Polytechnic University of the Philippines Department of Civil Engineering

Sta. Mesa, Manila

Written Report: DRILLING in CONSTRUCTION

Leader:

BALAUAG, Ted Joshua A.

Members:

BAUTISTA, Mikee D. BERMUDEZ, Danil Glen Christan S.

CALINAWAN, Cristelle P. CASTRO, Bossaina Deniece D.

PEDIMONTE, Mera Lavinia Marie S. VALENCIA, Sharmaine Rose S.

Engr. Bailey John E. Bandiola CIEN 3382 Professor

Introduction

Drilling is the process of making a hole into a hard surface where the length of the hole is very

large compared to the diameter. In the context of mining engineering drilling refers to making holes into

a rock mass. Surface mining requires drilling for different purposes that include:

1. Production drilling i.e. for making holes for placement of explosives for blasting. The objective of drilling and blasting is to prepare well-fragmented loose rock amenable to excavation with better productivity from the excavation machinery. The holes drilled for this purpose are defined as blast hole.

2. Exploration drilling for sample collections to estimate the quality and quantity of a mineral reserve. The samples are collected as core and the drilling for such purposes are referred as Core drilling. As diamond bits are used for such drilling, core drilling is often called diamond drilling.

3. Technical drilling during development of a mine for drainage, slope stability and foundation testing purposes.

Opencast mining involves removal of waste rock and subsequent winning of the mineral. In case of

deposits underlying hard and compact waste rock called overburden loosening of the rock mass is

essential prior to excavation. Thus drilling and blasting is the important ground preparation job. Unless

the rock mass is highly weathered and very much unconsolidated drilling of holes for placement of

explosives and detonating them for blasting is required for any mining operation. Modern machines like

continuous surface miner can however eliminate the need of drilling and blasting in certain surface

mining operations.

Successful drilling under specific site conditions requires blending many technologies and

services into a coherent efficient team, particularly if it is for deep exploration drilling. Blast hole drilling

is comparatively simpler. However, to minimize costs and optimize the performance and post drilling

operations technical managers and decision managers must understand the language and technology of

drilling operations.

Definition of Terms

Abrasion this drill grinds rock into small particles through the abrasive effect of a bit

that rotates in the hole

Bit this is the portion of a drill which contacts the rock and disintegrates it

Blast-hole this is a rotary drill consisting of a steel-pipe drill stem on the bottom of

which is a roller bit that disintegrates the rock as it rotates over the rock. The cuttings

are removed by a stream of compressed air

Burden this is the horizontal distance from a rock face to the first row of drill holes or

the distance between rows of drill holes.

Carbide-insert bit the carbide bit is a detachable bit whose cutting edges consist of

tungsten carbide embedded in a softer steel base

Churn the churn drill is a percussion-type drill consisting of a long steel bit that is

mechanically lifted and dropped to disintegrate the rock. It is used to drill deep holes,

usually 6 in. diameter or larger.

Core drilling equipment designed for obtaining samples of rock from a hole, usually for

exploratory purposes. Diamond and shot drills are used for core drilling..

Couplings a short hollow steel pipe having interior threads. The coupling is used to

hold pieces of drill steel together or to the shank. The percussion energy is transferred

through the steel, not the coupling; therefore, the coupling must allow the drill steel to

butt together

Cutting disintegrated rock particles that are removed from a hole

Depth per bit this is the depth of hole that can be drilled by a bit before it is replaced

Detachable bit this is a bit which may be attached to or removed from the drill steel or

drill stem

Diamond diamond drill is a rotary abrasive-type drill whose bit consists of a metal

matrix in which a large number of diamonds are embedded. As the drill rotates, the

diamonds disintegrate the rock

Diamond Bit this is a bit is a detachable bit whose cutting elements consist of

diamonds embedded in a metal matrix

Drifter is an air-operated percussion-type drill, similar to a jackhammer; it is so large,

however, that it requires mechanical mounting

Dry this is a drill which uses compressed air to remove the cuttings from a hole

Forged Bit this is a bit which is forged on the drill steel

Percussion drill which break rocks into smaller pieces by impact from repeated blows.

It can be powered by compressed air or hydraulic fluids.

Shot this is a rotary abrasive-type drill whose bit consists of a section of steel pipe with

a roughened surface at the bottom

History of Drilling

Until internal combustion engines were developed in the late 19th century, the main method for

drilling rock was muscle power of man or animal. The drilling of wells for the manufacture of salt began

by the Song Dynasty in China. The well had a particularly small mouth, "as small as a small bowl."

Archaeological evidence of the drilling tools used in deep-well dwelling are kept and displayed in the

Zigong Salt Industry Museum. According to Salt: A World History, a Qing Dynasty well, also located in

Zigong, "continued down to 3,300 feet making it at the time the deepest drilled well in the world.

Mechanised versions of this system persisted until about 1970, using a cam to rapidly raise and drop

what, by then, was a steel cable up to 3 mm

In the 1970s, outside of the oil and gas industry, roller bits using mud circulation were replaced

by the first pneumatic reciprocating piston Reverse Circulation (RC) drills, and became essentially

obsolete for most shallow drilling, and are now only used in certain situations where rocks preclude

other methods. RC drilling proved much faster and more efficient, and continues to improve with better

metallurgy, deriving harder, more durable bits, and compressors delivering higher air pressures at higher

volumes, enabling deeper and faster penetration. Diamond drilling has remained essentially unchanged

since its inception.

Construction Drilling

Drilling equipment and methods are used by the construction and mining industries to drill holes

in both rock and earth. Same or similar equipment may in some instances be used for drilling both

materials. Also, purposes for which drilling are performed vary a great deal from general to highly

specialized applications. It is desirable to select the equipment and methods that are best suited to the

specific service:

A contractor engaged in highway construction must usually drill rock under varying conditions;

therefore, equipment that is suitable for various services would be selected.

If equipment is needed to drill rock in a quarry where the material and conditions will not vary,

specialized equipment should be considered.

In some instances custom-made equipment designed for use on a single project may be

justified.

A drilling rig is a machine which creates holes in the earth sub-surface. Drilling rigs can be massive

structures housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or natural gas extraction wells, or they

can be small enough to be moved manually by one person and are called augers. Drilling rigs can sample

sub-surface mineral deposits, test rock, soil and groundwater physical properties, and also can be used

to install sub-surface fabrications, such as underground utilities, instrumentation, tunnels or wells.

Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or trailers, or more permanent land or

marine-based structures (such as oil platforms, commonly called 'offshore oil rigs' even if they don't

contain a drilling rig). The term "rig" therefore generally refers to the complex of equipment that is used

to penetrate the surface of the Earths crust.

Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile, such as those used in mineral exploration drilling,

blast-hole, water wells and environmental investigations. Larger rigs are capable of drilling through

thousands of meters of the Earth's crust, using large "mud pumps" to circulate drilling mud (slurry)

through the drill bit and up the casing annulus, for cooling and removing the "cuttings" while a well is

drilled. Hoists in the rig can lift hundreds of tons of pipe. Other equipment can force acid or sand into

reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas; and in remote locations there can be

permanent living accommodation and catering for crews (which may be more than a hundred). Marine

rigs may operate many hundreds of miles or kilometers distant from the supply base with infrequent

crew rotation or cycle.

Uses of Drilling in Different Fields

Petroleum Industry - Oil and natural gas drilling rigs are used not only to identify geologic

reservoirs but also to create holes that allow the extraction of oil or natural gas from those

reservoirs. Primarily in onshore oil and gas fields once a well has been drilled, the drilling rig will

be moved off of the well and a service rig (a smaller rig) that is purpose-built for completions

will be moved on to the well to get the well on line.[1] This frees up the drilling rig to drill

another hole and streamlines the operation as well as allowing for specialization of certain

services, i.e., completions vs. drilling.

Water-Well Drilling - New portable drill cat technology uses smaller portable trailer mounted

rigs with shorter 3-metre (10 ft) drill pipe. The shorter drill pipe also allows a much smaller mast.

Portable trailer mounted drilling rigs have drill ratings from 90 to 200 meters (300 to 800 ft)

depending on mud pump flow and pressure ratings and drill pipe sizes.

Other, heavier, truck rigs are more complicated, thus requiring more skill to run. They're

also more difficult to handle safely due to the longer 6-to-9-metre (20 to 30 ft) drill pipe. Large

truck rigs also require a much higher overhead clearance to operate. Large truck drills can use

over 570 litters (150 US gal) of fuel per day, while the smaller Deeprock Style portable drills use

a mere 20 to 75 liters (5 to 20 US gal) of fuel per day. This makes smaller, more portable rigs

preferable in remote or hard-to-reach places, and they are more cost effective when fuel prices

are high.

Mining Drilling Industry Mining drilling rigs are used for two main purposes, exploration

drilling which aims to identify the location and quality of a mineral, and production drilling, used

in the production-cycle for mining. Drilling rigs used for rock blasting for surface mines vary in

size dependent on the size of the hole desired, and is typically classified into smaller pre-split

and larger production holes. Underground mining (hard rock) uses a variety of drill rigs

dependent on the desired purpose, such as production, bolting, cabling, and tunneling

Drill Types

There are a variety of drill mechanisms which can be used to sink a borehole into the ground.

Each has its advantages and disadvantages, in terms of the depth to which it can drill, the type of sample

returned, the costs involved and penetration rates achieved. There are two basic types of drills: drills

which produce rock chips, and drills which produce core samples.

Auger Drilling - Auger drilling is done with a helical screw which is driven into the ground with

rotation; the earth is lifted up the borehole by the blade of the screw. Hollow stem auger drilling

is used for softer ground such as swamps where the hole will not stay open by itself for

environmental drilling, geotechnical drilling, soil engineering and geochemistry reconnaissance

work in exploration for mineral deposits. Solid flight augers/bucket augers are used in harder

ground construction drilling. In some cases, mine shafts are dug with auger drills. Small augers

can be mounted on the back of a utility truck, with large augers used for sinking piles for bridge

foundations. Auger drilling is restricted to generally soft unconsolidated material or weak

weathered rock. It is cheap and fast.

Percussion Rotary Blast Air Drilling - RAB drilling is used most frequently in the mineral

exploration industry. (This tool is also known as a Down-the-hole drill.) The drill uses a

pneumatic reciprocating piston-driven "hammer" to energetically drive a heavy drill bit into the

rock. The drill bit is hollow, solid steel and has ~20 mm thick tungsten rods protruding from the

steel matrix as "buttons". The tungsten buttons are the cutting face of the bit.

Air Core Drilling - Air core drilling and related methods use hardened steel or tungsten blades to

bore a hole into unconsolidated ground. The drill bit has three blades arranged around the bit

head, which cut the unconsolidated ground. The rods are hollow and contain an inner tube

which sits inside the hollow outer rod barrel. The drill cuttings are removed by injection of

compressed air into the hole via the annular area between the inner tube and the drill rod. The

cuttings are then blown back to surface up the inner tube where they pass through the sample

separating system and are collected if needed. Drilling continues with the addition of rods to the

top of the drill string. Air core drilling can occasionally produce small chunks of cored rock.

Cable Tool Drilling - Cable tool rigs are a traditional way of drilling water wells. The majority of

large diameter water supply wells, especially deep wells completed in bedrock aquifers, were

completed using this drilling method. Although this drilling method has largely been supplanted

in recent years by other, faster drilling techniques, it is still the most practicable drilling method

for large diameter, deep bedrock wells, and in widespread use for small rural water supply wells.

The impact of the drill bit fractures the rock and in many shale rock situations increases the

water flow into a well over rotary.

Reverse Circulation Drilling - RC drilling is similar to air core drilling, in that the drill cuttings are

returned to surface inside the rods. The drilling mechanism is a pneumatic reciprocating piston

known as a "hammer" driving a tungsten-steel drill bit. RC drilling utilizes much larger rigs and

machinery and depths of up to 500 meters are routinely achieved. RC drilling ideally produces

dry rock chips, as large air compressors dry the rock out ahead of the advancing drill bit. RC

drilling is slower and costlier but achieves better penetration than RAB or air core drilling; it is

cheaper than diamond coring and is thus preferred for most mineral exploration work.

Diamond Core Drilling - Diamond core drilling (exploration diamond drilling) utilizes an annular

diamond-impregnated drill bit attached to the end of hollow drill rods to cut a cylindrical core of

solid rock. The diamonds used to make diamond core bits are a variety of sizes, fine to micro

fine industrial grade diamonds, and the ratio of diamonds to metal used in the matrix affects the

performance of the bits cutting ability in different types of rock formations . The diamonds are

set within a matrix of varying hardness, from brass to high-grade steel. Matrix hardness,

diamond size and dosing can be varied according to the rock which must be cut. The bits made

with hard steel with a low diamond count and are ideal for softer highly fractured rock while

others made of softer steels and high diamond ratio are good for coring in hard solid rock. Holes

within the bit allow water to be delivered to the cutting face. This provides three essential

functions lubrication, cooling, and removal of drill cuttings from the hole.

Direct Push Rigs - Direct push technology includes several types of drilling rigs and drilling

equipment which advances a drill string by pushing or hammering without rotating the drill

string. While this does not meet the proper definition of drilling, it does achieve the same result

a borehole. Direct push rigs include both cone penetration testing (CPT) rigs and direct push

sampling rigs such as a PowerProbe or Geoprobe. Direct push rigs typically are limited to drilling

in unconsolidated soil materials and very soft rock.

Hydraulic Rotary Drilling - Oil well drilling utilizes tri-cone roller, carbide embedded, fixed-cutter

diamond, or diamond-impregnated drill bits to wear away at the cutting face. This is preferred

because there is no need to return intact samples to surface for assay as the objective is to

reach a formation containing oil or natural gas. Sizable machinery is used, enabling depths of

several kilometers to be penetrated. Rotating hollow drill pipes carry down bentonite and barite

infused drilling muds to lubricate, cool, and clean the drilling bit, control down hole pressures,

stabilize the wall of the borehole and remove drill cuttings. The mud travels back to the surface

around the outside of the drill pipe, called the annulus. Examining rock chips extracted from the

mud is known as mud logging. Another form of well logging is electronic and is frequently

employed to evaluate the existence of possible oil and gas deposits in the borehole. This can

take place while the well is being drilled, using Measurement While Drilling tools, or after

drilling, by lowering measurement tools into the newly drilled hole.

Sonic (Vibratory) Drilling - A sonic drill head works by sending high frequency resonant

vibrations down the drill string to the drill bit, while the operator controls these frequencies to

suit the specific conditions of the soil/rock geology. Vibrations may also be generated within the

drill head. The frequency is generally between 50 and 150 hertz (cycles per second) and can be

varied by the operator.

Classification of Methods and Machines

Drilling is basically method of penetrating rock. The machine that carries out the drilling

operation is called drill. Rock can be penetrated by overcoming its resistance to penetrate by providing

external energy. Depending on how this energy is imparted and how the broken mass produced by

drilling is removed to get new surfaces to drill, the drilling methods and the drill can be classified into

several category. Table illustrates how drilling and drills can be classified and further gives the

classification of drilling methods.

Classification of drilling and drills

Sl No Basis Variants Example

1 Mode of energy application.

Percussion

Top Hammer

Bottom Hammer (Down the hole hammer or DTH)

Churn or cable tool drill, jack hammer,

For shallow holes, the whole drill strings offer hammering

For hole larger than 150 mm and deeper holes, offers increased rod and coupling life and less noisy.

Rotary Auger or rotary drill,

Diamond drill,

Rotary Percussion DTH, Top hammer drill

2 Size of Hole Small Hole 150-200 mm for coal

Large Hole 250-315 mm for OB

Very Large Hole > 315 mm for dewatering well

3 Method of mounting

Hand held Jack Hammer

Skid mounted

Wagon mounted Typical hole size 63-150 mm (Percussion)

Crawler mounted Single pass drilling from 7.6 to 15.2 m, hole size 120 to 229mm(Percussion)

Type of power Electric

Pneumatic Less costly, high noise

Hydraulic May be diesel or electrically powered hydraulically operated and controlled. New development, lesser noise

Flushing Wet drilling Water flushed

Dry drilling Air flushed

Direction Vertical

Horizontal

Inclined

On board Facilities With Measure while drilling (MWD) and automated Drill Monitoring (ADM)

Without measure while drilling

With automation

Semi automatic

Remotely controlled

The above methods are deployed in drilling. However, one must remember that the drilling could be carried out provided the following requirements are fulfilled ( Gokhale, 2003):

1. The drilling bit meant for disintegrating the formation must be sufficiently hard so that it can disintegrates the formation for a longer period.

2. The cuttings formed in the process of formation disintegration must be taken out of the hole as soon as possible. One should avoid crushing and grinding of the drilled chips inside the hole.

3. Drilling tool must be advanced in the intended direction of the drilled hole

4. The hole walls must be competent to avoid collapsing and blinding of the hole

5. After completing the hole the drilling components and the drill should be removed from the place.

6. The dust and noise generated during the drilling should be contained as far as practicable.

Principle of Rock Tool Interaction in Drilling

The principle of rock drilling involves the rock tool interactions to make a penetration in rock. In the normal drilling process mechanical energy is dissipated through a bit to a rock. Based on the behaviors of drilling system and rocks the bit responds differently. The principle of rock drilling is concerned with providing a scientific basis of such responses, so that for a given job the right method can be selected.

Formation disintegration in drilling is mainly due to mechanical energy. However, there are drilling techniques in which heat energy or chemical energy is used. Water jet energy is also used in certain cases for rock disintegration.

The mechanical energy can disintegrate rock mass by crushing, impact crushing or scratching. Crushing takes place when heavy and steady force is exerted on the rock mass through hard drilling bit. The resistance to penetration of rock is called drilling strength or drillability of rock. This is different from other rock properties as it is related to number of controllable and uncontrollable parameters.

3.1 Rock Penetration in Percussion Drilling

In percussion drilling a chisel type or button type bit hammers or blows the rock mass while turning the tool in between two successive blows called blow indexing. An axial thrust is applied to keep the bit in contact with the rock when the blow is applied. The rock penetration takes place because of formation of a crater under the action of the blow. The sequence of crater formation is illustrated in Figure 2.

This involves:

1. The rock is inelastically deformed, with crushing of surface irregularities

2. Subsurface micro cracks form from stress concentrations and confinement at the bit/rock interface enclosing a wedge of material, which is crushed

3. Secondary cracks propagate along shear trajectories to the surface, forming large fragments or

chips

4. Broken particles are ejected by the rebound of the bit and the cleaning action of any circulation fluid, resulting in formation of crater.

This process is repeated at each blow and drilling propagates.

3.2 Rotary Drilling

Rotary drilling uses different type of rotary bits like conventional drag bit, tricone roller bit or pollycrysta-lline diamond (PCD) bit. Figure 3 illustrates rotary bits and their components. The principle of the extensively used tricone roller bit is explained below.

b

D

D: Initial penetration

Dc:Thickness of the chip

Dmax : Maximum Penetration

56

Withdrawing tooth

Penetrating tooth

DcDmax

D

Fracturing occurs when

1. the penetrating tooth reaches a depth equal to or greater than both D and Dc2. The withdrawing tooth has risen to a deoth Dc or less.

b

D

b

D

D: Initial penetration

Dc:Thickness of the chip

Dmax : Maximum Penetration

56

Withdrawing tooth

Penetrating tooth

DcDmax

D

56

Withdrawing tooth

Penetrating tooth

DcDmax

D

Fracturing occurs when

1. the penetrating tooth reaches a depth equal to or greater than both D and Dc2. The withdrawing tooth has risen to a deoth Dc or less.

Biggs and Cheatham (1969) considered an idealized drill bit as two dimensional wheel and chipping action was illustrated as shown in Figure 5 Cheatham and Gnirk (1966) determined that for producing chips some initial penetration D must be there. As shown in the figure Dc is the thickness of the chip. For

chipping to occur the maximum bit penetration must exceed both D and Dc. The chipping occurs

between a penetrating tooth and the adjacent withdrawing tooth shown as tooth 5 and 6 respectively in the figure. Further frictional forces on the withdrawing tooth cause tensile stress and leads to a horizontal fracture at depth Dc between the two teeth. Fracturing occurs when

1. the penetrating tooth reaches a depth equal to or greater than both D and Dc.

2. The withdrawing tooth has risen to a depth Dc or less.

Thus the chipping is result of rotation of roller under axial thrust.

The torque applied to the bit makes the bit to interact with the rock mass to overcome the bit face rolling resistance as shown in Figure 6. The total torque required to rotate the bit under an axial thrust to get a penetration depends on the rock type.

The bit performance depends on use of drill, bit design and rock properties. It was observed (Pathak, 1989) the life of bit was unpredictable, though Smith Gruner bit used to give longer life

General Recommendation for Better Drilling:

1. Drill at minimum bailing velocity of 1524 m/min

2. After each hole, the bit should be inspected to ensure that all the cones are at the same

temperature. One excessively hot cone usually indiates obstruction of air passage to the

bearing

3. Air valve should be fully opened before rotating bit and are kept on while the bit is

rotating

4. The bit and the drill steel should not be dropped to avod damamge of cones or bearings

5. The bit should never be forced into soft, loose formations faster than the cleaning of the

hole by the circulating air. Operating the bit while buried under formation cuttings to

lock when cuttings can cause bearings to lock when cuttings may be fixed inside the

cone.

REFERENCES:

1. Construction Planning, Method and Equipment McGraw-Hill; Dr. Ibrahim Isakkaf, Department of

Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Maryland, College Park

2. Introduction to Drilling Technology for Surface Mining; Prof. K. Pathak, Department of Mining

Engineering, IIT, Kharagpur-721302

3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drilling_rig