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DMI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
PALANCHUR CHENNAI – 600 123
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
LABORATORY MANUAL
SUB CODE : EC 6211
SUBJECT TITLE : CIRCUITS AND DEVICES LABORATORY
SEMESTER : II
YEAR : I
DEPARTMENT : ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 2
Vision of the Department
To develop committed and competent technologists in electronics and communication
engineering to be on par with global standards coupled with cultivating the innovations and
ethical values.
Mission of the Department:
DM 1: To be a centre of excellence in teaching learning process promoting active learning
with critical thinking.
DM 2: To strengthen the student’s core domain and to sustain collaborative industry
interaction with internship and incorporating entrepreneur skills.
DM 3: To prepare the students for higher education and research oriented activities imbibed
with ethical values for addressing the social need.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs):
PEO1. CORE COMPETENCY WITH EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS: Building on
fundamental knowledge, to analyze, design and implement electronic circuits and systems in
Electronics and Communication Engineering by applying knowledge of mathematics and
science or in closely related fields with employability skills.
PEO2. PROMOTE HIGHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT: To develop the ability to demonstrate technical competence and
innovation that initiates interest for higher studies and research.
PEO3. INCULCATING ENTREPRENEUR SKILLS: To motivate the students to become
Entrepreneurs in multidisciplinary domain by adapting to the latest trends in technology
catering the social needs.
PEO4. ETHICAL PROFESSIONALISM: To develop the graduates to attain professional
excellence with ethical attitude, communication skills, team work and develop solutions to the
problems and exercise their capabilities.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 3
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
The Program Outcomes (POs) are described as.
1. Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design / Development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 4
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and lifelong learning in the broadest context of technological change.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs):
PSO1. Analyze and design the analog and digital circuits or systems for a given specification
and function.
PSO2. Implement functional blocks of hardware-software co-designs for signal processing
and communication applications.
PSO3. Design, develop and test electronic and embedded systems for applications with real
time constraint and to develop managerial skills with ethical behavior to work in a sustainable
environment.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 5
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS FOR WRITING THE RECORD
In the record, the index page should be filled properly by writing the corresponding
experiment number, experiment name, date on which it was done and the page number.
On the right side page of the record following has to be written:
1. Title: The title of the experiment should be written in the page in capital letters. In the
left top margin, experiment number and date should be written.
2. Aim: The purpose of the experiment should be written clearly.
3. Apparatus/Tools/Equipments/Components used: A list of the Apparatus/Tools/
Equipments/ Components used for doing the experiment should be entered.
4. Theory: Simple working of the circuit/experimental set up/algorithm should be
written.
5. Procedure: Steps for doing the experiment and recording the readings should be
briefly described(flow chart/ Circuit Diagrams / programs in the case of
computer/processor related experiments)
6. Results: The results of the experiment must be summarized in writing and should be
fulfilling the aim.
On the Left side page of the record following has to be recorded:
a) Circuit/Program: Neatly drawn circuit diagrams for the experimental set up.
b) Design: The design of the circuit components for the experimental set up for selecting
the components should be clearly shown if necessary.
Observations:
i. Data should be clearly recorded using Tabular Columns.
ii. Unit of the observed data should be clearly mentioned
iii. Relevant calculations should be shown. If repetitive calculations are needed, only show
a sample calculation and summarize the others in a table.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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SYLLABUS
EC 6211 CIRCUITS AND DEVICES LABAROTORY L T P C
0 0 3 2
1. Characteristics of PN Junction Diode
2. Zener diode Characteristics & Regulator using Zener diode
3. Common Emitter input - output Characteristics
4. Common Base input - output Characteristics
5. FET Characteristics
6. SCR Characteristics
7. Clipper and Clamper & FWR
8. Verifications Of Thevinin & Norton theorem
9. Verifications Of KVL & KCL
10. Verifications Of Super Position Theorem
11. Verifications of maximum power transfer & reciprocity theorem
12. Determination Of Resonance Frequency of Series & Parallel RLC Circuits
13. Transient analysis of RL and RC circuits
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
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COURESE OUTCOMES
CO1 Understand characteristics of PN junction diode and Zener diode
CO2 Understand characteristics of BJT
CO3 Understand characteristics FET
CO4 Design RL RC circuits
CO5 Verify basic circuit theorems
CO PO, PSO Mappings
Course
Code and
Course
name
CO
Program Outcomes PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
EC6211
Circuits
and
Devices
Laboratory
CO 1 2 3 3 - 3 2 3 - 3 - - 2 3 2 -
CO 2 3 3 3 - 1 2 - - 1 - - 2 2 3 -
CO 3 1 3 3 2 3 2 - - 3 - 3 2 2 2 -
CO 4 3 3 3 2 3 1 3 - 3 - - 2 3 3 -
CO 5 3 3 3 2 3 1 3 - 3 - - 2 2 3 -
Average 2.4 3 3 2 2.6 1.6 3 - 2.6 - 3 2 3 3 -
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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SNO Content Beyond Syllabus Page No
14 Bridge Rectifier with and without filter 84
S.No. List of Experiments Page No
1 Introduction of Electronic Components 10
2 Verification of kirchoff’s voltage law and Kirchoff’s current
law 19
3 Verification of thevenin’s & norton’s theorem 23
4 Verification of superposition theorem 29
5 Verification of maximum power transfer theorem and
reciprocity theorem 34
6 Frequency response of series and parallel resonance circuit 38
7 Characteristics of PN junction diode and zener diode 44
8 Characteristics of BJT (CE configuration) 51
9 Characteristics of BJT (CB configuration) 57
10 Characteristics of UJT & SCR 63
11 Characteristics of JFET and MOSFET 68
12 Characteristics of TRIAC 75
13 Characteristics of photo diode and photo transistor 79
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EXPT NO:01 Introduction of Electronic Components
1. Passive components
1.1 Resistor
Resistance Tolerance
Symbol A B C D F G J K M
Resistance
tolerance
+/-
0.05 0.1% 0.25 0.5 1 2 5 10 20
Token resistor color coding system applies to carbon film, metal oxide film, fusible,
precision metal film, and wirewound (cylindrical with enlarged ends) of the axial lead type.
This system is employed for resistors when the surface area is not sufficient to print the
resistance value for the past time. At present, Token resistor color coding system is applying
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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for automatization. The first three bands closest to one end of the resistor are used to
determine the resistance. The fourth band represents the tolerance of the resistor. Additional
information can be obtained from the first band. Generally, If an additional fifth band is black,
the resistor is wirewound resistor. If an additional fifth band is white, the resistor is fusible
resistor. If only one black band in the center, the resistor is called zero ohm resistor. The
colors of the first two bands represent the numerical value of the resistor. The third band
represents the power-of-10 multiplier.
1.2 Capacitors
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it
takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by
acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily
pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.
Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more
charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large,
so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):
µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F
n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with
different labelling systems! There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two
groups, polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.
Polarised capacitors (large values, 1µF +)
Examples: Circuit symbol:
Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when
soldering. There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached
to each end (220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10µF in
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit
board.
It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed
with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for
example) and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the
project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater
than the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.
Tantalum Bead Capacitors
Tantalum bead capacitors are polarised and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic
capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large capacitance is
needed in a small size.
Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance, voltage and
polarity in full. However older ones use a colour-code system which has two stripes (for the
two digits) and a spot of colour for the number of zeros to give the value in µF. The standard
colour code is used, but for the spot, grey is used to mean × 0.01 and white means × 0.1 so
that values of less than 10µF can be shown. A third colour stripe near the leads shows the
voltage (yellow 6.3V, black 10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white 30V, pink 35V). The
positive (+) lead is to the right when the spot is facing you: 'when the spot is in sight, the
positive is to the right'.
For example: blue, grey, black spot means 68µF
For example: blue, grey, white spot means 6.8µF
For example: blue, grey, grey spot means 0.68µF
Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)
Examples: Circuit symbol:
Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They are not
damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high
voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of
these small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labelling
systems!
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier,
so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be!
For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in
place of the decimal point:
For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
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Capacitor Number Code
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
the 1st number is the 1st digit,
the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)
Polystyrene Capacitors
This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is normally printed
without units. Polystyrene capacitors can be damaged by heat when
soldering (it melts the polystyrene!) so you should use a heat sink (such as a crocodile clip).
Clip the heat sink to the lead between the capacitor and the joint.
Uses of Capacitors
Capacitors are used for several purposes:
Timing - for example with a 555 timer IC controlling the charging and discharging.
Smoothing - for example in a power supply.
Coupling - for example between stages of an audio system and to connect a
loudspeaker.
Filtering - for example in the tone control of an audio system.
Tuning - for example in a radio system.
Storing energy - for example in a camera flash circuit.
1.3 Inductors
It is component store energy in magnetic field. Ex : Coils, Decade Inductance box.
It is used in tuning circuits of radio receiver.
2.Active components
Diodes:As with transistors, diodes are fabricated from semi-conducting material. So, the
first letter in their identification is A for germanium diode or B for silicon diode. They can be
encased in glass, metal or a plastic housing. They have two leads: cathode (k) and an anode
(A). The most important property of all diodes is their resistance is very low in one direction
and very large in the opposite direction. When a diode is measured with a multimeter and it
reads a low value of ohms, this is not really the resistance of the diode. It represents the
voltage drop across the junction of the diode. This means a multimeter can only be used to
detect if the junction is not damaged. If the reading is low in one direction and very high in
the other direction, the diode is operational.When a diode is placed in a circuit and the voltage
on the anode is higher than the cathode, it acts like a low value resistor and current will flow.
If it is connected in the opposite direction it acts like a large value resistor and current does
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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not flow. In the first case the diode is said to be "forward biased" and in the second case it is
"reverse biased."
Symbol:
European diodes are marked using two or three letters and a number. The first letter is
used to identify the material used in manufacturing the component (A - germanium, B -
silicon), or, in case of letter Z, a Zener diode. The Second and third specifies the type and
usage of the diode. Some of the varities are: A – Low Power Diode, like the AA111, AA113,
AA121, etc. - they are used in the detector of a radio receiver; BA124, BA125 : varicap
diodes used instead of variable capacitors in receiving devices, oscillators, etc., BAY80,
BAY93, etc. - switching diodes used in devices using logic circuits. BA157, BA158, etc. -
these are switching diodes with short recovery time. B - two capacitive (varicap) diodes in the
same housing, like BB104, BB105, etc. Y - regulation diodes, like BY240, BY243, BY244,
etc. these regulation diodes come in a plastic packaging and operate on a maximum current of
0.8A. If there is another Y, the diode is intended for higher current. For example, BYY44 is a
diode whose absolute maximum current rating is 1A. When Y is the second letter in a Zener
diode mark (ZY10, ZY30, etc.) it means it is intended for higher current. G, G, PD - different
tolerance marks for Zener diodes. Some of these are ZF12 (5% tolerance), ZG18 (10%
tolerance), ZPD9.1 (5% tolerance). The third letter is used to specify a property (high current,
for example). American markings begin with 1N followed by a number, 1N4001, for example
(regulating diode), 1N4449 (switching diode), etc. Japanese style is similar to American, the
main difference is that instead of N there is S, 1S241 being one of them.
2.2 Zener diodes
Example: Circuit symbol:
a = anode, k = cathode
Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They
are designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable and non-destructive
way so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed
voltage across their terminals. The diagram shows how they are connected, with a resistor in
series to limit the current.
Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by their code and breakdown
voltage which are printed on them. Zener diode codes begin BZX... or BZY... Their
breakdown voltage is printed with V in place of a decimal point, so 4V7 means 4.7V for
example. Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum power:
The minimum voltage available is 2.4V.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Power ratings of 400mW and 1.3W are common
2.3 Transistors
Transistors are active components and are found everywhere in electronic circuits.
They are used as amplifiers and switching devices. As amplifiers, they are used in high and
low frequency stages, oscillators, modulators, detectors and in any circuit needing to perform
a function. In digital circuits they are used as switches.
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify
the small output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or
other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the
changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to
amplify voltage. A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with
maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on). The
amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP,
with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of
semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most
transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to
make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start
by learning how to use NPN transistors. The leads are labelled
base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E). In addition to standard
(bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors
which are usually referred to as FETs.
Connecting
Transistors have three leads which
must be connected the correct way round.
Please take care with this because a wrongly
connected transistor may be damaged
instantly when you switch on. If you are
lucky the orientation of the transistor will be
clear from the PCB or stripboard layout
diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a
supplier's catalogue to identify the leads.
The drawings on the right show the leads for
some of the most common case styles.
Transistor codes
There are three main series of transistor codes
used in the UK:
Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478 The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter
Transistor circuit symbols
Transistor leads for some common case styles.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power
audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the
particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a
letter is added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of the main type, for
example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a project specifies a higher gain
version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is given (BC108) any transistor
with that code is suitable.
Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A
TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end
identifies versions with different voltage ratings.
Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053 The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the
particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.
Choosing a transistor
Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually
substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most important
properties to look for are the maximum collector current IC and the current gain hFE. To make
selection easier most suppliers group their transistors in categories determined either by their
typical use or maximum power rating.
To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data which are
normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful information but they can
be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used. The table below
shows the most important technical data for some popular transistors, tables in catalogues and
reference books will usually show additional information but this is unlikely to be useful
unless you are experienced. The quantities shown in the table are explained below.
NPN transistors
Code Structure Case
style IC
max. VCE
max. hFE
min. Ptot
max. Category
(typical use) Possible
substitutes
BC107 NPN TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW Audio, low power BC182 BC547
BC108 NPN TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW General purpose, low power BC108C BC183
BC548
BC108C NPN TO18 100mA 20V 420 600mW General purpose, low power
BC109 NPN TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW Audio (low noise), low
power BC184 BC549
BC182 NPN TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW General purpose, low power BC107 BC182L
BC182L NPN TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW General purpose, low power BC107 BC182
BC547B NPN TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW Audio, low power BC107B
BC548B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW General purpose, low power BC108B
BC549B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW Audio (low noise), low
power BC109
2N3053 NPN TO39 700mA 40V 50 500mW General purpose, low power BFY51
BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 800mW General purpose, medium
power BC639
BC639 NPN TO92A 1A 80V 40 800mW General purpose, medium BFY51
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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power
TIP29A NPN TO220 1A 60V 40 30W General purpose, high
power
TIP31A NPN TO220 3A 60V 10 40W General purpose, high
power TIP31C TIP41A
TIP31C NPN TO220 3A 100V 10 40W General purpose, high
power TIP31A TIP41A
TIP41A NPN TO220 6A 60V 15 65W General purpose, high
power
2N3055 NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 117W General purpose, high
power
PNP transistors
Code Structure Case
style
IC
max.
VCE
max.
hFE
min.
Ptot
max.
Category
(typical use)
Possible
substitutes
BC177 PNP TO18 100mA 45V 125 300mW Audio, low power BC477
BC178 PNP TO18 200mA 25V 120 600mW General purpose, low power BC478
BC179 PNP TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW Audio (low noise), low
power
BC477 PNP TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW Audio, low power BC177
BC478 PNP TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW General purpose, low power BC178
TIP32A PNP TO220 3A 60V 25 40W General purpose, high
power TIP32C
TIP32C PNP TO220 3A 100V 10 40W General purpose, high
power TIP32A
Photo diodes are similar to other, ordinary, diodes internally. One main difference is in that
that photo diode has an exposed surface to for light to fall onto. These diodes are acting as
high value resistor while in dark. It's resistance lowers as light gains in intensity. In their
behavior they are similar to photo resistors, apart from that as with all diodes polarity of the
component must be appropriately positioned.
Emitting diodes are special kind of photo-diodes. One of them is the LED, and some of
them include infra-red or ultra-violet emitting for different wireless communication purposes.
Most common area of application of IR-LEDs (Infra Red) are remote controllers for TVs and
other devices. Photo diodes are usually housed in round metallic or square plastic cases with a
glass window or a lens which focuses the incoming light. Photo-transistor's internal parts are
similar to internals of a regular transistor. One main difference between them is the glass
window which allows light to reach the crystal plate which holds all transistor's parts. With
changes of light intensity, resistance between base and the collector varies, and this influences
variations of the collector current. In this component light has the same role as voltage over
base of the regular transistor. When intensity rises, current through the transistor rises as well,
and other way round, if intensity fades, current fades.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Light Emitting Diode:(LED)
Example: Circuit symbol:
Function
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.
List of components used in our Lab and its Specification
s.no Name of the
component
used in our lab
Symbol Terminal Identification Number
used in our
lab
1. PN Junction
Diode
IN4001
2. Zener Diode
Z9.1
3. BJT
BC107,
BC108
4. UJT 2N2646
5. SCR C106
6. JFET
BFW10,
BFW11
7. MOSFET
IRFZ44N
8. Photodiode
9. Photo
Transistor
10. TRIAC BT136
11. DIAC DB3
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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EXPT NO:02
VERIFICATION OF KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW AND
KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
Aim:
(a) To Verify the Kirchoff’s Voltage law. (b) To Verify the Kirchoff’s Current law.
Statement:
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law:
In any closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all the electromotive forces and the potential
drops is equal to zero.
Kirchoff’s Current Law:
The algebraic sum all the currents at any junction in an electric circuit is zero. In other
words, the sum of the currents flowing towards a junction is equal to the sum of the currents
flowing away from it.
Apparatus and Components Required:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range/Type Quantity
1
2
3
4
5
Regulated Power Supply
Ammeter
Connecting Wires
Resistors
Breadboard
0-30V
0-50mA
0-30mA
2.2K
1.5K, 3.9K
1
1
2
Few
4
1
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Verification of KVL:
Tabulation:
S.No
Vin
V1
(Volts)
V2
(Volts)
Vin= V1 + V2
(Volts)
V3
(Volts)
V4
(Volts)
V2=V3+V4
(Volts)
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Verification of KCL:
Tabulation:
S.No Input
Voltage
I(In Amps) I1
(In Amps)
I2
(In Amps)
I= I1 + I2
(In Amps)
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Procedure:
Kirchoff’s Voltage law
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Vary the R.P.S to a specified voltage and note down the corresponding voltmeter
readings.
4. Repeat the step 3 for various R.P.S voltage and tabulate the readings.
5. Switch off the power supply and remove the connections.
Kirchoff’s current law
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Vary the R.P.S to a specified voltage and note down the corresponding ammeter
readings.
4. Repeat the step 3 for various R.P.S voltage and tabulate the readings.
5. Switch off the power supply and remove the connections.
Result:
Thus the Kirchoff’s Voltage and law and Kirchoff’s Current Law are verified.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 22
EXPT NO:03 VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN’S & NORTON’S THEOREM
Aim:
To verify the Thevenin’s theorem for the given electric circuit.
Statement:
Any linear active network with output terminals A,B can be replaced by a single
voltage source Vth in series with a single resistance Rth.
Apparatus and Components Required:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range/Type Quantity
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Regulated Power Supply
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Connecting Wires
Resistors
Breadboard
DRB(Decade Resistance
Box)
0-30V
0-10mA
0-30V
-
1.0K
1.5K
3.9K
-
-
1
1
1
Few
2
1
1
1
1
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 23
Proof of the Theorem:
To prove the theorem, we need to demonstrate that the current flowing through a load
resistor RL connected to the network between points A & B is same as the load current
calculated using Thevenin’s Model.
Procedure:
To find Vth :
Calculate the Voltage across the points A, B of the network.
Vth = VAB = V
----------- x R2
R1+R2
To Find Rth :
Replace the voltage source with its internal resistance and then calculate the resistance
looking back at the point A,B.
Rth = R1R2
+ R3
R1+R2
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 24
Calculate Load Current Using Thevenin’s Model:
To Find IL(T)
IL(T) = Vth
amps
Rth + RL
Verification of theorem:
To find IL(P) :
Connect a load resistor RL to the active network and measure the value of load current
IL(P).
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 25
Tabulation:
S.No
Observations
Theoretical
Practical
1.
Vth
2.
Rth -
3.
IL
NORTON’S THEOREM:
Statement:
Norton’s theorem states that, any linear network with output terminals A,B can be replaced by a single current source ISC in parallel with a single resistance Rth.
To Find Short Circuit Current (ISC):
To Find RN :
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 26
To Measure the Load Current IL :
Procedure:
1. For the given circuit, short circuiting the DC voltage source and open circuit the load
resistance RL across it find the equipment resistance Rth using multimeter.
2. For the given circuit, set the constant voltage on DC voltage source and replace the load
resistance RL by an ammeter and find Short circuit current Isc.
3. Constant voltage set in the DC voltage source, Connect Ammeter in series with load
resistance and fined the current flows through load resistance RL.
4. Verify these values with theoretical values.
Calculation: Applying mesh current analysis to find Isc
Δ = R1 + R2 -R2 =
-R2 R2 + R3
Δ1 = R1 + R2 V
-R2 0
Isc = Δ1 /Δ = ------------- amps
Rth = R1R2
--------- + R3 = ------------ ohms
R1+R2
IL = Isc.Rth
--------- = --------- amps
Rth + RL
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 27
Tabulation:
S.No
Observations
Theoretical
Practical
1.
ISC
2.
Rth
3.
IL
Result:
Thus the Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem were verified for the given electric circuit.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 28
EXPT NO:04 VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Aim:
To verify the Superposition theorem for the given electric circuits.
Statement:
The Superposition theorem states that the response in a circuit with multiple sources
are given by the algebraic sum responses due to the individual source acting alone.
Apparatus and Components Required:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range/Type Quantity
1
2
3
4
5
6
Regulated Power Supply
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Connecting Wires
Resistors
Breadboard
0-30V
0-10mA
0-30V
-
1.5K
3.9K
-
1
1
1
Few
2
1
1
Procedure:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. In practical response V1 the voltage is varied and the corresponding I1 is noted down.
3. In practical response V2 the voltage is varied and the corresponding I2 is noted down.
4. The total response V1 and V2 of equal value in steps and the total current is noted.
5. Summation of I1 and I2 is an equal to It (Total Current).
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 29
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit 1:
Circuit 2:
Circuit 3:
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 30
Calculation:
Circuit1:
Apply KVL to loop1:
15 = 1.5i1 + 3.9(i1+i2)
15 = 5.4i1 + 3.9i2 ----------- (1)
Apply KVL to loop2:
20 = 1.5i2 + 3.9(i1+i2)
20 = 5.4i2 + 3.9i1 ----------- (2)
Δ = 4.59.3
9.34.5
Δ1 = 4.520
9.315
Δ2 = 209.3
154.5
Where I1 = Δ1/ Δ =
I2 = Δ2/ Δ =
I = I1+I2 =
Circuit 2:
Apply KVL to loop1: Similarly apply KVL to loop 1 and loop 2 for the circuit 2 and find I1
Apply KVL to loop1:
15 = 1.5i1 + 3.9(i1+i2)
15 = 5.4i1 + 3.9i2 ----------- (1)
Apply KVL to loop2:
0 = 1.5i2 + 3.9(i1+i2)
0 = 5.4i2 + 3.9i1 ----------- (2)
Δ = 4.59.3
9.34.5
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Δ1 = 4.50
9.315
Δ2 = 09.3
154.5
Where i1 = Δ1/ Δ =
i2 = Δ2/ Δ =
I1 = i1+i2 = Current flow due to the V1 source alone =
Circuit 3:
Apply KVL to loop1: Similarly apply KVL to loop 1 and loop 2 for the circuit 3 and find I2
Apply KVL to loop1:
0 = 1.5i1 + 3.9(i1+i2)
0 = 5.4i1 + 3.9i2 ----------- (1)
Apply KVL to loop2:
20 = 1.5i2 + 3.9(i1+i2)
20 = 5.4i2 + 3.9i1 ----------- (2)
Δ = 4.59.3
9.34.5
Δ1 = 4.520
9.30
Δ2 = 209.3
04.5
Where i1 = Δ1/ Δ =
i2 = Δ2/ Δ =
I2 = i1+i2 = Current flow due to the V2 source alone =
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 32
Tabulation:
S.No
Circuit
V1
V2
I1
I2
I1+ I2
1.
2.
3.
Circuit 1
Circuit 2
Circuit 3
15
15
0
20
0
20
Result:
Thus the Superposition theorem is verified for the given electric circuit.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 33
EXPT NO:05 VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
THEOREM AND RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Aim:
To verify the maximum power transfer theorem and reciprocity theorem for the given
electric circuits.
Statement:
Maximum Power transfer theorem
Its states that Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance
equals the equivalent resistance of the circuits (Thevenin’s resistance) as seen from the load.
Statement:
Reciprocity theorem
This theorem states that if a voltage source V acting in one branch of a network causes
a current I to flow in another branch of the network, then the same voltage source V acting in
the second branch would cause an identical current I to flow in the first branch.
Apparatus and components required:
S.No Name of the
Apparatus
Range/Type Quantity
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Regulated Power Supply
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Connecting Wires
Resistors
Breadboard
DRB(Decade
Resistance Box)
0-30V
0-10mA
0-30V
-
1.5K
3.9K
-
1
1
1
Few
2
1
1
1
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 34
Procedure:
Maximum Power transfer theorem
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the input voltage as constant, by varying the load resistance in steps, Note down
the corresponding current through the load IL.
3. Repeat step 2 till it reaches the maximum and also calibrates the dropping current.
4. Tabulate the reading and calculate the power delivered to the load RL.
5. Plot the graph between PL versus RL and find the value of RL which will be equal to Rth
for PL (max).
6. Also find the resistance ‘Rth‘ by using multimeter, removing the load resistance.
Reciprocity theorem
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the input voltage as constant, and find the corresponding current I from the
ammeter, it flow in another branch of the network.
3. Then interchange the voltage source (V) and Ammeter in the circuit, and keep the same
input voltage and find the current I from the ammeter it flow in the first branch.
4. Tabulate the reading. Both Currents are equal.
Tabulation:
S.No RL (KΩ) IL (mA) PL = IL2RL (mW)
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 35
Circuit Diagram:
Model Graph
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 36
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Circuit Diagram:
Figure 1:
Figure 2:
Result:
Thus Power delivered to the load is found to be Maximum when RL = Rth. Hence the
maximum power transfer theorem is verified. The Reciprocity theorem also verified.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 37
EXPT NO:06 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF SERIES AND PARALLEL
RESONANCE CIRCUIT
Aim:
To study the frequency response and bandwidth of Series and Parallel resonance
circuit.
Apparatus and components required:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range/Type Quantity
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Multimeter
Connecting Wires
Breadboard
Decade Resistance Box
(DRB)
Decade Capacitance
Box(DCB)
Decade Inductance
Box(DIB)
Function Generator
-
-
-
-
-
(0-1Mhz)
1
Few
1
1
1
1
1
Theory:
RESONANCE:
Resonance is very important phenomenon is in communication to select particular
frequency and reject all other frequencies. Resonance is defined as in which applied voltage
and resulting current are In phase. In other words, an AC circuit is set to be in resonance if it
exhibits unity power factor. At resonance inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive
reactance. Resonance occurs on series RLC circuits is referred to as “Series resonance”.
Resonance occurs on parallel RLC circuits is referred to as “Parallel resonance”. In RLC circuit resonances may be produced by either varying frequency for given
constant L & C or varying either L&C or both for a given frequency.
Q –factor = 2π maximum energy stored per cycle
------------------------------------------------
Energy dissipated per cycle
Bandwidth of a RLC resonance circuit is defined as the width of resonance curve upto
frequency at which the power in the circuit is half of its maximum value.
Bandwidth = f2 – f1 ; f2 = upper cut off frequency; f1 = lower cut off frequency
Selectivity of an resonant circuits is defined as the ability of the circuit to distinguish
between desired and undesired frequencies. Selectivity is also defined as the ratio of resonant
frequency to bandwidth. Selectivity = f0 / f2 – f1
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 38
Circuit Diagram:
Series Resonance Circuit:
Parallel Resonance Circuit:
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 39
Tabulation:
Series Resonant Circuit:
SL No Frequency (Hz) Practical Current (I) mA
Parallel Resonant Circuit:
SL No Frequency (Hz) Practical Current (I) mA
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 40
Calculations:
Series and Parallel Resonance Circuit:
R=
L=
C=
Resonant Frequency, fr = 1/2π√LC
Lower Cut off Frequency, f1 = fr – R/4 πL
Upper Cut off Frequency, f1 = fr + R/4 πL
Bandwidth:
Bandwidth = f2 – f1 (Practical)
Bandwidth = R/2 πL (Theoretical)
Q-Factor:
Q = (1/R) * √(L/C) (Theoretical)
Q = fr/ (f2 –f1) (Practical)
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 41
Model Graph:
Series Resonance Circuit:
Parallel Resonance Circuit:
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 42
Procedure:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The resonant frequency is calculated by keeping the value of ‘L’ constant and varying the value of capacitance ‘C’.
3. The resonant frequency is calculated by using the formula, fr = 1/2π√LC
4. For finding the frequency response the value of capacitance and inductance are kept as
constant.
5. The frequency value is increased and its corresponding I values are noted.
6. A graph is plotted between frequency and current taking f along X-axis and frequency
along Y-axis.
7. Thus the resonant frequency and frequency response of RLC Series and Parallel has
been found.
Result:
Thus the frequency response of the series and parallel circuit are plotted and its bandwidth
calculated.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 43
EXPT NO:07 CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE AND
ZENER DIODE
Aim
To study the characteristics of PN Junction diode and Zener diode under forward and
reverse bias condition.
Apparatus and Components Required:
S.No Name of the
Apparatus
Range/Type Qty
1 RPS(Regulated Power
Supply)
0-30v 1
2 Ammeter 0-30mA,0-500µA Each 1
3 Voltmeter 0-30V,0-2V Each 1
4 PN Junction Diode IN4007 1
5 Zener Diode Z9.1 1
6 Resistor 1 KΩ 1
7 Bread board - 1
8 Connecting Wires - As Required
Theory:
PN DIODE:
A semiconductor PN Junction diode is an electronic device that is fabricated by
sandwiching a P – type material with an N – type material. The diode is basically referred to
as rectifier diode, as it is used in converting an AC signal to DC signal. The material used
determines the cut in voltage of the diode, for germanium the cut in voltage is 0.3V and for
the silicon cut in voltage is 0.7V. The diode is a resistive element, which conducts only when
the input voltage is above the rated voltage, this voltage is referred to as Barrier voltage. The
diode conducts in both forward and reverse mode.
FORWARD MODE:
In this mode the resistance offered by the diode is small, as the diode is connected in
the forward direction P – type connected to the positive node in the supply and N – type
connected to the negative mode of the supply, Once the applied voltage exceeds the barrier
voltage the diode starts conducting which leads to saturation.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 44
REVERSE MODE:
In this mode the resistance offered by the diode is large, as the diode is connected in
the reverse direction P – type connected to the negative node in the supply and N – type
connected to the positive node of the supply. Once the applied voltage exceeds the barrier
voltage the diode starts conducting which leads to breakdown.
ZENER DIODE:
A Semiconductor Zener diode is an electronic device that is fabricated by sandwiching
a P – type material with a N – type material. The diode is basically referred to as
reference/regulator diode as it used to regulate the DC signal. The diode works in the reverse
breakdown region in a different way that is based on the geometric of doping. The diode
conducts in both forward and reverse mode. The diode is primarily used in the reverse
direction only. The voltage at which the diode break is known as Zener breakdown.
Zener Breakdown:
Due to the applied reverse potential, an electric field exists near the junction, this field
exerts a strong electric on the co-volant bond and this breaks the band leading to zener
breakdown.
PROCEDURE
Forward Bias:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the supply voltage in steps of 0.1v and voltage across the diode is measured by
voltmeter and current by ammeter.
3. The readings are tabulated.
4. Graph is plotted between forward Voltage (in X-axis) and Forward Current (in Y axis).
5. Forward dynamic and static resistance is measured from this graph.
Reverse Bias:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the supply voltage in steps of 1v and voltage across the diode is measured by
voltmeter and current by ammeter.
3. The readings are tabulated.
4. Graph is plotted between forward Voltage (in X-axis) and Forward Current (in Y axis).
5. Reverse Saturation Current, Reverse dynamic and static resistance is measured from
this graph.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 45
Circuit Diagram:
PN Junction Diode:
Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 46
Zener Diode:
Forward Bias
Reverse Bias.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 47
Model Graph: Zener Diode
PN – Junction Diode
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 48
Tabular Column:
PN Junction Diode:
FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS
VF (Volts) IF(mA) VR (Volts) IR(μA)
Zener diode:
FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS
VF (Volts) IF(mA) VR (Volts) IR(mA)
CALCULATIONS
PN Junction Diode:
Static Forward Resistance, Rs = V/I =
Static Reverse Resistance, rs = V/I =
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Dynamic Forward Resistance, Rd = ∆VF/∆IF =
Dynamic Forward Resistance, rd = ∆VR/∆IR =
Zener Diode:
Static Forward Resistance, Rs = V/I =
Static Reverse Resistance, rs = V/I =
Dynamic Forward Resistance, Rd = ∆VF/∆IF =
Dynamic Forward Resistance, rd = ∆VR/∆IR =
RESULT
Thus the Forward and reverse characteristics of PN Junction Diode and Zener diode are
studied.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 50
EXPT NO:08 CHARACTERISTICS OF BJT (CE CONFIGURATION)
Aim:
To Obtain the input and output Characteristics of Common Emitter configuration and
find its h-parameters.
Apparatus and Components Required:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range/No/Type Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 1
2 Voltmeter 0-2V,0-30V Each1
3 Ammeter 0-500µA, 0-30mA, Each 1
4 DC Power Supply (Dual) 0-30V 1
5 Breadboard 1
6 Resistors 1k,10k, Each 1
7 Connecting Wires As required
H-parameters:
Input Resistance (with output short circuit)
hie = ΔVBE VBE2 - VBE1
-------------- at Constant VCE (ohms) = -------------------
ΔIB IB2 - IB1
Forward current transfer ratio (with output short circuited)
hfe = ΔIC IC2 - IC1
-------------- at Constant VCE ------------------
ΔIB IB2 - IB1
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 51
Reverse voltage transfer ratio (with input open circuit)
hre = ΔVBE VBE2 - VBE1
-------------- at Constant IB ---------------
ΔVCE VCE2 - VCE1
Output Admittance (with input short circuited)
hoe = ΔIC IC2 - IC1
-------------- at Constant IB (mhos) -----------------
ΔVCE VCE2 – VCE1
Theory:
The transistor is a semiconductor device having three terminals called Emitter, Base
and Collector. It consists of two diodes namely, emitter-base diode and collector-base diode
connected back to back, BJT is classified in to NPN and PNP transistor and doping varies
between the three layers.
In BJT(Bipolar Junction Transistor) current conduction takes place by both minority
and majority charge carriers. It also called current controlled device, because the output
current is controlled by its input current, The external DC biasing is applied to the transistor to
fix the Q – point in any one of the region out of three region ie.active, Cut-off and saturation
region, used for different applications. Always the emitter-base junction is forward biased and
collector to base is reverse biased and Q – point is fixed on center of DC load line(In active
region) to operate transistor as an amplifier.
There are three possible arrangements (configuration) for investigating its DC
Characteristics. From each of these configurations three sets of characteristics may be derived,
there are the input characteristics, Output characteristics and Current gain characteristics.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Circuit Diagram:
Model Graph:
Input Characteristics:
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 53
Output Characteristics:
Tabulation:
Input Characteristics:
VCE (V) VCE (V)
VBE (V) IB (μA) VBE (V) IB (μA)
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Output Characteristics:
IB (μA) IB (μA) VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC (mA)
h-parameters:
Parameters Practical Readings
hie
hfe
hre
hoe
Procedure:
Input Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set VCE = 5V, vary, VBE insteps of 0.1V & note down the corresponding IB and repeat
the above procedure for 10V & so on.
3. Plot the graph : VBE vs IB for a constant VCE.
4. Find the h-parameters : hfe & hie.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Output Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set IB = 20μA, vary VCE insteps of 1V & note down the corresponding IC . Repeat the
above procedure for 40μA,80μA & so on. 3. Plot the graph: VCE vs IC for a constant of IB .
4. Find the h-parameters: hoe & hre.
Result:
Thus the static characteristics of transistor in Common Emitter configuration studied.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 56
EXPT NO:09 CHARACTERISTICS OF BJT (CB CONFIGURATION)
Aim:
To Obtain the input and output Characteristics of Common Base configuration and find
its h-parameters.
Apparatus and Components Required:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range/No/Type Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 1
2 Voltmeter 0-2V,0-30V Each1
3 Ammeter 0-30mA,0-10mA, Each 1
4 DC Power Supply (Dual) 0-30V 1
5 Breadboard 1
6 Resistors 330Ω 2
7 Connecting Wires As required
h-parameters:
Input Resistance (with output short circuit)
hib = ΔVEB VEB2 - VEB1
-------------- at Constant VCB (ohms) ----------------
ΔIE IE2 - IE1
Forward current transfer ratio (with output short circuited)
hfb = ΔIC IC2- IC1
-------------- at Constant VCB ------------
ΔIE IE2 - IE1
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 57
Reverse voltage transfer ratio(with input open circuit)
hre = ΔVEB VEB2 - VBE1
-------------- at Constant IE ----------------
ΔVCB VCB2 - VCB1
Output Admittance (with input short circuited)
hoe = ΔIC IC2 - IC1
-------------- at Constant IE (mhos) -----------
ΔVCB VCB2 –VCB1
Theory:
The transistor is a semiconductor device having three terminals called Emitter, Base
and Collector. It consists of two diodes namely, emitter-base diode and collector-base diode
connected back to back, BJT is classified in to NPN and PNP transistor and doping varies
between the three layers.
In BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) current conduction takes place by both minority
and majority charge carriers. It also called current controlled device, because the output
current is controlled by its input current, The external DC biasing is applied to the transistor to
fix the Q – point in any one of the region out of three region ie.active, Cut-off and saturation
region, used for different applications. Always the emitter-base junction is forward biased and
collector to base is reverse biased and Q – point is fixed on center of DC load line(In active
region) to operate transistor as an amplifier.
There are three possible arrangements (configuration) for investigating its DC
Characteristics. From each of these configurations three sets of characteristics may be derived,
there are the input characteristics, Output characteristics and Current gain characteristics.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 58
Circuit Diagram:
Model Graph:
Input Characteristics:
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 59
Output Characteristics:
Tabulation:
Input Characteristics:
VCB (V) VCB (V)
VEB (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA)
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Output Characteristics:
IE (mA) IE (mA)
VCB (V) IC (mA) VCB (V) IC (mA)
h-parameters:
Parameters Practical Readings
hib
hfb
hrb
hob
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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Procedure:
Input Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set VCB = 5V, vary, VEB insteps of 0.1V & note down the corresponding IE and repeat
the above procedure for 10V & so on.
3. Plot the graph : VEB vs IE for a constant VCB.
4. Find the h-parameters : hfb & hib.
Output Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set IE = 20mA, vary VCB insteps of 1V & note down the corresponding IC . Repeat the
above procedure for 40μA,80μA & so on. 3. Plot the graph: VCB vs IC for a constant of IE .
4. Find the h-parameters: hob & hrb.
Result:
Thus the static characteristics of transistor in Common base configuration studied.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
DMI college of engineering 62
EXPT NO:10 CHARACTERISTICS OF UJT & SCR
Aim:
To study the static Characteristics of UJT and SCR.
Apparatus and Components Required:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range/No/Type Quantity
1 UJT(Uni Junction Transistor) 2N2646 1
2. SCR C106 1
3 Voltmeter 0-15V,0-30V Each1
4 Ammeter 0-500µA,0-30mA 1
5 DC Power Supply (Dual) 0-30V 1
6 Breadboard 1
7 Resistors 1K,100Ω,1K/1W,100K Each 1
8 Connecting Wires As required
Theory:
UJT:
UJT is three terminal (unit junction) semiconductor switching devices. Three terminals
are Emitter, Base1, Base2, emitter is always nearer to B2 than B1. UJT is called as double
base diode. UJT as unique characteristics that when it is triggered the emitter current
increases regenerative until it is limited by emitter power supply, now the UJT is in ON
condition. UJT acts as forward bias PN diode. There is no emitter power supply then UJT is in
OFF condition. UJT is acts as reverse bias PN diode. UJT can be used as oscillator, as saw-
tooth generator, for phase control, as limiting circuit, as multi-vibrator, for triggering devices
such as SCR. UJT exhibits negative resistance in between peak and valley points.
SCR:
SCR belongs to the power electronics (Thyristors) family, which can handle high
power, and it is primarily used in the control of motors, control of DC power, rectifiers and
used in inverters. SCR is operated with the gate, as the gate is the node, which determines the
angle of firing. Once SCR is fired (triggered) there is conduction and it works lie and ordinary
diode. Once the SCR is turned ON, the gate losses control and cannot be used to switch the
device OFF. One way to turn the device OFF is by lowering the anode current below the
holding current by reducing the supply voltage below the holding voltage, keeping the gate
open. At this point even if the gate signal is removed the device keeps ON conducting, till the
current level is maintain to a minimum level of holding current. If gate is not
initiated(triggered) then SCR will not conduct even though if we increasing the applied
voltage.
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Circuit Diagram:
UJT
SCR
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Model Graph:
UJT
SCR
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Tabulation:
UJT
S.No
VB1B2 VB1B2
VEB IE VEB IE
SCR
Tabulation:
S.No
IG (μA) IG (μA)
VAK (V) IA (mA) VAK (V) IA (mA)
Procedure:
UJT
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The Voltage VB1B2 is kept at a constant value.
3. By varying the supply voltage at the input side the corresponding voltage VEB1 and current
IE is noted.
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4. Repeat the same procedure for various constant values of VB1B2.
5. Plot the graph between VBE and IE.
6. From the graph note down the Peak point VP and value voltage VD and calculate the
intrinsic stand off ratio.
Intrinsic Stand off Ratio(η) η = VP – VD
------------
VB1B2
Where VP = Peak Voltage
VD = Diode Voltage
For Si -> 0.7V
Ge-> 0.2V
VB1B2 -> Voltage Applied to the B1 & B2 terminals.
SCR
Procedure:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the gate supply (VGS) voltage to keep IG = 100μA as constant. 3. Anode supply VAK is switched ON. Vary the Anode Supply Voltage VAK in steps and the
changes in the corresponding Ammeter (IA) readings are noted.
4. Step 3 is continued until break over voltage VBO is obtained.
5. VAK is further increased and the corresponding Voltmeter VAK and ammeter IA readings
are tabulated.
6. Step 5 is continued until anode ammeter shows full scale deflection.
7. The Supply voltage VAK is brought back to zero.
8. Adjusting the supply VAK to keep IG = 200μA. 9. Repeat the steps 3,4,5 & 6.
10. Plot the graph between VAK and IA.
Result:
Thus the static characteristics of UJT & SCR was obtained.
UJT: Intrinsic stand of ratio (η) =
SCR
1. Latching Current (IL) =
2. Holding Current (IH) =
3. Forward Break over Voltage (VBR) =
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EXPT NO:11 CHARACTERISTICS OF JFET AND MOSFET
Aim:
To obtain the Drain and Transfer characteristics of JFET and MOSFET in common
source configuration and find its parameters values.
Apparatus and Components Required:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range/No/Type Quantity
1 JFET(Junction Field
Effect Transistor)
BFW10 1
2. MOSFET IRFZ44N 1
3 Voltmeter 0-30V,0-5V Each1
4 Ammeter 0-10mA 1
5 DC Power Supply (Dual) 0-30V 1
6 Breadboard 1
7 Resistors 33KΩ,1KΩ Each 1
8 Connecting Wires As required
Theory:
Like a bipolar junction transistor, a field effect transistor is also a three terminal which
are source, drain and gate. FET is also called as uni-polar device because its function depends
only upon the one type of carrier ie. due to either majority or minority charge carriers. It is
also called voltage control device, because the output current is controlled by its input voltage.
A field effect transistor can be either a JFET of MOSFET. Again a JFET can either
have n-channel or p-channel. An n-channel has an n-type semiconductor bar. The two ends of
which the drain and source terminal on the two side of this bar, PN junction are made. This p-
region makes gates. Usually the two gates are connected together to form a single gate. The
gate is given a negative bias with respect to the source. The drain is given positive potential
with respect to the source, In case of p-channel JFET the terminal of all the batteries are
reversed.
In this case, PN junction is reverse bias and the thickness of the depletion region
increases. As VGS is decreased from zero, drain is positive with respect to the source with VGS
= 0. Now majority carriers flow through the n-channel from source to drain. Therefore the
conventional current flow from drain to source since the current is controlled by only majority
carriers, FET is called as uni-polar device.
The drain current ID is controlled by the electric field that extends into the channel due
to reverse bias voltage applied to the gate. The drain current depends on the drain voltage VDS
and the gate voltage VGS. Any of this variables may be fixed and the relation between the
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other two are determined when VDS=VP, ID becomes maximum. When VDS is increased
beyond VP, the length of the pinch off region are saturation region increases.
MOSFET is an improved version of JFET. MOSFET can be made very small
compared to BJT’s and hence can be used to design VLSI circuits.
MOSFET differ from JFET in that has no PN junctions structure, instead the gate of
the MOSFET is insulated from the channel by Sio2 layer. Due to this input resistance of
MOSFET is greater than JFET. Therefore it is also called as insulated gate FET(IGFET).
MOSFET has two types depletion mode MOSFET, enhancement mode MOSFET. The
negative gate voltage depletes the channel of free electrons. Due to this reason we call this
mode as depletion mode.
The positive increases the number of free electrons moving through the channel, as the
gate increases the number of free electrons moving through the channel gets increased. This
enhances the conduction process of the channel. Due to this reason positive gate operation is
referred as enhancement mode.
Circuit Diagram:
JFET
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MOSFET
Model Graph:
JFET
Drain Characteristics: Transfer Characteristics:
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MOSFET
Drain Characteristics: Transfer Characteristics:
Tabulation:
Drain Characteristics:
JFET MOSFET
-VGS = (V) -VGS = (V) VGS = (V) VGS = (V)
VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)
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Transfer Characteristics:
JFET MOSFET
VDS = (V) VDS = (V) VDS = (V) VDS = (V)
-VGS(V) ID(mA) -VGS(V) ID (mA) VGS(V) ID (mA) VGS (V) ID(mA)
Calculations:
JFET Parameters:
1. DC Drain Resistance (RDS)
RDS = VDS / ID
2. AC Drain Resistance (rd)
rd = (ΔVDS /ΔID ) at constant VGS.
3. Transconductance (Gm)
Gm = (ΔID / ΔVGS ) at constant VDS
4. Amplification Factor (μ) μ = rd * Gm
MOSFET Parameters:
1. DC Drain Resistance (RDS)
RDS = VDS / ID
2. AC Drain Resistance (rd)
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rd = (ΔVDS /ΔID ) at constant VGS.
3. Transconductance (Gm)
Gm = (ΔID / ΔVGS ) at constant VDS
4. Amplification Factor (μ) μ = rd * Gm
Procedure:
The connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
JFET
Drain characteristics:
1. VGS is kept constant by adjusting the input side power supply.
2. By varying the supply voltage at the output side the corresponding Voltage VDS and
Current ID is noted.
3. Repeat the same procedure for various constant values of VGS .
4. Plot the graph between ID and VGS .
Transfer Characteristics:
1. Drain Voltage VD is kept constant by adjusting the output side power supply.
2. By Varying the supply at the input side the corresponding voltage VGS and current ID is
noted.
3. Repeat the same procedure for various constant values of VD.
4. Plot the Graph between VGS and ID.
MOSFET
Drain characteristics:
1. VGS is kept constant by adjusting the input side power supply.
2. By varying the supply voltage at the output side the corresponding Voltage VDS and
Current ID is noted.
3. Repeat the same procedure for various constant values of VGS .
4. Plot the graph between ID and VGS .
Transfer Characteristics:
1. Drain Voltage VD is kept constant by adjusting the output side power supply.
2. By Varying the supply at the input side the corresponding voltage VGS and current ID is
noted.
3. Repeat the same procedure for various constant values of VD.
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4. Plot the Graph between VGS and ID.
Result:
Thus the Drain and Transfer Characteristics of JFET & MOSFET has been studied and
its parameters are calculated.
JFET MOSFET
DC Drain Resistance =
AC Drain Resistance =
Transconductance =
Amplification Factor =
Pinch off Voltage =
IDSS =
DC Drain Resistance =
AC Drain Resistance =
Transconductance =
Amplification Factor =
Pinch off Voltage =
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EXPT NO:12 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRIAC
Aim:
To study the characteristics of Triac.
Apparatus and components Required:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range/No/Type Quantity
1 Triac BT136 1
2 Voltmeter 0-30V 1
3 Ammeter 0-50mA 2
4 DC Power Supply (Dual) 0-30V 1
5 Breadboard 1
6 Resistors 2.2K 2
7 Connecting Wires As required
Theory:
TRIAC belong to the power electronics (thyristors) family, which can handle high
power, and it is primarily used in the control of motors, control of AC power and used in
inverters. TRIAC behaves as two inverse – parallel connected SCR’s with a single gate terminal. SCR is a three terminal devices which are gate (G), Main Terminal 1(MT1) and
Main terminal (MT2). TRIAC is a bidirectional device because which can conduct in both
direction. If MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 then current flows from MT2 to MT1. If
MT1 is positive with respect to MT2 then current flows from MT1 to MT2.
TRIAC triggering conditions are
1. MT2 is positive and gate is positive.
2. MT2 is positive and gate is negative.
3. MT2 is negative and gate is positive.
4. MT2 is negative and gate is negative.
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Circuit Diagram:
Forward Bias:
Reverse Bias:
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Model Graph:
Procedure:
Forward Characteristics:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply the positive potential to gate terminal with respect to MT1 , vary the gate voltage
to keep gate current to IG = 2mA as constant.
3. Forward bias the Triac. Given supply VF in between the terminals MT1 and MT2, MT2 is
positive with respect to MT1
4. Vary the supply voltage VF in steps and the changes in the corresponding Ammeter (IF)
readings are noted.
5. Step 4 is continued until break over voltage VBO is obtained.
6. VF is further increased and the corresponding (Voltmeter VF and Ammeter IF) readings
are tabulated.
7. Step 6 is continued until anode ammeter shows full scale deflection.
8. Plot the graph between VF and IF .
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Reverse Characteristics:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply the negative potential to gate terminal with respect to MT1 , vary the gate voltage
to keep gate current to IG = 2mA as constant.
3. Forward bias the Triac. Given supply VF in between the terminals MT1 and MT2, MT1 is
positive with respect to MT2
4. Vary the supply voltage VR in steps and the changes in the corresponding Ammeter (IR)
readings are noted.
5. Step 4 is continued until break over voltage VBO is obtained.
6. VR is further increased and the corresponding (Voltmeter VR and Ammeter IR) readings
are tabulated.
7. Step 6 is continued until anode ammeter shows full scale deflection.
8. Plot the graph between VR and IR .
Tabulation:
FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS
IG (mA) IG (mA)
VF (V) IF (mA) VR (V) IR (mA)
Result:
Thus the characteristics of Triac have been studied.
EC6211-Circuits and devices Lab Dept of Electronics & Communication Engg
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EXPT NO:13 CHARCTERISTICS OF PHOTO DIODE AND PHOTO
TRANSISTOR
Aim:
To determine the characteristics of Photodiode and Photo transistor.
Apparatus and Components Required:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range/No/Type Quantity
1 Photo diode - 1
2 Photo Transistor - 1
2 Voltmeter 0-3V,0-30V Each 1
3 Ammeter 0-10mA,0-100µA, Each 1
4 DC Power Supply (Dual) 0-30V 1
5 Breadboard 1
6 Resistors 1K 1
7 Connecting Wires As required
Theory:
Both photo diode and photo transistor operates based on the principle of “Photo conductive effect”. When radiation is incident on a semi-conductor, it absorbs some light, as a
result its conductivity varies directly with the intensity of light and its resistance varies
inversely with the intensity of light. This effect is called as photo conductive effect.
PHOTO DIODE
It is a semi-conductor PN junction device whose region of operation is limited to the
reverse bias region. Photo diode is connected in reverse bias condition. The depletion region
width is large under normal condition, it carriers small reverse current due to the minority
charge carriers in µA.
If the photo diode is forward bias the current flow through it is in mA. The applied
forward bias voltage takes the control of current instead of light. The change in current due to
light is negligible and cannot be noticed. The resistance of forward bias diode is not affected
by the light, hence to have significant effect of light on the current and to operate photo diode
as a variable resistor, it is always operated or connected in reverse bias.
When there is no light, it is called as dark current because there is no current flow due
to the infinite resistance. When there is a light more current flows due to very less resistance.
Under reverse bias current control due to light only instead of applied voltage.
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PHOTO TRANSISTOR:
The photo transistor has a light sensitive collector to base junction. A lens is used in
transistor package to expose to an incident light.
When no light is incident, a small leakage current flow from collector to emitter called
ICEO, due to small thermal generation. This is very small current of the order of nA, this is
called a Dark current.
When the base is exposed to the light, the base current is produced which is
proportional to the light intensity. As light intensity increases, the base current increases
exponentially. Similarly the collector current also increases corresponding to the increase in
the light intensity.
Photo transistor can be both a two lead(and) three lead devices. For two lead devices,
the base is not electrically available and the device use is totally light dependent.
Procedure:
Photodiode:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Photo diode is placed at a particular distance from the illumination.
3. The voltage is varied using RPS and the corresponding current is noted.
4. Readings are tabulated for various distance and the graph is drawn between voltage and
current.
Photo transistor:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Photo transistor is placed at a particular distance from the illumination.
3. Voltage is varied using RPS and the corresponding current id noted.
4. Readings are tabulated for various distance and the graph is drawn between voltage and
current.
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Circuit Diagram:
Photodiode:
Photo Transistor:
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Model Graph:
Tabulation: Photodiode:
d1=5cm d1=10cm
Voltage (V) Current (µA) Voltage (V) Current (µA)
Photo transistor:
d1=5cm d1=10cm
Voltage (V) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Current (mA)
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Result:
Thus the characteristics of photodiode and photo transistor have been studied and
determined the diode voltage and current at different level of illumination.
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EXPT NO:14 BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER AND WITHOUT
FILTER
AIM:
1. To plot input and output waveforms of the Bridge Rectifier with and without Filter
2. To find ripple factor for Bridge Rectifier with and without Filter
3. To find Regulation factor for Bridge Rectifier with and without Filter
Apparatus
INTRODUCTION:
A device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform into a unidirectional waveform
with non zero average component is called a rectifier. The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which
converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge
rectifier has four diodes connected to form a Bridge. The load resistance is connected between
the other two ends of the bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D1
and D3 conducts whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes
will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL . For
the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D2 and D4 conducts whereas diodes D1
and D3 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL in the same direction as in the
previous half cycle. Thus a bidirectional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
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Circuit Diagram
Without Filter
With Filter
Theoretical calculations for Ripple factor:-
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Experiment (without filter)
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram of the rectifier without filter.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the
rectifier input.
3. By the multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and dc voltage at the
output of the rectifier.
4. Measure the amplitude and timeperiod of the transformer secondary(input waveform) by
connecting CRO.
5. Feed the rectified output voltage to the CRO and measure the time period and amplitude of
the waveform.
Experiment (With filter)
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram of the rectifier with filter.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the
rectifier input.
3. By the multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and dc voltage at the
output of the rectifier.
4. Measure the amplitude and timeperiod of the transformer secondary(input waveform) by
connecting CRO.
5. Feed the rectified output voltage to the CRO and measure the time period and amplitude of
the waveform. Tabular Column: Without Filter Using DMM:
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Tabular Column: Without Filter
Using DMM:
Using CRO : VNL=
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Model Graph:
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PRECAUTIONS:
1. The primary and secondary sides of the transformer should be carefully identified.
2. The polarities of the diode should be carefully identified.
Result:
The input and output waveforms of Bridge wave rectifier is plotted and the ripple factor and
regulation at 1100Ω are
Ripple factor with out Filter =
Ripple factor with Filter =
% Regulation =