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CULTURAL RESOURCES, ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY
OF THE PROPOSED
ORGAN MOUNTAINS-DESERT PEAKS
NATIONAL MONUMENT
DOÑA ANA COUNTY, NEW MEXICO
AN EXPLORATION OF SIGNIFICANCE AND RISKS
FOR A NATIONAL TREASURE
JULY 1, 2013
REBECCA PROCTER, PH.D., JEAN FULTON
POLLY SHAAFSMA
W W W.O R GA N M O U NTA I N S .O R G
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Sierra County
Luna County
Dona Ana County
West Potrillo Mountains
Aden Lava Flow
East Potrillo Mountains
Mount Riley
Providence Cone
Trackways Nat'l Monument
White Sands
Source: Esri, i-cubed, USDA, USGS, AEX, GeoEye, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, and the GIS User Community
Modified January 9, 2013Produced by L Uhring of NM Wilderness Alliance
Sources: NM BLM, BLM Geocommunicator, RGIS, NMWA, Senator Bingaman's Office, ESRI Online Maps
C:\GIS\2012 Maps\Dona Ana County\ Maps\organmtns_desertpeaks_w_Satellite.mxd
Orga n
Mountains
Texas
Proposed Organ Mountains - Desert Peaks National Monument
Robledo Mountains
Geronimo's CaveOutlaw
Rock
Fort Seldon
Rough & Ready Hills
Valles Canyon Petroglyphs
Broad Canyon
Magdalena Peak
Apache Flats Petroglyphs
Massacre Peak
AdenCrater
Kilbourne Hole
Hunt's Hole
q0 2.5 5 7.5 101.25
Miles
SleepingLady Hills
Isaack's Lake
Gadsden PurchaseUS - Mexico
International Border 1848
US - Mexico International Border 1853
Points of Interest
!I Aplomado Falcon Sighting
!Ë Butterfield Stage Stop
!P Cave
"T Petroglyphs/Archeological Site
× Historic Ranch House Ruin
ò Gadsden Purchase Survey Cairn
k Special Status Plant
!O WWII Aerial Target
Slot Canyon
Fort MasonButterfield Overland Trail
Gadsden Purchase
National Natural LandmarkApollo Mission Astronauts' Training Site
Research Natural Area
Sierra de Las UvasMountains
Legend
Butterfield Overland Trail
Gadsden Purchase
Nat'l Monument Proposed Boundary
BLM Wilderness Study Area
Area of Critical Environmental Concern
County Boundary
Tonuco Mountain
Dona AnaMountains
WWII Aerial Target
Hatch
Las Cruces
Chapparal
Anthony
PicachoPeak
Mesilla
Organ Mountains-Desert Peaks National Monument
Types of Cultural and Historical Sites in the Project Area
1 ExecutiveSummary
2 Introduction
4 TypesofCulturalSitesintheProjectArea
PetroglyphsandtheNativeAmericanLegacyButterfieldStagecoachTrailBillytheKidGeronimoGadsdenPurchaseInternationalBoundaryWorldWarIIAerialTargetsElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroApolloSpaceMissionTrainingSites
7 WhyProtect?
8 HowDoWeProtectThesePlaces?
9 TheHumanTapestry
10 TheSuperiorQualityoftheArchaeologicalRecord
12 RockArt:AFragileTreasure
13 ThePromise,andtheDangers,ForArchaeologyandHistory
15 Appendix1:TheSpanofHumanOccupation
18 Appendix2:SpecialTopicsinOrganMountains-DesertPeaksArchaeology
19 Appendix3:Latino/aHeritageinSouthernNewMexicoandtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaks
21 Appendix4:TheWaytoNewMexico:CaminoRealdeTierraAdentro
23 Appendix5:TheNationGrows...Again:TheHistoricGadsdenPurchase
25 Appendix6:TheErroneousMapof1847thatLedtotheGadsdenPurchase
26 Appendix7:ButterfieldTrail–TheCaliforniaConnection
28 Appendix8:BillytheKid
29 Appendix9:GeronimoandtheApacheWars
30 Appendix10:WorldWarIIAerialTargets
33 Appendix11:TheNationalRegisterOfHistoricPlaces:WhatItMeansForSouthernNewMexico
35 Appendix12:NewMexico,ALandofRichHistory
vi
1
Executive Summary
AnabundanceofuniqueandoutstandingnaturalandculturalresourcesmaketheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentanationaltreasure.
Amongthemostimportanthistoricandculturalfeaturesare:
» Spectacularprehistoricrockartcarvedandpaintedontothecliffsinstylesunknownelsewhere;
» Ancientarchaeologicalsitesshowinguptotenthousandyearsofhumanoccupation;
» TwentytwomilesofthehistoricButterfieldStagecoachTrailandatleastonepartiallypreservedstagestopbytheRoughandReadyHills;
» SitesrelatedtotheApachewarsandthelastdaysofChiefGeronimo’sbattleswiththeU.S.Army,includingawell-knownsitelocallyknownas“Geronimo’sCave;”
» LocationswheretheinfamousBillytheKidattemptedtoremainhiddenfromhispursuers,including“OutlawRock”whereBillytheKid’sinscriptionisstillvisible;
» Maarvolcaniccraterdesignatedin1975asaNationalNaturalLandmark,usedinApolloSpaceMissions12–17;
» WorldWarIIAerialTargetsusedbyDemingAirBasepreparingforWorldWarII;
» GadsdenPurchaseInternationalBoundary;and
» HistoriclocationsofSpanishsettlementandAngloranching.
TheresourcesrepresentedintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksareaareidealforenhancingthepublicvaluesof
» HistoricandEnvironmentalProtection» HeritageInterpretation» Recreation» EconomicDevelopmentandTourism» Education» CulturalPreservation
Thethreatstotheseremarkableculturalmaterialsaretremendous,andareincreasingeveryday.Thethreatscomeasmuchfrominadvertentdestructionandlackofknowledgeasfromoutrightlootingandtreasurehunting.ProtectionofthisregionwillallowthepeopleofsouthernNewMexicoandallAmericanstobenefitfromthespecialheritageofthisareaandfromtherecreationalandeconomicrewardsderivingfromthatheritage.
2
ORGAN MOUNTAINS
ThecrownjewelofthesouthernRockies,thismountainrangecreatesthedramaticbackdropforLasCrucesandDoñaAnaCounty.
Introduction
Ifyoucoulddoonlyonethingforyourcountry,whatwoulditbe?TheanswersareasvariedasindividualAmericans.Theymightciteserviceintimeofwar,serviceasanelectedofficialforthepeople,serviceasaneducator,apublicservant,oravisionaryentrepreneur.Atthismoment,ourCongressionaldelegationandourChiefExecutiveintheWhiteHousehavethechancetodosomethingthatencompassesalltheseactionsandroles,somethingthatgoesbeyondthepresenttoencompassthepast,presentandfutureofahighlydiverseandculturallyrichnation.
Whilethereisno“rightanswer”tothequestionabove,thedocumentyouhavebeforeyoudemonstrateshowasingleact,establishingtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentforcominggenerationsofAmericans,willachievethisall-encompassingservice.Asyoureadthedifferentsectionsofthispaper,youcanengagewiththisamazingregionatthelevelofanordinaryAmericanexploringourhistory.Atthesametime,youwillaccessdetailedfactsandexpertinterpretationsallowinganunderstandingthatprotectingtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksistrulyaonce-in-a-lifetimeopportunitytoperformanenduringservicetothenation.ThisdocumentisintendedtoserveasbotharesourcefordecisionmakingandaneducationaltooltobetterunderstandthisAmericantreasure.
WhatistheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionlike?Itisaplacethatdefiessimpledescription.Inthesouth-centralportionofNewMexico,borderingthelifelineoftheRioGrande,aseriesofmountainrangesandlowpeaksformadistinctiveandstarklybeautifulecologicalandhistoricalregionwithinthewesternUnitedStates.Geographically,theregionispartofthe“basinandrange”topographyoftheNorthernChihuahuanDesertecozone.Historicallyandarchaeologically,itisanareawithoutstandingpotentialforunderstandingpeoplesofthepast.
TheOrganMountainsandotherpeaksintheprojectarearepresentislandsofresourcediversityintheChihuahuandesertenvironment—theyareremoteand,atthesametime,vulnerable,givencurrentlanduseandthepaceofpopulationexpansionandmoderndevelopment.Thecurrentofhumanhistoryinsouth-centralNewMexicoisdeepandrepresentsaprofoundsourceofknowledgeabouthowhumanshavedealtwitharidity,resourcescarcity,andclimatechangeoveralongspanoftime.Thedevelopmentofcultureinthisareafollowedauniquetrajectory,connectedwith,butoftenverydifferentfrom,thebetterknownancientculturesoftheSouthwest.
TheProposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentincludes:
ROBLEDO MOUNTAINS
NamedafterfamedSpanishsoldierPedroRobledo,thesemountainshousedbothBillytheKidandGeronimointhemid19thcenturyandincludesthePaleozoicTrackwaysNationalMonument.
3
SIERRA DE LAS UVAS MOUNTAINS
ThislargediversemountainrangeincludeshistoricsitessuchtheButterfieldStagecoachTrail,Geronimo’sCave,andpetroglyph-linedcanyonsofVallesandBroadCanyons.
POTRILLO MOUNTAINS
ThelargestWildernessStudyAreainNewMexico,thePotrilloMountainsarepartofthePotrilloVolcanicField.ThePotrilloVolcanicFieldhasmorethan150cindercones,fivemaarcratersincludingKilbourneandHuntsHoles,andlavaflows.ThePotrilloMountainsareadjacenttotheMountRileyWildernessStudyArea,aswellasMountCoxandtheEastPotrilloMountains.
ADEN CRATER
AdenCraterisafootballfieldsizedcraterthatliesinthenorthernpartofthePotrilloVolcanicField.Knownforitsotherworldlyfeelcreatedbyancientlavaflows,AdenCrateralsohasfumeroles(volcanicvents),inwhichonewasfoundtocontainadeepchamberwiththeremainsofagiantgroundsloth.TheslothremainsarenowlocatedinthePeabodyMuseum.
KILBOURNE HOLE
DesignatedasaNationalNaturalLandmarkin1974,KilbourneHoleisanexceptionalgloballyfamousmile-widevolcanicmaarcraterthoughttobe80,000yearsold.ThisraregeologicwonderwasalsousedbytheApollo12-17missionstotrainastronautsforalunarenvironment.ThissiteisalsonearHunt’sHole,asmallercrateralsoincludedintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentproposal.
ADEN LAVA FLOW
LocatedbetweenKilbourneHoleandAdenCrater,theAdenLavaFlowwascreatedfromlavaflowingfromnearbyAdenCrater.ThisareaoffersoneofthebestopportunitiesinthecontinentalUnitedStatestoviewlavaflowsandthemanyuniqueshapesandstructurescreatedbythem.
4
TYPES OF HISTORICAL SITES IN THE PROJECT AREA
DetailedanalysisofthearchaeologicalandhistoricalrecordoftheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumenthasrevealedmanykindsofuniquesiteswithintheproposalarea.Someoftheminclude:
» Rockartpetroglyphandpictographpanelsonexposedrocksandcliffs
» ButterfieldStagecoachTrailandstops,andotherwagonroadsusedbyearlySpanishandAnglosettlements
» MilitaryFortsusedtoprotectsettlersandtravelersalike
» Mountainhide-outsforwellknownfiguresincludingBillytheKidandGeronimo
» CampsitesofearlyNativeAmericans
» Quarriesforprehistoricpeoplegatheringstonefortoolsandweapons
» Huntingblinds,whereancientpeoplesobservedandambushedgame
» VillagesofNativeAmericanpithousesandsmallfarmplots
» SacredlocationsforNativeAmericans
» Corralsandpensmadebyearlyshepherdsandcattleherders
» RocksheltersusedfromthetimeoftheearliesthumaninhabitantsuptotheIndianWars
ROCK ART: PETROGLYPHS AND PICTOGRAPHS
TheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentpossessesanationallysignificantrepositoryofNativeAmerican“rockart.”Comprisedofpetroglyphsandpictographs,therockartintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionspansmanythousandsofyearsfromtheArchaicperioduptothenineteenthcentury.CertainpictographandpetroglyphstylesshowclearconnectionswiththeculturalexpressionsoftheMimbresareatothewestandtheJornadaMogollonareatotheeast.SomemotifsareclearlyrelatedtothehistoricApachebandswhoresidedhere.WhilerockartcanbefoundinalmosteverypartoftheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion,itismostprevalentintheSierradelasUvasMountains.
BUTTERFIELD STAGECOACH TRAIL
In1857CongressauthorizedtheestablishmentofAmerica’sfirstoverlandmailandpassengerservice.ThecontractwaswonbyJohnButterfieldandhispartnersinwhatbecameknownastheOverlandMailCompany.TheButterfieldTrailwastherouteusedforthisservice,andranfromSt.LouistoSanFrancisco.EnteringNewMexicoatElPaso,itfollowedtheRioGrandenorthtoMesilla,thenwestwardacrossthefoothillsoftheSierradelasUvasMountainsinasoutherncurveacrossdesertwildernesstoCalifornia.In2012,theNationalParkServicebeganaprocesstoconsiderrecommendingdesignationoftheButterfieldTrailasaNationalHistoricTrail.Therearetwenty-twomilesoftheButterfieldTrailwithintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument,aswellasasemi-preservedstagestopneartheRoughandReadyHills.
5
BILLY THE KID
WilliamH.Bonney,laternicknamedBillytheKid,isperhapsthemostfamousoutlawevertooccupyNewMexico.Bonney’stimeinNewMexico,andspecificallyinmoderndaySoutheastNewMexico,correspondedwithaneraoflawlessviolenceoftenreferredtoastheLincolnCountyWar.Tosome,hewasconsidereda“thieving,murderous,littlecowboy-gone-bad.”Toothers,Bonneyhadanalmostheroicstatus,respectingthenativeMexicancultureandpeoplewhilefightingthelaw.In1880,helefthismarkquiteliterallyintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionwhen,alongwithfriendsTomO’Folliard,CharlesBowdre,DaveRudabaugh,andTomO’Keefe,heholedupintheRobledoMountainstokeepaneyeonFortSeldonbelow.Bonneyfamouslyinscribedhisnameonthemountaininanareanowknownas“OutlawRock.”Bonney’ssignatureisstillvisibleonOutlawRocktoday.
GERONIMO
Duringmuchofthe1800’s,theU.S.–MexicoborderregionwasabattlegroundbetweentheApachesandSpain,MexicoandtheUnitedStates.Well-knownApacheleaderslikeVictorioandGeronimoarebelievedtohavebeenactiveintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.ItwasthoughtbymanythatGeronimowasashamanwhohadsupernaturalpowers.Onesuchincidentaddedtothismystique.Asthelegendgoes,GeronimoandhisfollowersenteredacaveintheRobledoMountainstoavoidcapture.TheU.S.soldierswaitedoutsidethecaveentranceforhim,butthoughheescaped,theyneversawhimleave.Asecretexithasneverbeenfound.
APOLLO SPACE MISSION TRAINING SITE AT KILBOURNE HOLE
KilbourneHole,arare80,000yearoldmaarvolcaniccraterwasusedtotrainastronautsforthelunarenvironmentonApolloMissions12–17.Thismilewidecrater,establishedasaNationalNaturalHistoricLandmarkin1975,becameavaluablenationaltrainingsiteduetoitsgeologyandmoonliketerrain.
WORLD WAR II AERIAL TARGETS
IfyouflyovertheproposedOrganMountain-DesertPeaksNationalMonument,youmaybetreatedtoasurprisingsight:gianttargetsbuiltwithbladedsoilriseoutoftheChihuahuanDesert,resemblingbullseyesoraliencropcircles.TheyareremnantsofaformerregionalairbaseandpilottrainingprogramessentialtohelpingAmericawinWorldWarII.In1942,twenty-fourtargetswerebuiltandusedextensivelybypilotsattheDemingAirBaseuntilthemid-1940’s.SevenofthetargetswerebuiltintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.Eachtargetconsistedoffourconcentricrings,theoutermostbeing1000feetindiameter,withawoodenshackresemblingapyramidatthecenter.Nighttimetargetsrequiredgeneratorstopowerastringoflightsthatformedalargecrosshairontheground.Someofthetargetshadoutlinestosimulatetheappearanceofshipsorbuildingsfromtheair.Theconcentriccircleswereconstructedbyscrapingashallow,clearedfurrowontheground,
6
sometimesleavingaringofdisplacedrocksaroundtheperimeter.SeveraloftheWorldWarIIAerialTargetarevisibletodayintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.
EL CAMINO REAL DE TIERRA ADENTRO
TheSpanishexploredandcolonizedtheAmericasbyfollowingestablishednativepathsconnectingindigenousvillagesforhundredsandeventhousandsofyears.WhatwastobecomeknownasElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentro,“TheRoyalRoadoftheInterior,”originallyunitedtheSpanishcapitalofMexicoCitywiththerichminingdistrictssurroundingZacatecasandCiudadChihuahua.Thebest-preservedlengthoftheactualElCaminoRealliesjustnortheastoftheRobledoMountainsintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion,inanareaknownastheJornadadelMuertoor“theJourneyoftheDeadMan.”TheElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroremainedinuseupuntil1881,whentherailroad’sarrivalusheredinaneweraoftransportation..
GADSDEN PURCHASE INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY
AnalignmentofrockcairnssituatedwithintheproposedOrganMountains–DesertPeaksNationalMonumentboundarydemarcatesoneofthemostpeculiarandimportantfederallandprocurementsinUnitedStateshistory.TherocksmarkingtheGadsdenPurchasesettledyearsofcontroversyresultingfromtheinaccuraciesoftheofficialmapoftheUnitedStatescitedintheTreatyofGuadalupe-Hidalgo.UpondiscoveringtheerrorintheDisturnellmapwhichwasusedtonegotiatetheTreatyandendtheMexican-Americanwar,newnegotiationswereinitiatedthatledtoAmericapurchasingadditionallandfromMexico.TheGadsdenPurchaseof1853gavethelowercontinentalUnitedStatesitsfinalform.
7
Why Protect?
Fromthetimeofthefirstnationalparksandmonuments,theAmericanpeoplehaverecognizedthevalueofprotectingourcountry’srichhistoryanduniquelandscapestopreservethenation’sculturalheritage,naturalenvironment,andnationalidentity.TheproposedOrganMountains–DesertPeaksNationalMonumentisclearlysouniqueintheculturalresourcesitcontains,sofragileinitslargelyunprotectedstate,andsovastinitsdiversityofresourcesthatprotectionisthebestoption.
Whenconsideringtheneedforprotectionandlong-termplanningforarcheologicallyandhistoricallyrichpubliclands,itisimportanttorecognizehowtheremainsofpasthumansocietiesareintimatelyconnectedwiththenaturalresourcesofagivenarea.Thishappensintwoways:
1. Thefragileandoftenelusiveremainsofancientsitesareembeddedinthelandscapeasverydelicatedeposits,easilyoverlookedordamagedbyfootandroadtraffic;
2. Ancientinhabitantsandhistoricpeoples,bothNativeAmericanandEuroamerican,wereheavilydependentontheirsurroundinglandscapetomakelifepossible.Bothancientandmorerecenthistoricsitesarelocatedinameaningfularrangementwithinthenaturalenvironment,reflectingtheirfunctionandtheiraccesstocertaincriticalnaturalresourcesatdifferenttimes.
TakingamomenttoconsiderthedeeperimplicationofPoint2above,wecanseethatanyscholarlyresearch,aswellasanyattempttointerpretthehumanpastforthepublic,mustautomaticallytakeabroad,landscape-levelapproachtounderstandingpasthumanactivities.Thoughthisnotionhasbecomeaclichéforprofessionalarchaeologists,itisarelativelynewideaforthepublic:ancientartifactsorevenhistoricalrelicsyieldverylittleinformationwhentheyarestudiedasisolatedobjects,outofcontextfromtheiroriginallocationsandusewithinthelargerlandscape.PlanningforappropriatefutureusesandprotectionofAmerica’sincomparabletreasuressuchastheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument,wemustconsiderthefateofarchaeologicalsitesandhistoricplacesreflectingourbroaderculturalheritage,giventhattheyaresofragile,sointimatelylinkedtonaturalresources,andsosensitivetonatural-andhuman-causeddegradation.
THE ORGAN MOUNTAINS-DESERT PEAKS REGION:
A TIGHTLY WOVEN FABRIC OF HISTORIC SITES, PROPERTIES AND RECORDS
TheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentisnolessrichinhistoricperiodresourcesthaninarchaeologicalresources.Asispossiblewithnoothertypeofculturalresource,thetangible,highlyvisiblenatureofhistoricstructuresandfeaturessuchaspetroglyphsandtrailshelpscapturethepublicimagination.Thismakesthemespeciallysuccessfulsitesforpreservationefforts,becausepeoplecanseeandfeelhowtheseresourcesaffecttheirdailylives.Thissamehigh-profilevisibility,however,makeshistoricstructuresandfeaturesparticularlyvulnerabletopoorly-planneddevelopmentanduninformeduse.
Resourcesbelongingtothehistoricperiodareespeciallyimportantfortelling,ataregionallevel,thestoryoftheAmericannationasawhole.GenerationsofNative,Spanish,andAnglooccupation,withtheirvaryingimpactsontheculture,landscape,andsocialdevelopmentofsouthernNewMexico,playedoutanarrativethatispartofthelargerhistoryoftheU.S.Regionalhistoryclearlyillustratesthebiggerpicture,whereintheU.S.hasgrappledwithuniversalthemesofculturalconflict,debatesaboutrace,religion,andethnicity,andstrugglesforequityandinclusivenessinaninequitablesocialenvironmentinthecourseofitsdevelopment.
8
How Do We Protect These Places?
OurpublicofficialsfacethedecisionwhetherornottoprotecttheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.Butmoredifficultisdecidinghowmultiplepublicrequirementscanbeaccommodatedinchoosingamanagementstatusforthisland.Thisdecisionshouldtakeintoconsiderationthefollowingfactors:
» TheculturalresourceswithintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentareuniqueandnationallysignificant
» Theculturalresourceswithinthisdesertenvironmentareunusuallyfragile
» TheresourcescontainedwithintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentarevulnerabletoextractionanddevelopmentbythepublic
» Publiceducationandrecreationaretheusesmostcompatiblewiththeurgentneedtoprotectandpreserveculturalresources,history,andsacredtraditionalplaces
Forallthesereasons,fromtheprofessionalperspectiveofarchaeologistsandhistorians,thecreationofanationalmonumentisanidealwaytomanagetheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.Amonumentisopentoallcitizensforparticularuses,yetaffordsahighlevelofprotectiontotheirreplaceableculturalresourceswithinthearea.Federallandmanagerswillthushavetherighttoolsattheirdisposaltocreateabalance,consistentwithAmericanviewsonpubliclands,betweenusageandprotection.
9
The Human Tapestry
HumanshavelivedinthispartofsouthernNewMexicoforatleasttenthousandyears,andtherearesitesfromalltimeperiodspresentintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument.Theresearchpotentialexiststostudyknownsitesanddiscovermanynewonesthatcontain:
» ExquisitelyflakedPaleoindianspearpointsfromtheearliesttimesofhumanhabitation
» Carvedpetroglyphsandpaintedpictographsonexposedrockfaces,withgeometric,animalandmythologicalimages
» CavesandrockshelterscontainingstonetoolsandremnantsofperishableobjectssuchaswovensandalsandbasketsfromtheArchaicperiod,beforepeoplebeganfarming
» OccupationsitesfromtheMogollonperiod,whenpeoplebeganfarming,livinginpithousevillages,andmakingfiredpottery
» RemnantsofApachecampsandhidingplacesfromthetumultuousperiodoftheIndianWars
» RemainsofSpanishandAnglofarmingandranchingeffortsinnow-drywatersheds
10
The Superior Quality Of The Archaeological Record
Ancientpeoplesinthesouth-centralregionofwhatisnowNewMexicointeractedwiththebetter-knowncultures,butweredifferentinmanywaysfromanyofthem.CurrentknowledgeindicatesthattheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionwasafertilegroundforcross-culturalexchange.Thereisreasontobelieveancientinhabitantswereincontactwith:
» NorthernMexico,» theMimbresCulturetothewest,» theZuniandChacoCanyonareastothenorth,and» theJornadaMogollon(Mug-ee-yóne)Culturetotheeast.
ThescientificknowledgewaitingtobeuncoveredisimmenseandcannotbefoundanywhereelseinNewMexico.Thefactthattheregionhasnotyetbeenstudiedtothelevelthatallowsustounderstandfullyhowsouth-centralNewMexicofitsintothelargerpictureofprehistoricandhistoriclandusewithintheGreaterSouthwestmakesitespeciallyimportantandespeciallyvulnerabletopoorplanningordestructiveforces.
Areviewofthedataavailableforthisregionshowshowimportantculturalresourcesareinthisdesertwilderness.Morethan20discreteareasofsignificantrockarthavebeenidentifiedontheexposedvolcanicandsedimentaryrocksintheproposedmonument.Theseinclude:
» Atleast15areaswithintheSierradelasUvasMountains;» MultiplelocationsintheProvidenceConearea,whichisasyetpoorlyexplored;» AtleastoneareainthesouthernOrganMountains,withmuchmoreterritoryunexplored;» FourormorerockartsitesintheDoñaAnaMountains,withmuchlandstillundocumented;» AtleastninerockartlocationsinotherpartsoftheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.
Thearchaeologicalrecordalsoincludes:
» Open-airandrocksheltersitesindicatingthatArchaic(pre-potteryandpre-bow-and-arrow)gatherersandhuntersusedtheselowmountainareasasanimportantsourceoffoodandtool-makingmaterials;
» Sitesfromthelaterfarmingpeoples,knownastheMogollon(Mug-ee-yóne),whoventuredintothemountainsforhunting,quarryingstone,andgatheringimportantmaterialsformedicinesortool-making;
» LateHistoricsitesthatmaybeassociatedwiththeApacheWars;itisknownthatfamouschiefGeronimoandhisfighterstookrefugeintheRobledoMountains,likelyusingsomeofthesamerocksheltersthattheirforebearshadoccupiedmillenniaearlier;
» RemnantsoftheCaminoReal,the“RoyalRoad”fromSpanishColonialMexiconorthwardtoSantaFeandbeyond;» TracesofthefamousButterfieldStagecoachRoutethathelpedconnecttheyoungU.S.withitsPacificcoast.
Tounderstandthevastnessofthearchaeologicalmaterialwaitingtobestudiedandprotected,thefollowingpointsareimportant:
» Onlyahandfulofformalarchaeologicalsurveyshavebeenconductedintheprojectarea;» Theexistingsurveysaccountforlessthan5%ofthetotallandbase;» Evenwiththistinyamountofarchaeologicalsurvey,thereareapproximately243knownarchaeologicalsites;» Basedonthestatisticsabove,professionalarchaeologistscouldconcludethatthetruedensityofsitesintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentcouldbeasmuchasonesiteforevery123.5acres,oralmost5000sites.
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12
Rock Art: A Fragile Treasure of Petroglyphs And Pictographs
SOME IMPORTANT STATISTICS
» Approx.600,000=number of acres in this special area;
» 22=number of known rock art areas—that’sareas,notindividualmotifs,whichnumberinthetensofthousands;
» 243=minimum number of archaeological sites known at this time;
» Lessthan5%=portion of organ mountains-desert peaks region surveyed for archaeology to date—Thatmeansatleast1siteforevery123.5acresofland,sowecanexpectalmost
» 5000=rock art panels, archaeology sites, and historic locations in the organ mountains/desert peaks!
AvisualcountofknownarchaeologicalsiteswithintheOrganMountainsaloneyieldsatotalofatleast70sites.InthetotalareaofwildlandsthatsurroundtheOrganMountains,theSierradelasUvas,thetwoPotrilloranges,theDoñaAnaMountains,andtheRobledos,therecouldeasilybeoverfivethousandarchaeologicalsites,mostofwhichhavenotbeenrecordedorstudiedyet.
Thislargequantityofsitesincludesnumerousrockartsites,someofwhichrepresentartstylesunknownelsewhereinNewMexico.Rockartisespeciallyvulnerabletodegradationfromnaturalforcesanddeliberatedestruction.Mostresearchtodatehasbeenconductedbyavocationalarchaeologists,whostudythepictographsandpetroglyphsontheirowntimewithlittleornofinancialbacking.Theirwork,coupledwiththatofprofessionalspecialists,showsthatrockartintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionspansmultipletimeperiodsfromatleasttheArchaicuptothenineteenthcentury.PainteddesignsthatseemtobeconnectedtoanartstyleofnorthernChihuahua,Mexicoarespreadacrossthesouthernpartofthestate,includingtheprojectarea.OtherpictographandpetroglyphstylesshowclearconnectionswiththeculturalexpressionsoftheMimbresareatothewestandtheJornadaMogollonareatotheeast.SomemotifsareclearlyrelatedtothehistoricApachebandswhoroamedhere.Rockartisnotoriouslydifficulttodateandevenmoretrickytointerpret;itis,therefore,imperativetopreserveasmanyrockartsitesaspossibletoincreasetheavailabledataandtoavoidobscuringimportantcross-culturalconnectionsbydestructionoftherelevantdesigns.
Well-known rock art expert Polly Schaafsma
recently discussed the dense but still
poorly documented rock art of the Organ
Mountains-Desert Peaks region. She says:
“The rock art of this area is extraordinarily important to our
understanding of prehistoric life. This is partly because it forms a direct
connection between the prehistoric mythology and religion of southern
New Mexico with the modern Pueblo and Apache worlds. The Pueblo
people today are direct descendants of the prehistoric inhabitants of New
Mexico, and their religious iconography is reflected in the rock art of this
area. This great cultural legacy thus has validity for people today, not just
as a scientific database. Rock art conveyed important aspects of a religious
belief system and associated mythology, and it’s so valuable as a reflection
of the time-depth of religious beliefs still held by Native Americans. It is
incredibly important that rock art be preserved as part of complete, intact
landscapes because it has direct connections with the archaeological
sites—neither can be fully understood without the other. Vandalism
is so common, and must be stopped before we lose these irreplaceable
connections with the ancestral Puebloans and Athapaskans.”
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The Promise–and the Dangers–For Archaeology
and History
Theabundant,spectacularnaturalresourcesoftheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentmarkitsclearprominenceasasetoflandscapesworthyofspecialprotectionandcarefulplanningforappropriateuses.Itistheunparalleledculturalresourcesofthisregion,however,thatmakeprotectionparticularlycrucial.Fromanexaminationoftheinterpretiveandresearchpotentialofheritageresources,itiseasytoseehowtheproposedmonumentexemplifyasuiteofimportantpublicvalues.ThesevalueshavegainedacceptanceacrossthepoliticalandsocialspectrumoftheUnitedStatesinlargemeasurebecausetheyreflectthedeeperprinciplesonwhichtheAmericanrepublicisbased.Thesevaluesinclude:
NewMexicohasneverbeenbetterpoisedtoenjoythebenefitsofeconomicdevelopmentthroughenvironmentalandheritagetourism.Overthecenturies,ElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentrohasleftatimeless,immeasurable,andindelibleimpression.Itshapesregionallife,traditions,andcustomsforthosewhotraveleditspath,forthosewhowerealreadyhere,old-timers,newcomers,theirdescendants,andfuturevisitors.Indeed,thelivingculturalcorridordottedbyElCaminoRealcommunitiescontinuestothrivetoday.ProtectingtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionasaNationalMonumentwillallowvisitorsandfuturegenerationstore-traceElCaminoRealanditsenvironsandtoexperiencethenaturalbountyofitshistoricbosquesandwoodlands.ThecurrentefforttoprotecttheOrganMountains–DesertPeaksregionaugmentsandstrengthenssimilarendeavorstoencourageinternationalvisitationbypromotingElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroandtheButterfieldTrailthroughsignageandevents;andtotelltheregion’smanystoriesfromasmanydifferentvantagepointsaspossible.
1. HistoricandEnvironmentalProtection
2. HeritageInterpretation
3. Recreation
4. EconomicDevelopmentandTourism
5. Education
6. CommunityPride
7. CulturalPreservation
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Thesuperlativequalityofknownandyetunknownculturalmaterialsinthisregion,fromtheoldesttothemostrecenthistoricperiods,givesthemahighpotentialtofulfillthepublicvalueofeducationandinterpretationtoallcitizens.Mostofourpubliclandshavebeenestablishedlargelybecauseofthispotential,asthisisaqualitythatpersiststhroughtimeregardlessofvariousrecreationalandeconomicusesforpubliclands.
ThevalueofeconomicdevelopmentispotentiallyveryhighfortheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentastherichhistory,archeologicalsites,andecologicaldiversityoftheregionmakeheritagetourismastrongandviableeconomicoptionforlocalcommunities.Inaddition,thehealthandeducationalbenefitsofpublicrecreationarestronglysupportedbythecapacityofanationalmonumenttoallowmultipleuses.Properinterpretationof,coupledwithstrongprotectionsfor,thedensenumbersofarchaeologicalsitescanonlyenhancetherecreationvalueofthisregionforlocalpeopleandforvisitorswhocometoenjoyandspendmoney.
Finally,thereisapublicvaluetotheculturalresourcesoftheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentthatismoreabstract,butnolesssignificant.Thishastodowithourlocalpopulation’ssenseofprideinitshomeplaceanditsspectacularanddiverseculturalheritage.WhetherlookingtotheNativeAmericanpast,thestrongSpanishcolonialpresence,ortheindependent,hardyranchingperiodandtherollicking,colorful“WildWest”oflattertimes,ourdiversesouthernNewMexicopopulationwillfindbothasourceofknowledgeandadirectconnectionwithhumanhistoryintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.
TribessuchastheApacheandPiroMansawillhavethecapacitytoidentifyimportantancestralplaceswithintheregionandtoknowthatsuchplaceswillbepreservedandprotected.DescendantsofSpanishcolonistsandlaterranchersandfarmerswillfindintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentadeeperunderstandingofwhatinventivenesswasrequiredtomaketheleapfromaEuropean-styleexistencetothisharshlybeautifulenvironment.Thisvalueofpublicprideisasourceofgreatercommunitycohesionandpromotescarefulconsiderationofthedifferentusestowhichpubliclandisputnowandinthefuture.
Asweconsidertheverysignificantvaluesthatcanbeattachedtoculturalresourceswithintheproposedmonument,itisimperativetorecognizeandplanforthevariousthreatsthatexisttothoseresources.UnknowingandevendeliberatedestructionofculturalmaterialsoccursonalargescaleeverydayinNewMexico.Thebuildingofnewroads,expansionofresourceextractionefforts,andunregulatedoff-roadrecreationallposemajorthreatstothephysicalremainsofpastcultures.Inaddition,thereisawidespreadlackofpubliceducationaboutwhythoughtlessorunscientificcollectingofartifactsactuallyharmsthearchaeologicalrecord.
Aspartofitspublicservicemandate,anationalmonumentwouldnaturallyhaveastrongeducationalcomponentandwouldalsomakeitpossibleforvisitorstohavecontactwithculturalmaterialsinanappropriatesetting,thussatisfyingournaturaldesiretoexperiencetheexcitementofarchaeologyandhistoryfirsthand.Becauseculturalheritageinsouth-centralNewMexicoisunderdirectthreateveryday,whetherinadvertentlyorthroughknowingabuse,thereisgreaturgencyforustofindasolutionfortheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionthatprovidesthegreatestbenefittothegreatestnumberofcitizens.“Knowledgeispower,”theysay,andprotectingtheresourceswithintheOrganMountains-DesertPeakscouldbeapowerfulmeansofenhancingthisregionofthestate.
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APPENDIX 1: THE SPAN OF HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE PROPOSED ORGAN MOUNTAINS-DESERT PEAKS NATIONAL MONUMENT
TogetaquicksnapshotofthesequenceofhumanhistoryintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument,itishelpfultolookatthechronologiespainstakinglydevelopedbyarchaeologists.Scholarshavedevelopedthesechronologiesthroughcomparingthestonetools,pottery,andarchitectureofancientpeopleasthesematerialobjectschangedthroughtime.Oncearesearcherhasgraspedthesequenceofmaterialcultureitemsbeingusedinacertainsiteorgroupofsites,itbecomespossibletocomparethemwithothersitesinotherareastoseewhichsitesarecontemporarywithoneanother.Bylookingatboththechangesinmaterialcultureasonegoesdeeperintothegroundoracrossspace,andbyusingchemicalandphysicaldatingtechniquessuchasradiocarbondatingwhereverpossible,onecanbegintogetapictureofhumanoccupationthroughtime.
PALEOINDIAN PERIOD:
THE EARLIEST AMERICANS AND THEIR UNSURPASSED STONE TOOL TECHNOLOGY
Formanydecades,ithasbeenknownthathumansoccupiedpartsofNewMexicoandtheentireWesternHemisphere,foratleasttenthousandyears.Inourstate,wecanpointtonumeroussites,includingafewintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument,whichdatetothePaleoindianPeriod(~10,000yearsago).Morerecentresearchacrossthehemisphere,however,isbeginningtomakeitclearthattheremayhavebeenpeopleintheNewWorldevenbeforetheten-thousandyearmark.WemayonedaybeabletopointtositesofthiskindinNewMexico,thoughtheyhavenotyetbeenidentified.
ThePaleoindianlifestyleinvolvedmovingfrequentlyacrosstheland,gatheringwildplantsandhuntinganimalsincludingthenow-extinctmegafaunaofthelateGlacialPeriod,suchasmammothsandgiantbison.Insouth-centralNewMexico,thefewPaleoindiansitescurrentlyknownincludetheCruzTarinSiteintheUvasValley(Kirkpatricketal.,2000),partofthecurrentprojectarea.TheProvidenceConevicinity,alsopartoftheprojectarea,hasreportedlyyieldedthePaleoindianFolsomprojectilepoints,thoughfewifanyhavebeenprofessionallyexamined;parenthetically,itisthelarge,deftlyflakedandverydistinctivePaleoindianprojectilepoints(spearpointsinthiscase)thatmakethesitesveryvulnerabletocasualcollectors.
ResearchpotentialforthePaleoindianaboundsintheprojectarea.TheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregioncontainsnumerousrockshelters—shallowcave-likeoverhangsincliffs—thatareidealplacestolookforremnantsofthisearliestculturalperiod.Inaddition,thereareolddrainagesthatcouldhavesedimentdeepenoughtocoversuchancientsites.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD:
GATHERING AND HUNTING IN A HARSH ENVIRONMENT
Thesubsequentperiod,calledtheArchaic,isaverylongone(fromabout5500-6000BCEtoabout1500-2000yearsbeforethepresent),representingacontinuationofthegatheringandhuntinglifestyleinatimewhentheIceAgemegafaunahadbecomeextinctandthemosaicofenvironmentsweknowtodayintheSouthwestwasbecomingestablished.Peopleseemtohavecontinuedtoberelativelymobile,buttheymayhavedevelopedcertainspatialterritories,wheretheymovedamongsmallerareastogetplantandanimalresourcesthatwereavailableonaseasonalbasis.Huntingwithatlatls(“attl-át-els”,spear-throwers),wastypical,andbasketryandotherformsofweavingbecamehighlydevelopedandessentialtechnologiesineverydaylife.Peoplelivedinsmallstructuresthatwererelativelyquickandeasytoconstructusingcutsaplingsorbranchesandadobe,sometimeswiththefloorsdugintothegroundafewinchestoafootorso.Attimesthefloorswerelinedwithslabsofflatstone.
SitesfromtheArchaicPeriodarecommonthroughouttheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument.Notonlyarethesitesnumerous,buttheyarevariedinsizeandfunction,intermsoftheseasoninwhichtheywereoccupiedandthelengthofoccupation.WithsomanyArchaicsitesofsomanytypes,theOrganMountains-DesertPeaksisaregionthathastremendouspotentialtoprovideinformationonsubtlechangesinArchaicsocietiesacrossalongtimespanduringwhichtherewasfairlyfrequentclimaticchange,anapparentincreaseinthehumanpopulation,andimportantdevelopmentsintechnologiesformakingalivinginthedesert.
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BytheearlycenturiesoftheChristianera,asourcalendarisreckoned,theArchaicinhabitantsofsouth-centralNewMexicoandelsewherewereexperimentingsuccessfullywithgettingmoreandmorefoodfromdomesticatedplants.Theprocessisnotclearlyknownyet,buttheresearchassociatedwithitisveryexciting,aswehavegainedsophisticationinrecognizinghowArchaicgroupsfirstencouragedtheplantstheywantedtouseinacasualwayand,overtime,begantoaltertheplantstosuchadegreethattheyweretrulydomesticated,growingonlyunderhumancare.
THE FORMATIVE PERIOD:
TRUE FARMING AS A WAY OF LIFE
AswemoveintowhatisknownastheFormativePeriod,prehistoricinhabitantswereengaginginalifewaythatisrecognizablydependentonfarming,althoughhuntingandgatheringwildplantswasalwaysimportant,rightuptotheSpanishinvasionoftheRioGrandeterritory.AfteraboutA.D.200intheWesterncalendar,FormativesocietieswerewidespreadacrosstheSouthwest,includingsouth-centralNewMexico.Pithouses,partiallydugintotheground,becamelargerandmoresubstantial;peoplelivedinlargerandmorepermanentvillages,andtheydependedonhard-firedpotteryandthebowandarrowasnewtechnologicalintroductions.LikethepreviousArchaicperiod,Formativesitesarecommonintheprojectareaandinfactarethemostobvioussites,giventhattheyareoftenlargerandmoredensewithmaterialremains,andaresometimesdepositedontopoftheoldersites.WhatisparticularlyimportantaboutFormativesitesintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionisthepotentialtounderstandhowpeopledependentonfarmingwereusingthedrieruplandareasawayfromtheRioGrandeanditstributaries—ourownsuccessinanincreasinglyaridenvironmentwouldbeenhancedbyadeeperknowledgeoftheuseofdifferentlandscapesanddifferenttypesofresourcesbytheseearlyagriculturalists.
THE HISTORIC PERIOD:
EUROPEANS ENTER AND THE SOUTHWESTERN WORLD IS CHANGED FOREVER
ItisnoeasiertosummarizethehistoricperiodinsouthernNewMexicothanthelonghumanhistorythatprecededit.Thiswasatimeofmassivechange,sociallyandculturally,foralloftheinhabitantsofthisregion.
InthecenturiesjustprecedingtheentranceofSpanishcolonistsintotheRioGrandecorridor,Athapaskan-speakingpeopleswenowknowasApachesdevelopedastrongpresenceinsouthernNewMexico.TheApache,withagenerallymobilelifestyle,createdaverydifferentnetworkofinteractionwithotherpeoplethanhadbeenpresentbefore.Sometimesraiding,sometimestradingwithotherNativeAmericansandlatertheEuroamericans,theApacheweredominantintheregionuntillongaftertheSpanishinvasion.AlongwithAthapaskanspeakerswhobecameknownasNavajo,theApacheandothernomadicpeoplesformedastrongcomponentofthenativeoccupationoftheSouthwest.Whilemanycontemporarynomadicpeopleshavemaintainedlittlerecordoftheirrecenthistory,others,includingtheComanche,Pawnee,Cheyenne,andKiowa-Apachearewell-documented.ManywereacculturatedintoHispanichouseholds.RecordedProtohistoricsitesinNewMexicoincludeapproximately2,872Pueblosites,276Plainssites,37Utesites,884Apachesites,and16,419earlyNavajosites.
WhiletheinitialSpanishinvasionoccurredin1539-1540underFranciscoVásquezdeCoronado,itwasmostlytheupperRioGrandethatwitnessedtheearliestSpanishcolonization.SouthernNewMexicowassubjecttointensiveraidingbymobileApachebands,whowereabletotakehorses,otherlivestock,andfoodfromsettlers,orattacktravelersalmostatwill,andthenquicklydisappearintothevastdesertspaces.TheCaminoReal(“CameenoRay-áhl”,RoyalRoad)fromMexicoCityintotheheartofNewMexicowasestablishedalongexistingNativeAmericantrailsveryearlyinthehistoryoftheSpanishentrada,andservedasalifelinebetweenthefar-flungoutpostsandthefirmlyestablishedSpanishcommunitiesinMexico.
TheSpanishentradawasconceivedasanefforttocreateawholenewworldofpermanent,Catholic,SpanishcoloniesintheSouthwest.Spanishnoblemen,soldiers,clergymen,slaves,servants,andentirefamiliesexplored“NewSpain”inwhatisnowNewMexicoasaconcertedsocialandreligiousrevolutionfortheregion.By1598,underJuandeOñate’sleadership,Spainhadestablishedapermanentsettlementnearpresent-dayOhkayOwingehPueblonorthofSantaFe.PeriodsitesrecordedthroughoutNewMexicoincludeapproximately51PuebloRevoltsites,579post-RevoltPueblosites,andnearly2,000SpanishColonialbuildings,structures,sites,districts,andobjects,includingsegmentsofElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroNationalHistoricTrail,historicplazas,irrigationditches,missionchurches,villages,artifacts,andresidences.
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OnceMexicogaineditsindependencefromSpainin1821,strictsanctionsagainstforeigncommercewerelifted.ThecolonistslivingnorthofwhatisnowElPasowerenowpartofanewnation.TradealongElCaminoRealandthenewly-establishedSantaFeTrailflourished.Thereare239recordedMexicanperiodsitesinNewMexico,includingSantaFeTrailremnants,distinctivehomes,andimportantcommercialproperties.
DuetoongoingconflictwiththeApache,permanentSpanishsettlementaroundwhatisnowLasCrucesoccurredmuchlaterthaninthenortherncommunitieslikeSantaFeorBernalillo.ThehistoriccommunityofOldMesilla,foundedin1848justwestofpresent-dayLasCruces,preservessomeoftheatmosphereofthisperiod.ThiswastheperiodwhenNewMexicowasannexedbytheU.S.asapreludetotheMexican-AmericanWar.Theinfluxofnon-Spanishsettlersgreatlyincreased.
Inanactlargelymotivatedbyopportunitiesforeconomicgain,theUnitedStatesdeclaredwaronMexicoin1846.Forthenexttwoyears,AmericanmilitarypresenceinNewMexicomounted,followedbyaninfluxofEuro-AmericansduringtheperiodinwhichNewMexicowasaTerritoryoftheUnitedStates(1848-1912).Railroading,ranching,mining,andhomesteadingoccupiedmanyofthenewcomers.Thiserawitnessedmanychangestoexistingstylesoflandownership,materialculture,andarchitecture.Some2,956Hispanicand12,253AngloTerritorialsiteshavebeenidentifiedacrossNewMexico.Still,muchofsouth-centralNewMexicoremainedwildandlargelyunsettledinthenineteenthcentury,thusitservedasanescaperouteforoutlawssuchasBillytheKid,andthebandsledbyembattledApachewarchiefssuchasGeronimo.
ThelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiessawtheriseofintensiveagricultureintheRioGrandeValley.Bythenineteen-teens,theU.S.federalgovernmenthaddevelopedaseriesofdamsontherivertocontrolfloodingandmakeirrigationwateravailableonaregularbasistothefarmsinthevalley,whichformedamajorfoodbaseformuchofthestate.Irrigatedfarmingintherivervalleyremainsanimportanteconomicactivitytoday.
NewMexicobecamethe47thstatetobeadmittedtotheUnitedStatesofAmericaonJanuary6,1912.Sincethen,NewMexicansengagedintraditionalagricultural,mining,militaryandranchingpursuitshavebeenjoinedbyhealth-seekers,outdoorenthusiasts,students,motorists,environmentalandheritagetourists,scientists,andartists.TwoWorldWars,Roosevelt’sNewDeal,theColdWar,Route66,newtechnologies,andinternationalimmigrationhavemadeNewMexicothediverse,many-facetedculturallandscapeandsingulardestinationitistoday.
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APPENDIX 2: SPECIAL TOPICS IN ORGAN MOUNTAINS-DESERT PEAKS ARCHAEOLOGY
TheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentissorichinpotentialinformationaboutthepastthatitisimportanttonotesomeofthetopicsthatprominentresearchersintheareahaveidentifiedasrelevantforcurrentandfuturework.Manyofthesesameresearchtopicswillhelplandmanagersinterpretthepasttoawidepublicaudiencethathasdifferentbackgroundsanddifferentideasofwhatisimportant.ThefollowingappendixdescribesafewofthemostimportantareasforarchaeologicalworkasnotedbyKirkpatricketal.(2000),agroupofresearcherswhohavebeeninvolvedwithsouthernNewMexicoarchaeologyfordecades.
How did the earliest people use the land?WhatisthenatureofPaleoindianlanduseinthispartofNewMexico?Wedon’tyethaveagoodsampleofsitesfromthisperiod.
How can we save the earliest cultural remains, those that are the most threatened?Howcanwesaveveryearlysites,giventherampantunauthorizedcollectingofPaleoindianpoints?TheProvidenceConeareahasbeenespeciallyhard-hit.
Where are the Early Archaic sites in this region?Werepeopleusingtheareaatthattime?Weneedbettersamplesofsitesfromthisperiod.
The East Potrillos are “terra incognita.”HowcanweachievebetterunderstandingofMiddleandLateArchaicsitesintheEastPotrilloMountains?TherearemanyEastPotrillositescoveredinsanddunes,makingitdifficulttogetagoodpictureoftheirdistributionasthesandcoversanduncoversthem.
Stone was the most important raw material, but we don’t know much about sources.WhatcanwelearnabouttheSierradelasUvas,RoughandReadyHills,andSleepingLadyHillsassourcesoflithicrawmaterials?Thereseemtobemanyquarrysitesandusablerockoutcropsintheseranges.
Did ancient southern New Mexicans interact with other cultures?IsSouth-centralNewMexicoArchaiccultureconnectedwithEasternNewMexicoand/orWestTexas?Someprojectilepointsarestylisticallysimilarinthesethreeareas.
Did ancient people return to certain places to live over time?DidearlyfarmingpeoplelocatetheirvillagesinplacessimilartothehabitationsoftheirLateArchaicpredecessors?Someresearchsuggeststhisisso.
How did early farmers maximize the chances of getting a crop?Didlaterfarmingpeopleusemultiplelandformsforagriculture—hillandmountainslopesinadditiontorivervalleys?–andisthisbecauseitwaswetteratthattime?Someresearchsuggestslaterfarmingsitesweresometimeslocatedinplaceswherepeoplewouldhavehadtoutilizerainfallonlyforirrigation.
Where did early farmers fulf ill their non-agricultural resource needs?Whatotherresourcesdidlatefarmingpeopleutilizeinthemountainsandhills?Whatdoesthissayabouttherelativeimportanceofdomesticatedcrops?
Kirkpatrick,DavidT.,PeterEidenbach,KarlW.Laumbach,andMelihaS.Duran,2000.Basin and Range Archaeology: An Overview of
Prehistory in South-Central New Mexico.HumanSystemsResearch,Inc.,LasCruces,NewMexico.
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APPENDIX 3: LATINO/A HERITAGE IN SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO AND THE ORGAN MOUNTAINS-DESERT PEAKS
AstheoldestEuropeancultureintheUnitedStates,theLatino/aheritageofNewMexicocontinuestothriveandadapttothechallengesoftoday.Deeplytiedtotheland,thepeopleofsouthernNewMexicopreservealifewaythatgoesbackcenturies.InadditiontoNativeAmericanswholivedinthisregionforthousandsofyears,peopleofSpanishdescenthavealsobeenpartofthislandscapeforover400years.Beginninginthelate16thCentury,thedescendantsoftheseLatino/asettlershavecreatedauniquecultureandsocietyinanisolatedregionofNorthAmerica.Partheirloomtradition,partcontemporarycreation,thecultureoftwenty-firstcenturysouthernNewMexicoisarichcombinationofmanypeoplesinwhichthoseofSpanishdescentcontinuetoplayamajorrole.Avarietyofinstitutions,communities,andindividualsinNewMexicopreservethe400yearsofLatino/acultureandtraditions.
ThefirstSpanishpartythatexploredsouthernNewMexicowasledbyAntoniodeEspejoin1583.Espejo’ssmallexplorationpartygazeduponthearidvalleysplitintwobytheRioGrandethatwanderedaroundthelandscapelikeasidewinderrattlesnake.Theysawthesteepmountainrangesthatflankedthevalleytotheeastandthewest.Thesemajesticmountainsarepartoftheproposednationalmonument.
Inthespringof1598,DonJuandeOñate’sfamouscolonizingexpeditionarrivedattheMesillaValleyonitswaytonorthernNewMexico.Forthenextthreecenturies,tensofthousandsofpeoplepassedthroughtheMesillaValleytravelingonthetrailblazedbyOñate,experiencingthestarkdesertandthetallcrestsoftheOrganMountainsandtheDesertPeaks.DuringtheSpanishcolonialperiod,peopletravelingonElCaminoRealstoppedatthemanyparajes(campsites)insouthernNewMexicoandsearchedthenearbymountainsforgameandpreciousmetal.FewsettlersstayedduetotheharshdesertclimateandtheApachesandotherNativeAmericanswhoroamedthecountrysideandsometimesmadesettlementdifficult.
WhenMexicowonitsindependencefromSpainin1821,severalgroupsofpeopleattemptedtosettleintheMesillaValley.ThefirstgrouptoreceiveagrantfromtheMexicangovernmentwasledbyJuanAntonioGarcía.In1823,theBrazitoLandGrantwasawardedtoGarcía.Oncehereceivedhisgrant,helivedinthesouthernpartoftheMesillaValleyuntilillhealthforcedhimtoreturntoPasodelNorte(nowCiudadJuárez)in1827.FollowingseveralattemptsbyamysteriouswomannamedDoñaAnaMaríadeCórdovatosettlewithherfamilyatabendintheriverneartheRobledoMountains,in1839JoséMaríaCostalesand115othermenrequestedasectionoflandatthisspot.ApprovalfortheDoñaAnaBendColonywasdelayedforseveralyears,butfinallyin1843,BernabéMontoyaledthirty-threesettlerstoanareanorthofpresentdayLasCruces,whichbecameknownasthevillageofDoñaAna.Othersettlersquicklyarrivedinthecommunity.
InApril1846,theUnitedStatesdeclaredwaronMexicooverterritorialdisputesspawnedbyAmericanwestwardexpansion.In1847,MissourivolunteersunderthecommandofColonelAlexanderDoniphanmarcheddowntheCaminoRealandcapturedNewMexicofortheUnitedStates.In1849,PabloMelendres,themayordomo(personincharge)ofthevillageofDoñaAna,askedtheU.S.Armytohelprelievetheovercrowdinginhissmallcommunity.Goingsouthaboutfifteenmiles,LieutenantDelosSackettlaidoutagridofstreetsusingarawhideropenearacamposanto(cemetery)thatmarkedthesiteofamassacreontheCaminoReal.ThesitethatSackettcreatedwascalledEl Pueblo del Jardín de Las Cruces(TheCityoftheGardenofCrosses),orsimplyLasCruces.Thispartofthecity,nowtheMesquiteHistoricOriginalTownsiteDistrict,isontheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces,andhasbeenatraditionalneighborhoodforLatino/afamilieseversince.
TheTreatyofGuadalupeHidalgo,whichendedthewarin1848,settheinternationalborderbetweenMexicoandtheUnitedStatesattheRioGrande,butthetreatyleftambiguoustheexactlocationofthenewboundarywestoftheriver.MexicoclaimedthewestsideoftheriveralmosttothevillageofDoñaAnawhiletheUnitedStateswantedthesameland.AsMexicoassertedownershipoverthewestsideoftheMesillaValley,some2,000MexicanrefugeesfromNewMexicowhopreferrednottoliveundertheruleoftheUnitedStatesfoundedthetownofMesilla.FatherRamónOrtiz,awell-knownpriestinthearea,organizedcolonieslikeMesillaandothervillagesforMexicansdisplacedbythewar
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alongtherivernorthwestofPasodelNorte.DespitethebestintentionsofFatherOrtízandthedesirebyMesillerostocontinuetoliveinMexicoasMexicancitizens,theUnitedStateswantedtomovethebordersouthtomakeroomfortherouteforatranscontinentalrailroad.Thus,in1853,JamesGadsdennegotiatedwithMexicanPresidentSantaAnnaandsecuredtheGadsdenPurchase(30millionacresinsouthernNewMexicoandsouthernArizona)foracostof$10million.SomeMexicansstayedinMesillaandbecameU.S.citizenswhileothersspreadthroughoutnorthernMexico.Foryears,peopleintheMesillaValleyhadbeenpartofMexico,andthensuddenlyovernight,theybecameU.S.citizens.Withoutmovingatall,theborderpassedoverthem,andforsome,cutthemofffromfamiliesandfriendsinthesouth.
In1855,ontheButterfieldOverlandMailTrail,thefirststagecoachtravelingfromSanAntoniotoSanDiegopassedthroughMesillaandblazedaroutethroughpartoftheproposednationalmonument.Travelersonthisgruelingthirty-eightdayjourneyacrossthedesertsoughtreliefinthewelcomingadobesofMesilla.Atthecrossroadsoftwomajortransportationroutes—ElCaminoReal(whichhadbecomeknownastheChihuahuaTrail)andtheButterfieldOverlandMailTrail,MesillawasthebiggestcommunityinsouthernNewMexicoforthenextthreedecades.WateredbytheRioGrande,agriculturesustainedthepeople.Bythemiddleofthe1850s,theHispanicfarmsofMesillaproduced25,000bushelsofcorn,7,500bushelsofwheat,and5,000bushelsofbeans.Fortherestofthe19thcenturyandintothe20th,theLatino/apeopleofsouthernNewMexicofarmed,ranched,freighted,andusedthelandscapeoftheproposedmonumentinnumerousways.Fromprovidingfortheirfamiliestopreservingtheirheritage,themountainpeaksanddesertvalleyshavecreatedauniqueculture.
TheUnitedStatesgovernmenthasbeenapartnerinthepreservationofHispanicheritageforalongtime.DuringtheGreatDepression,ittargetedNuevoMexicanocommunitiesforheritagepreservation.AshistorianSuzanneForrestnotes:“asignificantproportionoffederalfundswerechanneledintoprogramsdesignedtoassistHispanicvillagerstoregaineconomicindependencebyaugmentingtheirsmall-scaleagriculturalactivitieswithnativeartsandcraftscottageindustries,bymodernizingHispanicvillageagriculture,andbyrestoringthefertilityoftheland.”
Throughouttheover400yearsofLatino/apresenceinNewMexico,thelandscapehasplayedanimportantandessentialroleforthisisolatedoutpostofSpain,Mexico,andnowtheUnitedStates.CreatingtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentwillcontinuetopreservethisvitalculturallandmarkandresourceforthosewholiveinsouthernNewMexicoandforthevisitorswhocometotheregion.
photo courtesy of Robert Kaiser
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APPENDIX 4: THE WAY TO NEW MEXICO: CAMINO REAL DE TIERRA ADENTRO by Jean Fulton, Historian, Camino Real de Tierra Adentro National Historic Trail
TheSpanishexploredandcolonizedtheAmericasbyfollowingestablishednativepathsthathadconnectedindigenousvillagesforhundredsandeventhousandsofyears.WhatwastobecomeknownasEl Camino Real de Tierra Adentro,“TheRoyalRoadoftheInterior,”originallyunitedtheSpanishcapitalofMexicoCitywiththerichminingdistrictssurroundingZacatecasandCiudadChihuahua.
In1598,IndianguidesledSpanishexplorerJuandeOñateandhiscaravanofcolonistsfromSantaBárbara,Chihuahua,nearParral,northacrossMexico’sremotefrontier.TheycrossedtheRioGrandenearSanElizario,traveledalongsidetheriverandacrosstheJornadadelMuerto(nearpresent-dayUphamnorthwestofLasCruces)towhatisnowOhkayOwingehPueblonorthofSantaFe.
Theinitialthree-monthjourneyfromnorthernMexicowasundertakenby129men,manyaccompaniedbytheirwives,children,andservants;andagroupofFranciscanfriars,using84heavily-ladencartsandherdingsome7,000headsoflivestockincludingsheep,goats,cattleandhorses.
ThisandsubsequentcaravansemanatingallthewayfromMexicoCitynegotiatedthedifficult1,600-miletrekthroughsomeofthemostdesolateandruggedterraininMexicoandwesternNorthAmerica.AlthoughovertimeElCaminoRealwasimprovedandevencobbledinMexico,thenorthernlengthremainedasimpleroughtrailorseriesofpathssurroundedbysparseandpricklyvegetation,occasionalsprings,inhospitablewaterlessstretches,erraticclimaticextremes,scarcefuelwood,highwinds,andintenseheat.
Creosote,whitethornacacia,saltbush,mesquite,andinsomeplacesyuccaandagavedominatedmuchofthenorthernCaminoReallandscape.Grammaandothergrassesprovidedforage.Nearpresent-daySocorro,canopiedforestsofcottonwoodswithanunderstoryofwillowsandsaltgrasslinedtheriver.
SmallercarretasorcartsmadeshortertripsbetweenpointsalongElCaminoReal.Largercarrosorwagonsfeaturedfouriron-rimmedwheelsandcarrieduptotwotons.Eightmulespulledawagon.Eightmulesfollowedtoserveasthealternateteam.Oñate’scaravanstretchednearlytwomileslong.Thecreakingofthewoodencartwheelsandthecloudsofdustcouldbeheardandseenformiles.Atrudgingtwelvemileswasatypicaldailyrateforcartandwagontravel.Chroniclerswrotethatthecaravantraveledasfastastheslowesthogcouldtrot.
Onetypicalcaravanin1631included544mules,72headsofcattle,200sheep,200heifers,andcountlesschickens.Bellsrang,bannersfluttered,andcrowdsgatheredeachtimeaprocessionapproachedElPasodelNorteandlaterSantaFe.Thewelcomedcaravansarrivedwithpeople,information,supplies,sacredornaments,religiousvestments,andfoodstuffs.
TheCaminoRealbraidedontopofancienttraderoutesusedforcenturiesbyindigenouspeoplestofurnishthemselveswithtradegoodsvitalforspiritualsustenanceandsurvival.Upfromthesouthcamemarineshells,parrotandmacawfeathers,andcopperobjects;downthetrailswentturquoiseandothersemi-preciousstones,pottery,salt,andprocessedbisonproducts.
ThefirstSpaniardsencounteredmorethan130multi-lingualcommunitiesofIndianstheydescribedas“Pueblos,”whichfeaturedsophisticatedagriculturalpractices,severalvarietiesofdomesticatedanimals,locallygrownandwovencottontextiles,anddeeply-rootedspiritualtraditionsincludingthekachinaculture.
Inadditiontonewbreedsoflivestock,thefirstEuropeansbroughtwiththemdozensanddozensofnon-nativevegetables,fruits,andherbsincludingartichokes,beets,carrots,chile,lettuce,oats,onions,tomatoes,wheat,apples,cantaloupes,peaches,pears,peanuts,oranges,watermelons,grapes,cherries,anise,cumin,dill,cilantro,lavender,
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rosemaryandsaffron.Theyalsointroducedblacksmithing,brassandwoodmusicalinstruments,weaponry,Catholicism,andtheencomiendaandhaciendasystems,aswellasnewdiseases.
InearlyAugust1680,numerousfactorscoalesced—leadingtothemostsuccessfulNativeAmericanrevoltinthehistoryoftheAmericas.SomeestimatethatseventeenthousandPuebloIndians,speakingatleastsixdifferentlanguages,unitedandkilledhundredsofSpanishsettlersandpriests,lootedhaciendas,anddestroyedmissionchurches.NearlytwothousandSpaniards,accompaniedbyhundredsofenslavedorconvertedPuebloIndians,fledsouthalongElCaminoRealtotherelativesafetyofElPasodelNorte.IttooktheSpanishnearly12yearstore-conquerNewMexico.
FreightinghadincreaseddramaticallyafterMexicogaineditsindependencefromSpainin1821.Thenine-monthround-tripsmadeeverythreeyearsbyFranciscanexpeditionsduringthe16th-and17th-centuriestosupplythenorthernmissionswerereplacedbysmaller,independent,andmorefrequenttrips,includingannualwagontrains,conductasorconvoysrunmostoftenbyprivatecontractors.
Mulescouldcarry400poundswhilecovering12-15mileseachday.DuringtheheightofCaminoRealtravelandtrade,anatajoof200capable(butoftenrecalcitrant)muleswascommon,witheacharrieroormuleteermanaging40-50animals.
Onanygivendepartureday,acrowdwouldassembleatthetown’splaza.Withthelocalmilitaryprovidingescort,theassemblagewouldheadsouthtowardsMexico,oftentotakeadvantageofthemedicalservicesinCiudadChihuahua,thebestintheregion.Traderswiththeirpiñonnuts,roughwoolcloth,tannedanimalskins,tallow,pickledbuffalotongues,wines,brandies,andoftenIndianslavesalsoreadiedthemselvesforthejourney.Governmentofficials,friars,andevenentirefamiliesparticipated—researchersestimatethatbetween5and10percentoftheNewMexicanpopulationperiodicallymadetheround-triptrektoCiudadChihuahua.
Thebest-preservedlengthoftheElCaminoRealliesjustnortheastoftheRobledoMountainsinanareaknownastheJornadadelMuertoor“theJourneyoftheDeadMan.”Campsiteswereknownasparajes.LeavingtheparajeatRobledoatpresent-dayFortSelden,CaminoRealtravelerswouldmaketheshortday’striptotheparajeatSanDiegoattheveryedgeofaplainoverlookingtherivervalleyseveralhundredfeetbelow.WhentravelersreachedLagunadelMuerto(nearpresent-dayEngle)thelivestockwouldbesentfivemileswestthroughacanyontotheOjodelMuerto,areliablespring.LatertravelersguardedthemselvesagainstApacheattacksatthissamelocation.
SegmentsoftheElCaminoRealhavebeenusedduringtheWarwithMexico,aspartoftheButterfieldTrailbeforetheCivilWar,duringthemovementoftroopsintheCivilWar,wellintothe1870s,andevenintocontemporarytimes.
RecentarchaeologicalsurveysintheJornadadelMuertolocatedprehistoricartifacts,whatappearstobeahand-notchedwoodenchild’stoy,apossiblebuttonfromaFrenchuniform,andfairlymoderncarparts.TheNationalParkService,theBureauofLandManagement,andtheirlocalpartnersinstalledwaysideexhibitsinOctober2010tointerprettheoriginalTrailtrace.Sincethen,hikers,birders,touristsandoutdoorenthusiastshaveembracedthisarea,settingthestageforadditionalheritagetourismopportunitiespresentedbytheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument.
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APPENDIX 5: THE UNITED STATES GROWS... AGAIN: THE HISTORIC GADSDEN PURCHASE
THE TREATY OF GUADALUPE-HIDALGO: CONFUSION AND CONFLICT
AnalignmentofrockcairnssituatedwithintheproposedOrganMountains–DesertPeaksNationalMonumentboundarydemarcatesoneofthemostpeculiarandimportantfederallandprocurementsinUnitedStateshistory.
Presentedtothepublicasaninsetona29”x22”Nebraska and KansassteelengravingdrawnbycartographerJ.H.Coltonin1854,thenegotiated“GadsdenPurchase”gavethelowercontinentalUnitedStatesitsfinalform.TherocksmarkingthePurchasesettledyearsofcontroversyresultingfromtheinaccuraciesoftheofficialmapoftheUnitedStatescitedintheTreatyofGuadalupe-Hidalgo.
TheTreatyofGuadalupe-Hidalgo(inSpanish,theTratado de Guadalupe-Hidalgo)isthepeacetreaty—largelydictatedbytheUnitedStateswhileitsmilitaryforcesoccupiedMexicoCity—thatendedtheMexican-AmericanWaron2February1848.Underduressduringthenegotiation,Mexicoceded522,568squaremilesoflandandreceived$15,000,000inreturn(approximately$0.33peracre).
Beforetheonsetofstrifewithitsnorthernneighborin1846,theRepublicofMexico—ayoungnationwithancientroots—claimedallofthepresentU.S.statesofTexas,NewMexico,Arizona,Utah,Nevada,California,andportionsofKansas,Colorado,andWyoming.
Mexicansettlement,however,waslimitedtoafewriparianvalleysandfertilepocketsinalargelyinhospitablelandscape.TherestbelongedtotheComanche,Apache,Navajo,Ute,Hopi,Puebloans,O’odham,RiverYuma,Pais,Paiute,andamultitudeofgroupsindigenoustoCalifornia.
JohnDisturnell(1801-1877)wasabookandmappublisheroperatinginNewYork.His1847mapoftheUnitedStates,laterfoundtobeerroneous,servedastheofficialmapfortheTreatyofGuadalupe-Hidalgo.ThissetthestageforyearsofsimmeringtensionbetweenMexicanandAmericanofficialsandresidents.
THE GADSDEN PURCHASE, SEEN AS A SOLUTION
InaccordancewiththetermsoftheTreaty,ajointboundarycommissionwasorganizedtobeginthetaskofsurveyinganewdividinglinebetweenthetwonationsinJuly1849.GeneralPedroGarciaConde,thecommissionerappointedbytheMexicangovernment,andJohnRussellBartlett,thecommissionerrepresentingtheUnitedStates,metinElPasoin1850.
On-sitesurveysconfirmedsuspicionsthattheDisturnellmapmistakenlylocatedElPaso,Texasatalatitude34milesnorthandalongitude100mileseastofthetruepositionofthecity.ThismeantthatMexico’sadjustedborderwouldpotentiallywithdrawfiveorsixthousandsquaremilesfromtheUnitedStates,includingthefertileMesillaValleyandseveralminingdistricts.
AlthoughacompromisewasreachedbetweenPedroGarciaCondeandJohnBartlett,PresidentFranklinPiercenamedJamesGadsden,aSouthCarolinianrailroadexecutive,asministertoMexicotooverridetheBartlett-Condecompromiseandtonegotiatealandpurchasethatwoulddissolvetheboundarydisputeand,asanaddedbenefit,providetheUnitedStateswitharailroutetoCalifornia.
On17August1853,accordingtoElPasohistorianLeonMetz,JamesGadsdenmetwithPresidentSantaAnna,outlinedtheAmericanconceptofgeographicalpredetermination,andassertedtheUnitedStates’needforsufficientandprotectiveboundaries.HesuggestedthatMexicosellhersurplusunder-populatedregionsandacceptanaturalborderoutlinedbydesertsandmountainranges.GadsdenassuredSantaAnnathattheUnitedStateswouldpayafairprice.
SantaAnnafacedunpaiddebts,crushingtaxes,andrampantpoliticalcorruption.ViolentforaysbyAmericanopportunists,alackofrequestedsupportfromSpain,France,andBritain,andtheunspokenyetunderstoodthreatof
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possibleU.S.forcealsounderminedSantaAnna’spowersofnegotiation.TheUnitedStateshadmoneyandwantedland.Mexicohadlandandwantedcash.
Theensuingpurchaseencompassed29,640squaremiles,ofwhich27,305(24percent)comprisestoday’ssouthernArizona.TheremainderwenttoNewMexico,includingthe‘MesillaStrip.’TheRioGrande’snewpointofU.S.entry,wheretheboundarylefttheriverandstruckwesttowardthePacific,wasthreemilesnorthofElPasoat31degrees47minutes.Theboundarymovedwestforonehundredmiles,thensouthto31degrees20minutes,westagaintotheintersectionofthe111thmeridian,andwesttotheColoradoRiver23.72milessouthofitsconfluencewiththeGila.FromthereitfollowedthemiddleofthestreamnorthtothealreadyestablishedboundaryextendingtothePacific.
BothtreatieshadtheunintendedconsequenceofratchetinguptensionsbetweensettlersandtheApache,whowereunderstandablyincensedthattheUnitedStateshadnegotiatedwithMexicoratherthanwiththemoverpossessionoftheirhomeland.RaidsagainstMexicansaswellasAmericanminers,settlers,herders,merchants,andtravelersincreased.U.S.militaryfortswereconstructedatstrategicpointstohelpsafeguardtheborderlandfrontier.
Despitetheescalatingviolence,misgivingsregardingshiftingnationalallegiances,andlingeringdoubtsabouttheaccuracyoftheboundarymarkers,troopsfromnearbyFortFillmoreoversawapeacefultransition.On16November1854,onMesilla’scentralplaza,theMexicanflagwasloweredwithreverence.Americanscheered,ranuptheirownflag,andsalutedwithtwoground-shakingroundsofartillery.Amilitarybandplayed“HailColumbia,”“YankeeDoodle,”andothertunes.NewMexico’sgovernorDavidMeriwetherdeliveredabriefpresentationwelcomingMexicanresidentstoAmericancitizenship,promisingprotectionfromtheApache,andensuringfairnesstoallinthecourts.
WhilemanyresidentsontheU.S.sideoftherealignedborderadjustedtotheirnewfoundstatusasAmericans,Mexico’sPresidentSantaAnnaspentthe$15millioninthreemonthsandwasforcedintoexileformorethantwentyyearsforhisroleinsellingoffthemotherland.
OnJuly20,1876,SantaAnnadiedinMexicoCity,poor,friendless,andalone.
Morethanahundredandfiftyyearsafteranofficialnegotiationthatmanywoulddescribeasasimplelandgrab,therockcairnsmarkingtheGadsdenPurchaseboundarycontinuetobearmutetestimonytoalonglegacyofmutualgreed,distrust,dispute,violence,resiliency,persistence,andresolution.
Secondary Sources
Beck,WarrenA.andYnezD.Haase.Historical Atlas of New Mexico.(NormanandLondon:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1969:26-28).
Clemons,RussellE.,PaigeW.Christiansen,andH.L.James.Southwestern New Mexico: Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past No. 10 (Revised).(Socorro,NM:NewMexicoBureauofMinesandMineralResources,1980:105-111).
Cohen,PaulE.Mapping the West: America’s Westward Movement 1524-1890.(NewYorkCity:RizzoliInternationalPublications,Inc.,2002:170-171).
Metz,Leon.Border:The U. S.–Mexico Line.(ElPaso:ManganBooks,1989:78-81,83-84,90).
Noble,DavidGrant.Pueblos, Villages, Forts & Trails: A Guide to New Mexico’s Past.(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1994:199-200).
Sheridan,ThomasE.A History of the Southwest: The Land and Its People.(Tucson:WesternNationalParksAssociation:10-15).
Simmons,Marc.New Mexico: An Interpretive History.(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1988:136-137).
Taylor,MaryDaniels.A Place as Wild as the West Ever Was: Mesilla, New Mexico 1848-1872.(LasCruces,NM:NewMexicoStateUniversity
Museum,2004:31-40).
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APPENDIX 6: THE ERRONEOUS MAP OF 1847 THAT LED TO THE GADSDEN PURCHASE
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APPENDIX 7: BUTTERFIELD TRAIL - THE CALIFORNIA CONNECTION
TheButterfieldTrailwastheroutefollowedbytheUnitesStates’firstoverlandmailandpassengerservicebetweentheMississippiRiverandthePacificOcean.EnteringNewMexicoatElPaso,itfollowedtheRioGrandenorthtoMesilla,thenwestwardinasoutherncurveacrosswildernessdesertstoCalifornia.TheOverlandExpressalsoinheritedthecontractformailserviceinpassengercoachesbetweenLaMesillaandSantaFebetween1860and1861,onthesameElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroroutethatJuandeOñatetooknearly300yearsearlier.
InresponsetocomplaintsfromresidentslivinginNewMexico,Arizona,andCalifornia,wearyofthethree-monthdelayinsteamboatmailservice,Congressauthorizedtheestablishmentofafederally-subsidizedoverlandmailservicebetweenSt.Louis,MissouriandSanFranciscoin1857.ThecontractwaswonbyJohnButterfieldandhispartnersinwhatbecameknownastheOverlandMailCompany.
Butterfieldwasasuccessful,self-madeNewYorkentrepreneurandafriendofPresidentBuchanan’s.Fromhisstartasadependablestagecoachdriver,Butterfieldovertimeacquirednumerousmailandpassengerstagecoachlines,andeventuallybecameafoundingdirectoroftheAmericanExpressCompany,whichoperatestothisday.Duringhisyouthandadulthood,ButterfieldwitnessedtheconstructionoftheErieCanal,sawRobertFulton’snewfangledsteamboatmiraculouslychugupstream,watchedasthefirsttelegraphlineswerestrung,andexperiencedtherumbleofthefirststeamlocomotive.Anythingseemedpossible.
Amanofvisionandadeptmanagerialskills,Butterfield,alongwithWilliamG.Fargoandfiveotherinvestors,arrangedthe2,795-mileservicewithinthespanofasingleyear.Theyandtheircrewssurveyednewsectionsofroadtoconnectwithexistingroutes,appropriatedorconstructedcorrals,bridges,stations,andsleepingaccommodations;dugwells,andhauledspringwater.
ButterfieldandhisteamwereessentiallyretracinganearlierwagonrouteblazedbyKearnyandCookeadecadeearlier.GeneralStephenWattsKearnyandhisArmyoftheWestscoutedaninitialwagonroadthroughNewMexicoandArizonain1846-1847duringtheirquesttosecuresouthernCaliforniafortheUnitedStatesduringtheWarwithMexico.Soonafterward,CaptainPhilipSt.GeorgeCooke’sMormonBattalionfollowedonKearny’sheels.Thesetwomovementsofequipment,soldiers,andsuppliestransformedaseriesoffootpathsintothewagonroadthatbecametheButterfieldTrail.
Aspartoftheirfinalpreparations,Butterfieldandhispartnershired800employees,acquiredanddistributedmorethan1,500horsesandmules,stockedstationswithhayandfeed,andpurchased250coachesincludingmailwagonsandothernecessaryequipment.Inthelikelyeventofabreakdownorotheremergency,themailwastransferredtoback-upwagonsthatpressedontothenextstation.
Thetargetstartdateof16September1858wasmet.ServicebeganoutofSt.Louis,Memphis,andSanFranciscosimultaneously.“Remember,boys,”Butterfieldfamouslyadmonishedhisemployees,“nothinginGod’searthmuststoptheUnitedStatesmail!”
One-waytripsontheButterfieldTrailcostpassengersbetween$150and$200(around$3Kbytoday’sstandards)andtookjustunderthreeweekstravelingdayandnight.Postageforaletterwastencents,andfreightcostadollarperonehundredpoundsperonehundredmiles.Briefstopsweremadeonlytochangehorses,repairbrokenaxles,ortoconsumetwodailymeals(atanextracostoffiftycentseach)consistingoftenofhard,flatbiscuits,beefjerky,andrawonionsservedintincupsandwasheddownwithunsweetenedblackcoffee.Invertedpailsorstumpsservedaschairs.
WroteNew York HeraldcorrespondentWatermanL.OrmsbyuponhisarrivalinSanFrancisco:
SafeandsoundfromallthethreateneddangersofIndians,tropicsuns,rattlesnakes,grizzlybears,stubbornmules,mustanghorses,jerkedbeef,terrificmountainpasses,fordingrivers…hereIaminSanFrancisco…Ialmostfeelfreshenoughtoundertakeitagain.
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Asanaside,onecan’thelpbutwonderifOrmsbywasasked(bribed?)byinvestorstopresentafavorablereview.Inanycase,waystations—smallrough-hewnwood,rock,oradobebuildingswithadjacentcorralsandawellorawatertank—werespacedatanaveragetwentymilesapart.Aguardofsixorsevenmenateachstationlookedafterthehorses.Thestationkeeperreceivedamonthlysalary.
ButterfieldreceivedacablefromPresidentBuchananafterthefirsteastboundmaildeliveryarrivedinSt.Louison9October1858proclaimingthatitwas“aglorioustriumphforcivilizationandtheUnion.Settlementswillsoonfollowthecourseoftheroad,andtheEastandWestwillbeboundtogetherbyachainoflivingAmericanswhichcanneverbebroken.”
ThearrivalofJohnButterfield’stri-weeklyOverlandMailservicecreatedaburstofgrowthinElPaso,whichservedasthehalf-waypoint.StreetnamesincentralElPasotodayindicatethearrivalanddepartureroutesofthestagesandtheirdestinations(SantaFe,SanFrancisco,andSanAntonioStreets).Indeed,eachofthetownsandvillagesalongtheoverlandroutebenefittedfromtheservicewhichbroughtmail,news,visitors,andthoseinneedoflocally-suppliedprovisions.
ThefirststopinNewMexicoafterElPasowasFortFillmore,followedbyLaMesilla.Atthattime,theRioGranderaneastofLaMesillabyaboutfourhundredyards,andwestofFortFillmoreaboutthesamedistance.Whatisnowthe“LaPosta”restaurantatthesoutheasterncorneroftheMesillaPlazahousedtheButterfieldHomeStationandHeadquarters,providingaplacetoexchangemailandbrieflyrestafterfordingtheriver.TheroutethencontinueditswayupthevalleytothetownofPicacho,andfromtheremadeananglewestwardtotheRoughandReadyStation,whichatthattimewassituatedsometwentymilesfromtheriver.
RenownedButterfieldTrailscholarGeorgeHackler’sdetailedfieldworkinformsusthattheRoughandReadyStation,establishedinDecember1858,waslocatedatthegapbetweenSleepingLadyHillsonthesouthandtheRoughandReadyHillsonthenorth,inSection28,Township22SRange2W.Archaeologicalexcavationsrevealedthatthestationwasbuiltofadobeonrockfoundationswithrockandadobefireplacesandchimneys.TheoriginalCorralitosRanchheadquarters(fromaround1912)wasbuiltnexttotheTrail.Althoughwhatremainsofthestationiscurrentlyburied,theButterfieldTrailitselfremainsevident.
StationsnextinlineheadingwestwereGoodsight,Cooke’sSpring,Mimbres,LosOjosdeVaca,Soldier’sFarewell,Barney’s,MexicanSprings,andStein’sPeak.Stein’sPeakinDoubtfulCanyonisaboutonemilefromtheArizonaborderandwasthelaststationinNewMexico.Eachstationnametellsastory.
LINKING EL CAMINO REAL AND BUTTERFIELD TRAIL
AlthoughtheoutbreakoftheCivilWarin1861prohibitedfurtherofficialuseoftheButterfieldTrail,privatestagescontinuedtobringpassengerswesttoSantaFeanddownalongtheoriginalElCaminoRealroutesouthtoMesillaandbeyond.
IfweimagineforjustamomenttravelingwiththeoriginalCaminoRealcaravans,theslowpaceofwalkingalongsidecreakingwagonsandcartsforatwelve-miledaywiththefreedomofmovementinsomewayscomparesfavorablywiththeconfinementofbetweensixandninetightly-packedpassengersinacoachbuiltforspeed(4-5milesanhour).Fast,rough,dangerous,thesecoacheswerepronetotippingandharboredpassengersplaguedbyboredom,sleepdeprivation,fearoftheunknown,andmotionsickness.
In1873,oneintrepidfamilymadesuchastagecoachtripfromNewYorktoSantaFe,MesillaandthenontoSilverCity.CatherineAntrim,hertwosonsandhersecondhusbandWilliamrelocatedwesttofindwork.Catherinebusiedherselfwithrunningaboardinghouse.Herhusbandworkedmostlyinthemines.Catherine’ssonWilliamHenryAntrimandhishalf-brotherJosieattendedtheone-roomschoolhouse.Afewyearslater,afterhismotherdied,youngWilliamwouldtakethenamepresumedtohavebeengiventohimbyhisbiologicalfather,WilliamH.Bonney.HisforcedreturntoMesillain1881asayoungadultandtheaftermathofthatstaycreatedquiteastir.
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APPENDIX 8: WILLIAM BONNEY, AKA “BILLY THE KID”
ThegeneralmayhembetweentwocompetingfactionsstrugglingforeconomicdominanceinLincolnCountyin1878createdaperiodofanarchyoftenreferredtoastheLincolnCountyWar.Inaletterdated13April,1878totheLasVegas,NMGazette,onemortifiedvisitorobservedthat,“killingpeopleinLincolnistheleadingindustryatthepresenttime.”Thebloodshedandlawlessnessfascinatedaninternationalaudience,andcreatedamythicAmericanfigure—WilliamH.Bonney.
Bonney,betterknownasBillytheKid,wasbymostaccountsane’er-do-well,jovial,slightlybuilt,bucktoothedboywhoendedupbeingshotdeadinhisstockingfeetwhileaskinginSpanishseveraltimes,“Whoisit?”Afteryearsofmishaps,deadlyadventures,andinfamouselusiveness,theKidwasfinallycapturedandbroughttotrialinMesilla,NMforparticipatinginthe1April1878mid-morningambushandmurderofLincoln’sSheriffWilliamBrady.
Now,aMesillaplazagiftshopnorthofLaPostarestaurantinhabitsthebuildingthatservedthenastheThirdJudicialDistrictcourthouse.BroughttherefromtheendoftherailrunatRinconbyahorse-drawnvansurroundedbyarmedguards,theKidsworetothejudgehehadnotevenfiredatBrady.HeadmittedhewastryingtokillDeputyMatthewsinstead.RaptjurorsignoredBilly’spleaofinnocence.Hewasfoundguiltyofmurderon13April.JudgeBristolorderedthathebeincarceratedinLincolnuntil13Maywhenhewastobe“hangedbytheneckuntilhisbodybedead.”
TheKidwastransferredbacktothetownofLincoln,whereon28Aprilhemanagedtoescapethesecond-storyjailhousebyshootingbothofhisjailersafteratriptotheprivy.ItissaidthataHispanicsympathizerhidarevolverfortheKidthere.Accordingtocontemporaryaccounts,underthewatchfuleyesofbothfearfulandfriendlyonlookers,hecasuallypoundedoffhishandcuffsandoneofhislegirons,collectedarifleandasix-shooterfromtheSheriff’soffice,pocketedammunition,tookblankets,borrowedahorse(laterreturned)androdeoutoftown.TheKidremainedonthelamforthreemonths.
Anarticleinthe18July1881LasVegasDailyOpticreportedthattheKid’srepeatedquestion,“Quiénes?Quiénes?”justbeforemidnightinsideaFortSumnerhouseholdallowedpursuerSheriffPatGarrettthetimeheneededtodriveabullet,“throughthecenterof‘TheKid’s’heart.”Ajuryfoundtheincidenttobe“justifiablehomicide,”andwhilemostbreathedeasier,manymournedthelossofthishaplessoutlaw.
EvenSheriffPatGarrettremarkedthattheKidwas,“open-handed,generous-hearted,frank,andmanly.”OthersappreciatedhiscommandoftheSpanishlanguage.Itwassaidhewasagoodgambler,anexcellenthorseman,andagracefuldancer.Hehadagiftwiththeladies.Hewasalsodescribedasa“thieving,murderous,littlecowboy-gone-bad.”
StandingamongtheadobewallruinsatFortSelden(weatherwornsincetheiroriginalconstructionin1865tosafeguardCaminoRealtravelers)visitorscanjustmakeoutthetipof“OutlawRock”somefourmilesinthedistance.Itwasaperfecthideoutforanyoneontherun,ruggedandriddledwithrattlesnakes.Italsoaffordedagoodviewofthegoings-onattheFort,particularlyifyouwereinterestedinraidingortheft.Sureenough,avidresearchersrecentlyphotographedthename“Bonney”etchedintotherock,alongwithevidencethatWilliamBonneyaka“theKid”washoleduptherebetweenMayandDecember1880withfriendsTomO’Folliard,CharlesBowdre,DaveRudabaugh,andTomO’Keefe.
ThefascinationwithBillytheKidcontinues.ANewMexicoBillytheKidScenicBywayleadsauto-touristsonalooptourthroughSanPatricio,Lincoln,andotherlocationsofhistoricalinterest.ThedesignationoftheOrganMountains–DesertPeaksNationalMonumentprovidesadditionalexcitingopportunitiestopreserveandpromoteOutlawRock,thetownofMesilla,theKid’sboyhoodhomesiteinSilverCity,severaloftheFortshefrequented—andpointsinbetween—foranationalandinternationaltravelingpublic.
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APPENDIX 9: GERONIMO AND THE APACHE WARS: THE CONFLICT OF CULTURES
DespitethesuccessoftheButterfieldOverlandExpressandothereffortsatwestwardmigration,thePlainstribesheldtheirgroundagainstdisplacementuntiltheearly1870s,whenthefullpressureoftheUnitedStatesmilitarywasusedrelentlesslyagainstthem.Theirresettlementontoreservationsandthevirtualextinctionofthebuffalosignaledtheendofopenhostilities.Afterward,defeatingafewstrayApachebandsinsouthwesternNewMexicoprovedtobethemostlong-lastinganddifficultmilitaryfeatoftheU.S.occupation.
HistorianLeonMetznotesthatforahundredyearstheU.S.-Mexicoborderregionwasabattleground:theApachesversusSpain,theApachesversusMexico,theApachesversustheUnitedStates,andtheApachesversusbothMexicoandtheUnitedStates.
In1879,MimbresApacheChiefVictorioandhisfollowersescapedfromtheSanCarlosReservation.ForthenexttwoyearstheycarvedabloodypathalongtheRioGrandeandintoArizonaandMexico.Untilhisdeathin1881someninetymilessouthofElPaso,VictoriowaschasedinturnbyMexicanforcesandbyAmericancavalry.
Twoyearslater,ApacheleadersNachez,Cato,Juh,andGoyaaté(kòjàːɬɛ )́“onewhoyawns”jumpedtheSanCarlosfencesandvanishedintotheSierraMountainsofSonora,Mexico.GoyaatewouldlaterbeknowntoallasGerónimo.SteadypressureandanopenskirmishinMay1883inducedtheApachegrouptosurrender,buttheconcessionwasnottolast.
InawayoflifethatconsideredMexicans,Hispanos,andAmericansaslegitimatetargetstoobtainsourcesofmeat,guns,ammunition,blankets,alcohol,andadditionalnecessities,Gerónimoinparticularisstillrememberedforhispatriotismtohispeople,andforhisbraveryasawarrior.Tobesure,thecontinuousraidingwasoutofretaliationandretributionasmuchasitwasasurvivaltechnique.IthasbeensaidthatmostMexicanpeasantsviewedGerónimoasadevilsentbyGodtopunishthemfortheirsins.MostAnglosettlerswerenotsointrospective.
AfteradecadeofresistingsettlementinNewMexicoandArizona,theApacheleaderGerónimosurrenderedtoGeneralNelsonA.Mileson4September1886atSkeletonCanyon,thirtymileseastofDouglas,Arizona.
WiththeexceptionofahandfuloffighterswhoremainedintheSierraMadresandbecamethe“LostTribe,”GerónimoandhisfamilyandfollowerswereloadedbytheArmyontoaSouthernPacifictrainandshippedtocourtinSanAntonio,TexasandthenontoyearsofincarcerationinPensacola,FloridaandVermont,Alabama.Shamefully,thegovernmentalsocapturedandshippedloyalIndianscoutsbackEastatthesametime.TheforcedrelocationendedtheopengovernmentwarfareagainstNativeAmericans.
Muchlater,in1904,Gerónimowasphotographedinasuitjacket,scarftie,andmoccasinssellingbowsandarrowsattheLouisianaPurchaseExhibitionattheWorld’sFair(St.Louis).Althoughstillaprisonerofwar,hehadbecomeanastutebusinessman,hadbyoutwardappearancesadoptedChristianity,andwaswellawareofwhiteAmericanconsumerism.Gerónimonevermadeitbacktohisbirthplace.Onhisdeathbed,heconfessedtohisnephewthatheregrettedhisdecisiontosurrender.HewasburiedatFortSill,Oklahomaon17February1909.
ItwasthoughtbymanythatGerónimowasashamanwhohadsupernaturalpowers.Oneofhissupernaturalfeats,asthestorygoes,wasanescapethattookplaceintheRobledoMountains.ThelegendstatesthatGeronimoandhisfollowersenteredacave.TheU.S.soldierswaitedoutsidethecaveentranceforhim,buttheyneversawhimcomeout.Asecretexithasneverbeenfound.
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APPENDIX 10: WORLD WAR II AERIAL TARGETS
The1940censusreported132millionpeopleintheUnitedStates,withjustoverhalfamillioninNewMexico.Thedepressionhadended,andtherewerejobstobehadinmostofthecountry.WarhadalreadybrokenoutinEurope,andPresidentRooseveltandCongressdirectedanunprecedentedbuildupoftheUSmilitary-industrialcomplexinpreparationforouranticipatedentranceintothewar.SouthernNewMexicowasincludedinthesepreparations.TheArmyAirCorpsselectedtheDemingairfieldasoneofmanybasesfortrainingairmenaspilots,navigatorsandbombardiers.Asdidthepetroglyphsscribedbyancientpeoples,therockcairnspiledbysurveyorstomarktheboundaryoftheUnitedStatesfollowingthewarwithMexico,theruinsofButterfieldTrailStagecoachStops,andgravestonesfromApacheRaids,thelegacyoftheAirCorpstrainingeffortleftaseriesofuniquelandmarksacrossthesouthernportionofthestate,mostlyinDonaAnaCounty.AlthoughtheArmyAirCorpstrainingprogramislittle-knownbycurrentresidents,itplayedavitalroleinthealliedsuccessoverGermanyandJapanintheSecondWorldWar.
Open House at the Deming Air Field circa 1944
Demingwasasleepyfarmandranchtownwithapopulationof3500in1942whencontractsweresignedfortheconstructionofthe338thArmyBase/Airfield.(Itwouldbetwomoreyearsbeforethecommunityelecteditsfirstmayor.)Anothercontractintheamountof$45,225.31wasawardedtoCharlesTerry,forconstructionof24targetsthatweretobeclearlyvisiblefromtheair.Thetargetswerelocatedonarectangulargridacrossaspanofroughly40by50milesoverextremelyremoteterrain.Constructionwastostarton26October1942andbecompletedamere50dayslater–itseemstherewassomeurgencytothisproject.TodayInterstate10bisectsthegrid,with14sitestothenorthand10tothesouth.
Eachtargetconsistedoffourconcentricrings,theoutermostbeing1000feetindiameter,withawoodenshackresemblingapyramidatthecenter.Nighttimetargetsrequiredgeneratorstopowerastringoflightsthatformedalargecrosshairontheground.Someofthetargetshadoutlinestosimulatetheappearanceofshipsorbuildingsfromtheair.Theconcentriccircleswereconstructedbyscrapingashallow,clearedfurrowontheground,sometimesleavingaringofdisplacedrocksaroundtheperimeter.
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MuchastheSpaniardsunderestimatedtheabilityofthePuebloanpeopletocommunicateacrossvastdistances,andasearlyU.S.soldiersunderestimatedtheabilityofApachestotravelgreatdistanceswithlittlefoodorwater,sotoocapturedGermanofficersatthecloseofWorldWarIIrevealedthattheyhadseverelyunderestimatedthecapacityoftheAmericanstosupportthelogisticsofourwareffort.
AnastonishingnumberofsortieswereflownbytheDemingairmenbetween1942and1945,typicallyfourtofivethousandpermonth–equatingtooneevery10minutes,aroundtheclock,dayinanddayout,forthebetterpartofthreeyears.ThetrainingwasconductedinBeechAT-11aircraft,modifiedwithaPlexiglassnosebubbleforviewingthegroundtargets,andnick-namedtheKansan.Atypicaltrainingmissionincludedthepilot,theinstructor,andtwocadets.Thecrawlbetweenthepilotandinstructortoenterthenosebubblewasatightsqueeze,aswastheseatingarrangementfortheinstructor,whosatbehindthebubblewithhisfeetonanescapehatch.AnAirCorpslegendtellsofanairmanwhoturnedaroundtosaysomethingtohisinstructor,andallhesawwasanopenescapehatch.Sohequicklygrabbedanearbyparachute(presumablyremovedbecauseofthetightquarters)andthrewitoutthehatchasfastaspossible.Toeveryone’srelief,subsequentauditsofArmypropertyrecordsindicatednodiscrepanciesinthenumberofeitherparachutesorairmen.
Today,whenviewedfromtheground,thelastremainsofthetargetslooklikeshallow,concentrictrenchesthatarebeingslowlyovertakenbythetimelessforcesofnature.Fromtheair,thetargetsbeararemarkableresemblancetoaliencropcircles.Onetargetinparticular,number22,providesaphysicalconnectionwithpreviouschaptersofhistoricalsignificance.LyingjustafewmileswestoftheruinsofMason’sFort,thenorthernedgeofTarget22isactuallyintersectedbytheButterfieldTrail,whiletheGadsdenPurchasecutsalineacrossthesouthernhalfofthelargeovalsurroundingthetarget.
AT-11 Trainer Aircraft Flying over Practice Target
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AninterestingaspectofthebombardiertrainingisassociatedwiththeNordenBombsight.TheNordenincludedahighlysophisticatedmechanicalcomputer(anoriginalNordenbombsightresidesattheComputerHistoryMuseuminMountainView,California)thatusedinputfromtheplane’saltimeter,airspeedindicator,gyroscopesandautopilottocomputetheexpectedtrajectoryofthebombandtocontrolthereleasepoint.Nordenengineersclaimedthebombsighthadanerrorcircleof30feetfromanaltitudeofonemile,butwartimeresultswerelessspectacular;only24%landedwithin3000feetofthetargetduringtheearlyaircampaignoverGermanyin1943.
TheNordenBombsightwasinitiallyconsidered“topsecret”.Someunitsincludedthermitegrenadestoensurethebombsightmeltedintoalumpofmetaluponlossofanaircraft,ratherthanallowthebombsighttofallintoenemyhands.AfterthewaritwaslearnedthatplansfortheNordenwereleakedtotheGermans,andboththeGermansandBritishwereworkingonsimilardesigns.
Visible Evidence of Graded Target Ring Aerial View of Target #22, with Butterfield Trail visible near the top
& Gadsden Purchase shown below
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APPENDIX 11: THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES:
WHAT IT MEANS FOR SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO
TheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesisAmerica’sofficiallistofculturalresourcesdeemedworthyofpreservationandfurtherresearch.Sinceitsinceptionin1966,morethan80,000propertieshavebeenlistedintheNationalRegister.Theserecordsholdinformationonmorethan1.4millionindividualresources—buildings,sites,districts,structures,andobjects—providingatangiblelinktothiscountry’ssharedheritageatthenational,state,andlocallevels.Itisespeciallyimportanttounderstandthatthelawsandregulationsprotectingculturalresourcesareappliednotonlytothosepropertiesthatarelistedintheregister,butalsothosethatareeligibleforlisting.Thisisanacknowledgementthatundermanycircumstances,itisnotpracticalorfeasibletogothroughthelengthynominationprocessforeveryeligibleculturalresource.Theyare,nevertheless,recognizedasresourcesofhighenoughsignificancetoreceivefederalprotectionandstewardshiponbehalfoftheAmericanpublic.
THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES AND DOÑA ANA COUNTY, NEW MEXICO
AlthoughtherearemanyimportantDoñaAnaCountyculturalresourceseligibleforlistingintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces,thereare28propertiescurrentlyactuallylistedinthecounty.EachpropertyislocatedatornearoneofseveralcommunitieswhichwouldserveasgatewaycommunitiestotheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksprojectarea,includingLaMesa,LasCruces,Mesilla,Organ,theVillageofDoñaAna,RadiumSprings,andWhiteSandsMissileRange.ThuspositionedincloseproximitytotheOrganMountains-DesertPeaks,theseNationalRegisterpropertiesincreasethevalueanddrawingpoweroftheareaasawholeforheritagetourismandeconomicbenefits.
AwiderangeofhistoricaltopicsandperiodsarerepresentedbytheNationalRegisterproperties.TheMissileRangesitesharkbacktoNewMexico’smilitaryhistory.FivearchitecturallysignificantbuildingsarelocatedonthecampusofNewMexicoStateUniversityinLasCruces.Thisimportantgatewaytownalsofeaturesseveralsignificantresidences,numerousnoteworthypubliclandmarks,churches,atleastoneengineeringstructure,andtwohistoricdistricts.NationalRegistersitesincludingtheBarela-ReynoldsHouseanddistinctivehistoricplazasarelocatedatthenearbyvillagesofMesillaandDoñaAna.TheL.B.BentleyGeneralMerchandisestoreislocatedinOrgan,NM,andtheSummerfordMountainArcheologicalDistrictislocatedinthevicinityofRadiumSprings.
ThefollowingisacompletelistofculturallysignificantDoñaAnaCountypropertiescurrentlylistedintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesthatcanbeexperiencedbyvisitorstotheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksarea:
PROPERTIES ALREADY LISTED IN THE NATIONAL REGISTER IN DOÑA ANA COUNTY
PROPERTY LOCATION PERIODOFSIGNIFICANCE
Alameda-DepotHistoricDistrict CityofLasCruces Territorial/Earlystatehood
Armijo,NestorHouse CityofLasCruces Territorial/Earlystatehood
Branigan,Thomas,MemorialLibrary CityofLasCruces Earlystatehood
GreenBridgeatDrippingSprings CityofLasCruces Earlystatehood
MesquiteStreetOriginalTownsiteHistoricDistrict CityofLasCruces Territorial/Earlystatehood
OurLadyofPuricationCatholicChurch CityofLasCruces Territorial/Earlystatehood
PhillipsChapel CityofLasCruces Territorial/Earlystatehood
RioGrandeTheatreDowntown CityofLasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico
DoñaAnaVillageHistoricDistrict DoñaAna Spanishcolonial
SanJoséChurch LaMesa Spanishcolonial
Barela-ReynoldsHouse Mesilla Spanishcolonial
LaMesillaHistoricDistrict Mesilla Spanishcolonial
MesillaPlaza Mesilla Spanishcolonial
InternationalBoundaryMarkerNo.1,U.S.andMexico NearElPaso Twentieth-centuryNewMexico
AirScienceBuilding NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico
FosterHall NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico
GoddardHall NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico
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PROPERTY LOCATION PERIODOFSIGNIFICANCE
Hadley--LudwickHouse NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico
UniversityPresident’sHouse NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico
FortSelden NorthofDonaAna Territorial
Bentley,L.B.,GeneralMerchandiseStore Organ Territorial/Earlystatehood
RioGrandeBridge RadiumSprings Earlystatehood
SummerfordMountainArcheologicalDistrict RadiumSprings Territorial/Earlystatehood
FortFillmore SouthofLasCruces Territorial
ElephantButteIrrigationDistrict SouthernNewMexico Earlystatehood
LaunchComplex33 WhiteSandsMissleRange ColdWarEra
THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES AND LUNA COUNTY, NM
AlthoughthereareuntoldnumbersofimportantLunaCountyculturalresourceseligibleforlistingintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces,therearesevenpropertiescurrentlylistedinthecounty.ThesesitesarelocatedinornearDemingorColumbus,NewMexico;townsthatareimportanttotheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksprojectareaasgatewaycommunitiestovisitorscomingfrom,orgoingto,thewestandsouthwest.
ThefollowingisacompletelistofculturallysignificantLunaCountypropertiescurrentlylistedintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesthatcanbeexperiencedbyvisitorstotheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument:
PROPERTY LOCATION PERIODOFSIGNIFICANCE
DemingArmory Deming Earlystatehood
SeamanFieldHouse Deming Territorial/Earlystatehood
LunaCountyCourthouseandPark Deming Territorial/Earlystatehood
MahoneyBuilding Deming Earlystatehood
UptonSite DemingVicinity Earlystatehood
USPostOfficeMain Deming Earlystatehood
VillageofColumbusandCampFurlong Columbus Territorial/Earlystatehood
Insummary,theNationalRegistershowsthatNewMexicoenjoysarich,complex,anduniquehistory,withevidencefromeachhistoriccontextandperiodofsignificanceamplyrepresentedonthelandscape.InadditiontothearchaeologicalandhistoricsiteslistedintheStateofNewMexico’sculturalresourcesdatabaseandontheStateRegisterofCulturalPlaces,therearecountlessnumbersofsiteseligibleforlistingintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces.The35propertiesofficiallylistedintheNationalRegisterforDoñaAnaandLunaCountiesareallsituatedinornearOrganMountains–DesertPeaksNationalMonumentgatewaycommunities.Becauselistedpropertiesgainwidepublicityandarepopulardestinationsandeducationalvenues,theyenhancethewholeregionofsouthernNewMexicoinwhichtheprojectareaislocated.SuchsitesprovideanaddeddrawfortourismtheyrelatetosomeofthesamethemesinarchaeologyandhistorythataresoamplyrepresentedintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaks.Further,theNationalRegisterwillserveasanindispensibletoolforprotectingandpromotingsimilarculturalresourcesintheprojectarea.
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APPENDIX 12: NEW MEXICO, A LAND OF RICH HISTORY
Fromrockarttorockets,rough-and-tumblelawlessnesstolatestatehood,NewMexicocharmslong-timersandnewcomersalikewithitsrelaxedpace,magnificentvistas,andrichlyuniqueheritage.
FirstcrisscrossedbyPaleoindianbig-gamehunters,Mogollon,Anasazi,Jemez,Kiowa,Manso,Navajo,Pecos,Ute,Apache,Comanche,andPuebloIndiantribes,NewMexicolaterbecamehometofortuneseekers,trappers,traders,raiders,soldiers,artists,hikers,friars,farmers,miners,merchants,astronomers,conquistadors,andAmericanimmigrants.Treatiesweremadeandbroken,entiretribesrelocated,skirmisheswonandlost.Withitslegacyofclashingcultures,resistance,revolt,resiliency,innovation,restlessness,andsuccess,thereisnootherstateremotelylikeNewMexico.
Nuevo Mexico,theSpanishnamefortheupperRioGrande:“Mexico,”anAztecword,means“placeofMexitli,”oneoftheAztecgods.Eventhestatesymbol,adoptedfromZiaPueblo,fascinatesuswithitsdeceptivesimplicity.Fromthecirclerepresentinglifeandlovewithoutbeginningorend,thefourgroupsoffourraysthatemanaterepresentthefourcompassdirections,thefourseasons,thefourphasesofaday(sunrise,noon,evening,andnight),andthefourdivisionsoflife(childhood,youth,middleyears,andoldage).Simultaneouslyexoticandhardscrabble,NewMexicoisknownforitsbreathtakingscenery,addictivecuisine,expansiveskiesandfriendlyfaces,vibrant,Spanish-inspiredcentralplazas,andancientcliffdwellings.
Welistentowaterrunningincenturies-oldacequia(irrigation)systems.Wehearbellsclangingatophistoricadobemissions.Wewitnessviolentlightningstorms.Wevisitkivas.Hotairballoonswaftoverbattlesites.Whiskeyisstillsoldindustyandisolatedsaloons.WefeeltherumbleoftherailroadastheAtchison,TopekaandSantaFetrainpassesthroughtown.Townspeoplemakeannualsacredpilgrimagesjustastheirforebearsdid.Legallandandwaterdisputescarryontothisday.Thousandsofyearsofcultivatingthelandcontinues.Thepastremainswithus.
Thestate’scoatofarmsisaMexicaneaglegraspingaserpentinitsbeak,acactusinitstalons,shieldedbytheAmericaneaglewithoutspreadwings,andgraspingarrowsinitstalons;onthescroll,theLatinmotto:CrescitEundo,or,“growsasitgoes.”Inalandthatconnectsox-drawncarrettasandstagecoacheswiththespaceshuttlelandingatWhiteSands,wearestilltalkingaboutanunidentifiedflyingobjectthatallegedlycrashednearRoswelldecadesago.
Withmorethanitsfairshareofmysteries,mayhem,andmomentousoccasions,thisiswherethePueblotribesrevolt,Geronimosurrenders,BillytheKidisshot,CivilWarsoldiersclash,ThomasEdisonfilmsamovie,GeorgiaO’Keefepaints,womenwintherighttovote,TeddyRooseveltrecruitshisRoughRiders,CivilianConservationCorpsinducteesconstructfirelookouts,schools,andsidewalks;theworld’sfirstatomicbombisdetonated.GermanandJapaneseprisonersofwar,uponrelease,returnwiththeirfamiliestosettlehereforgood.ThisisthebirthplaceoftheNavajo“codetalkers”whohelpeddefeattheNazis.Outlawswerehanged,homesteadersstakedtheirclaims,BataanDeathmarcherssurvivedtoreturn,SmokeyBearwasrescued,healthandthrillseekersmadetheirway.
NewMexicoisacrossroadsandadestination,cursedbyduststorms,drought,andblazingheat;blessedbysnow-cappedpeaks,lushrivervalleys,basalticvolcanicflows,andhotsprings.ThroughitsheartruntheRioGrandeRiverandElCaminoReal.Thereisatranquilitynow,atolerance,a“liveandletlive”attitudethatseemstopermeatetheairwebreathe.ProtectingNewMexico’slandscapeandsingularpatrimonio–oursharedheritage—isatoppriority.
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BIOGRAPHIES OF REPORT AUTHORS
REBECCA PROCTOR
Dr.RebeccaProcterhaspracticedasanarchaeologistfor33years,specializingintheprehistoryofthesouthwesternU.S.HergraduatedegreesincludeaMasterofArtsinanthropologyandaPh.D.inanthropology,bothfromWashingtonUniversityinSt.Louis.Herprofessionalexperienceintheareaofhistoricpreservationencompassesworkinthepublicandprivatesectors,withstateagencies,undercontracttostateandfederalagencies,andasanindependentconsultant.Specialinterestsincludethedevelopmentofpotterydesignasareflectionofcloseinteractionamongprehistoricpotters,andtheprotectionofheritageresourcesofalltimeperiods.ShehasperformedpublicserviceasavolunteerfortheNewMexicoArchaeologyFair,andasavolunteereducatorintheclassroomandforscouttroops.CurrentlysheservesastheassistantstatecoordinatorfortheNewMexicoSiteWatchProgram,astate-widegroupdedicatedtomonitoringarchaeologicalsitesthatmaybeatriskoflootingornaturaldegradation.ShealsoworkswiththeinformaladvisorygrouptotheBureauofLandManagementforimplementingtheGalisteoBasinArchaeologicalSitesProtectionAct.
JEAN FULTON
JeanFulton,Owner,TimeSprings,Inc.(Mesilla,NM)specializesinpublichistory,HistoricAmericanBuildingsSurveys,HistoricStructuresReports,NationalRegisternominations,technicalandgrantwriting,theconservationofearthen(adobe)architecture,economicdevelopmentthroughheritagetourism,andcommunity-rootedrevitalizationprojects.SheiscurrentlyworkingwithNewMexicoStateUniversityonadatabaseintegrationproject;andwiththeBraniganCulturalCenter,andtheYouthCourtCenterontwoupcomingculturalevents.JeanvolunteerswithseverallocalhistoricpreservationprojectsattheAmadorHotel,PhillipsChapel,andtheLakeValleyminingdistrictnearHillsboro,NM.SherecentlyservedasthefirstExecutiveDirectorforabi-national,non-profitEl Camino RealNationalHistoricTrail(NHT)association.
POLLY SCHAAFSMA
PollySchaafsmaisanarchaeologistwithaspecialtyinpre-HispanicIndianrockartandkivamurals.Withanacademicbackgroundinarthistory(MountHolyokeCollege)andaMasterofArtsdegreeinAnthropology(UniversityofColorado)hercareerintheSouthwestbeganinthe1960swithapreliminaryorganizationofthevastrockartdatabaseaccordingtoculturesandtimeframes.Herlaterworkhasbeenfocusedonthemeaningandcosmologiesbasictotheiconographyandthehistoryofpre-HispanicreligionsintheSouthwest.ShehasrecentlybeenengagedintheKuauaMuralsRe-StudyProjectattheMuseumofIndianArtsandCulture,andasamemberoftheCosmoGroupattheSantaFeInstitute.Herpublishedworksinclude10booksandmonographsaswellasnumerousjournalarticlesandbookchapters.HerbooksincludeThe Rock Art of New Mexico,The Rock Art of Utah,Indian Rock Art of the Southwest,andWarrior, Shield and Star.Inaddition,sheisvolumeeditorofandcontributortoKachinas in the Pueblo WorldandNew Perspectives on Pottery Mound Pueblo,andmostrecentlyco-editorwithKelleyHays-GilpinofPainting the Cosmos.
*SpecialthankstoJackSoules,DavidSoules,andMorrieDrexlerfortheircollectiveresearchdocumentingtheWorldWarIIAerialTargets
*SpecialthankstoJonHunnerfordetailingtheLatino/ahistoryofsouthernNewMexicoandtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaks