Driving Species to Extinction · 2009. 7. 28. · 1 SC/NATS 1510, Extinction 1 Driving Species to Extinction The Dodo SC/NATS 1510, Extinction 2 Animal Habitats Since the beginning

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11SC/NATS 1510, ExtinctionSC/NATS 1510, Extinction

Driving Species to Driving Species to ExtinctionExtinction

The Dodo


Animal HabitatsAnimal HabitatsSince the beginning of agriculture, human activities Since the beginning of agriculture, human activities have made major changes in the worldhave made major changes in the world’’s ecosystems.s ecosystems.Most human interventions have reduced the habitats Most human interventions have reduced the habitats of wild animals and plants.of wild animals and plants.

Creation of fields for planting and pastures for grazing.Creation of fields for planting and pastures for grazing.Clearance of forests.Clearance of forests.Draining of marshes.Draining of marshes.Hunting for food, furs, sport.Hunting for food, furs, sport.Introduction of new plants and animals into ecosystems Introduction of new plants and animals into ecosystems have had unexpected effects.have had unexpected effects.Pace of destruction increasing since the expansion of Pace of destruction increasing since the expansion of Europe after 1500.Europe after 1500.


PrePre--Renaissance ExtinctionsRenaissance ExtinctionsEgypt:Egypt:

Extension of cultivated area, draining of Extension of cultivated area, draining of marshland, and organized hunting.marshland, and organized hunting.By time of the Old Kingdom (2950By time of the Old Kingdom (2950--2350 BCE) 2350 BCE) elephants, rhinoceroses, and giraffes had elephants, rhinoceroses, and giraffes had disappeared from the Nile Valley.disappeared from the Nile Valley.

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Greece:Greece:By 200 BCE the lion and leopard were extinct on By 200 BCE the lion and leopard were extinct on the Greek mainland and in the colonies in Asia the Greek mainland and in the colonies in Asia Minor.Minor.Wolves and jackals were confined to remote Wolves and jackals were confined to remote mountainous areas.mountainous areas.Trapping of beavers made them extinct in northern Trapping of beavers made them extinct in northern Greece.Greece.

PrePre--Renaissance Extinctions, 2Renaissance Extinctions, 2



Roman Empire: Roman Empire: Slaughter of animals for Slaughter of animals for spectacle continued for spectacle continued for hundreds of years. hundreds of years.

E.g., 9,000 captured E.g., 9,000 captured animals were killed animals were killed during the 100 day during the 100 day celebration of the celebration of the Coliseum in Rome.Coliseum in Rome.E.g., 11,000 slain to E.g., 11,000 slain to mark Trajanmark Trajan’’s conquest s conquest of province of Dacia.of province of Dacia.



Medieval Europe:Medieval Europe:Expansion of settled areas Expansion of settled areas reduced the habitats of reduced the habitats of plants and animals.plants and animals.The European bison was The European bison was common in early Middle common in early Middle Ages, but very rare by the Ages, but very rare by the 18th century. 18th century.

The The aurochauroch (a wild ancestor (a wild ancestor of cattle) that lived in the of cattle) that lived in the forests went extinct about forests went extinct about 2000 BCE in Britain and 2000 BCE in Britain and then later in all of Europe then later in all of Europe due to deforestation.due to deforestation.

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The great auk, a flightless The great auk, a flightless seabird, was once found in seabird, was once found in huge colonies along the huge colonies along the coasts of Scotland and coasts of Scotland and Iceland.Iceland.

In 1540, 2 ships were filled with freshly killed auks in 30 In 1540, 2 ships were filled with freshly killed auks in 30 minutes. minutes. The eggs were also eaten by sailors. The auks laid only one The eggs were also eaten by sailors. The auks laid only one egg per year.egg per year.By the 18th century the auk was rare. The last pair were By the 18th century the auk was rare. The last pair were killed in Iceland in 1844.killed in Iceland in 1844.


Near Extinctions and DevastationsNear Extinctions and Devastations

Wild animals common across all of Europe that were driven to Wild animals common across all of Europe that were driven to extinction in large areas of the continent.extinction in large areas of the continent.Wolves Wolves –– common throughout Europe until 500 years ago. common throughout Europe until 500 years ago.

In 15th century wolf packs were on the streets of Paris in dayliIn 15th century wolf packs were on the streets of Paris in daylight.ght.In Britain, fullIn Britain, full--scale wolf hunts were held in Scotland in the 16th scale wolf hunts were held in Scotland in the 16th century.century.Now extinct in all of Britain.Now extinct in all of Britain.

Brown Bear Brown Bear –– common in medieval western Europe. Now common in medieval western Europe. Now survives only in remote mountainous areas.survives only in remote mountainous areas.Beaver Beaver –– trapped for its fur until driven to extinction across trapped for its fur until driven to extinction across Europe.Europe.


Rid the world of pestsRid the world of pestsSome of the loss of species diversity was a sideSome of the loss of species diversity was a side--effect effect of agriculture or of hunting. But others were of agriculture or of hunting. But others were intentional.intentional.Citations:Citations:

Rev. Edmund Rev. Edmund HickeringillHickeringill, 17th century English , 17th century English clergyman:clergyman:

““So noisome and offensive are some animals to human kind, that itSo noisome and offensive are some animals to human kind, that itconcerns all mankind to get quit of the annoyance, with as speedconcerns all mankind to get quit of the annoyance, with as speedy a y a riddance and dispatch as may be, by any lawful means.riddance and dispatch as may be, by any lawful means.””

John John WorlidgeWorlidge, from his , from his SystemaSystema AgriculturaeAgriculturae, 1668:, 1668:““February: pick up all the snails you can find, and destroy frogsFebruary: pick up all the snails you can find, and destroy frogs and and their spawntheir spawnApril: gather up worms and snailsApril: gather up worms and snailsJune: destroy antsJune: destroy antsJuly: killJuly: kill……wasps and flies.wasps and flies.””

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Rid the world of pests, 2Rid the world of pests, 2In 1533 the English Parliament passed an act In 1533 the English Parliament passed an act requiring all parishes to have nets to catch rooks, requiring all parishes to have nets to catch rooks, choughs and crows.choughs and crows.In 1566 churchwardens were authorized to pay for In 1566 churchwardens were authorized to pay for corpses of foxes, polecats, weasels, stoats, otters, corpses of foxes, polecats, weasels, stoats, otters, hedgehogs, rats, mice, moles, hawks, buzzards, hedgehogs, rats, mice, moles, hawks, buzzards, ospreys, jays, ravens, and kingfishers.ospreys, jays, ravens, and kingfishers.In 1732 in an authorized organized hunt, 5,480 moles In 1732 in an authorized organized hunt, 5,480 moles were destroyed.were destroyed.In 1774, 14,000 sparrows were killed and 3,500 eggs In 1774, 14,000 sparrows were killed and 3,500 eggs destroyed.destroyed.

Such policies continued in Britain into the 20th century.Such policies continued in Britain into the 20th century.


European Amazement at the European Amazement at the Diversity of Life ElsewhereDiversity of Life Elsewhere

By the time that Europeans began exploring the rest By the time that Europeans began exploring the rest of the world, they had so devastated their own of the world, they had so devastated their own continent that they could hardly believe how continent that they could hardly believe how abundant life was everywhere else.abundant life was everywhere else.Citations:Citations:

French explorer Pierre Radisson, reaching Lake Superior in French explorer Pierre Radisson, reaching Lake Superior in 1658:1658:

There were There were ““stores of fishes, sturgeons of vast bigness, and pikes stores of fishes, sturgeons of vast bigness, and pikes seven feet long. A monthseven feet long. A month’’s subsistence for a regiment could have s subsistence for a regiment could have been taken in a few hours.been taken in a few hours.””


More CitationsMore CitationsAn early settler in Florida:An early settler in Florida:

““Quantities of wild pigeons, parrots and other birds Quantities of wild pigeons, parrots and other birds were so numerous that boatloads of birdswere so numerous that boatloads of birds’’ eggs eggs were taken.were taken.””

Woods Rogers, an English sailor landing off Woods Rogers, an English sailor landing off the coast of Chile in 1709:the coast of Chile in 1709:

The seals and sea lions were The seals and sea lions were ““so thick on the shore so thick on the shore that we are forced to drive them away before we that we are forced to drive them away before we could land being so numerous that it is scarce could land being so numerous that it is scarce credible to those who have not seen them.credible to those who have not seen them.””

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More Citations, 2More Citations, 2Captain Cook, arriving in Australia at the end of Captain Cook, arriving in Australia at the end of the 18th century:the 18th century:

Found that the sea was so full of fish that they broke the Found that the sea was so full of fish that they broke the fishing nets. Flocks of thousands of birds could easily be fishing nets. Flocks of thousands of birds could easily be shot since they had no fear of humans.shot since they had no fear of humans.

Captain Thomas Melville, sailing into Sydney Captain Thomas Melville, sailing into Sydney harbourharbour::

Seeing a vast number of sperm whales: Seeing a vast number of sperm whales: ““We sailed through We sailed through different shoals of them from 12 odifferent shoals of them from 12 o’’clock in the day till clock in the day till sunset, all round the horizon, as far as I could see from the sunset, all round the horizon, as far as I could see from the mast head.mast head.””


A Bonanza Waiting to be TakenA Bonanza Waiting to be Taken

The early settlers and explorers drew on the The early settlers and explorers drew on the store of animals with no concern for the fate of store of animals with no concern for the fate of any individual species and no worry that the any individual species and no worry that the supply would diminish.supply would diminish.The drastic effects were soon apparent.The drastic effects were soon apparent.


A Bonanza Waiting to be Taken, 2A Bonanza Waiting to be Taken, 2

Islands that had isolated Islands that had isolated populations of, for populations of, for example, flightless example, flightless birds, that flourished birds, that flourished because of the total lack because of the total lack of predators suffered of predators suffered rapid extinctions.rapid extinctions.90% of bird extinctions 90% of bird extinctions have occurred on have occurred on islands.islands.

On Mauritius the On Mauritius the introduction of the pig and introduction of the pig and rat along with hunting rat along with hunting sailors made the dodo sailors made the dodo extinct by 1681.extinct by 1681.

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Native Australian Species Native Australian Species DevastatedDevastated

Australia has been particularly badly affected since Australia has been particularly badly affected since the start of European colonization.the start of European colonization.The duckThe duck--billed platypus was extinct by 1850.billed platypus was extinct by 1850.Of 31 native species found in the MurrayOf 31 native species found in the Murray--Darling Darling basin in 1856, 22 are now extinct.basin in 1856, 22 are now extinct.


Australian Species Devastated, 2Australian Species Devastated, 2

Red kangarooRed kangaroo EmuEmuWidespread kangaroo hunts nearly wiped them out.Widespread kangaroo hunts nearly wiped them out.In 1850, a hunter reported in Victoria reported:In 1850, a hunter reported in Victoria reported:““Emus and kangaroos on our arrival were plentiful in all partsEmus and kangaroos on our arrival were plentiful in all parts……also also bustards in large flocks ofbustards in large flocks of……40 or perhaps more. The bustards now are 40 or perhaps more. The bustards now are scarce, and only met in distant places. The kangaroo and emu arescarce, and only met in distant places. The kangaroo and emu are nearly nearly extinct in the district; the country is almost void of game.extinct in the district; the country is almost void of game.


Australian Species Devastated, 3Australian Species Devastated, 3

Hare wallabyHare wallaby BilbyBilbyBy the end of the 19th century, some of the rarer By the end of the 19th century, some of the rarer marsupials such as the haremarsupials such as the hare--wallaby were already wallaby were already extinct. The last of the extinct. The last of the bilbiesbilbies, the commonest form , the commonest form of native game, was shot in 1912.of native game, was shot in 1912.

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Extinction in North America: Extinction in North America: The BisonThe Bison

The size of the herds was The size of the herds was between 40between 40--60 million animals.60 million animals.When the native peoples obtained horses and rifles, they began When the native peoples obtained horses and rifles, they began hunting the bison for food and hides, killing about 300,000 a hunting the bison for food and hides, killing about 300,000 a year, well within their replacement rate.year, well within their replacement rate.White settlers began to exploit the bison in the 1830s, killing White settlers began to exploit the bison in the 1830s, killing about 3 million a year.about 3 million a year.

By the end of the 19th century, there were only about 20 animalsBy the end of the 19th century, there were only about 20 animals left.left.

When Europeans first reached the When Europeans first reached the Great Plains of central North Great Plains of central North America, they found huge bison America, they found huge bison herds roaming the area.herds roaming the area.


Extinction in North America: Extinction in North America: The Passenger PigeonThe Passenger Pigeon

One of the first settlers in Virginia wrote:One of the first settlers in Virginia wrote:““There are wild pigeons in winter beyond number or imagination, There are wild pigeons in winter beyond number or imagination, myself have seen three or four hours together flocks in the air,myself have seen three or four hours together flocks in the air, so thick so thick that even have they shadowed the sky from us.that even have they shadowed the sky from us.””

An estimate of the total number in North America when An estimate of the total number in North America when Europeans arrived is 5 billionEuropeans arrived is 5 billion——about 1/3 of all the birds in about 1/3 of all the birds in North America then, and about the same as North America then, and about the same as allall of the birds in of the birds in the U.S.A. today.the U.S.A. today.

The Passenger Pigeon The Passenger Pigeon was the most was the most numerous bird in numerous bird in North America at the North America at the beginning of the 19th beginning of the 19th century.century.


The Passenger Pigeon, 2The Passenger Pigeon, 2

A reason for the huge numbers was the lack A reason for the huge numbers was the lack of natural predators other than hawks and of natural predators other than hawks and eagles.eagles.But they were vulnerable to humans.But they were vulnerable to humans.

Each female laid only one egg per year.Each female laid only one egg per year.The birds nested in vast colonies and migrated in huge The birds nested in vast colonies and migrated in huge flocks, making them easy to hunt.flocks, making them easy to hunt.The natives captured the pigeons in large nets. The natives captured the pigeons in large nets. Europeans adopted the same practice.Europeans adopted the same practice.They were sought for both their feathers and their meat.They were sought for both their feathers and their meat.

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The Passenger Pigeon, 3The Passenger Pigeon, 3In the mid 19th century largeIn the mid 19th century large--scale commercial hunters and scale commercial hunters and trappers began supplying the cities with a cheap source of trappers began supplying the cities with a cheap source of meat.meat.According to well documented records, on July 23, 1860, According to well documented records, on July 23, 1860, 235,200 birds were sent east from Grand Rapids, Michigan. 235,200 birds were sent east from Grand Rapids, Michigan. In 1874, Oceana County in Michigan sent 1 million birds to In 1874, Oceana County in Michigan sent 1 million birds to markets in the east, and in 1876 it was selling 400,000 at the markets in the east, and in 1876 it was selling 400,000 at the height of the season. In 1869, Van Buren County, Michigan, height of the season. In 1869, Van Buren County, Michigan, sent 7 sent 7 ½½ million birds east.million birds east.

Numbers fell rapidly. By the late 1880s a Numbers fell rapidly. By the late 1880s a ““largelarge”” flock was only a few flock was only a few hundred strong.hundred strong.The last known specimens were seen in the eastern U.S. in the 18The last known specimens were seen in the eastern U.S. in the 1890s. 90s. The last survivor died in captivity in 1914.The last survivor died in captivity in 1914.


Introducing New Species to an Introducing New Species to an EcosystemEcosystem

European settlers took with them domesticated European settlers took with them domesticated animals from their home countries.animals from their home countries.

And, accidentally, also took many of the pests from And, accidentally, also took many of the pests from Europe.Europe.

When the continents drifted apart millions of years When the continents drifted apart millions of years ago, the flora and fauna began evolving in isolation ago, the flora and fauna began evolving in isolation from each other.from each other.

Now, after 1500, they were brought into contact.Now, after 1500, they were brought into contact.There were virtually no animals suitable for domestication There were virtually no animals suitable for domestication in the Americas or Australia, so European settlers brought in the Americas or Australia, so European settlers brought their owntheir ownMany of these escaped, went wild, and spread rapidly.Many of these escaped, went wild, and spread rapidly.


Domesticated Animals Gone WildDomesticated Animals Gone Wild

PigsPigsIntroduced everywhere. In the wild, they multiplied Introduced everywhere. In the wild, they multiplied rapidly.rapidly.Australia now has over 20 million wild pigs.Australia now has over 20 million wild pigs.

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Animals Gone Wild, 2Animals Gone Wild, 2

CattleCattleFirst carried to the Americas by Columbus in First carried to the Americas by Columbus in 1493. Within 50 years they were found in huge 1493. Within 50 years they were found in huge herds in Florida, Mexico, and Peru.herds in Florida, Mexico, and Peru.By 1700 there were 50 million cattle on the By 1700 there were 50 million cattle on the pampas of South America.pampas of South America.In Australia, the wild herds can be traced to 8 In Australia, the wild herds can be traced to 8 animals that escaped from a domesticated herd in animals that escaped from a domesticated herd in 1788.1788.



SheepSheepTaken to Mexico in the 1540s. Within 30 years Taken to Mexico in the 1540s. Within 30 years there were immense, migrating wild herds 200,000 there were immense, migrating wild herds 200,000 strong in a single area, and by 1614 there were strong in a single area, and by 1614 there were 620,000 wild sheep around Santiago, Chile.620,000 wild sheep around Santiago, Chile.

In Australia and New Zealand there were no In Australia and New Zealand there were no hoofed animals before the arrival of the settlers hoofed animals before the arrival of the settlers at the end of the 18th century. at the end of the 18th century.



Within 100 years there were 100 million sheep and 8 million Within 100 years there were 100 million sheep and 8 million cattle in Australia. cattle in Australia. In New Zealand, 9 million sheep within 30 years, and now 70 In New Zealand, 9 million sheep within 30 years, and now 70 million sheep.million sheep.

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Animals Gone Wild, 5Animals Gone Wild, 5HorsesHorses

Taken to the Americas by Columbus in 1493 and soon Taken to the Americas by Columbus in 1493 and soon became wild.became wild.They migrated from Mexico to the Great Plains, were They migrated from Mexico to the Great Plains, were domesticated by the native people, bringing a fundamental domesticated by the native people, bringing a fundamental change in their way of life.change in their way of life.White settlers moving across the Appalachians viewed the White settlers moving across the Appalachians viewed the huge herds of horses as a pest and shot them in large huge herds of horses as a pest and shot them in large numbers.numbers.

CamelsCamelsIntroduced into Australia as a pack animal in the 19th Introduced into Australia as a pack animal in the 19th century. There are now more camels in Australia than in century. There are now more camels in Australia than in Arabia, and they are viewed as pests.Arabia, and they are viewed as pests.


The Rabbit DisasterThe Rabbit Disaster

In 1859, a farmer in Victoria, Australia, In 1859, a farmer in Victoria, Australia, established a few rabbits for game.established a few rabbits for game.

With no natural predators, they bred quickly and With no natural predators, they bred quickly and soon were devastating crops over a wide area.soon were devastating crops over a wide area.By 1880 they reached New South Wales and were By 1880 they reached New South Wales and were affecting sheep farming in South Australia.affecting sheep farming in South Australia.


The Rabbit Disaster, 2The Rabbit Disaster, 2

LargeLarge--scale eradication campaigns had little effect.scale eradication campaigns had little effect.In the midIn the mid--1880s, 1.8 million rabbits were killed in Victoria 1880s, 1.8 million rabbits were killed in Victoria and 7 million in New South Wales, without slowing up and 7 million in New South Wales, without slowing up their spread.their spread.

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MyxomatosisMyxomatosis

In the years 1902In the years 1902--1907 a 1000 mile long fence was 1907 a 1000 mile long fence was built from the north to the south coast to exclude built from the north to the south coast to exclude rabbits, but it was breached in the 1920s.rabbits, but it was breached in the 1920s.

The rabbit population of Australia increased in less than a The rabbit population of Australia increased in less than a century from a handful to about 500 million in 1950.century from a handful to about 500 million in 1950.

In desperation the Australian government deliberately In desperation the Australian government deliberately introduced the disease introduced the disease myxomatosismyxomatosis from Brazil, from Brazil, which was fatal to rabbits.which was fatal to rabbits.


MyxomatosisMyxomatosis, 2, 2Within a year the death rate among the rabbit Within a year the death rate among the rabbit population was 99.8%.population was 99.8%.

But the 0.2% of the population that was immune to But the 0.2% of the population that was immune to the disease continued breeding. the disease continued breeding. In 7 years, the death rate from the disease was less In 7 years, the death rate from the disease was less than 25%.than 25%.

The rabbit population is growing again, The rabbit population is growing again, rapidly. Now consisting primarily of animals rapidly. Now consisting primarily of animals immune to immune to myxomatosismyxomatosis..


MyxomatosisMyxomatosis, 3, 3

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Accidental Introduction of PestsAccidental Introduction of PestsRats and mice traveling unnoticed on ships going to Rats and mice traveling unnoticed on ships going to the New World caused havoc.the New World caused havoc.

Early settlements in Jamestown, Virginia (1609) and Early settlements in Jamestown, Virginia (1609) and Sydney, Australia (1790) were nearly wiped out when rats Sydney, Australia (1790) were nearly wiped out when rats from the ships ate most of the stores of grain.from the ships ate most of the stores of grain.In the 1570s (50 years after the Spanish conquest), Peru In the 1570s (50 years after the Spanish conquest), Peru was overrun with rats. was overrun with rats. The same in Australia from mice escaping from ships The same in Australia from mice escaping from ships visiting the colony. In one area of South Australia, 32 visiting the colony. In one area of South Australia, 32 million mice were killed in 4 months in 1917.million mice were killed in 4 months in 1917.

There were no natural predators for rats and mice in There were no natural predators for rats and mice in the New World. They therefore multiplied rapidly.the New World. They therefore multiplied rapidly.


No Predators, an Abundance of PreyNo Predators, an Abundance of Prey

The starling was introduced from The starling was introduced from Europe into Central Park in New Europe into Central Park in New York as an ornamental bird in 1891.York as an ornamental bird in 1891.Some escaped. By 1926 there were Some escaped. By 1926 there were flocks in Georgia, New England, flocks in Georgia, New England, and Kentucky. In another 30 years, and Kentucky. In another 30 years, they were across the U.S.A.they were across the U.S.A.The starlings took over the The starlings took over the ecological niche of native birds, ecological niche of native birds, devastating the population of devastating the population of bluebirds and flickers.bluebirds and flickers.

Introduced species can also decimate the indigenous Introduced species can also decimate the indigenous species.species.


Effect on Plant LifeEffect on Plant Life

Grazing animals can destroy the natural Grazing animals can destroy the natural ground cover.ground cover.

Goats were introduced on the island of St. Helena Goats were introduced on the island of St. Helena in 1810. Now 22 of 33 native plants are extinct.in 1810. Now 22 of 33 native plants are extinct.In the 1830s, Charles Darwin found the plains of In the 1830s, Charles Darwin found the plains of Uruguay impenetrable because of growth of Uruguay impenetrable because of growth of prickly cardoon, which had flourished after other prickly cardoon, which had flourished after other edible plants were overgrazed by huge herds of edible plants were overgrazed by huge herds of wild cattle and horses.wild cattle and horses.

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The Prickly PearThe Prickly Pear

British settlers introduced the prickly pear in British settlers introduced the prickly pear in Australia in 1839 to provide hedgesAustralia in 1839 to provide hedges

The plant quickly went wild and created barriers over 6 feet The plant quickly went wild and created barriers over 6 feet high.high.


The Prickly Pear, 2The Prickly Pear, 2By 1925 over 60 million By 1925 over 60 million acres of land were acres of land were affected. In half of this affected. In half of this area no other plant could area no other plant could grow.grow.The prickly pear was The prickly pear was eventually brought under eventually brought under control by the importation control by the importation of larvae from an of larvae from an Argentinean moth.Argentinean moth.


The Problem of the CommonsThe Problem of the CommonsHow did it happen that some species were hunted to How did it happen that some species were hunted to extinction while others were allowed to run wild until extinction while others were allowed to run wild until they became major pests?they became major pests?A concept due to American ecologist, William A concept due to American ecologist, William OphulsOphuls::

In the case of animals hunted to extinction, no one owned In the case of animals hunted to extinction, no one owned the animals and therefore no one had an interest in the animals and therefore no one had an interest in controlling the rate of killing and assuring a sustained controlling the rate of killing and assuring a sustained population.population.Cost of exploitation was low. (A horse & rifle for bison, or Cost of exploitation was low. (A horse & rifle for bison, or a net for passenger pigeons.) Many hunters were drawn a net for passenger pigeons.) Many hunters were drawn into the market.into the market.The rational action for an individual hunter is to maximize The rational action for an individual hunter is to maximize the immediate kill before competitors got there.the immediate kill before competitors got there.

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FishingFishingOverfishing and dangerously depleting stocks is a Overfishing and dangerously depleting stocks is a constant and invariable feature of human civilization. constant and invariable feature of human civilization.

Only technological inability to fish to excess has prevented Only technological inability to fish to excess has prevented disasters in the past.disasters in the past.

Example from Europe:Example from Europe:Fishing in medieval Europe was an important part of the Fishing in medieval Europe was an important part of the diet. diet. In the late Middle Ages stocks fell drastically. In the late Middle Ages stocks fell drastically. By 1500 fishing for herring in the Baltic was at a halt.By 1500 fishing for herring in the Baltic was at a halt.In a few decades cod was depleted off the coast of Europe.In a few decades cod was depleted off the coast of Europe.


Mechanization and Factory FishingMechanization and Factory FishingExample: The Cod in NewfoundlandExample: The Cod in Newfoundland

When European stocks were depleted, cod fishing When European stocks were depleted, cod fishing was transferred to the Grand Banks of was transferred to the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, where the fish could be scooped Newfoundland, where the fish could be scooped out of the sea with buckets.out of the sea with buckets.The fish in the oceans seemed inexhaustible.The fish in the oceans seemed inexhaustible.

Once highly mechanized fish factory ships Once highly mechanized fish factory ships became common after 1945, fish stocks became common after 1945, fish stocks reached serious levels of depletion reached serious levels of depletion everywhere.everywhere.


The Fur TradeThe Fur Trade

The original fur trade exploited European The original fur trade exploited European animals for European markets. animals for European markets.

When supplies became exhausted, the search When supplies became exhausted, the search widened to other areas.widened to other areas.The history of the fur trade goes back to the The history of the fur trade goes back to the Roman Empire when merchants obtained furs from Roman Empire when merchants obtained furs from the nomadic tribes in Russia.the nomadic tribes in Russia.

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The Fur Trade, 2The Fur Trade, 2

Real growth took place in the Middle Ages, Real growth took place in the Middle Ages, when furs became a status symbol.when furs became a status symbol.

In England there were many regulations to restrict In England there were many regulations to restrict wearing furs to the upper classes.wearing furs to the upper classes.In 1337 Parliament reserved the wearing of furs to In 1337 Parliament reserved the wearing of furs to royalty and to nobility with incomes over royalty and to nobility with incomes over ££100 a 100 a year. year.


Many Pelts per GarmentMany Pelts per GarmentAn intact pelt came from one trapped animal. It took An intact pelt came from one trapped animal. It took many pelts to make an item of clothing.many pelts to make an item of clothing.

Several hundred squirrel pelts for the lining of a cloak.Several hundred squirrel pelts for the lining of a cloak.1400 for an average sized bedspread.1400 for an average sized bedspread.Henry VIII had a gown made from 350 sable pelts.Henry VIII had a gown made from 350 sable pelts.Edward I bought 120,000 squirrel pelts every year (and Edward I bought 120,000 squirrel pelts every year (and many other animal pelts as well) between 1285 and 1288.many other animal pelts as well) between 1285 and 1288.Richard II bought 109,000 pelts a year in the early 1390s.Richard II bought 109,000 pelts a year in the early 1390s.In 1393 one ship left Novgorod for Flanders carrying In 1393 one ship left Novgorod for Flanders carrying 225,000 furs.225,000 furs.


Depletion of Domestic StocksDepletion of Domestic Stocks

By the end of the Middle Ages, the fur trade By the end of the Middle Ages, the fur trade was a vital part of the economy of many was a vital part of the economy of many European and Asian countries European and Asian countries –– over 1/3 of the over 1/3 of the income of Russia was from fur exports. income of Russia was from fur exports. But stocks were becoming exhausted almost But stocks were becoming exhausted almost everywhere in Europe and Asia.everywhere in Europe and Asia.

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The Canadian Fur TradeThe Canadian Fur Trade

From the start of settlement in North America, From the start of settlement in North America, the fur trade has been a driving force, the fur trade has been a driving force, especially in Canada.especially in Canada.

French and British traders competed with each French and British traders competed with each other. When stocks in one area were depleted, other. When stocks in one area were depleted, trappers would move on.trappers would move on.In the 1760s the HudsonIn the 1760s the Hudson’’s Bay Company was s Bay Company was taking 100,000 beaver skins per year at a single taking 100,000 beaver skins per year at a single trading post.trading post.


SealingSealing

The market for seal skins was driven by the insatiable The market for seal skins was driven by the insatiable desire for pelts when the availability of furdesire for pelts when the availability of fur--bearing bearing animals had been depleted to the point of exhaustion animals had been depleted to the point of exhaustion everywhere.everywhere.


Sealing, 2Sealing, 2

The animals were usually clubbed to death when they The animals were usually clubbed to death when they went on land to breed and were defenseless. went on land to breed and were defenseless.

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Stocks were quickly depleted wherever sealing Stocks were quickly depleted wherever sealing was started. was started.

An area would be hunted to exhaustion and then An area would be hunted to exhaustion and then abandoned for another, richer area.abandoned for another, richer area.

By the 1830s about 80,000 seals a year were By the 1830s about 80,000 seals a year were killed in Newfoundland. killed in Newfoundland.

At the peak in the 1850s, the kills were 600,000 a At the peak in the 1850s, the kills were 600,000 a year.year.



Large steamships could process up to 20,000 seals a day.Large steamships could process up to 20,000 seals a day.Sealing continues today, but at a much lower rate due to the Sealing continues today, but at a much lower rate due to the greatly reduced stocks of animals, legislative protection, and agreatly reduced stocks of animals, legislative protection, and aconsumer boycott of furs and skins.consumer boycott of furs and skins.


WhalingWhaling

The most prolonged attack by The most prolonged attack by humans on any single species.humans on any single species.

A sperm whale can weigh 100 A sperm whale can weigh 100 tons and measure over 100 feet tons and measure over 100 feet long.long.They have few predators apart They have few predators apart from killer whales and humans.from killer whales and humans.

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Whaling, 2Whaling, 2

Whales are long lived Whales are long lived –– many survive into many survive into their 70s their 70s –– but their reproduction rate is low, but their reproduction rate is low, about 1 or 2% per year.about 1 or 2% per year.Sustained killing of whales, especially if near Sustained killing of whales, especially if near their breeding grounds can easily drive a local their breeding grounds can easily drive a local population to extinction.population to extinction.


Whale Oil Whale Oil

Whaling ships in port with casks of whale oil.


Whale Oil, 2Whale Oil, 2

Whales were hunted more Whales were hunted more for their oil than for their for their oil than for their meat. meat. Candles were made from Candles were made from spermaceti of sperm whales. spermaceti of sperm whales.

London even had 5000 street London even had 5000 street lamps lit by whale oil in the lamps lit by whale oil in the 1740s.1740s.

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Whaling HistoryWhaling History

The general pattern of whaling is similar to The general pattern of whaling is similar to that of sealing and the fur trade: that of sealing and the fur trade:

An area was exploited, with severe competition An area was exploited, with severe competition between different fleets and different whalers to between different fleets and different whalers to maximize the immediate kill, until it was maximize the immediate kill, until it was exhausted. Then the fleets moved to a different exhausted. Then the fleets moved to a different area and started again.area and started again.


The Right WhaleThe Right Whale

Until the 18th century, whalers concentrated Until the 18th century, whalers concentrated on the on the rightright whale.whale.Whales are divided into three categories: right Whales are divided into three categories: right whales, whales, rorqualrorqual whales, and sperm whales. whales, and sperm whales.

Right whales are slow and easy to catch. (Hence Right whales are slow and easy to catch. (Hence they are the they are the ““rightright”” whales.)whales.)Right whales were chased in rowing boats with Right whales were chased in rowing boats with harpoons thrown from the boat.harpoons thrown from the boat.


Local ExterminationsLocal Exterminations

Whales were hunted to the point of extermination Whales were hunted to the point of extermination wherever they were sought.wherever they were sought.

In the Mediterranean, before the fall of the Roman In the Mediterranean, before the fall of the Roman EmpireEmpire——to complete extermination.to complete extermination.From 900, in the Bay of Biscay along northern Spain.From 900, in the Bay of Biscay along northern Spain.To grounds off Newfoundland in the 16th century.To grounds off Newfoundland in the 16th century.From 1600 to the island of From 1600 to the island of SpitzbergenSpitzbergen, a breeding ground , a breeding ground for right whales. The population was depleted in 25 years.for right whales. The population was depleted in 25 years.Then on to Greenland, the Arctic, east North America, Then on to Greenland, the Arctic, east North America, Labrador & Davis straits.Labrador & Davis straits.

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All Three Whale Types DecimatedAll Three Whale Types Decimated

First the right whales were hunted to near extinction, First the right whales were hunted to near extinction, then whalers turned to the sperm whalesthen whalers turned to the sperm whales——less oil per less oil per whale, but a higher value end product. whale, but a higher value end product.

By the end of the 19th century sperm whales were also near By the end of the 19th century sperm whales were also near extinction.extinction.The whaling industry was revitalized by the introduction of The whaling industry was revitalized by the introduction of fast steamships and the explosive harpoon, which made it fast steamships and the explosive harpoon, which made it possible to hunt the possible to hunt the rorqualrorqual whale.whale.By the end of the 20th century, all three whale types are By the end of the 20th century, all three whale types are near extinction.near extinction.


The International Whaling The International Whaling CommissionCommission

In 1946, the International Whaling Commission In 1946, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was established to protect the dwindling (IWC) was established to protect the dwindling stocks from extinction and to assure the longstocks from extinction and to assure the long--term term viability of the industry.viability of the industry.

Quotas were set for each participating country, but they Quotas were set for each participating country, but they were so high that the population continued to fall. And not were so high that the population continued to fall. And not all whaling countries were members of the commission.all whaling countries were members of the commission.In 1982, the IWC declared a moratorium on commercial In 1982, the IWC declared a moratorium on commercial whaling.whaling.But But ““scientificscientific”” whaling was allowed.whaling was allowed.Huge numbers of whales were then killed for Huge numbers of whales were then killed for ““scientificscientific””purposes, and still ended up as meat in restaurants.purposes, and still ended up as meat in restaurants.


A Testament to Human MyopiaA Testament to Human Myopia

In whaling, sealing, trapping, and many of the In whaling, sealing, trapping, and many of the worldworld’’s fisheries, it is the same story again and again:s fisheries, it is the same story again and again:

The pressure to maximize shortThe pressure to maximize short--term gain before others got term gain before others got to the same stocks outweighed all consideration of a longto the same stocks outweighed all consideration of a long--term future for the resources on which they depended.term future for the resources on which they depended.Humans have treated other species as though their supply Humans have treated other species as though their supply was limitless, or that it did not matter if they were driven to was limitless, or that it did not matter if they were driven to extinction.extinction.Human action, whether deliberate or inadvertent has Human action, whether deliberate or inadvertent has drastically altered the worlddrastically altered the world’’s ecosystems, for the worse.s ecosystems, for the worse.

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The Conservation MovementThe Conservation MovementIn the last 100 years, a reaction to the slaughter arose In the last 100 years, a reaction to the slaughter arose in many countries, leading to the establishment of in many countries, leading to the establishment of special wilderness areas.special wilderness areas.

National ParksNational ParksProtected habitats and reserves.Protected habitats and reserves.And particular protected species.And particular protected species.

Conservation organizations formed:Conservation organizations formed:Audubon Society, Sierra Club, World Wildlife Fund, Audubon Society, Sierra Club, World Wildlife Fund, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace.Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace.

International conventions and treaties signed.International conventions and treaties signed.But not necessarily enforced.But not necessarily enforced.

But it may all be too little, too late.But it may all be too little, too late.

Documents

Driving Species to Extinction · 2009. 7. 28. · 1 SC/NATS 1510, Extinction 1 Driving Species to Extinction The Dodo SC/NATS 1510, Extinction 2 Animal Habitats Since the beginning