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Pooley, Robert C.; Golub, Lester S.Concepts and Objectives for Learning the Structureof English in Grades 7, 8, and 9. Report from theProject on Individually Guided Instruction inEnglish Language, Composition, and Literature.Wisconsin Univ., Madison. Research and DevelopmentCenter for Cognitive Learning.Office of Education (DHEW), Washington, D.C. Bureauof Research.TP-22BR-5-0216Nov 69OEC-5-10-15428p,
EDRS Price MF-$0.25 HC-$1.50Basic Skills, *Behavioral Objectives, Composition(Literary), *Concept Teaching, *English Instruction,Form Classes (Languages), Function Words,Fundamental Concepts, Grammar, Junior High SchoolStudents, Kernel Sentences, *Language, LanguageSkills, Secondary Education, Sentences, *SentenceStructure, Transformation Generative Grammar,Transformations (Language)
ABSTRACTEmphasizing the behavioral and social aspects of
language as a foundation for instruction, 16 concepts for learningthe structure of English in grades 7-9 are outlined in an attempt toset down in logical order the basic concepts. involved in theunderstanding of the English language, The concepts begin with arecognition of the social purposes of language (e.g., Teachersrecognize the assumption that language is human behavior.)'andcontinue through recognition of the system that is called the Englishlanguage and the description of that system, which is grammar (e.g.,Students learn to analyze and create sentences of varied style anddense texture resulting from transformations and other stylistictreatments of grammatical structure.). Because the learning of theparts of the system develops the need to perform language operations,behavioral objectives are coordinated with each learning concept.(Author/LH)
U.S. DEPARTMENT Of NEM EDUCATION & WELFARE
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r4MIS DOCUMENT HAS REEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THECiPERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS
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POSITION Of POLICY.OaKIN
CO Theoretical Paper No. 22CIU./
CONCEPTS AND OBJECTIVES FOR LEARNING THE
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH IN GRADES 7, 8, AND 9
By Robert C. Poo ley and Lester S. Golub
Report from the Project on Individually Guided Instructionin English Language, Composition, and Literature
Nathan S. Blount, Robert C. Poo ley, andLester S. Golub, Principal Investigators
Wisconsin Research and DevelopmentCenter for Cognitive LearningThe University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin
November 19 69
Published by the Wisconsin Research and Development Center for Cognitive Learning, supportedin part as a research and development center by funds from the United States Office of Education,Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The opinions expressed herein do not necessarilyreflect the position or policy of the Office of Education and no official endorsement by the Officeof Education should be inferred.
Center No. C-03 / Contract OE 5-10-154
NATIONAL EVALUATION COMMITTEE
Samuel BrownellProfessor of Urban EducationGraduate SchoolYale University
Launor F. CarterSenior Vice President on
Technology and DevelopmentSystem Development Corporation
Francis S. ChaseProfessorDepartment of EducationUniversity of Chicago
Henry ChaunceyPresidentEducational Testing Service
Martin DeutschDirector, Institute for
Developmental StudiesNew York Medical College
Jack Ed lingDirector, Teaching Research
DivisionOregon State System of Higher
Education
Elizabeth KoontzPresidentNational Education Association
Roderick McPheePresidentPunohou School, Honolulu
G. Wesley SowardsDirector, Elementary EducationFlorida State University
Patrick SuppesProfessorDepartment of MathematicsStanford University
*Benton J. UnderwoodProfessorDepartment of PsychologyNorthwestern University
UNIVERSITY POLICY REVIEW BOARD
Leonard Berkowitz John Guy Fowlkes Herbert J. Klausmeier M. Crawford YoungChairman Director Director, R & D Center Associate DeanDepartment of Psychology Wisconsin Improvement Program Professor of Educational The Graduate School
Psychology
Archie A. Buchmiller Robert E. Grinder Donald J. McCartyDeputy State SuperintendentDepartment of Public Instruction
*James W. ClearyVice Chancellor for Academic
Affairs
Leon D. EpsteinDeanCollege of Letters and Science
ChairmanDepartment of Educational
Psychology
H. Clifton HutchinsChairmanDepartment of Curriculum and
Instruction
Clauston JenkinsAssistant DirectorCoordinating Committee for
Higher Education
DeanSchool of Education
Ira SharkanskyAssociate Professor of Political
Science
Henry C. Wein lickExecutive SecretaryWisconsin Education Assaciatior
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
Edgar F. BorgattaBrittingham Professor of
Sociology
Max R. GoodsonProfessor of Educational Policy
Studies
Russell J. HosierProfessor of Curriculum and
Instruction and of Business
*Herbert J. KlausmeierDirector, R & D CenterProfessor of Educational
Psychology
Wayne OttoProfessor of Curriculum and
Instruction (Reading)
Robert G. PetzoldAssociate Dean of the School
of EducationProfessor of Curriculum and
Instruction and of Music
Richard L. VenezkyAssistant Professor of English
and of Computer Sciences
FACULTY OF PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS
Ronald R. AllenAssociate Professor of Speech
and of Curriculum andInstruction
Vernon L. AllenAssociate Professor of Psychology
(On leave 1968-69)
Nathan S. BlountAssociate Professor of English
and of Curriculum andInstruction
Robert C. CalfeeAssociate Professor of Psychology
Robert E. DavidsonAssistant Professor of
Educational Psychology
Gary A. DavisAssociate Professor of
Educational Psychology
M. Vere De VaultProfessor of Curriculum and
Instruction (Mathematics)
Frank H. FarleyAssistant Professor of
Educational Psychology
John Guy Fowlkes (Advisor)Professor of Educational
AdministrationDirector of the Wisconsin
Improvement Program
Lester S. GolubLecturer in Curriculum and
Instruction and in English
Max R. GoodsoaProfessor of Educational Policy
Studies
Warren 0. HagstromProfessor of Sociology
John G. HarveyAssociate Professor of
Mathematics and Curriculumand Instruction
Herbert J. KlausmeierDirector, R & D Center
Professor of EducationalPsychology
Burton W. KreitlowProfessor of Educational Policy
Studies and of Agriculturaland Extension Education
Richard G. MorrowAssistant Professor of
Educational Administration
Wayne OttoProfessor of Curriculum and
Instruction (Reading!
Milton 0. PellaProfessor of Curriculum and
Instruction (Science)
Thomas A. RombergAssistant Professor of
Mathematics and ofCurriculum and Instruction
Richard L. VenezkyAssiktant Professor of English
and of Computer Sciences
MANAGEMENT COUNCIL*Herbert J. Klausmeier
Director, R & D CenterActing Director, Program 1
Mary R. QuillingDirectorTechnical Section
Thomas A. RombergDirectorPrograms 2 and 3
James E. WalterDirectorDissemination Section'
Dan G. WoolpertDirectorOperations and Business
* COMMITTEE CHAIRMAN
STATEMENT OF FOCUS
The Wisconsin Research and Development Center for Cognitive Learningfocuses on contributing to a better understanding of cognitive learning bychildren and youth and to the improvement of related educational practices .The strategy for research and development is comprehensive. It includesbasic research to generate new knowledge about the conditions and processesof learning and about the processes of instruction, and the subsequent develop-ment of research-based instructional materials, many of which are designed foruse by teachers and others for use by students. These materials are tested andrefined in school settings. Throughout these operations behavioral scientists,curriculum experts, academic scholars, and school people interact, insuringthat the results of Center activities are based soundly on knowledge of subjectmatter and cognitive learning and that they are applied to the improvement ofeducational practice.
This Theoretical Paper is from the Individually Guided Instruction in EnglishLanguage, Composition, and Literature Project in Program 2. General objectivesof the Program are to establish rationale and strategy for developing instruc-tional systems, to identify sequences of concepts and cognitive skills, todevelop assessment procedures for those concepts and skills, to identify ordevelop instructional materials associated with the concepts and cognitiveskills, and to generate new knowledge about instructional procedures. Con-tributing to these Program objectives, the long-range objective of the EnglishProject is to install and test materials for individually guided instruction inlanguage, composition, and literature. Prerequisite activities include formu-lating behavioral objectives for students and teachers, based on a contentand concepts outline, and developing measurement instruments related to thebehavioral objectives.
iL
CONTENTS
List of Tables
Abstract
I Introduction
II Concepts Basic to Learning the Structures of the English Language
Concept 1: Teachers recognize the assumption that ianguageis human behavior.
Concept 2:
Concept 3:
Concept 4:
Concept 5:
Concept 6:
Concept 7:
Concept 8:
Concept 9:
Concept 10:
Students learn that spoken English consists ofsets of sounds forming words.
Students observe that English writing uses analphabet.
Students learn that words have form and forms.
Page
vii
ix
1
3
3
3
4
4
Students learn from sentence-building experiencethat words used in sentences may be classifiedinto four form classes and several fur.Jtion groups. 5
Students learn that English language communica-tion occurs by using words in sentences.
Students learn that sentences may be generatedfrom the S -- NP + VP kernel.
Students learn to identify and construct sevenkernel sentence patterns.
Students learn that the verb in the VP may appearin many forms.
Students learn that sentences containing structuralelements in addition to the elements of the sevenkernel sentence patterns are generated by transfor-mations.
5
6
6
9
10
v
Concept 11: Students learn that transformations operatingon the gre.=atical string of a single kernelare called single-base transformations.
Concept 12: Students learn that transformations operatingon the grammatical strings of two or more kernelsare called double-base transformations.
Concept 13:
Concept 14:
Page
11
13
Students learn to employ transformations toachieve subordination of one sentence to another. 16
Students learn to employ transformations toachieve coordination of sentences or sentenceelements.
Concept 15: Students learn how to make transformations thatdevelop sentence modifiers, separated from thesentence they modify and identified in speech byfalling juncture and in writing by a comma.
Concept 16: Students learn to analyze and create sentencesof varied style and dense texture resulting fromtransformations and other stylistic treatmentsof grammatical structures .
17
18
19
References23
LIST OF TABLES
TablePage
1 Phonemic Symbols for English 3
2 Kernel Sentence Patterns 7
3 Analysis of a Sentence by Thomas Wolfe 20
vii
ABSTRACT
The following outline of concepts for learning the structure of Englishis an attempt to set down in logical order the basic concepts involved inthe recognition and understanding of the English language. It emphasizesthe behavioral and social aspects of language as the foundation for instruc-tion .
The pedagogy directed by this outline begins with a recognition of thesocial purposes of language and continues with the aspects of human be-havior which govern language learning and improvement in language per-formance; -this in turn leads to the recognition of the system which iscalled the English language and the description of the system, which isgrammar. The learning of the parts of the system develops the need toperform language operations, which are set forth as behavioral objectives.
One useful outcome of this learning is its application to the creationof sentences for purposes of effective and economical communication. Theplan as here presented ends at this point but suggests pursuant learningsin Grades 10, 11, and 12 in the development of a rhetoric of English havingits foundation in the structure of English sentences.
ix
I
INTRODUCTION
The 16 concepts presented in this paperrepresent some linguistic information aboutthe structure of the English language whichstudents can study and learn during the juniorhigh school years, Grades 7, 8, and 9.
The goal in teaching these concepts is notto present a series of facts to be memorizedby students and recited by rote, as was donein the teaching of traditional school grammar;the goal is to provide a teacher with a seriesof structural concepts, ordered from simple tocomplex, and behavioral student objectiveswhich will help the teacher evaluate whetheror not students have mastered the use of theseconcepts in the production of oral and writtengrammatical structures.
These concepts attempt to describe thestructure of the English sentence, and thebehavioral objectives attempt to indicate whatstudents might do to use these structures indeveloping their own sentence sense, theirown varied and dense sentences to be used inoral and written composition. There is noguarantee that students who are taught theseconcepts will write better compositions. How-ever, there is some indication that studentswho learn the generative-transformational gram-matical processes will tend to produce thekinds of varied and dense structures charac-teristic of professional discourse (Blount, et al.,1968; Mellon, 1967; Bateman & Zidonis, 1966).That is to say, student§ will tend to use thestructures they are taught if they are furnishedthe means of producing the , structures and mas-tering them as elements of their language com-petence.
This paper is not intended to be a completestructural or transformational grammar, nor doesit propose drills and methodology for the teacherto use. Perhaps the best method and the best
grammar drills are those invented and used bythe students as they work and develop eachconcept. The following teacher behavior ob-jectives are offered as a basis for any strategya teacher might want to take in teaching theseconcepts.
Behavioral Teacher Objectives
(1) Teachers explain to students that usageand grammar are different:
(a) Grammar deals with the structuralfeatures of the language.
(b) Usage deals with the social-linguisticfeatures of the language as it is usedin a variety of social situations, e.g.,dialects, idiolects, levels of ,usage,and other variations of language suchas: register, idiom, jargon, and slang.
(2) Teachers explain to students that the Eng-lish generally spoken and taught in Englishclassrooms is consultative, standard English.
(3) Teachers contribute to their students' lin-guistic competence by accepting each stu-dent's own language performance withoutrejection, ridicule, or over-correction.The student's desire to make changes inhis language performance is a result of hisown motivations and needs; these changescannot be forced upon him.
(4) Teachers convey to the student the languagesystem in such a way that students can de-velop a wide repertoire of grammaticalstructures and transformations used in gen-erating an infinite number of varied anddense sentences for conveying their thoughtsin oral and written discourse.
1
CONCEPTS AND OBJECTIVES FOR LEARNING THE STRUCTUREOF ENGLISH IN GRADES 7, 8, AND 9
CONCEPT 1, Teachers recognize the as sump -tion that language is human be-havior.
a. Like most behavior, language is learnedin part by imitation.
b. Language behavior consists of habits andcontinuing language-learning experiences.
c. Not all language habits are of.equal socialor communicative value.
d. Most controlling language habits are ac-quired prior to school years .
e. The school does not teach a native speakerhis language; the school can only refineand expand the speaker's acquisition oflanguage.
f. The school can encourage and provide op-portunities for language-learning experi-ences.
g. The advancement of a child in languageperformance will bear a close relation tothe number and range of language-learningexperiences he is encouraged to perform.
h. Some useful language-learning activitiesinclude the finding of words with which tocommunicate new experiences.
i. Language-learning experiences should bebased upon a theory of an ordered systemof language.
CONCEPT 2. Students learn that spoken Englishconsists of sets of sounds formingwords.
a. The sounds that make words in English arecalled phonemes. (See Table 1.)
b. English word sounds ara classified as con-sonants, vowels, and dipthongs.
Table 1
Phonemic Symbols for English*
(Segmental Phonemes)
Consonants
b
cdf
ghjk1
mnrj
p
r
S.
te
a
w
22
bigchasedentfixgoodhitjudgekick, cutlongmeatneatsongit
run, hurrysitshiptakethatchthisverywartYetzoneazure, treasure
Vowels
i
Eel
4aau00
hitmethatfurcupfather, hotpull, woodboneauthor
Diphthongs
iyeyay
uwowaw
iuw
beat, treeday, fadeside, iceboy, oilrule, foolsew, snownow, loudfew, music
*Modified version of the phonemic systemof George L. Trager and Henry Lee Smith, Jr. ,An Outline of English Structure. Washington,D.C.: American Council of Learned Societies .1957, p. 50.
c. Changes of sound occurring within wordsmay be called phonemic changes.
3
d. Many phonemic changes are grammaticalsignals: e.g., we change man to men,mouse to mice, goose to geese, and footto feet to form plurals of nouns. Wechange run to ran, bite to bit, give togave, swim to swam, and fall to fell tomake past tenses of verbs.
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To give several examples of phonemesTo identify the various phonemes in a
spoken wordTo learn and write the symols represent-
ing English phonemes
b) To identify the consonant sounds in aspoken word
To demonstrate by speaking and writingfamiliar words that clusters of conso-nants are blends as in sslash and brand
c) To identify the vowel sounds in a spokenword
To demonstrate by speaking and writingfamiliar words such as size and boy thatsome vowel sounds consist of two ormore phonemes forming a diphthong ortriphtho ng
d) To analyze short spoken words into con-sonants, vowels, and diphthongs asthey occur in the words
e) To identify the sound changes which ebase word may undergo
To identify phonemic changes which createplurals of nouns or past tenses of verbs
To identify phonemic changes which createpast participles such as swum, gone,sung, and striven
To use phonemic symbols to indicate word-form changes
CONCEPT 3. Students observe that Englishwriting uses an alphabet.
a. There are 26 letters in the written (natural)alphabet but 33 phonemes plus 8 diphthongsin the phonemic symbols of English. Theletters of the natural alphabet do not alwaysmatch a specific phonemic symbol.
b. Knowledge of how to sound some letters insome words can be gained only by experi-ence (e.g. , read, garage, foot, bread).
c. The process of writing words with lettersis called spelling.
d. English spelling is difficult because thesounds of many letters in many words are
4
determined conventionally i.e., by cus-tom (e.g., ghost, futile).
e. Some "spelling rules" can be learned andapplied to English spelling.
f. There are patterns of regularity which ap-ply to the spelling of many words.
g. Accuracy in spelling is gained largely byinsights into spelling regularities and bythe practice of writing specific words .
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To recite the letters of the English alpha-bet in the customary order
b) To identify the most predictable soundrepresented by a letter or combinationof letters
To recognize silent letters in Englishspelling
To explain the influence of silent e at theends of syllables on the preceding vowel
c) To transcribe a spoken word to written let-ters from dictation
d) To apply rules of spelling to appropriatewords and to note exceptions to theserules
To spell words which do not follow pre-dictable spelling patterns
e) To develop a technique of learning thespellings of new words
f) To strive for accuracy in spellingg) To use the dictionary to verify spellings
CONCEPT 4. Students learn that words haveform and forms.
a. The shortest understandable unit of a wordis called a morpheme.
b. Base words consist of one irreducible mor-pheme. Every base word has a lexical(dictionary) meaning.
c. Words are built from bases and affixes.d. Some affixes are derivational; that is,
when attached to a base they create anew word by showing a new meaning(lexical change).
Illustrations: un + wise = unwise; child+ ish = childish; dis + approve = dis-approve; pave + ment = pavement; spe-cial + ize = specialize; motion + less= motionless .
e. Some affixes are inflectional; that is,when attached to a base they signal agrammatical change. In writing, add -sto nouns to form some plurals (snakes,hats, sticks). We add -s to some verbsto indicate third person singular indicativemode (he takes, she works, it runs). Weadd -ed, -d, or -t to some verbs to makepast tenses (walked, divided, slept). Weadd -er and -est to some adjectives toexpress comparative and superlative de-grees (finer, finest; slower, slowest;stronger, strongest).
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To give several examples of morphemes
b) To point out the phonemes that are con-tained in a given morpheme
c) To indicate the base morphemes in acompounded word
d) To point out the base form of given wordsand to indicate why this base form maybe no further reduced
e) To identify and distinguish base wordsfrom affixes (prefixes and suffixes)
f) To identify derivational affixes and showhow they affect the meanings of thebase words to which they are attached
g) To identify inflectional affixes and showhow they affect the grammatical rela-tionships of the base or derivationalwords to Which they are attached
oh) To use accurately derivational and inflec-tional affixes in discourse
CONCEPT 5. Students learn from sentence-building experience that wordsused in sentences may be classi-fied into four form classes andseveral function groups .
a, The four form classes are distinguishedas follows:
Nominals (including nouns andpronouns)
VerbsAdjectivesAdverbs
b. Students make observations about fOrm-class words
1. Nouns form plurals. A word whichcan take a plural morpheme may be
called a noun. Pronouns replacenouns. Pronouns may be singularor plural depending upon the numberof the nouns they replace. Pronounforms change according to case.
2. Verb forms show tense. Any wordwhich can take a past or presenttense morpheme may be called averb .
3. Adjectives are recognized by thefollowing test pattern: <The bookis very >, in which the wordto be tested is placed in the blank(test frame). If an English sentenceresults, the word may be called anadjective.
4. Adverbs may be recognized as wordsthat fit such a pattern as <John runs
.>, <The baby cries .>,<The kettle boiled .>. Inthese blanks such words as fast,loudly, friendly, now, yesterday,and always could be inserted. Ad-verbs are words that answer thequestions how, when, where, andwhy.
c, All other words not falling into one ofthese four form classes may be calledfunction words. For example, determiners(the), modals (will), and qualifiers (very)are function words. (Function words willbe discussed after sentence patterns .)
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To rewrite the singular noun or pronounplus the plural morpheme as plural nounsor pronouns
b) To rewrite the base form of a verb plusits past or present tense marker as thepast or present tense of the verb
c) To identify words which can be used inthe NP + Vbe + very + add test framepattern as adjectives
d) To identify words which can be used in theNP + Vi + adv test frame pattern as adverbs
e) To distinguish between form-class wordsand function words in a sentence
CONCEPT 6. Students learn that Englishlanguage communication occursby using words in sentences.
a. Speakers of English have a sense of whata sentence is.
5
b. Making sentences requires words and es-tablished arrangements of words.
c. English language communication rests uponsystems of word arrangements.
d. Language systems, with the rules thatgovern them, constitute a grammar.
e. The native speakers of English make therules which govern the grammar.
f. The grammar of English includes inflec-tional and derivational affixes: signalsof meaning within words (run, ran) andadditions to words (see morphemes) .
g. A grammar has signals of meaning from thearrangements (order) of words in sentences.
h. English sentences have two main parts,called complete subject and complete predi-cate, and represented by the symbolsNP + VP.
i. The fundamental kernel sentence may beexpressed by the formula S NP + VP.
j. Elaborations of the kernel sentence aregenerated by making expansions of theNP and VP.
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To demonstrate by speaking or writing wordsin succession that some groups ofwords form sentences and some do not
From lists of prepared word sequences, toselect those sequences which form sen-tences
To form sentences from ungrammaticallyword-ordered sentences
To demonstrate that some long sequencesof,words may look like sentences but arenot, and that some very short sequencesmay be sentences
b) To demonstrate in spoken or written exer-cises that sentences exist because ofparticular arrangements of words
To demonstrate that communication betweenspeaker or listener, writer and reader,rests upon sequences of words that ex-press a sentence in full, or imply a sen-tence in context. (e.g . , in answer to aquestion such as "When do you start?"the answer might be, "Tomorrow." Theword tomorrow is the spoken part of asentence implied by the context, "I shallstart tomorrow." It is generally recog-nized that we communicate by sentencesand word groups but the communicationrequires that the word groups have a sen-tence context.)
6
c) To illustrate from phonemic signals , mor-phemic signals, and from word arrange-ments (syntax) that the grammar of Eng-lish is concerned with the making ofEnglish sentences
To distinguish and describe the relation-ships between the various systems (e.g.,phonemic, morphemic, syntactic, andsemantic) of the structure of English
d) To label the complete subject and the com-plete predicate of given sentences withthe symbols NP and VP
To label each item in a variety of wordsequences as a sentence, an NP or a VP
e) To create sentences of various kinds,identifying and labeling the NP and VP
To supply an NP for given VP's; to supplya VP for given NP's
CONCEPT 7. Students learn that sentencesmay be generated from theS NP + VP kernel.
a. The base kernel is S NP + VP.b. Kernel sentences are minimal; they can-
not be further reduced and remain sentences.c. The kernel sentence patterns are differ-
entiated by the manner of expansion of theVP in the base kernel.
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To generate two-word sentences from theS NP + VP formula
b) To delete, one at a time, an NP or a VPfrom the sentences generated in (a) abovein order to conclude that both an NP anda VP are needed for a sentence to exist(e.g., John runs. Boys scout.)
c) To identify kernel sentences in a group ofrandomly paired words
CONCEPT 8. Students learn to identify andconstruct seven kernel sentencepatterns. (See Table 2.)
In the disoussion which follows, NP1 refers tosubject noun phrases; NP2 refers to directobject noun phrases.
a. Two patterns utilize verbs of action:1. NP + Vi John speaks. (intransitive)2. NP1 + Vt + NP2 Mary baked a cake.
(transitive)
Table 2
Kernel Sentence Patterns
Symbol NP (Subject) VP (Predicate)
S
1 2 3 4
(det) + N verbor Vbe*
A structure that completesthe verb -A complement
(Adverbial)Optional
Vi NPBoys
Vi(no complement)
Vt NP1Some boys
Vtenjoy
NP2 direct objectsports
Vbe + adv
NPThe boysFive boysThat boy
Vbe adverbial word or phraseherein Chicagoon the bus
arewereis
be + adj NPThe crowd
be adjectiveangrywas
be + NP NP1The boys
be NP1classmateswere
Vb NP1
The boys
The boys
Vb (linking)become,
remaingrow,
continuebecameremained
adjective}
friendsfriendly
Vs NP1The boysThat boy
Vs (linking)seem, appearlook, soundseemlooks
'adjective}1NP1
energetic(to be) a fool
*The symbol Vbe appears as am, are, is, was , were, be, being, and been.
Key to Symbols: ( ) = optional} = choice of one
+ = plus
S = sentenceVi = intransitive verbVt = transitive verb
b . Three patterns employ the verb be.
1. NP + Vbe + adv The boys are here.
2. NP1 + Vbe + adj The tree is tall.3. NP1 + Vbe + NP1 Tom is my friend.
c. Two patterns employ verbs that link the NPto the VP with specific relationships.
Vbe = forms of beVb = verbs like becameVs = verbs like seem
1. Verbs suggesting a relationship oftime in continuity: become, remain,grow, continue, etc.
The boys grew tall.NP + Vb + adj The boys became friendly.
The boys remained friends.NP1 +Vb+ NP1 The boys continued mem-
bers .
7
2. Verbs presenting observations of thesenses: seem, appear, look, feel,taste, smell, sound, etc.
The crowd seemed friendly.'He appeared contented.His words sounded false.The pie tastes good.
Occasionally the pattern NP1 + Vs +NPi appears, in which an infinitiveto be is omitted:
The girls seemed friends.Tom looked a fool.
NP +Vs +adj
d. Each of these seven patterns may add anadverbial element and remain a kernel.
John speaks loudly.Mary baked a cake yesterday.The tree is exceedingly tall.Tom is always my friend.The boys are never here.The boys grew tall suddenly.The crowd seemed friendly at first.
e. Any NP may be expanded to det + N (detis the abbreviation for determiner, a classof words introducing nouns, including the,a, an, marry, few, some, five, ten, etc.).
Some boys practice all sports.
det + N + Vt + det + Nf. VP may be identified as:
Vi with no complement (see Column 3of Table 2)
Vt, Vbe Vb, Vs with complements
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To demonstrate that VP may be identifiedas Vi or Vt
b) To interpret Vi "verb intransitive," asmeaning verbs not followed by directobject NP, and Vt "verb transitive," asmeaning verbs followed by a direct ob-ject NP
To demonstrate in sentences that manyverbs of action can function either asVi or Vt
c) To identify printed sentences whose pat-terns are NP + Vi and NPi + Vt + NP2
d) To create sentences from the sentencepatterns:
(1) NP + Vi (no complement)(2) NP
1+ Vt + NP 2
e) To write sentences using forms of theverb be
8
f) To create sentences to the pattern NP +Vbe + adj
To identify the complement in this patternas an adjective, either single word orphrase
To create sentences to the pattern NP1 +Vbe + NPi
To identify the complement in this patternas a noun phrase equivalent to the sub-ject noun phrase
h) To create sentences to the pattern NP +Vbe + adv
To identify the complement in this patternas an adverbial, either single word orprepositional phrase
i) To define and construct prepositionalphrases as prep + NP
To label prepositional phrases in kernelsentences as adverbials
g)
j) From a printed list of be verb sentencesto distinguish those of pattern NP + Vbe+ adj, NPi + Vbe + NP1 and those of pat-tern NP + Vbe + adv
To substitute words in the adv, adj, andNP position as complements of the Vbepattern.
k) To create sentences to the pattern NP +VD adj or NPi + Vb + NP2
To list the verbs usually identified by thesymbol Vb: become, remain, grow, con-tinue
To substitute words in the adj and NP po-sition as complements of the Vb pattern
1) To create sentences to the pattern NP +Vs + adj
To list the verbs usually identified by thesymbol Vs: seem, appear, look, feel,taste, smell, etc.
To substitute words in the adj positionas complements of the Vs pattern
m) To point out from a printed list of Vb andVs those verbs which signal a relationshipof continuing time, and those verbs whichsignal a relationship of observation by thesenses
n) To add an adverbial to each kernel sen-tence pattern
NP + Vi + (adv)NPi + Vt + NP2 + (adv)NP + Vbe + adj + (adv)NP1 + Vbe + NP + (adv)NP + Vbe + adv + (adv)NP + Vb + adj + (adv)NPi + Vb + NP1 + (adv)NP + Vs + adj + (adv)NPi + Vs + NPi + (adv)
To write sentences to each of these pat-terns, using adverbials
o) To rewrite NP as (det) + NTo define a "determiner" as a word which
introduces a noun and which cannot beused as the adj in the NP + Vbe + very+ adj pattern
To identify determiners in a list of sen-tences representing kernel sentencepatterns
To write sentences containing single andgrouped determiners (e.g., some, few,a great many, five or six, etc.) and topoint out the determiners
From experience with kernel sentence pat-terns, to rewrite the general symbol VPas Vi, Vt, Vbe, Vb and Vs + complement,if needed
P)
CONCEPT 9. Students learn that the verb inthe VP may appear in many forms.
a. The present participle of any verb is formedby adding -ing to the base form of the verb(the base form is the infinitive, to+V, withto deleted).Past participles are formed (1) by addingthe inflectional suffix morphemes -ed or-en, (2) by an inflectional infix morpheme,or (3) a combination of the two. (Illustra-tions: (1) taken, walked, picked, mapped,dived, fallen, shaken, etc. (2) swum,sung, hung, sat, etc. (3) brought, driven,stricken, broken, frozen, etc.) The sym-bol for the past participle is -en.
b. Tense is a change of form of the verb tosignal a change of time. English has twotenses, present and past. Present tenseis indicated by the base form of the verb(e.g., run, look, talk, eat, swim, or bythe inflectional morpheme -s (or -es ) addedto the base form of the verb. The presenttense of the verb be has the forms am afterthe pronoun I, is after the pronouns he,she, and it, and are after the pronounsyou, we, and they. Present time is fre-quently represented by the present tenseof the verb be + the present participle ofthe verb (e.g., is going, are speaking,am talking, are running, etc.).Past tense is marked by (1) the inflectionalsuffix morpheme -ed, (2) an inflectionalinfix morpheme, or (3) a combination ofthe two, (4) no change. (Illustrations:(1) stepped, boxed, hoped, etc.; (2) rose,sang, swam, drove, fell, etc.; (3) slept,caught, bought, went, etc.; (4) hit, set,cast, etc.).
c. Many verb forms are created by the addi-tion of an auxiliary to the base form orpast tense forms of the verb, or to parti-ciples. Auxiliary verbs are: be, have,.do in all forms.Modal auxiliary verbs include: may. ,might; can, could; shall, should; will,would; must and ought to.
d. Future time may be expressed by:
1) Shall + the base form of the verb (Ishall go)
2) Will + the base form of the verb (Iwill go)
3) A present form of be + the presentparticiple of the verb + an adverb oftime (I am going + adverb)
4) A present form of the verb + an adverbof time (I go tomorrow)
5) A present form of verbs such as plan,intend, aim, etc., + the infinitiveform of the verb (I plan to go, I intendto go, etc.)
e. Past (-ell) and present (-s) time relation-ships are expressed by the auxiliaries be,have, or do in the auxiliary of the verbphrase.(Illustrations: The boys have gone; theboys had gone; thelloys will have gone;the boys did go, etc.)
f. The English auxiliary plus the base formof the verb, the verb string, has the fol-lowing pattern from which all passibletenses, moods, and aspects of a givenverb can be derived:
tense + (modal) + (perfect (progressive + Vaspect} aspect)aspect)-s,present
-ed,past
shall (have + -2u) + (be + -ing)willmaycan
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To make present participles of verbs byadding -ing, to the base form
To identify present participles in sentencesTo make past participles of regular (weak)
and irregular (strong) types of verbsTo identify past participles in sentencesTo use the symbol -Ina for a present par-
ticiple and the symbol -en for any pastparticiple, regardless of actual spelling
b) To define tense as a change of form in averb to signal past (-ed) or present (-s) time.
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To identify present and past tense formsof verbs in given sentences
To describe by what kind of change givenpast tense verbs are formed: by inflec-tional suffix morphemes, by inflectionalinfix morphemes, by a combination ofthese, or no change
c) To name and employ in verb phrases theregular auxiliary verbs be, have, and doin all their forms
To name and employ in verb phrases themodals may, can, shall, will (presenttense forms); might, could, should,would (past tense forms), and ought to
To identify the form of the verb used incombination with auxiliaries
d) To write sentences expressing future timein a variety of ways
To identify future time as expressed ingiven sentences
e) To express past and present perfect byusing the auxiliary have with the mainverb
To demonstrate that present or past tensein a verb phrase may be signaled by anauxiliary
f) To use this pattern for the verb string togenerate the various tenses, moods, andaspects of a given verb:
Examples:
tense (modal) ++ v
(perfect (progressiveaspect) aspect)
-s,present
-ed,past
shall (have + + (be + inwillmaycan
(1) - s + shall + have + -en + be + -in + drink\\//f NN\//(shall have been
I
(2) -ed + may + have + -en + drink\//' I ',/'might have drunk
drinking
(3) -ed + can
could
(4) -ed +
10
drink
drink
drink
drank
CONCEPT 10. Students learn that sentencescontaining structural elementsin addition to the elements ofthe seven kernel sentence pat-terns are generated by transfor-mations.
a. Any sentence which is not a declarativekernel sentence is a transform. The trans-formation is the process; the resultantstructure is the transform.
b. Attributive adjectives and attributive nounstructures are the result of a transforma-tion. (Illustration: The angry bull chasedthe frightened boy.) This sentence con-tains two elements in addition to the de-clarative kernel pattern: angry and fright-ened. The sentence is formed from theseernels:
1. A bull chased the boy. (NP1 + Vt + NP2)
2. The bull was angry. (NP+ Vbe+ adj)
3. The boy was frightened. (NP+ Vbe+ adj)
The adjectives in the transforms the angrybull and the frightened boy are derived fromthe adjective Kernels 2 and 3, which isnecessary before they can be substitutedinto Kernel 1 to derive the transform: Theangry bull chased the frightened boy.
c. The structural elements of a kernel sen-tence may be termed "a grammatical string."Transformations operate upon the grammati-cal strings of kernel sentences.
d. Transformation rules rearrange grammaticalelements, add new grammatical elements,substitute grammatical elements, and de-lete grammatical elements. (In the illus-tration in (b) above, it will be noted thatthe transform of kernel Sentence 1 hasadded two adjectives and is therefore nolonger a kernel.)
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To identify sentences as kernel sentences(by recognition of pattern) or as trans-forms (i.e., containing a kernel patternwith rearrangements and added materials)
To point out added elements in transformsb) To compare the transformed grammatical
string with the declarative kernel
c) From a list of given sentences containingsimple transformations , to isolate theadded elements, and to identify the ker-nel patterns from which they are derived
d) To list the processes used in transforma-tions: rearrange, add, substitute, delete
CONCEPT I I. Students learn that transforma-tions operating on the grammati-cal string of a single kernel arecalled single-base transforma-tions.
a. Single-base transformations principallyrearrange or delete structural elements.
b, The Yes/No Question Transformation. Thistransformation occurs when be, have, or amodal forming part of the verb, is movedto the beginning of the sentence (rearrange-ment).
Jane will sing America.Will Jane sing America?
Kenneth has gone.Has Kenneth gone?
Someone is at the door.Is someone at the door?
When the verb does not contain be, have,or a modal in the auxiliary, the past orpresent form of do is added to introducethe question.
John likes cake.Does John like cake?
Some boys destroyed the fence.Did some boys destroy the fence?
In most dialects of American English aquestion which includes the auxiliary havewill begin with the auxiliary do.
Has John a badcold?
John has a bad cold.Does John havea bad cold?
The second is commonly used.
c. The WhQuestion Transformation. To formquestions not answered by Yes/No, inter-rogative words are substituted for a "some
" form in a kernel sentence: who,what, when, where, why, and how. Some-times the sentence must be rearranged toinsure initial position of the wh-word.Tense + do precedes the base form of theverb when the question is formed from averb string not using have, be, or modals.
Somebody has borrowed my book. :*(substitution)
Who has borrowed my book?
Ted is reading something.(substitution and rearrangement)What is Ted reading?
lAre must do the work sometime.(substitution and rearrangement)When must we do the work?
Charles went somewhere(substitution, rearrangement,
addition of cis!)Where did Charles go?
d. The Negative Transformation. The nega-tive transformation occurs when not isplaced after the auxiliaries be, have, ora modal. If be, have, or a modal is notpresent, the auxiliary do is inserted be-fore not.
Jane will sing America.Jane will not (won't) sing America.
Kenneth has gone.Kenneth has not (hasn't) gone.
Jane sang America.Jane did not (didn't sing America.
Negative questions follow the same pattern:Will Jane sing?
Did Jane sing?
Won't Jane sing?
Didn't Jane sing?
e. The Imperative Transformation. The impera-tive transformation involves the deletion ofthe subject and auxiliaries of a kernel sen-tence. This transformation occurs only insentences using the second person.
You will read the poem. 4Read the poem.
You will consider the consequences.Consider the consequences.
f. The Expletive Transformation. Some sen-tences begin with introductory unstressedwords called expletives. These words arethere and it. The transformation involvestwo steps: 1) there or it is prefixed to thesentence, and 2) be is moved to a positionafter there or it. Thy, sentence must havesome form of be in it.
Four chairs were in the room.There were four chairs in the room.
The silence was long.There was a long silence.
To know this is useful.It is useful to know this.
That he would go there is strange.It is strange that he would go there.
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English does not ordinarily end a weatherstatement with the verb be. Therefore wedo not say Rain is, or Snow was; we sayIt is raining or It was snowing, using theexpletive transformation.
g. The Indirect Object Transformation. Insome grammars the pattern of an indirectobject sentence is offered as a kernelwith this formula: NP1 + Vt + NP3 + NP2(My son gave his teacher a rose). How-ever, since the indirect object appears tobe the product of deletion and rearrange-ment, it is considered a transformation inthis grammar. This transformation occursonly in connection with certain transitiveverbs, such as: 121a-, sell, write, give,send, bring, mail, etc. In the transforma-tion the preposition to or for is deleted,and the noun of the prepositional phraseis fixed in a position immediately beforethe NP2 of the kernel, which is the directobject. Thus, the indirect object alwaysstands immediately before the direct ob-ject. Pronouns are frequently indirectobjects.
I wrote a letter to the Senator.I wrote the Senator a letter.
I made a dress for my sister.I made my sister a dress.
John gave a kiss to her.John gave her a kiss.
The boys' parents bought gifts for them.The boys' parents bought them gifts.
h. The Passive Transformation. In Englishthere is a choice of relationships betweenshe doer of an action and the receiver ofthe action. This distinction is labeledactive voice and passive voice. In activevoice patterns the NP1 is the doer of theaction: The boy ate the pie. But this maybe transformed to a pattern in which thereceiver of the action is placed first, asin The pie was eaten by the boy. Thistransformation may be indicated by theseformulas:
Active: NPi + tense + Vt + NP2
Passive: NP2 + tense + be + en +Vt + by + NPi
The transform is produced by the followingsteps:
1. NP2 is moved to the beginning of the
grammatical stringto the subjectposition.
2. Tense is carried over from the kernelstring.
12
3. Some form of the verb be is added,carrying the tense of the kernel,present or past.
4. The -en morphemethe past parti-ciple form of the verbis required.
5. The preposition is inserted.6. NP1 of the kernel becomes the ob-
ject of the preposition 12z.
In sentences in which the doer of the ac-tion is unknown or not important, the NP1can be deleted in the transform.
The room should have been cleaned(by someone).
The room should have been cleaned.
Somebody stole my money.My money was stolen (by somebody).My money was stolen.
The effective use of active voice and pas-sive voice is a composition skill gainedby experience and practice. Usually theactive voice is preferable but in buildingup background to lead to an assertion, thepassive voice is frequently used. Passivestatements usually lack vigor. The ballwas hit by John is felt to be less vigorousthan John hit the ball. Nevertheless, ifthe purpose of the sentence is to callattention to or identify the ball, then thepassive structure is fully justified.
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To define and illustrate single-base trans-formation
To identify transformation as a process,and transform as a product
To demonstrate that transformations rear-range grammatical elements, add newgrammatical elements, substitute gram-matical elements, and delete grammati-cal elements
b) To convert kernel statements to Yes/Noquestions
To illustrate the rules governing the for-mation of Yes/No questions
c) To convert kernel statements to Wh-questions
To demonstrate how these question struc-tures differ from those of the Yes/Noquestions
d) To convert kernel statements to negativestatements
To demonstrate the rules governing theformation of negative transformations
To convert positive questions to negativequestions
e) To convert kernel statements to imperativestatements
To recognize that this transformation occursonly with statements in the second personby selecting appropriate sentences froma list
To demonstrate the deletions that producethe request transformation
f) To convert kernel statements to expletivestatements
To write the two steps governing this trans-formation
To employ the idiomatic use of the exple-tive it in descriptions of weather phenom-ena
g) To convert a kernel statement of the pat-tern NP1 + Vt + NP2 + prepositionalphrase to an indirect object transform
To write a pattern formula for the indirectobject sentence
h) To identify given sentences as containingeither active or passive voice
To convert a kernel statement in the activevoice to a passive transformation
To write the formula for the active sentenceand the resultant formula for the passivesentence
To use the symbols be + -en in writing theformula for the passive voice
To demonstrate the steps followed in pro-ducing this transformation
To construct transforms with the passivein which the NP1 can be deleted
To contrast uses of paired sentences writ-ten in the active voice and the passivevoice
CONCEPT 12. Students learn that transforma-tions operating on the grammati-cal strings of two or more kernelsare called double-base transfor-mations.
a. Double-base transformations are accom-plished through a process called embed-ding which involves the rearrangement,addition, substitution, and/or deletion ofgrammatical elements. One or more ofthese processes will be used in everydouble-base transformation. The follow-ing 4". stration employs several of theseprocesses as an example. The transfor-mations involved are analyzed separatelyin sections b, c, d, etc., which follow.Kernel 1. The cat leaped up on the table.Kernel 2. The cat licked up the cream.
Transform 1. The cat leaped up on thetable and licked up the cream. (Notethat the kernels are united by a con-junction.)
Transform 2. The cat, by leaping on thetable, licked up the cream.
In Transform 2 the following processesare employed:
Rearrangement: the position of leapingon the table.
Addition: the prepositionSubstitution: leaping (a participle) for
leaped (a verb)Deletion: The cat of Kernel 2; Li.p. of
Kernel 1.
Transformatioh 2 embeds Kernel 1 into theframe of i;ernel 2, reducing it from a predi-cation (i.e., subject + verb) to a phrase(participle + prepositional phrase).
b. When a portion of one kernel is insertedinto the structure of another kernel, theprocess is called embedding; the insertedstructure is embedded in the structure ofanother kernel. In the illustration citedabove Kernel 1 is reduced to a phrase andis embedded in the structure of Kernel 2.
c. The Adjective and Noun Adjunct Transfor-mations. Every adjective standing beforea noun in a noun phrase is derived from akernel having the formula NP + Vbe + adj(The boy is good). In this transformationthe kernel is embedded in the structure ofanother kernel, and all unnecessary wordsare deleted, usually leaving only theadjective.
Kernel 1: (Main sentence) The boy atehis breakfast.
Kernel 2: (Insert sentence) The boy isgood.
Transform: The good boy ate his break-fast.
Kernel 1: The tree seemed immense.
Kernel 2: The tree was ancient.
Transform: The ancient tree seemedimmense.
The adjective transformation is the sim-plest process for expanding a noun phraseof a kernel sentence: the boy is expandedto the good boy, the tall boy, etc. , bythis process.In a similar manner noun phrases are ex-panded by the construction called a nounadjunct. A noun adjunct is a noun without
13
a possessive inflection signal, placeddirectly before another noun. Noun ad-juncts sometimes appear to be adjectives,but they are not capable of fitting into theadjective test pattern. (See below.)
Kernel 1: The city has streets.Kernel 2: The streets are well-paved.
Transform: The city streets are well-paved.
The word city is the noun adjunct. It isequivalent to "of the city" in the trans-form <The streets of the city are well-paved.>In the sentence <The house had a brickwall.> the word brick looks like an adjec-tive. However, when we apply the adjec-tive teat pattern we find we cannot say<The wall is very brick .>. Consequently,we recognize that brick is not an adjectivebut rather a noun adjunct, deriving from asentence such as: <The wall is made ofbrick.>.
d. The Object Complement Transformation.The object complement is a second objectwhich follows the direct object to showthe result of such actions as choose,elect, make, vote, and others. The pro-cesses employed are embedding and dele-tion.
Kernel 1: (Main sentence) We electedTom.
Kernel 2: (Insert sentence) Tom is captain.Transform: We elected Tom captain.
(Note that all that remains of Kernel 2 isthe word captain, which is inserted inKernel 1 after the direct object.)In the sentence <Eating candy makes theboy fat.> two transformations are involved.Note these steps:
1. Someone is eating candy.
2. By deletion (Someone is) eating candy.
3. Kernel 1: Eating candy makes (some-one) fat.
4. Kernel 2: The boy is fat.5. Transform: Eating candy makes the
boy fat.
By this process the adjective fat becomesthe object complement to the noun boy.
e. The Relative Clause Transformation. Oneof the most commonly used transformationsis the relative clause transformation. Theembedding process involves substitution
14
and addition, and sometimes rearrangement.The words substituted in this transformationare the relatives who, whom, whose, that,and which, expressing a subordinate relation-ship of one kernel to another. Illustrations:
Kernel 1: (Main sentence) The speakerwas interesting.
Kernel 2: (Insert sentence) The speakergave the address.
Process: The speaker (The speaker = whogave the address) was interesting.
Transform: The speaker who gave theaddress was interesting.
Kernel 1: This is the bus.
Kernel 2: I came on the bus.
Process: This is the bus (I came on [thebus = that])
Transform: This is the bus that I came on.Relative clauses are also formed by usingthe relatives where and when. Illustrations:Kernel 1: The house had a porch.
Kernel 2: I was born in the house.
Process: The house (I was born [in thehouse = where]) had a porch.
Transform: The house where I was bornhad a porch.
Kernel 1: That was the time.
Kernel 2: We had fun then.
Process: That was the time (we had fun[then = when]
Transform: That was the time when wehad fun.
f. Noun clause transformations. Another veryuseful transformation embeds a noun clausederived from a kernel sentence. Theseclauses are used particularly after suchverbs as know, realize, appreciate, see,observe, and other similar verbs wherethe clauses function as objects of theverb of the first kernel. But embeddednoun clauses can also function as sub-jects and as objects of prepositions. Therelatives that, which, who, whom, andwhose are added to the transform as needed,or are substituted for an NP.Kernel 1: He knows [something = that]
Kernel 2: A storm is coming.
Transform: He knows that a storm iscoming.
Kernel 1: He sees [something = that]
Kernel 2: His work is almost finished.
Transform: He sees that his work isalmost finished.
These examples use that as the added con-nective word. Connectives such as why,where, who, when, and what may also beused:
Kernel 1: He knows [something = what]
Kernel 2: Something happened.
Transform: He knows what happened.
Kernel 1: He knows [the reason = why]
Kernel 2: The accident occurred.
Transform: He knows why the accidentoccurred.
Kernel 1: He knew [the time = when]
Kernel 2: It was time to go.
Transform: He knew when it was time togo.
(Deletion transform) He knew when to go.(Note that it was time may be deleted.)
The noun clause may function as a subject.Kernel 1: Something annoyed Tom.
Kernel 2: The game was lost.
Process: [The game was lost = something]+ that
Transform: That the game was lost annoyedTom.
Kernel 1: Something surprised no one.Kernel 2: The school bond issue passed.
Process: [The school bond issue passed= something] + that
Transform: That the school bond issuepassed surprised no one.
g. Deletion transformations affecting sentenceswith embedded relative clauses.1) Deletion of relative pronouns: When the
relative pronoun functions as the directobject of a verb, or as tne object of averb, or as the object of a preposition,it may optionally be deleted.
Relative clause transform: He lost thewatch that I gave him.
Deletion transform: He lost the watchI gave him.
Relative clause transform: This is thehouse in which I live.
Process: This is the house in [which] Ilive.
Transform, with rearrangement required byEnglish Idiom: This is the house I live in.
2) Deletion with the relative + be
Relative clause transform: The squirrel[that is] in the tree is playful.
Deletion transform: The squirrel in thetree is playful.
(Note that the relative clause is reducedto a prepositional phrase.)
Relative clause transform: The squirrel[that is] scampering up the tree is play-ful.
Deletion transform: The squirrel scamper-ing up the tree is playful. (Note that thedeletion of that is results in a participlescampering. This transform may becalled the participle transform.)
Relative clause transform: The squirrel[that is] hidden in the branches is play-ful.
Deletion transform: The squirrel hiddenin the branches is playful. (Note thathidden is also a participle, produced bythe participle transformation.)
These examples show that relative clausesformed by the relative clause transforma-tion can be further reduced by a deletiontransformation called a participle transfor-mation. This operation produces a morecompact structure such as a participle ofthe present or past form or a prepositionalphrase.
h. The Possessive Noun Viewed as a Transform.Historically the possessive forms of nounsare derived from a genitive case in earlyEnglish. On certain Old English nouns thegenitive singular case was signaled by theending -as later reduced to -es . In modernEnglish this signal has become -'s as inboy's, friend' s , church's, etc. Pluralpossessives ending in -s usually add onlythe apostrophe (I), as in boys', friends',churches' .The genitive case marker on a noun indi-cates that there is a possessive relation-ship between that noun and the followingnoun. Thus John's bicycle = John has(possesses) a bicycle. Mary's intelligence= Mary has (possesses) intelligence. Fromthis relationship the possessive John'sbicycle may be considered a transform ofthe kernel John has a bicycle.
15
Kernel 1: Mary helped solve the problem.
Kernel 2: Mary has intelligence.
Process: Mary [Mary has intelligence]helped solve the problem.
Transform: Mary's intelligence helpedsolve the problem.
Such a sentence as There was a fight atthe children's 1Lay may be analyzedas derived from two kernels:
Kernel 1: A fight occurred somewhere.
Transform: There was a fight somewhere.(Expletive there transformation)
Kernel 2: The children have a playground.
Transform: The children's playground.
Final transform: There was a fight at thechildren's playground.
i. Formation of of phrases from the possessivetransformation. Some of phrases, like Thehead of the house are preferred in place ofthe simple possessive The house's head.In g-meral, of phrases may be used inte:-changeably with possessive forms, butthere is a tendency to avoid the possessiveform when the noun designates an inanimateobject. We commonly say a day's work,the water's edge; but the clock's hands,the carpet's pattern, the house's front,and the Police's Commissioner are unusual.
Kernel 1: The house has walls.
Transform: The house's walls = the wallsof the house
Kernel 2: The walls are bulging.
Transform: The walls of the house arebulging.
Kernel 1: A stAte has resources.
Transform: The state's resources = theresources of the state.
Kernel 2: Resources enrich [the state = it]
Transform: The resources of the stateenrich it.
. Transformations using with phrases. Therelative clause formed with a who or thatconnective plus the verb have in any formmay be reduced by deletion to a with phrase.
Kernel 1: A boy plays football successfully.
Kernel 2: A boy has determination.
Process: A boy [a boy has determination]plays football successfully.
16
.....^,.- P.T.-,..r,:-74't , ,
Transform 1: A boy who has determina-tion plays football suc-cessfully.
"Transform 2: (substituting with for whohas) A boy with determination plays football success-fully.
Kernel 1: A worker succeeds in his job.
Kernel 2: A worker has ability.
Transform 1: A worker who has abilitysucceeds in his job.
Transform 2: (substituting with for whohas) A worker with abilitysucceeds in his job.
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To define double-base transformationsTo embed two kernel sentences so as to
produce a double-base transformationTo demonstrate the processes of rearrange-
ment, addition, substitution, and dele-tion of grammatical elements in kernelsentences as transformations are per-formed
b) To embed a portion or more of any onekernel into an appropriate spot in anotherkernel
To define embedding
c) To utilize effectively the processes oftransformation involving two or morekernels so as to produce transform sen-tences of the following types:
The Adjective TransformThe Noun Adjunct TransformThe Object Complement TransformThe Relative Clause TransformThe Noun Clause TransformDelevtion Transforms from Embedded
Relative ClausesPossessive Noun TransformsOf Phrases Formed from Possessive
TransformsWith P:.rases from Relative Clauses
CONCEPT 13. Students learn to employ trans-formations to achieve subordina-tion of one sentence to another.
The Subordinate Clause Transformation.English sentences frequently begin witha subordinated clause introduced by asubordinator to indicate a condition, or
GPO 115 -511 -4
to express a relationship of time, place,or manner. Any sentence can become asubordinate clause by the addition of asubordinator placed immediately before it.A clause may derive from a kernel sentenceor a transform sentence.
Some of the common subordinators are:afterbecausebeforeifwhile (time)thanunlessuntil
Main sentence:
when, wheneverwhere, whereversince (time)as (time or man-
ner)as ifas thoughas soon as
The lawyer filled out thebills (when).
Insert sentence: The vessel sailed.Possible transforms:
The lawyer filled outvessel sailed.
The lawyer filled outvessel sailed.
The lawyer filled outthe vessel sailed.
The lawyer filled outvessel sailed.
the bills after the
the bills before the
the bills as soon as
the bills because the
Note: Because these structures becomeadverbial clauses, answering the questionswhen? where? how? and why?, they maybe related to the wh-question transforma-tion. It is clear that the first three trans-forms above answer the question when?,and the fourth answers the question why?With a different embedded sentence how?and where? could also be answered withrespect to the main sentence.
When the embedded structure begins witha subordinator, it may precede or followthe main sentence.
The lawyer filled out the bills afterthe vessel sailed.
After the vessel sailed, the lawyerfilled out the bills .
Note the punctuation required in the secondsentence above. If the adverbial clauseprecedes the main clause, a comma sepa-rates the adverbial and the main clause,for example:
Main sentence: We can do this (when).Insert sentence: Someone objects.
Possible transformations:
Until someone objects, we can dothis.
Unless someone objects, we can do this .After someone objects, we can do this.Whenever someone objects, we can dothis.
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To join one sentence to another by theaddition of a subordinator
b) To use effectively subordinators indicat-ing an answer to the questions when?where? how? and why? with respect tothe main sentence
c) To use correctly the punctuation requiredwhen a subordinate clause precedes themain clause
CONCEPT l4. Students learn to employ trans-formations to achieve coordina-tion of sentences or sentenceelements.
a. Coordination transformations. Coordina-tion provides the means to produce sen-tences in which words or structures ofrelated meanings may be grouped. Thisgrouping is the basis of what is calledparallel structure, a useful device incomposition.A compound sentence is formed when twosentences are joined by a coordinator suchas and, but, for.
Sentence 1: Large crowds gathered on thestreets.
b.
Sentence 2: People gazed at the parade.Transform: Large crowds gathered on the
streets, and people gazed atthe parade.
Sentence 1: Most men c:rive to work.
Sentence 2: Some men prefer to walk towork.
Transform: Most men drive to work, butsome prefer to walk to work.
Transform with deletions: Most mendrive to work, but some pre-fer to walk.
Sentences with the same NP or VPoffer an opportunity for deleting repe-titions.(predication = NP 4 VP)
Sentence 1: The teacher gave John a book.Sentence 2: The teacher gave John an
assignment.17
Transform: The teacher gave John a book and derive effective condensation fromand an assignment.
c. Identical grammatical structures can becoordinated.
Compound sentences.
Sentence 1: John's mother made him ascarf.
Sentence 2: John's mother made himgloves.
Transform: John's mother made him ascarf and she also made himgloves.
Compounded adverbs:The skidding car swung sud-denly and wildly into theditch.
Compounded adjectives:The day began hot and humid.
Compounded predicates:
Tom dashed out of theroom.
He threw up his hands.He shouted loudly.
Tom dashedout of theroom, threwup his hands,and shoutedloudly.
Compounded phrases:
The mother was worn out by the long day,the fretful children, and the excessiveheat. (Note that the preposition neednot be repeated).
Compounded subject or object noun phrases:
The laborers, the houseworkers, and thegardeners were all given a day off.
I reported as accurately as I could thedust cloud, the intense light, and thefearful boom.
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To use coordinators and, but, and for toproduce compound sentences
b) To make deletions in coordinated trans-forms where useful and effective
c) To coordinate series of identical grammati-cal structures related in meaning and lead-ing to parallel sentence structure: adverbsand adverb phrases, adjectives and adjec-tive phrases, prepositional phrases, nounphrases as subjects and objects
d) To employ, in prose sentences, coor-dinations which reduce predication
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the use of parallel structures
CONCEPT 15. Students learn how to maketransformations that developsentence modifiers , separatedfrom the sentence they modifyand identified in speech byfalling juncture and in writingby a comma. Various struc-tures, some derived from trans-formations, are used to developsentence modifiers.
a. Adverbs and prepositional phrases derivedfrom kernels:
Ideally, the play should open tonight.
In principal, I agree with you.
To everyone's delight, he was the chieffigure on the crowded platform.
b. Subordinate clauses:
The Smiths accepted an invitation tothe party.They did not attend the party.
Although the Smiths accepted an invi-tation to the party, they did not attend(it) .
c. The absolute construction:
The speaker leaned forward on thepodium.
His fine, thin hands rested on it.
The speaker leaned forward, his fine,thin hands resting on the podium.
d. The non-restrictive relative clause:
All nonrestrictive modifiers are sentencemodifiers. Example: Benjamin Franklin,who experimented with kites, identifiedelectricity in lightning. The clause, whoexperimented with kites, is not needed toidentify Benjamin Franklin but adds agratuitous but logically connected fact tothe sentence as a whole. In contrast,note this restrictive modifier which istherefore not a sentence modifier: Theboy who just came in is my brother. Theclause who just came in is essential tothe identification of the subject boy andis therefore a restrictive modifier.
e. The participial phrase (derived by deletionand substitution in a non-restrictive clause):Marie, who hesitated for a moment, an-swered uncertainly.
Alternative 1: Hesitating for a moment,Marie answered uncer-tainly.
Alternative 2: Marie, hesitating for amoment, answered un-certainly.
Alternative 3: Marie answered uncer-tainly, hesitating for amoment.
The frightened soldier, who was aiminghis rifle, suddenly fired.
Alternative 1: The frightened soldier,aiming his rifle, suddenlyfired.
Alternative 2: Aiming his rifle, thefrightened soldier sud-denly fired.
When, as, in Alternative 2, the participialphrase precedes the subjec+ of the sen-tence, the subject must generally followthe phrase to avoid confusion. In thisillustration the participial phrase is amodifier of the subject. When the rela-tionship of phrase and subject is not ob-served, a "dangling" participle results,as in:
Having eaten my lunch, the rusty oldFord took me up the mountain.
The subject to be modified by the phraseis!, which should properly follow thephrase.
f. The appositive (derived by deletion from anonrestrictive relative clause):
The janitor, who was always a tidy per-son, neatly stacked the books on thedesk.
Appositive (underlined)
Alternative 1: The janitor, always a tidyperson, neatly stacked thebooks on the desk.
Adjective phrase in appositive position(underlined)
Alternative 2, with further deletion:The janitor, always tidy,neatly stacked the bookson the desk.
It is obvious that these sentence modifiertransformations contribute to the economyand compression of prose style. Eachtransformation contributes its essentialmeaning in a structure which has been re-duced from a full predication, and is em-bedded in, or attached to, a main sentencewhich is a full predication.
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To perform transformations utilizing kernelstransformed to adverbs and adverbialphrases resulting in word or phrase sen-tence modifiers.
b) To create sentence modifiers by the use ofsubordinate clauses
c) To develop sentence modifiers in the formof the absolute construction
d) To develop sentence modifiers formed fromnon-restrictive relative clauses and fromparticipial phrases
e) To derive and use appositive structures bydeletions from nonrestrictive relativeclauses
f) To employ sentences in connected prosewhich reduce predications by means ofdeletions from relative clauses
CONCEPT 16. Students learn to analyze andcreate sentences of varied styleand dense texture resulting fromtransformations and other stylis-tic treatments of grammaticalstructures.
The following sentence by Thomas Wolfeis analyzed to reveal the transformationsemployed, the resultant structures and thekernels from which they were derived:
Drinking his morning coffee, he listenedto early noises, the chink of milk bottleson the doorstep, the whir and whiz of atelephone dial in the next apartment, andthe I everberating snore of a sandblasteralready at work.
The principal kernel of this sentence, re-tained as a main clause is: He listenedto noises with the pattern NP1 + Vt + to +NP2. The transformed additional kernelsare analyzed in Table 3.
From analyses such as these, the nature of atransformational grammar becomes apparent.Students learn from such analyses that sen-tences of dense texture are built from manykernels transformed to words, phrases, orclauses embedded in a base or main kernel.A review of the transforms exhibited inTable 3 reveals that:
Kernels 1, 3, 5, and f; are reduced toadjectives or adjective phrases.Kernels 4, 6, 7, 8, and 11 are reducedto appositive nouns.
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Table 3
Analysis of a Sentence by Thomas Wolfe
Underlying kernels Resultant structure Classification of result
1. The noises were early.
2. He was drinking his coffee.3. The coffee was of the morning.
4. One noise was the chink ofmilk bottles.
5. The milk bottles were on thedoorstep.
6. One noise was a dial.7. The dial made a whir.
8. The dial made a whiz.
9. The dial was on a telephone.
10. The telephone was in the nextapartment.
11. One noise was a snore.12. The snore reverberated.
13. A sandblaster snored.
14. The sandblaster was alreadyat work.
early
drinking his coffee
morning
the chink of milk bottles
on the doorstep
a dial
the whir
the whiz
of a telephone
in the next apartment
the snore
reverberating
of a sandblaster
already at work
adjective
participial phrase
adjective
noun in apposition
adjective phrase
noun in a phrase
noun in apposition
noun in apposition
adjective phrase
adverbial phraseadjective
noun in apposition
participle adjective
adjective phrase
adverbial phraseadjective
Kernels 10 and 14 are reduced to ad-verbial phrases.
Kernels 2 and 12 are reduced to parti-cipial phrases.
This illustration uses no clauses.Illustrations of varieties of sentence trans-formations by which kernels may be re-duced to words, phrases, or clausesgrouped into parallel series: (the parallelstructures are underlined).a. Clauses (embedded kernel sentences
in the NP or the VP of a main sentence).He is a man for whom I have greatestadmiration, whose life has exhibitedhigh purpose and firm resolve, andfrom whom the public have every rightto expect large achievement.
b. Infinitives (t.2 and verb used in an NP,an adjective, or adverb position). Ichose this form of life because I liketo hunt, to fish, to explore the untrodpaths, and to taste and enjoy the un-spoiled wilderness.
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c. Gerunds (verb and -ing used in an NPposition). This success came fromperceiving the right move at the righttime, pursuing relentlessly his goalwhen adopted, and realizing to thefull the implications of each advance.
d. Participles (verb and -en or -ina usedin an adjective position). With quick-ened appreciation he watched the flockof ducks wheeling to descend, spread-.ing feet forward as brakes, settingwings in a glide pattern, and strikingwith splashes the surface of the pond,decelerating and coming to rest.
e. Prepositional phrases (preposition +an NP). From a distance he viewedthe busy highway with its six lanesof traffic, its clearly marked edges,its illuminated signs and flashing sig-nals, and its uninterrupted processionof cars and trucks.
f. Appositive noun_phrases. He foundthe shop unusually well stocked withgarden suppliesrows of shiny new
lawn mowers, massive leaf sweepers,arrays of edging instruments, wallsfilled with rakes and shovels, anddusty piles of fertilizer sacks.In this structure the underlined nounphrases are presented in appositionto the noun phrase garden supplies.A series of structures of this kindmakes possible the listing of manyparallel elements without recourse topredications.
g. Absolute constructions. He stoodthere forlorn, his back bent with age,his hands gnarled and crooked, hishead low, and his aspect dejected.Note that the absolute constructionresults from the deletion of the verbbe from a kernel. Thus the kernelHis back was bent with age becomeshis back, bent with age; his handswere gnarled and crooked becomeshis hands, gnarled and crooked, etc.
Behavioral Objectives:
a) To analyze sentences involving a numberof transforms, relating these transforms
the kernels from which they were de-rived
b) To write sentences of varied styleand dense structure by employingsingle- and double-base transfor-mations.
c) To write effective sentences employingparallel structure as a device to includea large content of meaning in a structureof limited predication
d) To compare sentences employing, as themeans of reducing predication, kernelstransformed to clauses, infinitive phrases,gerund phrases, participial phrases, prep-ositional phrases, appositive structures,and absolute constructions
e) To write prose involving these transforms
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