tourism industry attracts (Holden, 2005). The relationship between tourism and the environment
is undoubtedly reciprocated and not narrow in a sense that tourism relies on the environment as it
uses its natural resources which can have a positive or negative impact on the environment.
However, in the same way, while the tourism industry may affect the environment, altercation in
the environment may also affect or influence the tourism industry (Holden, 2005). Tourism and
the environment have a complex relationship and several activities like the airports, roads and
tourism facilities including resorts, theme parks, hoteliers and so on can bring about adverse
environmental issues. Furthermore, not only does the tourism industry affect the environment in
a negative way but also some positive impacts evolve as tourism seeks to contribute to
environmental protection and conservation (UNWTO, 2013).
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◦ there is unlimited potential for tourism development in third world countries
Tourism is a vital part of the global economy. Generating roughly $1 trillion in global receipts in
2008 (up 1.8 percent from 2007), international tourism ranked as the fourth-largest industry in
the world, after fuels, chemicals, and automotive products.
The breadth of international travel also has greatly expanded in recent years to encompass the
developing world. In 1950 just fifteen destinations—primarily European—accounted for 98
percent of all international arrivals. By 2007 that figure had fallen to 57 percent.
Once essentially excluded from the tourism industry, the developing world has now
become its major growth area. Tourism is a key foreign exchange earner for 83 percent of
developing countries and the leading export earner for one-third of the world‘s poorest
countries.
For the world‘s forty poorest countries, tourism is the second-most important source of
foreign exchange after oil.
The economic might of the tourist industry has helped transform societies, often for the
better. Tourism has several advantages over other industries:
It is consumed at the point of production so that it directly benefits the communities that
provide the goods.
It enables communities that are poor in material wealth but rich in culture, history, and
heri tage to use their unique characteristics as an income-generating comparative
advantage.
It creates networks of different operations, from hotels and restaurants to adventure sports
providers and food suppliers. This enables tourist centers to form complex and varied
supply chains of goods and services, supporting a versatile labor market with a variety of
jobs for tour guides, translators, cooks, cleaners, drivers, hotel managers, and other
service sector workers. Many tourism jobs are flexible or seasonal and can be taken on in
parallel with existing occupations, such as farming.
It tends to encourage the development of multiple-use infrastructure that benefits the host
community, including roads, health care facilities, and sports centers, in addition to the
hotels and high-end restaurants that cater to foreign visitors.
◦ Participation of local communities is not required for tourism planning
ii. Write short notes on
Tourism and Sustainable development
The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNCED), the Rio Earth
Summit, identified Travel & Tourism as one of the key sectors of the economy which could
make a positive contribution to achieving sustainable development. The Earth Summit lead to the
adoption of Agenda 21, a comprehensive program of action adopted by 182 governments to
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provide a global blueprint for achieving sustainable development. Travel & Tourism is the first
industry sector to have launched an industry-specific action plan based on Agenda 21
Travel & Tourism is able to contribute to development which is economically, ecologically and
socially sustainable, because it:
• has less impact on natural resources and the environment than most other industries;
• is based on enjoyment and appreciation of local culture, built heritage, and natural
environment, as such that the industry has a direct and powerful motivation to protect these
assets;
• can play a positive part in increasing consumer commitment to sustainable development
principles through its unparalleled consumer distribution channels; and
• provides an economic incentive to conserve natural environments and habitats which might
otherwise be allocated to more environmentally damaging land uses, thereby, helping to maintain
bio-diversity.
There are numerous good examples of where Travel & Tourism is acting as a catalyst for
conservation and improvement of the environment and maintenance of local diversity and
culture.
Equity issues and tourism development
Equity is a key principle of sustainable tourism that addresses fairness in access, use, and
distribution of goods and benefits from tourism development, to meet the needs of both current
and future generations. Initiated by the United Nations, the World Commission on Environment
and Development (commonly referred to as the Brundtland Commission), addressed the issue of
equity in its influential report on sustainable development, Our Common Future (WCED 1987).
It entails not only inter- and intra-generational equity in development but also equity between the
North and the South. Acknowledging historic inequalities in development and resource use
between the Western world and the lesser developed nations, the commission called for the
―poor to get the fair share of the resources required to sustain growth‖ and their effective
participation in decision-making processes so they can enforce their common interest.
iii. Discuss the basic guide lines for sustainable tourism in a remote island.
Eco development is a part of the Environment and Development activities of UNEP by which it
promotes sustainable management strategies for watersheds, Forests, grasslands, deserts, coastal
zones etc throughout the world. Sustainable Tourism can be visualized as an integrating thread in
such situations and the resultant product is Eco development tourism. It is community-centered
and has the following major characteristics:
• The community plays a key role in the planning and decision-making of tourism activities in
their area.
• It is biased towards the development of natural sites and habitats in accordance with local and
indigenous culture and values.
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• It advocates community control and management of natural resources. It helps build
community capacity to manage the development of its area.
• It involves setting up community organizations and Community owned tourism enterprises,
training leaders and community specialists, as well as developing the appropriate Eco-
technologies required to ensure sound management of destination areas/ ecosystems.
• It helps to create development funds to support economic, social and environmental projects of
community partners.
• The natural environment is the base of development of a community. It is also a vital base of
tourism. Thus it is oriented towards ecological protection and biodiversity conservation. It
recognizes the carrying capacity of each site and of the community. It is sensitive to visitor
impact and to the limits of acceptable change of community habitats.
• It promotes increased appreciation of cultural diversity.
Village stays and immersion activities provide opportunities for visitors to deepen their
understanding of the host's social and development milieu that helps fostering mutual
interdependence and respect. Thus it promotes the development of tourism infrastructure
facilities that are in harmonious integration with the landscape, indigenous architecture, living
matter, technology, people and their culture rather than towards the creation and promotion of
artificial tourist enclaves such as golf courses and mega-resorts.
iv. Define integrated energy planning. Discuss its importance in the promotion of sustainable
tourism.
Integrated Energy Planning (IEP) means the analysis of all energy issues within a unified policy
framework in order to arrive at a set of nationally optimal energy solutions over the long term
(say, fifteen to twenty years). One of the most crucial outcomes of IEP has been the en ergy
master plan (EMP).
The scope of IEP may be clarified by examining the complex relationships between the energy
sector and the rest of the economy. At the highest and most aggregate level, it should be clearly
recognized that the energy sector is a part of the whole economy. The second level of IEP treats
the energy sector as a separate entity composed of subsectors such as electricity, petroleum
products and so on. The third and most disaggregate level relates to planning within each of the
energy subsectors.
A planning process should be dynamic and continuous, with all data; assumptions and analyses
being constantly revised using the most recent information, and state of the art analytical tools.
The IEP procedure itself may be broken down into the following steps: ocioeconomic
background and national objectives; energy demand analysis; energy supply analysis; energy
balance; policy formulation and impact analysis. It should be noted that these divisions are
conceptual, and in practice there will be considerable overlap among them. In general two
modeling approaches have been used in IEP. The top-down modeling approach uses generalized
macroeconomic models and focus on the economy at large.
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A key assumption underlying many top-down analyses is that the economy is in equilibrium. The
bottom-up approaches focus on the energy sector alone. They are based on detailed engineering–
economic studies of energy supply and end-use technologies, and on micro-economic studies of
end-use markets.
It is now clear that development, in order to be sustained over a long period of time, must not
destroy the resources on which it depends. The objective of sustainable development is therefore
not only economic growth: it is also social development, the eradication of poverty,
improvement of health, conservation of natural resources, environmental protection, and a better
quality of life. In the field of energy, sustainability, rather than physical scarcity of resources, has
become the main driver for change. Although it is possible in principle to give a precise
definition of ―sustainable energy‖ (Daly, 1991), it is apparent that a transition to a fully
sustainable system cannot be achieved in the short or medium term; moreover each individual
country should respect the conditions of sustainability globally, and not necessarily. This is
especially true for the poorest developing countries; which contribute very little to global
environmental problems and climate change but desperately need energy services for survival
and sustainable development. Sustainable development is made up of three equally important
factors: economic development, social development, and protection of the environment.
Therefore, the guidelines to creating sustainable energy systems are quite clear: improve
efficiency of energy production and use; and propmte renewable sources of energy.
v. What are the constraints for implementing sustainable development strategies in our
country? How can we overcome them?
vi. Discuss the meaning of sustainability from tourism point of view.
Sustainability has emerged as an umbrella concept, embracing many interconnected issues of
environment and development. However, there are two distinct aspects viz. the long- term and
different goal of sustainability and the process by which we might move somewhat closer to the
goal (SD). Thus, the two are not the same.
The term sustainability is derived from the Latin root -Sustainer (English translation Sustain) that
means to hold up i.e. To maintain or prolong the productive use of resources and the integrity of
environment. Only recently the concept of sustainability came into popular usage. There are
many definitions for sustainability. Notable among them are:
A process or state that can be maintained indefinitely (IUCN, 1991) -appears to be a dictionary
definition Ways of managing natural resources that do not create ecological debts by
overexploiting the carrying and productive capacities of the earth (Pronk and Haq, 1992) - not
yet a complete definition.
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Maintenance of the total natural capital sustainably at or above the current level as a minimum
necessary condition- offers an operational specification of at least one element of sustainability,
sustainability is a dynamic concept.
However, still the question. How the term sustainability is to be defined and measured is not yet
clear. Different disciplines offer their own varying interpretations of sustainability. For instance,
the Economists emphasize the maintenance and improvement of the living standards of humans
while, ecologists and other scientists broadened the meaning to express concerns about
preserving the adaptability and function of entire Ecological and Bio physical systems;
Geographers and Anthropologists focus on the viability of Socio cultural systems. Under these
circumstances, it is easier to visualize/define non-sustainability than sustainability! In an absolute
sense, the word ‗sustainable' has no time horizon - going on forever. Because nothing goes on
forever, however, nothing is absolutely sustainable. To maintain modern high-tech civilizations
and present day population levels, production systems must be modified and subsidized. How far
they are going to be sustainable is an open question.
The following are some of the dimensions of sustainability:
• Ecological/Environmental sustainability - systems with no artificial energy, nutrient and water
supply eg. Naturally occurring ecosystems like tropical rain forests or human managed systems
like traditional indigenous/native fisheries / farming systems. However, they are impossible for
advanced societies without Socio economic change.
• Economic sustainability-does not bother about Intra and intergenerational equity; the economy
is maintained by huge subsidies/price structures and there are other ethical issues - eg. "economic
gain‖ by cultivating/ marketing cocaine, ganja etc. Vs ethics.
• Technological sustainability–artifact of academic research institutions, but receive lot of
publicity; it is a system that can remain productive as long as unlimited funds are available to
support the production technology-eg. High-tech green revolution agriculture (GRA) of
agricultural experimental stations (however, such ideal conditions do not occur‖ beyond the
bounds of experimental stations and hence, there is always a yield gap between them and the
local farms)
• Social sustainability – Political & cultural components
• Bio physical sustainability–Dynamic process of natural ecosystems can become unstable as a
result of stresses imposed by human activities; these processes are governed by the laws of
thermodynamics.
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vii. Compare and contrast different property use regimes. Give suitable examples for each
category.
‗Property is a claim to a benefit / income stream, and a ‗property right 'is a claim to a benefit
stream that some higher body (usually the State) will agree to protect through the assignment of
duty to others who may covet or somehow interfere with the benefit stream. Thus, property is a
triadic social relation involving benefit streams, right holders and duty bearers (rights have no
meaning without correlated duties).
In the Open Access Resources (OAR), there are no property rights; unrestricted, uncontrolled
entry/ access/exploitation are observed and thus there is no incentive for sustainable management
of the commons; hence, ‗the tragedy of the commons‘ is inevitable. But OAR is not a Common
Pool Resource (CPR) or Common Property Resource (CPRr). ―Every bodys‖ property is
nobody's property‖ (sometimes, controlled exploitation may be possible). E.g. Coastal fisheries.
Private property (PPR) is owned / held by individual company / corporation / cooperative society
which have exclusive legal rights to use, sell, manage etc ; PPr rights rests on three basic
concepts - retentability (right to use), transferability and exclusivity. E.g. Farm lands.
In most of the third world countries, colonized by the west, the history of natural resource
ownership followed a transition from CPRrs to Government Property Resources (GPRs) or State
Property Resources (SPRs) E.g. Reserve forests; the CPRrs, once under the exclusive control of
the original natives and the settlers were usurped by the western colonizers; sometimes, land
ceiling acts and development projects‘ were used as excuses to transfer rights from individuals /
community to the State; sometimes by long term lease the GPR are brought under the control of
the private owners. More than two thirds of world's fisheries are also under State property;
sometimes, individual species, wherever they are found are also State property e.g. Sandalwood
trees. Table presents some distinguishing characteristics of property regimes.
S.
N.
CHARACTERISTICS TYPES OF RESOURCES
OAR PPR CPR CPRr
1 Property rights are well defined NO YES YES/NO YES
2 User/s group/s is/ are identifiable
NO YES YES YES
3 Resource is accessible to every body
YES NO YES NO
4 Resource is used in common YES NO YES YES
5 Rules, regulation & Conventions governing the use of resource exist
NO YES YES/NO YES
6 Exclusion of free riders difficult YES NO N.A. YES
7 Use of resource is subtractible YES YES YES YES
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viii. Define common property resources. How would you differentiate them from common?
The Common Property Resources (CPRrs) are subject to individual use but not to individual
possession; individuals have independent rights to use; CPRrs are non-exclusive resources in
which a group of people have coequal use rights on resources collectively owned and managed
by a well-defined group of users. They are usually not viewed as a commodity that can be sold in
the market but rather as an inheritance that should be passed on to future generations (however,
the products can be sold). CPRrs can be visualized at local, regional, national and global levels);
oceans, Polar Regions, air / atmosphere beyond the jurisdiction of countries, outer Space can be
considered as global commons.
Burning questions for managing the global commons are:
How can we reduce the negative impacts of development to acceptable limits?
How can we share / distribute the costs / benefits in exploiting the global CPRrs?
How can we reduce the Trans boundary conflicts in using the global CPRrs?
The following table compares and contrasts the three major property regimes with
perticular reference to accessibility and control systems for extraction
S No Parameter Property regimes
Private property Common ownership/ Closed access (res communes )
Open access (res nullius)
State Property (res publica)
1 Access or right to extract
Owners/occupiers Group members Any one State
2 Limitation on level of extraction
Owners decision Group rules, exclusion Unlimited Legislation
Common pool resources share two important characteristics: excludability and subtractability.
The first attribute - difficulty of st exclusion - arises from several factors including the cost of
parceling or fencing the resource and the co of designing and enforcing property rights to
control access to the resource. The second attribute - subtractability - creates rivalry between
different users. The resource units (e.g. bundles of firewood or fodder) that one user extracts
from a common pool resource are not available to others. Each user is thus capable of subtracting
from the benefits that others derive from a common pool resource.
Because of these characteristics, common potentially pool resources are subject to over
exploitation, depletion or degradation. A broad challenge in the management of common pool
resources is how to co-ordinate use by individuals as population grows in order to prevent over-
exploitation. The terms common property resource (CPRr), common pool resource (CPR) and
commons are often used synonymously. However there are differences between CPRrs and
CPRs; in CPRrs, the rights holders have well defined property rights and use of resource is
subtractible whereas they are not so far CPRs.; Similarly the former always have rights and
regulations while it may/maynot be be there for the latter.Egs. CPRrs- common grazing land/
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woodlot / fishing grounds; CPRs-privately owned cultivated land lying vacant in between 2 crop
seasons (biomass, space etc.), community threshing floor.
Similarly, there are differences between CPRs and pure collective / public goods (PCG/PPG) and
Non- collective goods (NCG); PCGs/PPGs refer to any collective consumed goods whose rate of
consumption is independent of the number of consumers and the particular use made of the good
is non-competitive and non- subtractable; exclusion is not possible. Eg. Solar radiation, light-
houses etc.; NCG may be used only by one person or a few persons at a time, their use is
competitive and subtractable eg. Community water taps, community irrigation wells etc.
In the case of a CPR, the rate of consumption varies with the number of users and type of use;
like CGs, they are used jointly; thus, it can be called a mixed collective good (MCG) - like PCG,
it is used by all eligible members and exclusion of free - riders is difficult while like NCGs its
use is competitive and subtractable.
Property rights (SPR / GPR, PPR, CPR, CPRr) are affected by several variables, including the
ecological characteristics of the resource base, the level of ecological knowledge held by
resource users, social and economic objectives, the heterogeneity of users, organized structures
and cultures. Irrespective of the nature of the property rights, either sustainability or
overexploitation can occur, depending upon the above factors. Mere privatization or bringing the
resources under community by themselves cannot ensure sustainability.
ix. Pool resources? Is the tragedy of the commons inevitable? Discuss with examples from
tourism.
Common pool resources share two important characteristics: excludability and subtractability. The first attribute - difficulty of st exclusion - arises from several factors including the cost of
parceling or fencing the resource and the co of designing and enforcing property rights to control access to the resource. The second attribute - subtractability - creates rivalry between different users. The resource units (e.g. bundles of firewood or fodder) that one user extracts from a
common pool resource are not available to others. Each user is thus capable of subtracting from the benefits that others derive from a common pool resource.
Because of these characteristics, common potentially pool resources are subject to over
exploitation, depletion or degradation. A broad challenge in the management of common pool
resources is how to co-ordinate use by individuals as population grows in order to prevent over-
exploitation. The terms common property resource (CPRr), common pool resource (CPR) and
commons are often used synonymously. However there are differences between CPRrs and
CPRs; in CPRrs, the rights holders have well defined property rights and use of resource is
subtractible whereas they are not so far CPRs.; Similarly the former always have rights and
regulations while it may/maynot be be there for the latter.Egs. CPRrs- common grazing land/
woodlot / fishing grounds; CPRs-privately owned cultivated land lying vacant in between 2 crop
seasons (biomass, space etc.), community threshing floor.
52
Similarly, there are differences between CPRs and pure collective / public goods (PCG/PPG) and Non- collective goods (NCG); PCGs/PPGs refer to any collective consumed goods whose rate of
consumption is independent of the number of consumers and the particular use made of the good is non-competitive and non- subtractable; exclusion is not possible. Eg. Solar radiation, light-
houses etc.; NCG may be used only by one person or a few persons at a time, their use is competitive and subtractable eg. Community water taps, community irrigation wells etc. In the case of a CPR, the rate of consumption varies with the number of users and type of use;
like CGs, they are used jointly; thus, it can be called a mixed collective good (MCG) - like PCG, it is used by all eligible members and exclusion of free - riders is difficult while like NCGs its
use is competitive and subtractable. Property rights (SPR / GPR, PPR, CPR, CPRr) are affected by several variables, including the
ecological characteristics of the resource base, the level of ecological knowledge held by
resource users, social and economic objectives, the heterogeneity of users, organized structures
and cultures. Irrespective of the nature of the property rights, either sustainability or
overexploitation can occur, depending upon the above factors. Mere privatization or bringing the
resources under community by themselves cannot ensure sustainability.
xi. Discuss the basic management strategies for common property resources with suitable
examples
1. Zoning:
Prescribing for all or specified parts of the managed area, specific purposes of use and entry,
such as:
Preservation Zone: With no human access other than for the purposes of permitted observational
research so that the area is held as a genetic pool.
Wilderness Zone: Where limited human access is allowed but no hunting/fishing/ collecting.
National park Zone: With high human access and strict controls on levels of hunting/fishing/
collecting/recreation
Recreational Zone: With high human access and controls on levels of hunting/fishing/
collecting.
General use Zone: Where commercial, recreational and subsistence activities are allowed on a
sustainable basis.
2. Periodic Closure: Short term closure during a part of the year (breeding season etc E.g.
‗Prohibited seasons') or for long period of time ie many years for eco restoration.
3. Yield Constraints: regulating the size of the fish catch, selective felling of trees.
4. Equipment Constraints: Prohibited methods eg. Use of dynamite for fishing, mesh - size
regulations for fishing, etc.
5. Impact Limitations: Determining the permitted levels of pollution, disturbance etc. so as to
limit the levels of impacts.
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6. Voluntary contracts: Agreements for restricted use
7. Financial mechanisms: Public/Government investment through various schemes such as
afforestation programme, water shed development programmes, hill area development
programme, integrated rural development programme etc.
8. Environmental education: for the public, school children's, teachers, Government officials,
and NGOs.
9. International conventions: for sustainable management of international commons
x. Write short notes on
1. Historical review of common property resources in India
The history of the CPRrs can be studied under the following periods:
• Pre - British period
• British period
• Post - British period.
Pre - British period:
The available evidence indicates that most of the CPRrs during the Vedic period were
sustainably managed by the kings and the local communities. Even before the British arrived
India, most of the CPRrs were managed by the local people on a sustainable basis to a larger
extent, where traditions, cultures and religions play important roles: eg. Sacred groves etc.
Ideally, CPRrs were governed by a, common property regime (ie a system of rights and duties)
which, prevented over exploitation by punishment for violating the rules. In the absence of fear
of punishment, sustainable management of CPRrs depend basically on mutual trust among
members of the user group ie each person adheres to his/her duties and responsibilities with
expectation that others will do the same. In the 19th century up to two third of land in India
was under community ownership.
British period:
Realizing the vast economic potential of the CPRrs which were largely under the control of the
local communities, the British initiated the policy of converting CPRrs into GPRs. Later on,
forest contracts were given for felling matured trees which however cause clear felling. The
tribals who were solely dependent on the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) were finding it
difficult to continue their hunting and gathering activities for their subsistence needs. Thus, they
were alienated. There is no reward for saving the forests; if they do not cut the trees in self-
interest, the contractors would take them any way! Thus, the history of conversion of CPRrs to
GPRs is the history of the change of sustainable exploitation to non-sustainable or over
exploitation of natural resources.
Post-British Period:
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In the post British period, conditions were not much different. In fact, CPRrs have witnessed
more and more privatization and Government appropriation; the village level institutions for
management of CPRrs have gradually been weakened due to the rapid social and economic
change; recent evidences indicate that even the sacred groves are not spared from the axe! Due to
these factors, CPRrs are reduced in size and they are also degraded. Only in a few remote
communities, CPRrs are managed on a sustainable basis.
2. Global commons
Global commons is a term typically used to describe international, supranational, and global resource domains in which common-pool resources are found. In economics, common goods are
rivalrous and non-excludable, constituting one of the four main types of goods. A common-pool resource, also called a common property resource, is a special case of a common good (or public good) whose size or characteristics makes it costly, but not impossible, to exclude potential
users. Examples include both natural and human-made resource domains (e.g., a "fishing hole" or an irrigation system). Unlike global public goods, global common-pool resources face
problems of congestion, overuse, or degradation because they are subtractable (which makes them rivalrous).
The term "commons" originates from the term common land in the British Isles. "Commoners
rights" referred to traditional rights held by commoners, such as mowing meadows for hay or grazing livestock on common land held in the open field system of old English common law. Enclosure was the process that ended those traditional rights, converting open fields to private
property. Today, many commons still exist in England, Wales, Scotland, and the United States, although their extent is much reduced from the millions of acres that existed until the 17th
century. There are still over 7,000 registered commons in England alone.[6]
The term "global commons" is typically used to indicate the earth's shared natural resources, such as the deep oceans, the atmosphere, outer space and the Northern and Southern polar regions, the Antarctic in particular.
According to the World Conservation Strategy, a report on conservation published by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in collaboration with UNESCO and with the support of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and
the World Wildlife Fund (WWF):
"A commons is a tract of land or water owned or used jointly by the members of a community. The global commons includes those parts of the Earth's surface beyond national jurisdictions —
notably the open ocean and the living resources found there — or held in common — notably the atmosphere. The only landmass that may be regarded as part of the global commons is Antarctica".
Today, the Internet, World Wide Web and resulting cyberspace are often referred to as global
commons. Other usages sometimes include references to open access information of all kinds, including arts and culture, language and science, though these are more formally referred to as
the common heritage of mankind.
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xii. Write short notes on prisoner's dilemma game CAMPFIRE
CAMPFIRE operates in Zimbabwe's communal lands, created early in this century when Europeans settling in ‗Rhodesia‘ claimed the most fertile land and forced much of the indigenous
population into semi-arid and arid areas. These now contain more than five million people, almost half the national population. Many of the communal lands have too little or unreliable rainfall for agriculture, but provide excellent wildlife habitat.
CAMPFIRE, designed and managed entirely by Africans, emerged in the mid-1980 with the recognition that as long as wildlife remained the property of the State no one would invest in it as
a resource. The 1975 parks and wild life act, Zimbabwe has allowed private property holders to claim ownership of wildlife on their land and to benefit from its use. Under CAMPFIRE, people living on Zimbabwe's impoverished communal lands – chiefly, the disadvantaged Black Africans
living on CPRrs., usually with poor soils and rugged terrain, representing 42% of the country, claim the same right of proprietorship. Partly because of the success of the programme the
amount of land given over for the wild life management in Zimbabwe for the past 5 years has risen from 12 to 35%. CAMPFIRE, however, was never intended as a way to create buffer zones around National Parks, but as a rural development program with a strong element of community
empowerment. Conceptually, CAMPFIRE includes all natural resources, but its focus has been wildlife
management in communal areas, particularly those adjacent to National Parks, where people and animals compete for scarce resources. Since its official inception in 1989, CAMPFIRE has engaged more than a quarter of a million people in the practice of managing wildlife and reaping
the benefits of using wild lands. Through CAMPFIRE, Zimbabwe seeks to involve rural communities in conservation and development by returning to them the stewardship of their
natural resources, harmonizing the needs of rural people with those of Ecosystems. The acceptance of CAMPFIRE is a reflection that conservation in Africa is rapidly changing. During colonial times it was best described as ‗conservation against the people', or at best, ‗conservation
for the people'. In some places, this has evolved into ‗conservation with the people‘ but in CAMPFIRE, it is recognized that rural communities in Africa must use natural resources for
their livelihoods and that these are the very people who must practice conservation. By linking wildlife to the development process we are seeking to achieve ‗conservation by the people'.
xiii. Under what ideal conditions common property resource management regimes will be
successful? Why? Discuss with suitable examples.
Based on the successful community based management strategies for tourism throughout the world, the following basic framework has been evolved for sustainable management of CPRrs.:
• More emphasis on preventive rather than ‗end of pipe line' technologies
• Construction/periodic updating of a comprehensive data-base
• Assessing UN/underutilized potentials of NRS to optimize their use.
• Restoration and landscape Ecology to increase habitat/ biodiversity, improve micro - climate-increase in recreation value, ecosystem stability and resilience
• Limiting tourism activates below the absorbing/carrying capacities of the ecosystems
• Augmentation, substitution and conservation of NRS
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• Appropriate changes in environmental legislation to incorporate fiscal policy changes (pollution taxes/quotas, incentives/subsidies for pollution control/habitat restoration etc), tradable permits.
However, as some past experiences in countries like Costa Rica, Belize, Namibia, Uganda, Zimbabwe,
and Kenya etc indicate, care has to be taken to ensure that eco-tourism under the CPRr regime:
• is restricted to small numbers and groups
• do not alienate the local people but involve them actively in planning
• helps to increase the recreational value for tourist and income of the locals
• The following arguments explain why the commons have to be maintained as commons under certain circumstances:
• Low levels of income and literacy of rural communities make it impossible for them to opt for costly PPR based institutions
• Majority of the people are poor and are more closely dependent on natura l resources especially CPRs
which are prone to natural calamities that are un-predicable in space and time. Only joint use rights and collective management regimes contribute to economic and social stability under these conditions.
• As an institutional insurance against individual failure, thus spreading the risk
• CPR institutions are well established; alternative institutions are difficult if not impossible
• Land remaining in common use is often best suited to uses, which benefit from, or require the economies of scale that are only possible with group rather than individual management.
However, rarely nationalization of CPRs may be needed. The following are some of the arguments for the same. Nationalization:
• can better protect public interest against elites and anti-social elements
• has a longer planning horizon and hence a lower discount rate than individuals - thus better time
management is possible.
• can raise investment funds more easily through its contacts and because of its legitimacy
• can better internalize externalities through judiciary, environmental legislation and regulatory mechanisms
However, one of the major arguments against nationalization is the relative insensitivity and
unaccountability of the bureaucracy (who will watch the watchers) and its remoteness from the
site. Interestingly, there are a few success stories also. E.g. Water shed development in many
States, especially Karnataka-restored the highly degraded CPRs of land, water and forests.
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Unit 7
1. Compare and contrast mass tourism with Eco-tourism with appropriate examples
There is considerable acrimony among proponents of mass tourism and those of ecotourism
concerning various factors including travel safety as well as security and even global or regional
schisms are developing. There are indeed many factors such as the rich vs. poor, developed vs.
developing, economic vs. cultural values and of course terrorist vs. tourist that needs to be
considered. The question is whether we will choose one side or is integration possible. Tourism
is it mass tourism or ecotourism is certainly a vehicle that promotes better learning about
different peoples and their cultures.
Making An Informed Decision
Nevertheless, there are certain differences between mass tourism and eco-tourism and we need to
explore these to arrive at an informed decision about which one is better and also to learn how to
improve both forms of tourism. Mass tourism will generally have its own characteristics that
include concentration of high volume sales, shifting of large groups of tourists, full utilization of
holiday packages and also development of huge transport systems and infrastructure, and
marketing is more hedonistic.
On the other hand, differences between mass tourism and eco-tourism show that ecotourism is
more nature based, low impact as well as small scale, promotes conservation, supports local
communities, helps maintain natural and cultural integrity, and makes use of environmentally
friendly methods as also technologies. Thus, one can easily see that there are major differences
between mass tourism and eco-tourism and mass tourism is normally associated with high
volumes, large scale, fast pace as well as hedonism, while ecotourism is small scale, nature
centric as well as conservation oriented.
Whereas mass tourism has been around for a long time, ecotourism only began in the eighties
and this is another one of the major differences between mass tourism and eco-tourism.
Ecotourism aims at balancing economic development of tourism, and conservation as well as
protecting the natural resources is central to it, while mass tourism is like a juggernaut that pays
scant heed to any lofty ideals and is instead hell bent on churning profits and thus pays little
attention to sustainable development, and as such, this is another of the many important
differences between mass tourism and eco-tourism.
In addition, while considering the differences between mass tourism and eco-tourism one can
also think of tourist destinations themselves that are either suited for one form of tourism and
exclusive to the other. Take for instance the Pacific Islands that are ideally suited for ecotourism
and not for mass tourism. Thus, one can easily understand that if ecotourism is uppermost in the
minds of tourists, they will naturally gravitate towards such places, where there is little or
nothing for the mass tourist type of traveler. Ecotourism may also take one to places where the
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climate as well as constraints of smallness make such destinations unsuited for mass tourism.
Other such destinations that do not make for ideal mass tourism include Fiji, Tahiti, New
Caledonia as well as the Cook Islands; though they do see some amount of mass tourism along
with ecotourism, which of course is the primary form of tourism it is helping in leading to a more
integrated type of tourism, which is thus narrowing down the differences between mass tourism
and eco-tourism.
2. Define Ecotourism. Discuss the potentials and constraints for introducing Ecotourism in
India
The Definition:
Ecotourism is: "Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people." (TIES, 1990)
Principles of Ecotourism:
Ecotourism is about uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. This means that those who implement and participate in ecotourism activities should follow the following
ecotourism principles:
Minimize impact.
Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect. Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts.
Provide direct financial benefits for conservation. Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people.
Raise sensitivity to host countries' political, environmental, and social climate.
The following factors may be considered for the potential of ecotourism industry in India: - Ecotourism is one of the important industries that earn
foreign exchange for a country without actually exporting any material goods. The income from
ecotourism has tended to increase at a higher rate than merchandise export in a number of countries.
- Development and improvement of infrastructure facilities are another important benefit offered by the ecotourism industry. A variety of secondary industries may be promoted which may not serve the needs of ecotourism.
Thus, indirectly; tourist expenditure may be responsible for stimulating other economic activities of a country.
- Tourism development greatly benefits underdeveloped regions of a country. These economically backward regions mostly have places of high scenic beauty which if developed for the tourism industry, will help to bring a lot of
prosperity to the local people. mployment: - Tourism industry is highly labour intensive service
industry that generates employment for highly skilled, semiskilled and unskilled labour in sectors like hotels, restaurants, travel agencies, tourism offices, shops etc.
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ing peace and understanding: - Tourism plays an important role in promoting international goodwill. It creates awareness and appreciation of other countries culture
and nature. A fundamental requirement for ecotourism to be practiced is control on access to an area.
Various hill stations or beaches therefore do not get categorized as ecotourism destinations because it is impossible to control access to them. National parks and wildlife sanctuaries are on the other hand most amenable to regulate access and thus most suitable as eco-tourist
destinations. The Protected Area Network in the country therefore becomes the most logical starting point for development of ecotourism. Most eco tourists are from Europe, North America and Japan.
Constraints for promoting Eco-tourism:
ET has limited potential due to various limitations that include: • Geographical and biological factors – due to the fragility of the habitats involved
• Physical factors (denser cover in protected areas vs higher visibility preferred for viewing)
• Economic factors (only a few sites are sufficiently unique to attract enough tourist so as to be economically self-sufficient)
• Cultural factors (danger of acculturation, if Eco-tour promoters/tourists are insensitive to the local cultural diversity)
• Ownership rights and sharing of benefits – the tragedy of the CPRs and other conflicts
• ET is not a panacea – cannot replace mass tourism everywhere (due to the fact that it can be introduced only under certain pre-conditions)
• Conflicts between tourism development and conservation – the tradeoffs/compromises without degrading habitat/ species diversity and livelihood security are becoming difficult due to the market forces
• Booming human populations, especially in the third world exacerbate the hunger for land and
its natural resources thereby threatening the. Ecological integrity and sustainability of PAs.
Such constraints reflect the relative immaturity of the tourism management field and should not discourage us in adopting ET, wherever it can be potentially introduced. They only help us to understand the complexity of the issues involved and the community based/ community run ET
case studies would guide us to formulate viable ET ventures. It is encouraging to note that throughout the world, there is a growing need for ‗greening‘ the tourism industry and to ‗eco-
sell‘ tourism and travel, as modern tourists are seeking destinations with unspoiled natural beauty. Unfortunately, some tour companies regard ET as a passing fad or a gimmick or a buzzword and consider it conveniently as a synonym with any offering resembling an ―outdoor
activity,‖ whether it takes a responsible approach to the environment or not. Often the ET label is misused by tourism operations in what is known as ―green washing,‖ or ―green cloaking‖ which
include unregulated development of relatively undisturbed areas, appropriation of ancestral lands, or just applying traditional tourism development models under the name of eco- tourism. For example there is a 200-room ―eco-lodge‖ in the Brazilian Amazon with no sewage treatment,
no involvement with local communities and no effort to lower the social or environmental impacts created. Sadly, many State tourism development corporations in our country too have
joined the bandwagon by ignoring the very definition of ET and have started promoting nature
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based mass tourism without integrating Environmental and socioeconomic sustainability in to their programmes.
3. With an example of a successful case study of community based ET, explain the methods
you would adopt to evolve a similar venture in India.
The fate of the World Heritage site - Ifugao Rice Terraces in Banawe
This is a case study of a badly designed ET destination area and its irreversible impacts on the nature and culture. In 1995, the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) as a World Heritage Site Northern Philippines (considered as the world's eighth wonder) declared the world-famous Ifugao Rice Terraces in Banawe, Ifugao province. This was
part of the Philippine government's campaign to sell Ifugao as a major tourist destination in the world. The influx of tourists over the decades has similarly affected the Ifugaos, the indigenous inhabitants of the province. Foremost is the disruption of traditional economic practices and
livelihoods of the community. The builders of the world-renowned rice terraces, the Ifugaos for centuries have subsisted on crops planted in their terraces. With the entry of tourists and hotels, the lure of money from tourist-related businesses such as selling of woodcarvings, antique
heirlooms such as beads and religious icons such as the bulul or rice god became more attractive than subsistence farming. Even traditional houses are being sold! Commercial production of
woodcarvings has also affected nearby forests. Trees have been cut down to support commercial woodcarving activities that cater to foreign as well as domestic tourist demand. This has led to the drying up of water sources much needed for irrigation as well as for meeting the growing
needs of the tourists and the locals. This has left many terraces untended and in danger of deterioration. Tourism's pressure on the very lives and culture of Ifugao folk and on forest
resources (e.g, tourism-motivated woodcarving), will eventually kill the rice terraces, the main driving force behind the tourism industry.
A cooperative farming practice called ‗ug-ugbo‘ for women and ‗bachang‘ for men has helped sustain and nurture the rice terraces for ages. But this practice is being eroded as the monetary
economy invades Ifugao, thanks to the well-promoted tourism industry. Under the cooperative practice, neighboring farmers would go voluntarily as a group to one field to clear weeds, plant
or harvest rice, and repair eroded terrace walls or irrigation canals. The owner of the field would just provide the food and is expected to help when another neighbor needs help in the future. Not anymore - workers who now help in the fields or in terrace wall and irrigation repairs are paid
either in kind or in cash, depending on what the workers ask for. The demise of Ifugao's cooperative farming tradition has led to rising labour costs, which the ordinary Ifugao farmer can
hardly afford. This helps reduce the attractiveness of rice terrace farming for many locals. As a result, more and more Ifugao folk have completely given up farming in favor of tourism-related jobs such as posing before the tourist's camera for a fee. To meet the needs and demands of
visitors and tourists, some Ifugao farmers have shifted to planting vegetables. But this shift demands the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides that could damage the fertility and ecology
of the rice terraces. Eventually, the very reason that made the tourism industry flourish in Ifugao will be gone forever, driving the tourists away, and leaving the people with whatever is left of their culture, environment and dignity.
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4. Trace linkages between Eco tourism and Environment/ socioeconomic factors. Discuss
with suitable examples.
Though tourism could lead to a variety of potential benefits, uncontrolled mass tourism, the most predominant form of tourism today, inevitably increases the already existing conflicts, besides creating new ones. Tourism's voracious appetite for basic resources - land, water and energy -
has meant that the tourism industry and Government Agencies are increasingly finding themselves opposed over land rights and water rights by local people. Lack of access by locals to
public beaches, violation by hotels of environmental regulations, and heavy-handed tactics by local authorities to free- up beach areas for hotels‘ use, have all been cited in legal disputes throughout the world. For instance, three quarters of the sand dunes on the Mediterranean coast
between Spain and Sicily have now disappeared, largely because. Of the construction of hotels and holiday fiats. Sincerely most of the beach areas are lost due to construction of hotels in
Kovalam, Kerla. One of the most famous long-term tourism protests has been in Goa. With one five-star hotel consuming as much water as five local villages and one five-star tourist consuming 28 times more electricity per day than a local Goan, local discontent over resource-
use is understandable. Another serious concern is ―tourism leakages―. Often a major fraction of the money spent by the mass tourists ranging between 10 to 55% gets leaked away (to pay for
imported goods and services) from the destination areas. Ill-conceived, improperly planned and uncontrolled tourism activities would adversely affect the natural as well as cultural resources. Local culture is ―sold" as commodity, with little if any
regard/value to the indigenous cultures. Such commercialization at best become disingenuous and at worst become highly distorted, accentuating negative stereotypes (Peine, 1999).
Thus there are Geographical, Social- Economic, Ecological/Environmental and Psychological aspects of Tourism. Among these, the Ecological/Environmental dimension of Tourism is the most important and vital link for the survival of the Tourism industry itself, since the industry
cannot survive without protecting the Ecology/Environment of the destination areas. The industry has learned this bitter lesson after the irreversible damages have set in. Examples can be
seen everywhere the mass tourism went out of control -starting from Ooty and Kodai lakes in the South to Dal lake in the North; from Kovalam in the South to Goa in the North; even our nation's pride Taj Mahal is not spared! It is very pertinent to recall the Asian proverb ―Tourism is like a fire; you can cook your soup in it; but you can also burn down your house with it‖
5. Write short notes on
a) Water sports
1. a sport played or practiced on or in water, as swimming, water polo, or surfing.
2. Watersports, (used with a singular or plural verb) Slang. sexual activity that typically involves
urinating on or being urinated on by others.
India offers numerous water sports activities to enjoy the adventurous water sports like Surfing,
Water skiing and Para sailing. India is a land of pulsating coastlines, golden beaches and swift
rivers, which makes India one of best tourist spot. Major destinations for these Adventures
Sports in India are Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Chennai and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These
are the best places for water sports adventure in India. There are many more water sports in India
like Sailing, Boating and river water Rafting and kayaking.
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b) Quebec declaration on ecotourism
In the framework of the UN International Year of Ecotourism, 2002, under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Tourism Organization (WTO), over one thousand participants coming from 132 countries, from the public, private and non-
governmental sectors met at the World Ecotourism Summit, hosted in Quebec City, Canada, by Tourisme Quebec and the Canadian Tourism Commission, between 19 and 22 may 2002.
Quebec Summit represented the culmination of 18 preparatory meetings held in 2001 and 2002, involving over 3,000 representatives from national and local governments including the tourism, environment and other administrations, private ecotourism businesses and their trade
associations, nongovernmental organizations, academic institutions and consultants, intergovernmental organizations, and indigenous and local communities.
The participants at the Summit acknowledge the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, August/September 2002, as the ground-setting event for international policy in the next 10 years, and emphasize that, as a leading industry, the sustainability of
tourism should be a priority at WSSD due to its potential contribution to poverty alleviation and environmental protection in endangered ecosystems.
Participants therefore request the UN, its organizations and member Governments represented at this Summit to disseminate the following Declaration and other results from the World Ecotourism Summit at the WSSD the participants to the World Ecotourism Summit, aware of the
limitations recognize that ecotourism embraces the principles of sustainable tourism, concerning the economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism. It also embraces specific principles,
which distinguish it from the wider concept of sustainable tourism.
Unit 8
1. Describe the various UN initiatives on Ecology and Environment that are relevant for the
tourism sector.
The tourism industry can contribute to conservation through:
Financial contributions
Direct financial contributions Tourism can contribute directly to the conservation of sensitive areas and habitat. Revenue from
park-entrance fees and similar sources can be allocated specifically to pay for the protection and management of environmentally sensitive areas. Special fees for park operations or conservation activities can be collected from tourists or tour operators.
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The tour operator Discovery Initiatives, which is a member of the Tour Operators Initiative for
Sustainable Tourism Development, makes an annual financial contribution to the Orangutan Foundation
of some US$ 45,000. The money is earned from only 5 tour groups of 10 people each visiting the Tanjing
Putting National Park in Central Kalimantan. The park is under huge pressures from deforestation and
river pollution from unrestricted gold mining. This money directly funds park staff and rangers,
rehabilitation efforts for young orangutans, and the care center. It provide s almost the only economic
support for saving this park, where the park fees are officially only the equivalent of 12 pence a day.
Contributions to government revenues
Some governments collect money in more far-reaching and indirect ways that are not linked to specific
parks or conservation areas. User fees, income taxes, taxes on sales or rental of recreation equipment,
and license fees for activities such as hunting and fishing can provide governments with the funds
needed to manage natural resources. Such funds can be used for overall conservation programs and
activities, such as park ranger salaries and park maintenance.
The Seychelles in the Indian Ocean is introducing a US$ 90 tax on travelers entering the Seychelles.
Revenue will be used to preserve the environment and improve tourism facilities. (UNEP, report to the
CSD, 1999)
In West Virginia (US) a whitewater rafting tax is collected from everyone who participates in a
commercial rafting trip. The fee goes toward studying the environmental impacts of rafting. In addition,
the rafting companies participate in several river cleanup days each year. (EPA)
In Belize, a US$ 3.75 departure tax goes directly to the Protected Area Conservation Trust, a Belizean
fund dedicated to the conservation of the barrier reef and rainforest. ( The International Ecotourism
Society)
For Costa Rica, for example, tourism represents 72% of national monetary reserves, generates 140,000
jobs and produces 8.4% of the gross domestic product. The country has 25% of its territory classified
under some category of conservation management. In 1999, protected areas welcomed 866,083
national and foreign tourists, who generated about US$ 2.5 million in admission fees and payment of
services.
Improved environmental management and planning
Sound environmental management of tourism facilities and especially hotels can increase the benefits
to natural areas. But this requires careful planning for controlled development, based on analysis of the
environmental resources of the area. Planning helps to make choices between conflicting uses, or to find
ways to make them compatible. By planning early for tourism development, damaging and expensiv e
mistakes can be prevented, avoiding the gradual deterioration of environmental assets significant to
tourism.
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Cleaner production techniques can be important tools for planning and operating tourism facilities in a
way that minimizes their environmental impacts. For example, green building (using energy-efficient and
non-polluting construction materials, sewage systems and energy sources) is an increasingly important
way for the tourism industry to decrease its impact on the environment. And because waste treatment
and disposal are often major, long-term environmental problems in the tourism industry, pollution
prevention and waste minimization techniques are especially important for the tourism industry. A
guide to sources of information on cleaner production (free) is available here.
Environmental awareness raising
Tourism has the potential to increase public appreciation of the environment and to spread awareness of environmental problems when it brings people into closer contact with nature and
the environment. This confrontation may heighten awareness of the value of nature and lead to environmentally conscious behavior and activities to preserve the environment. For instance, Honduran schoolchildren from the capital city of Tegucigalpa are routinely taken to visit La
Tigra cloud forest visitor center, funded in part by eco-tourist dollars, to learn about the intricacies of the rainforest.
If it is to be sustainable in the long run, tourism must incorporate the principles and practices of
sustainable consumption. Sustainable consumption includes building consumer demand for products that have been made using cleaner production techniques, and for services - including
tourism services - that are provided in a way that minimizes environmental impacts. The tourism industry can play a key role in providing environmental information and raising awareness among tourists of the environmental consequences of their actions. Tourists and tourism-related
businesses consume an enormous quantity of goods and services; moving them toward using those that are produced and provided in an environmentally sustainable way, from cradle to grave, could have an enormous positive impact on the planet's environment.
Protection and preservation
Tourism can significantly contribute to environmental protection, conservation and restoration of
biological diversity and sustainable use of natural resources. Because of their attractiveness,
pristine sites and natural areas are identified as valuable and the need to keep the attraction alive
can lead to creation of national parks and wildlife parks.
In Hawaii, new laws and regulations have been enacted to preserve the Hawaiian rainforest and
to protect native species. The coral reefs around the islands and the marine life that depend on
them for survival are also protected. Hawaii now has become an international center for research
on ecological systems - and the promotion and preservation of the islands' tourism industry was
the main motivation for these actions. (Source: Mundus)
Grupo Punta Cana, a resort in the Dominican Republic, offers an example of how luxury tourism
development and conservation can be combined. The high-end resort was established with the
goal of catering to luxury-class tourists while respecting the natural habitat of Punta Cana. The
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developers have set aside 10,000 hectares (24,700 acres) of land as a nature reserve and native
fruit tree garden. The Punta Cana Nature Reserve includes 11 fresh water springs surrounded by
a subtropical forest where many species of unusual Caribbean flora and fauna live in their natural
state. Guests can explore a "nature path" leading from the beach through mangroves, lagoons of
fresh water springs and dozens of species of Caribbean bird and plant life. The Punta Cana
Ecological Foundation has begun reforesting some parts of the reserve that had been stripped of
their native mahogany and other trees in the past. Other environmentally protective policies have
been put into effect at the resort, such as programs to protect the offshore barrier reefs and the
recycling of wastewater for use in irrigating the grounds. The fairways of the resort's new golf
course were planted with a hybrid grass that can be irrigated with sea water The grass also
requires less than half the usual amounts of fertilizer and pesticides. The resort has also
established a biodiversity laboratory run by Cornell University.
Tourism has had a positive effect on wildlife preservation and protection efforts, notably in
Africa but also in South America, Asia, Australia, and the South Pacific. Numerous animal and
plant species have already become extinct or may become extinct soon. Many countries have
therefore established wildlife reserves and enacted strict laws protecting the animals that draw
nature-loving tourists. As a result of these measures, several endangered species have begun to
thrive again.
In the Great Lakes region of Africa, mountain gorillas, one of the world's most endangered great
apes, play a critical ecological, economic and political role. Their habitat lies on the borders of
northwestern Rwanda, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and southwestern Uganda.
Despite 10 years of political crisis and civil war in the region, the need for revenue from ape-
related tourism has led all sides in the conflict to cooperate in protecting the apes and their
habitat.
Establishment of a gorilla tracking permit, which costs US$ 250 plus park fees, means that just
three habituated gorilla groups of about 38 individuals in total can generate over US$ 3 million
in revenue per year, making each individual worth nearly US$ 90,000 a year to Uganda.
Tourism funds have contributed to development at the local, national and regional level. The
presence of such a valuable tourism revenue source in the fragile afromontane forests ensures
that these critical habitats are protected, thus fulfilling their valuable ecological function
including local climate regulation, water catchment,and natural resources for local
communities.
Alternative employment
Tourism can provide an alternative to development scenarios that may have greater
environmental impacts. The Eco-escuela de Español, a Spanish language school created in 1996
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as part of a Conservation International project in the Guatemalan village of San Andres, is an example. The community-owned school, located in the Maya Biosphere Reserve, combines
individual language courses with home stay opportunities and community-led eco-tours. It receives around 1,800 tourists yearly, mostly from the US and Europe, and employs almost 100
residents, of whom around 60% were previously engaged in mostly illegal timber extraction, hunting and milpas, or slash-and-burn agriculture. Careful monitoring in 2000 has shown that, among the families benefiting from the business, the majority has significantly reduced hunting
practices, and the number and extension of "slash-and-burn" agricultural plots. Furthermore, as most families in the village benefit directly or indirectly from the school, community-managed
private reserves have been established, and social pressure against hunting has increased.
Awareness raising and alternative employment: the orangutan viewing centre at Bohorok,
Indonesia Observing wild and semi-wild orangutans in their natural habitat is a significant environmental
education opportunity for large numbers of domestic visitors. To enhance this education experience, the existing station at Bohorok, North Sumatra is to be transformed from a
rehabilitation center into an orangutan viewing center, thus offering another, crucial contribution to the sustainable conservation of the rainforest ecosystem. By developing ecotourism for orangutan viewing under the new project, all visitors will gain a rewarding
personal experience from orangutans, wildlife and the rainforest ecosystem in general. This will increase their awareness of the importance of rainforest conservation. Moreover, tourism will
continue to provide a major source of income for the local population, thus promoting sustainable forest utilization as a genuine alternative to timber exploitation and the poaching and trade of wildlife.
Regulatory measures
Regulatory measures help offset negative impacts; for instance, controls on the number of tourist
activities and movement of visitors within protected areas can limit impacts on the ecosystem and help maintain the integrity and vitality of the site. Such limits can also reduce the negative
impacts on resources.
Limits should be established after an in-depth analysis of the maximum sustainable visitor capacity. This strategy is being used in the Galapagos Islands, where the number of ships allowed to cruise this remote archipelago is limited, and only designated islands can be visited,
ensuring visitors have little impact on the sensitive environment and animal habitats.
2. Write short notes on
a. Integrated decentralized environmental planning
All over the world, there is a gradual shift of paradigm in terms of implementation of environmental management plans in line with the ―Think Global, Act Local‖ concept. Post Rio,
the host of Global conventions, agreements and norms (collectively called the Rio Agreements) that have been formulated all have a prime focus on implementation at the local level - which is
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where real environmental action takes place - targeting the man-on-the-street. The policy shift has in turn triggered a shift from highly centralized and compartmentalized bureaucratic
structures to decentralized and participatory governance for implementation of environmental monitoring plans and programs in most of the developing countries. On the ground, this has
resulted in devolution of powers and the delegation of responsibilities to state / provincial governments, local bodies and municipalities to undertake environmental protection measures within the national conservation strategies. In India too, decentralization and community driven
management strategies have come to the forefront because of the process of globalization and associated economic reforms. For example, direct local democracy in the form of definitive role
of the village panchayat / ward council as an action point to find solution to local problems has been mandated through the 73rd and 74th amendments to the Indian Constitution In light of these policy imperatives, the new system for EC emphasizes on a stronger role for State
government bodies and local governments / village institutions in the EC process This is also in tune with the thinking of the State Governments who are keen to play a an increasingly more
significant role in environmental decision making to grant environmental clearance to developmental activities or projects to come up at any location within their jurisdiction.
The new system also takes into consideration the fact that the State Governments are better equipped to carry out project level enforcement in terms of reach, legal backing and
administrative measures at their disposal. For example, the State Governments have control over water and electricity supply and are empowered to take actions against defaulters. The Central Government is envisaged to play a more crucial role in formulating and crystallizing the
strategies, policies and programmes for the Government. The State Governments would however be under the close surveillance of the Central Government to ensure overall environmental
performance.
b. CRZ
Coastal States/UTs are required to prepare Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs) as per the provisions of the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification 1991, identifying and categorizing
the coastal areas for different activities and submit it to the Ministry for approval. The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) came into existence on February 19, 1991, with the
gazetting of the notification by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) under Sec. 3(1) and Sec. 3(2)(v) of the Environment Protection Act, 1986, and Rule 5(3)(d) of the Environment Protection Rules, 1986. Through the Notification the Central Government declared
the coastal stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers and backwaters, which are influenced by tidal action (in the land ward side), up to 500m. From the high tide line (HTL) and the land
between the low tide line (LTL) and HTL as CRZ. In the case of rivers, creeks and backwaters, the Notification stated that the CRZ could be modified on a case by case basis, on the basis of reasons to be recorded during the preparation of
the coastal zone management plan (CZMP). However, the width of the CRZ from each bank could not be less than 100 m., or the width of the water body, whichever was less.
3. Critically evaluate the Environmental planning process in our country. Discuss the
potentials for improvements.
It is now being increasingly recognised that environmental factors and ecological imperatives
must be built in to the total planning process if the long-term goal of making development
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sustainable is to be achieved. To provide greater systematic impetus and focus to environmental
issues at the Central and State level, new organisational structures have been created. The
Government of India set up a Department of Environment in the Sixth Plan. The State/UT
Government were also asked to set up structures which could act as focal points for enviorn-
mental considerations in the State Plans; the Governments of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal have set up appropriate structures. A number of Ministries/Departments of the
Government of India now go into environmental considerations in some detail in their major
developmental programmes.
Environmental considerations in the planning process and in the implementation of national
development strategies must be based on an understanding of the following issues and
responsibilities:
The environment with its component of living and non-living resources, represents the
most fundamental building blocks for national development and social well being.
The environment today is under severe threat from the pressure generated by growth of
human and animal populations, poverty and the misuse/ unplanned use of natural
resources.
Stabilisation of human and livestock population is as crucial for environmental
management as it is for achieving other plan objectives.
While many of the country's environmental ills could be corrected by rapid economic
growth with social justice, utmost care must be exercised to ensure that development
activities which bring about such changes are designed so as not to lead to adverse
environmental effects. The nation's planning for economic growth and social well-being
in each sector must always take note of the need to protect environmental resources, and
where possible, must work to secure improvement in environmental quality.
Therefore, the primary responsibility for environmental protection must rest with each
sectoral authority (ministry, department, development agency, corporate body, municipal
council, village panchayat, etc.) which would have to develop formal mechanisms to take
account of environmental concerns in policies, plans, programmes, projects and
legislations that come under their purview.
Environmental considerations should form an important element in the criteria for setting
developmental targets and assessing plan performance in all sectors. Environmental
management must be integral to all development activities.
The Department of Environment at the Centre, and its counterparts at the State level
would essentially serve as catalysts to promote environmentally sound national
development, through provision of management information, technical expertise,
monitoring, research and administrative support and, wherever possible, limited financial
assistance.
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The prime responsibility with regard to the environment would rest with the various
implementing authorities for development programmes and with the community. For this,
environmental education and awareness building is crucial.
Environmental planning/protection/improvement requires a coordinated, highly
decentralised approach involving the cooperation and active participation of every
segment of society, and most importantly of the political leadership.
Unit 9
1. Trace the linkages between human populations, natural resources and development and
discuss the issues involved from tourism perspective.
The relationship between the population and the environment, and the human impact on the
nature has been permanently studied along the history. The continuous population growth, which
has become especially intense from the Industrial Revolution on, has been the main stimulus for
the scholars to theorise about the effects of the population on the environment, generally, and on
the resources, particularly, but always starting with different conceptual undergrounds.
Therefore, before continuing with the exposition, it is necessary to firstly give a general view on
how both concepts we are working with, i.e. population and environment, have been defined.
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Although there have been some exceptions, in most of the studies the concept of population has
been limited to the demographic growth, the increase of the total population volume, without
taking into account other significant demographic variables, such as age/sex structure, migration
patterns, space distribution of the population, mobility patterns or the connection of the
individuals with the activity. Few authors are being conscious of this lack and moreover, the
attempts at changing this situation, such as the virtual forum arranged by the Population and
Environment Research Network on their website, have failed and have also triggered the debate
on the population being a simple amount of people, again.
Another constant omission is not taking into account other characteristic features of the societies,
a part from the strictly demographic ones. Following this idea, several authors have stated that,
given the connection of the population with the environment, it is necessary to consider the
social and the cultural aspects of the society. Thus, in order to decrease the pressure on the
resources, it is not enough to set up birth control policies (as China does currently, for instance),
but it is also necessary to work on other factors, as the cultural, the social and the economic ones,
and to emphasise some other elements too, as the poverty, the trade laws, or the government
policies. So, in contrast with the direct relationship between the other species and the
environment, this point of view accentuates the social and the cultural human organisation;
accordingly, the environmental change is seen as a natural, but also a social process.
However, the most studies‘ central idea, which is simple, but its simplicity doesn‘t diminish its
validity, is that the population growth puts an increasing pressure on the environment, due to the
also increasing need of raw material for the community‘s survival. Therefore, the population
growth generates a bigger pressure on the soil because of the higher demand of cultivable land,
the current competence between different economic activities and the exhaustion of certain
mineral and fossil resources for the energy needs.
On the contrary, the environment has been defined in many different ways, including climate
zones, urban or rural locations, or, above all, specific natural resources (air, water, forests and
soils, mainly). Clarke (1995) has given three possible definitions of environment:
Physical/natural. The environment is seen as a landscape whose features (the climate, the soil,
the geology, etc) have not been changed by the human impact.
Geographical. It takes into account the man-made changes, usually distinguishing between the
inhabited and the uninhabited landscape, the urban and the rural one, etc. Nowadays, one of the
most prominent investigations lines, as it can be seen further, is the relative importance
quantification of the human and the natural factors in the environmental change.
Ecological. The environment is seen as the external or environmental conditions where animals
and plants live.
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However, in most of the cases, the description of the environment is reduced to the natural
resource concept. Although there have been provided a lot of definitions, the most accepted one
among the authors, perhaps because it is wide, is the United Nation‘s one: ‗all those nature
products which are useful for the humanity‘.
Although this definition is possibly an excessively general one, it contains three essential ideas
which can be found in any definition: a) the fact that these products belong or are made from a
natural system, b) they fulfil needs and c) they emphasise the passiveness of the natural resources
availability; and it also ignores the active process of appropriation and transformation of the
resources through the scientific-technical knowledge. Thus, their consideration as here presented
may change through the time and along the space.
Therefore, the resources cannot be considered as a stock, since their value depends much more
on the needs and the technological situation of a certain moment, than on the resources
themselves. Actually, there is a regular resources flow, controlled by the dynamics of the natural
phenomena, the social system and its ability of ‗creating‘ new resources in order to replace the
obsolete ones. Concurrently, the author underlines the difference between the concepts of
resource and reserve. ‗Reserve‘ merely refers to the known deposits, which can be exploited by
using the technology available at normal prices. On the contrary, ‗resource‘ is, as mentioned
above, a quite wider concept. On the other hand, the demarcation between the renewable and the
non-renewable is often used, even though it is rather ambiguous, since both categories are not
totally mutually-exclusive.
To conclude, the variables used for calculating the environmental degradation include both,
quantitative (the pollution, the soil deprivation) and qualitative (the population perception)
dimensions.
UAnother important aspect in the studies of population and environment is the bidirectionality of
the relationships between these two concepts. Thus, the first perspective studies the population as
an agent that receives the environmental changes, such as environmental degradation, natural
disasters, etc. That is to say that the population is affected by these changes, even though it may
previously have been the direct or indirect responsible of them. Whereas this first perspective has
been mainly developed in the studies focusing the Third World countries, another perspective
has been given in the studies referring to the Western countries. In contrast, this second one
considers that the population (its economic activities, the exploitation, the natural resources
consumption, etc) is the main cause of the environmental degradation.
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Finally, before showing the historical investigation lines on the relationship between the
population and the environment, we should point out the data availability. The first difficulty we
have to face is the frequent incomparability of both the demographic and the environmental data,
since they are not related to the same area or period of time. One of the reasons of this fact is the
separately-made collection of both data types, which have not been specifically taken for
analysing the relationship between population and environment, but, on the contrary, have been
taken for other purposes.
Generally speaking, the empirical base for estimating the distribution, the growth and the volume
of the population is better than the one intended for the environment, since it contains
information collected from the population census, the register of births, marriages and deaths,
and surveys. Regarding the environment, there are great differences among the countries about
the following topics: a) the primary data availability, b) the quality, the comparability and the
frequency of the data collection and c) the quality of the resulting information systems
2. Describe the basic principles of Human Ecology. In what ways they can be related to
tourism?
Ecology is the science of relationships between living organisms and their environment. Human
ecology is about relationships between people and their environment. In human ecology the
environment is perceived as an ecosystem (see Figure 1.1). An ecosystem is everything in a specified area - the air, soil, water, living organisms and physical structures, including everything built by humans. The living parts of an ecosystem - microorganisms, plants and animals
(including humans) - are its biological community.
Ecosystems can be any size. A small pond in a forest is an ecosystem, and the entire forest is an ecosystem. A single farm is an ecosystem, and a rural landscape is an ecosystem. Villages, towns
and large cities are ecosystems. A region of thousands of square kilometres is an ecosystem, and the planet Earth is an ecosystem.
Although humans are part of the ecosystem, it is useful to think of human - environment
interaction as interaction between the human social system and the rest of the ecosystem. The social system is everything about people, their population and the psychology and social
organization that shape their behaviour. The social system is a central concept in human
ecology because human activities that impact on ecosystems are strongly influenced by the society in which people live. Values and knowledge - which together form our worldview as
individuals and as a society - shape the way that we process and interpret information and translate it into action. Technology defines our repertoire of possible actions. Social organization, and the social institutions that specify socially acceptable behaviour, shape the
possibilities into what we actually do. Like ecosystems, social systems can be on any scale - from a family to the entire human population of the planet.
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The ecosystem provides services to the social system by moving materials, energy and information to the social system to meet people‘s needs. These ecosystem services include water, fuel, food, materials for clothing, construction materials and recreation. Movements of
materials are obvious; energy and information are less so. Every material object contains energy, most conspicuous in foods and fuels, and every object contains information in the way it is
structured or organized. Information can move from ecosystems to social systems independent of materials. A hunter‘s discovery of his prey, a farmer‘s observation of his field, a city dweller‘s assessment of traffic when crossing the street, and a refreshing walk in the woods are all
transfers of information from ecosystem to social system.
Material, energy and information move from social system to ecosystem as a consequence of human activities that impact the ecosystem:
People affect ecosystems when they use resources such as water, fish, timber and
livestock grazing land. After using materials from ecosystems, people return the materials to ecosystems as
waste. People intentionally modify or reorganize existing ecosystems, or create new ones, to
better serve their needs.
With machines or human labour, people use energy to modify or create ecosystems by moving
materials within them or between them. They transfer information from social system to ecosystem whenever they modify, reorganize, or create an ecosystem. The crop that a farmer
plants, the spacing of plants in the field, alteration of the field‘s biological community by
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weeding, and modification of soil chemistry with fertilizer applications are not only material transfers but also information transfers as the farmer restructures the organization of his farm
ecosystem.
3. Write short notes on
a) Non-equilibrium Ecology NEQ
The major principles of the equilibrium paradigm are:
• there is stable equilibrium point to all ecological systems – implies that all systems have a proper or
―natural‖ endpoint where, in the absence of perturbation, they will remain
• Ecological systems are closed – implies that systems are functionally and structurally complete, and
thus self- regulating.
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• The equilibrium paradigm has influenced conservation/management by fostering the beliefs that:
• any ecological system (forest, grassland, island, etc) is manageable as an independent unit;
• systems will maintain themselves in balance (all that is necessary to return a system to its natural
state is ―leave it alone");
• People and their activities are not part of natural systems. These beliefs are still implicit in many
(most) contemporary management practices.
b) Integrated energy- environmental planning for tourism
Environmental planning the process of facilitating decision making to carry out land
development with the consideration given to the natural environmental, social, political,
economic and governance factors and provides a holistic framework to achieve sustainable
outcomes.
Environmental planning concerns itself with the decision making processes where they are
required for managing relationships that exist within and between natural systems and human
systems. Environmental planning endeavors to manage these processes in an effective, orderly,
transparent and equitable manner for the benefit of all constituents within such systems for the
present and for the future. Present day environmental planning practices are the result of
continuous refinement and expansion of the scope of such decision making processes. Some of
the main elements of present-day environmental planning are:
Social & economic development
Urban development
Regional development
Natural resource management & integrated land use
Infrastructure systems
Governance frameworks
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The environmental planning assessments encompass areas such as land use, socio-economics,
transportation, economic and housing characteristics, air pollution, noise pollution, the wetlands,
habitat of the endangered species, flood zones susceptibility, coastal zones erosion, and visual
studies among others, and is referred to as an Integrated environmental planning assessment.[1] It
is the ability to analyze environmental issues that will facilitate critical decision making.
4. Discuss the constraints for energy /environment management in our country. Suggest
suitable remedial measures.
India has made significant strides in economic development since independence, successfully making a mark on the global economic arena. The economy‘s unprecedented growth, improved infrastructure along with the foreign fund inflows over the years has enabled India to reach
several milestones. In spite of these achievements, the Indian power sector encounters a series of challenges including availability of fuel, improper land acquisition reforms, delay in environmental approvals and financial health of the state electricity boards. These issues need to
be addressed for improvising the performance of the Indian power sector.
One of the major issues confronting the power sector is the availability of coal. The year 2011 saw more than 50% of India‘s thermal power plants struggling to get adequate coal supplies.
During Apr-12, the Indian thermal power plants witnessed an acute shortage of coal. It was estimated that around 25 of the thermal power stations have coal stocks that can potentially last for only 4 days. Interestingly, as per CEA, four plants had no coal stocks left for which they
relied on the day-to-day coal supply. Usually the demand supply mismatch is bridged through imported coal with the most favoured destinations usually being Australia, Indonesia and South
Africa. Not all countries permit Indian companies to buy mines freely. The coal is usually available in the world market at a global price which fluctuates daily, if the international coal mine is not owned by the Indian power company. Moreover the cost of coal transportation from
the coal rich countries to India also keeps fluctuating. The freight charges depend on the Baltic Exchange Dry Index. The transportation of coal falls under the dry commodity which depends on
the dry cargo freight rates. These freight rates are very volatile and usually depend on the demand of commodities to be transported and the supply of such freight accordingly. The current rupee depreciation has severely impacted power companies that rely on imported coal owing to
the additional cost incurred. Also, the transmission and distribution losses and low bargaining power with the state distributing companies impacts the overall profit margin for the generating
companies.
In the Union Budget 2012-13, the Government had ordered Coal India to sign a coal supply agreement for the next three years with those power generating companies who have entered into a power purchase agreement with the state distribution companies. Through this order, the
generation companies can mitigate the volatility risk in coal price for the next three years. But there are also other ways to address this issue and bridge the gap. The Government should open
up the coal mining sector to the private players or work under the public private partnership. Coal based power plants should have mines allocated to them to carry out their own mining. The Government should also improvise the existing coal distribution network across the country so as
to evenly distribute the coal to coal based power plants. Though e-auction of coal has been
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introduced under the initiative by mjunction (a technology company promoted by SAIL and Tata Steel), awareness among the end users is required under proper supervision.
Delay in environmental clearance of power projects is another obstacle for the power companies.
More than 70 power projects are awaiting environmental and forest clearance. While some power projects are awaiting environment clearance, some power projects require diversion of
forest land. The main reasons for the delay are usually attributed to the delay in submission in the environmental impact assessment report and environment management plan after the start of the project. In 2006, the Government of India allowed the private enterprise to build power stations
of more than 2,500 MW and sell power to the central government, which would sell it at cost to states that are prepared to pay for it. These projects were known as ultra mega power projects
(UMPP) projects. Many corporates applied for these UMPP, but most of these are under planning stage. Only four UMPP‘s were allowed including Reliance with three UMPPs at Sasan, Tilaiya and Krishnapatnam and Tata Power in Mundra. The environmental clearance became a
major obstacle in the implementation of these projects. For instance, the date of submission of the request for proposals of the Chhattisgarh power station was postponed nine times because the
environmental ministry declared the coal mines allocated to it as no-go areas. Lack of proper land acquisition laws further acts as an obstacle in the implementation of major power projects. The Government should implement the single window clearance to all the other upcoming power
projects to implement these projects at a fast pace.
Power sector financing is another area of concern. Banks mostly have major exposure to the state distribution companies. Most of the banks, particularly public sector banks, are about to clock
their maximum exposure limit in the power sector. Majority of the loans to the state distribution companies are usually guaranteed by the respective state governments. According to the Shungulu committee report, the accumulated losses of state electricity boards during the last five
years amounted to ` 1,790 bn excluding the subsidy. During FY10 alone, the financial loss of Discoms accounted to ` 570 bn excluding the subsidy. These losses are mostly attributable to the
poor managerial and operational practices of these companies along with the imbalance in the regulator tariff fixation. The viability of the power distribution companies have thus come under stake with losses on one hand and inadequate supply of fuel on the other. The continued lack of
policy reforms has further hampered the growth of the sector.
Though the sector suffers from various hurdles, Indian power sector stands sixth among the leading sectors of the Indian economy and attracted around US$ 4.6 bn in Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) since 2000. The Indian power sector received strong investor interest during the 2008 to 2010 period as a result of the increasing government initiatives. In fact, Indian power
sector had attracted more than US$ 2 bn private equity investment funds during 2010. However, even as power sector remains one of investor‘s primary choices, they continue to adopt a selective and cautious approach.
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5. Summarize the advantages and limitations of each of the following proposals for
increasing world food supplies and reducing hunger over the next 30 years.
a. Cultivating more land by clearing tropical forests and irrigating arid lands
Arid lands are among the world‘s most fragile ecosystems, made more so by periodic droughts and increasing overexploitation of meagre resources. Arid and semi-arid lands cover around one-third of the world‘s land area and are inhabited by about one billion people, a large proportion of
whom are among the poorest in the world.
Forests, trees and grasses are essential constituents of arid zone ecosystems and contribute to maintaining suitable conditions for agriculture, rangeland and human livelihoods. In providing goods (especially fuelwood and non-wood products) and environmental services to the rural poor
and in contributing to the diversification of their household sources of income, forests and trees in arid zones boost poverty alleviation strategies and reduce food insecurity.
Roughly 6 percent of the world‘s forest area (about 230 million hectares) is located in arid lands (FAO, 2001). Trees outside forests (scattered in the landscape, in arable lands, in grazing lands,
in savannahs and steppes, in barren lands and in urban areas) have a vital role in arid lands, although it is difficult to assess their extent.
Availability of water – surface water, groundwater and air moisture – is usually the main factor limiting natural distribution of trees in arid lands, along with climate (rainfall, temperatures,
wind) and soil quality. Each tree species is adapted to certain conditions and is located in its ―niche‖. When optimal conditions are widely distributed, forests or shrubs may cover large areas.
More often, limited by water scarcity, vegetation is concentrated where runoff can accumulate or where groundwater is accessible. This leads to the uneven distribution of trees and bushes, for example in striped bush (fragmented bush stands), riparian forests, the deepest channels of
valleys (thalwegs) and oases, and isolated in the landscape.
However, the natural distribution of vegetation has long been altered by human activities. Deforestation and degradation of tree and shrub formations (mainly through conversion to agricultural use) and overexploitation of forests and woodlands (through fuelwood collection and
overgrazing) are among the major causes of soil degradation in arid areas. Furthermore, global warming is expected to result in rainfall decrease throughout most of the world‘s arid zones,
which will lead to more severe water scarcity and increased desertification risks.
b. Catching more fish in the open sea
Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping.
Fishing may include catching other aquatic animals, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. The term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, and marine mammals, such as whales, where the term whaling is more appropriate.
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According to United Nations FAO statistics, the total number of commercial fishermen and fish farmers is estimated to be 38 million. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect
employment to over 500 million people in developing countries. In 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an additional
7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational pastime
c. Producing more fish and shellfish with aquaculture
Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial
fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish. Broadly speaking, the relation of aquaculture to finfish and shellfish fisheries is analogous to the relation of agriculture to hunting and gathering. Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats.
According to the FAO, aquaculture "is understood to mean the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding,
protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated." The reported output from global aquaculture operations would supply
one half of the fish and shellfish that is directly consumed by humans; however, there are issues about the reliability of the reported figures. Further, in current aquaculture practice, products from several pounds of wild fish are used to produce one pound of a piscivorous fish like
salmon.
Particular kinds of aquaculture include fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, mariculture, algaculture (such as seaweed farming), and the cultivation of ornamental fish.
Particular methods include aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, both of which integrate fish farming and plant farming.
d. Increasing the yield per area of cropland
The world food production has increased substantially in the past century, as has calorie intake per capita. However, in spite of a decrease in the proportion of undernourished people, the
absolute number has in fact increased during the current food crisis, to over 963 million. By 2050, population growth by an estimated 3 billion more people will increase food demand.
Increased fertilizer application and more water usage through irrigation have been responsible for over 70% of the crop yield increase in the past. Yields, however, have nearly stabilized for
cereals, partly as a result of low and declining investments in agriculture. In addition, fisheries landings have declined in the past decade mainly as a result of overfishing and unsustainable
fishing methods.
Food supply, however, is not only a function of production, but also of energy efficiency. Food energy efficiency is our ability to minimize the loss of energy in food from harvest potential
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through processing to actual consumption and recycling. By optimizing this chain, food supply can increase with much less damage to the environment, similar to improvements in efficiency in
the traditional energy sector. However, unlike the traditional energy sector, food energy efficiency has received little attention. Only an estimated 43% of the cereal produced is available
for human consumption, as a result of harvest and post-harvest distribution losses and use of cereal for animal feed. Furthermore, the 30 million tonnes of fish needed to sustain the growth in aquaculture correspond to the amount of fish discarded at sea today.
A substantial share of the increasing food demand could be met by introducing food energy
efficiency, such as recycling of waste. With new technology, waste along the human food supply chain could be used as a substitute for cereal in animal feed. The available cereal from such
alternatives and efficiencies could feed all of the additional 3 billion people expected by 2050. At the same time, this would support a growing green economy and greatly reduce pressures on biodiversity and water resources – a truly ‗win-win‘ solution.
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