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MANONMANIAM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE & CONTINUING EDUCATION
TIRUNELVELI 627012, TAMIL NADU
M.A. ENGLISH - II YEAR
DKE24 - LANGUAGE AND LITERARY THEORIES
(From the academic year 2016-17)
Most Student friendly University - Strive to Study and Learn to Excel
For more information visit: http://www.msuniv.ac.in
LANGUAGE AND LITERARY THEORIES
Section - A
1. English phonology & Phonetic Theory
Phonetic Transcription – Words
2. The Descent of the English Language [Indo-European Family of Languages]
3. Grimm’s Law and Verner’s Law
4. Semantics:
1. Generalization
2. Specialisation
3. Association of Ideas
4. Polarization or Colouring
5. Metaphorical Application
6. Euphemism
7. Prudery
5. The Growth of Vocabulary (Word-making)
1. By Imitation
2. By Adding Suffixes and Prefixes
3. By Abbreviation
4. By Syncopation
5. By Telescoping
6. By Metanalysis
7. Portmanteau Words
6. Contributions to English by
(1) The Bible (2) William Shakespeare (3) John Milton
7. Foreign Influences on English: (1) Latin (2) French
8. Standard English
Section – B
LITERARY THEORIES
1. Northrop Fyre : The Archetypes of Literature
2. Elaine showalter : Towards a Feminist Poetics
3. Edward Said : Orientalism (Introduction)
4. Terry Eagleton : “Capitalism, Modernism and Post Modernism”.
5. Jarques Derrida : “Structure, Sign and Play in the Discourse of the
Human Sciences”.
Reference Books:
Daniel Jones : A Pronouncing Dictionary
Dr. P. Iyadurai : Phonetics for Beginners
F.T. Wood : An Outline History of the English Language
A.C. Baugh : A History of the English Language
Otto Jesperson : Growth and Structure of the English Language
David Lodge : 20th Century Literary Criticism
Phonetics & Phonology
Phonetics (pronounced /fəˈnɛtɪks/, from the Greek: φωνή, phōnē, 'sound, voice') is a branch
of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, or—in the case of
sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign.[1] It is concerned with the physical
properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological production, acoustic
properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status. Phonology, on the other
hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds or
signs.
The field of phonetics is a multilayered subject of linguistics that focuses on speech. In the
case of oral languages there are three basic areas of study:
Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds by the articulatory and
vocal tract by the speaker.
Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the
speaker to the listener.
Auditory phonetics: the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by the
listener.
Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in
languages. It has traditionally focused largely on the study of the systems of phonemes in
particular languages (and therefore used to be also called phonemics, or phonematics), but
it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable,
onset and rime, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of
language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning.
Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages.
The organs of speech
The air that we breathe out comes out of the lungs. Before it gets out into outer
atmosphere, various organs in our body convert it into speech sounds. The organs are
called ‘Organs of Speech’.
1. The Respiratory System: This comprises the lungs, the muscles of the chest and
the wind pipe.
2. The Phonatory system: This comprises the larynx.
3. The Articulatory System: This comprises the nose, the teeth, the tongue, the roof
of the mouth and the lips.
The Respiratory System
The lungs are spongy bodies, Lungs play an active role in generating breath energy.
It is through the trachea (wind pipe) that the air we breathe passes through the lungs. This
act that is commonly known as respiration involves two process - taking outer air into lungs
(inspiration) and throwing out air from the lungs into the outer atmosphere (expiration).
The expiratory air is the basis for the articulation of most sound. Since the air stream is set
in motion by the lungs to produce speech sounds, they are known as plumonic sounds.
Further, the air stream is forced outwards during the articulation of the speech sounds.
Hence, they are known as ‘egressive sounds’. Moreover, sounds produced when the air
stream is sucked inwards are known as ingressive sounds. But, all English sounds are
plumonic egressive sounds.
The phonatory System
The Larynx: The larynx is situated at the top of the wind pipe. The air from the lungs
has to come out through the wind pipe and larynx. In the larynx are situated a pair of lip-
like structures. These are called ‘vocal cords’ and these are placed horizontally from front to
back. The opening between cords is called glottis.
The vocal cords can be opened and closed. When the two cords come very close to
each other, the glottis will be shut completely. When we breathe in and out, the vocal cords
are drawn wide apart and thus the glottis is open.. Such sounds produced with a wide open
glottis are called voiceless sounds. The sounds in the production of which the vocal cords
vibrate are called voiced sounds.
The vibration of vocal cords is important for another factor also. The rate at which
the vocal cords vibrate is called the frequency of vibration and this determines the pitch of
voice.
The Articulatory System
The roof of the mouth: This comprises the teeth ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate and
the uvula.
The convex bony part of the roof of the mouth which lies immediately behind the
upper front teeth is called teeth-ridge or alveolar ridge. Immediately after teeth-ridge, the
roof of the mouth becomes hard and bony and this is called hard-palate. The roof of the
mouth suddenly becomes soft and fleshy. This is called the soft palate or the velum. The
fleshy structure hanging loose at the extreme end of the roof of the mouth is called the
uvula.
The tongue: The tongue is a very important organ of speech. It can take up a very
large number of different positions during the production of various sounds. For the sake of
convenience, we divide the tongue into the tip, the blade, the front, the back and the root
of the tongue.
The extreme edge of the tongue is called the tip. Immediately after the tip sis the
blade and it is the part of the tongue that lies opposite the teeth ridge when the speech
organs are at rest. Beyond the blade is the front of the tongue which is opposite hart palate.
Beyond the front of the tongue is the back of the tongue which lies opposite the soft palate.
Even beyond the back of the tongue is its root.
The Lips: The lips play an important part in the articulation of some consonant and
vowels. For example the first consonant sounds in English words ‘pill’. ‘bill’ and ‘will’ are
produced with the the lips tightly shuts, as a result, they form a complete obstruction of the
air stream which may be momentarily prevented from escaping. If the tips are held apart
they assume different positions such as the spread lip position, neutral position, open
position, close rounded and open rounded position. But two lip positions rounded and
unrounded are important for description of vowel sounds.
THE VOWELS OF ENGLISH
Introduction
Speech sounds are mainly classified into two types: namely vowels and consonants.
A vowel is a continuous voiced sound produced without any obstructions in the speech
tract. That is, the articulatory of a vowel is not accompanied by any closure or narrowing in
the speech tract.
A consonant is produced with obstruction and which would produce audible friction.
The consonants are described in terms of articulation. It is produced with or without the
vibration of vocal cords. Technically these two terms are known as vocoids and cotoids.
Vocoids and Contoids are phonetic categories whereas vowels and consonants are linguistic
categories.
Vowels of English
Vowels are classified into two major categories; Pure Vowels, and Dipthongs. A pure
vowels is one in the course of which the tongue remains stationary, that is, the vowel is
exactly the same at the end as it was at the beginning. A Dipthong changes its character in
the course of production. The tongue glides from one place to another while it is being
produced.
There are 12 pure vowels and 8 dipthongs in received pronunciation. The vowel sounds
are described in terms of the tongue and lips. That is, the criteria for describing the vowel
sounds are
1. Part of the tongue raised (front, centre and back),
2. The height to which the tongue is raised (close, half-close, half-open and open).
3. The position of the lips (rounded or unrounded).
A finer and clear independent system of description is needed on the auditory and
articulatory vowel system. The front of the tongue is raised as close as possible to the
palate without friction being produced for the cardinal vowel /i:/. The whole of the tongue
is as low as low as possible in the mouth with very slight rising at the extreme back for the
cardinal vowel /ɑ/. Starting from the /i/ position the front of the tongue is lowered
gradually, the lips remaining spread or neutrally open and the soft palate raised. The
lowering of the tongue is halted at three points at which the vowel qualities seem to be
equidistant. The symbols /e, ɛ, a/ are assigned to these vowel values. The same procedure
is applied to vowel qualities depending on the height of the back of the tongue, this raising
the back of the tongue from the /a/ position. The lips are changed progressively from a
wide-open shape to a closely rounded one and the soft palate remains raised. Again three
auditorily equidistant points are established from the lowest to the highest position, The
corresponding tongue positions are photographed and the spatial relationships confirmed
as for the front vowels. These values are given the symbols /ə, o, u/. Thus a scale of eight
primary cardinal vowels can be set up by the following symbols: /i:, e, ɛ, a, ɑ, ə, o, u/.
1. front close vowel [ i ]
2. front half-close vowel [ e ]
3. front half-open vowel [ ɛ ]
4. front open vowel [ a ]
5. back open vowel [ɑ ]
6. back half open vowel [ ə ]
7. back half closed vowel [ o ]
8. back close vowel [ u ]
The important thing is that the tongue may assume a position between any two of
the positions described above during the articulation of a bowel that occurs in a language.
So these positions are convenient reference points with reference to which any vowel in a
given language can be described. Interestingly no English vowel is pure cardinal vowel.
In R.P there are twenty distinct vowel sounds, Of these twelve are monophthongs or
pure vowels. They are as follows:
Depending upon the length mark [:], the vowel sounds are
divided into long and short vowels.
DESCRIPTION OF PURE VOWELS
Description of the pure vowels of English are given below with a three-term label for
each. The description of each vowel will include information about a) the various spellings
for each vowel, b) the position in which each vowel occurs and c) the difficulties of Indian
speakers.
1. /i:/ as in beat /bi:t/
In the articulation of this vowel the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the
hard palate to an almost close position. The lips are spread. The tongue is tense. The
vowel is comparatively long. We describe this vowel as a front close unrounded vowel.
Spellings
The various spellings for this vowel are as follows:
a. e even iːvən
these ðiːz
b. ee need niːd
c. ea teach tiːʧ
d. ie piece piːs
e. ei peace piːz
f. i machine məˈʃiːn
g. ey key kiː
h. eo people piːpl
Initially this vowel occurs in words like ‘eat, each, even,’ etc.
Medially it occurs in ‘meet, feel, seed’ etc.
Finally it occurs in ‘key, sea, bee’ etc.
Difficulties faced by Indian Speakers
The distinction has to be made between pairs like the following;
feet – fit; field – filled; he’s – his; sheep – ship.
2. /I/ as in /bit/
During the articulation of this vowel the hinder part of the front of the tongue is raised
to a position between close and half close. The lips are loosely spread. The tongue is lax.
/I/ is thus a front unrounded vowel, between close and half-close. Indian speakers use a
vowel sound which is closer and more fronted than R.P. /I/
Spellings
a. I bit /bɪt/
b. e begin /bɪˈgɪn/
effect /ɪˈfɛkt/
c. y city /sɪti/
d. a baggage / bægɪʤ/
e. ie ladies /ˈleɪdɪz/
f. u business /bɪznɪs/
g. ee coffee /kɒfi/
h. ey money /mʌni/
i. ia carriage /ˈkærɪʤ/
j. ai bargain /ˈbɑːgɪn/
k. ui build /bɪld/
l. ei foreign /fɒrɪn/
This vowel occurs initially and medially; it can also occur finally in unaccented
syllables.
Initially it occurs in words like ‘it, ill, in’.
Medially it occurs in ‘sit, sing, kill’.
Finally it occurs in ‘city, pity, many’.
3. R.P. /e/ as in bed /bed/:
In the production of this vowel the front of the tongue is raised to a position
between half-close and half-open. The lips are loosely spread or neutral. We describe it as
a front, unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open.
Spellings
a. e bed /bed/
b. ed dead /ded/
c. a any /enɪ/
d. u bury /berɪ/
e. ie friend /frend/
f. eɪ leisure /lɛʒə/
This vowel occurs initially in words like ‘any, edge, echo’ etc.
It occurs medially in ‘said, credit measure’ etc.
It does not occur finally in a word.
Some speakers do not distinguish between /e/ and /eI/
4. R.P. /æ/ as in bad /bæd/
During the articulation of /æ/ the front of the tongue is raised to a position
slightly below the half-open position. The lips are in the neutral position. We
describe this vowel as a front vowel, just below the half-open position,
pronounced with neutral lips.
Spellings
a. a bad /bæd /
cat /kæt/
/æ / occurs initially in words like ‘ass, apple, active,’ etc.
It occurs medially in ‘sat, mad, batch,’ etc.
Some of the Indian speakers replace this vowel with /e/ and hence the difference between
them is not maintained properly.
5. R.P. /ʌ/ as in ‘cut’
During the articulation if this vowel the center of the tongue is raised to a position
between open and half-open. The lips are neutral. It is thus a central vowel between open
and half-open, pronounced with neutral lips. In R.P. /ʌ/, /ɜ:/, /ə/ are considered as separate
phonemes. Indian speakers have only one phoneme /ə/, vowel realized as /ɜ:/ and /ə/, the
two being used indiscriminately. For example ‘cut’ may be pronounced /kʌt/ or /kət/.
Spellings
a. u cut /kʌt/
pump /pʌmp/
b. o come /kʌm/
son /sʌn/
c. ou country /kʌntrɪ/
d. oo blood /blʌd/
e. oe does /dʌs/
/ʌ/ occurs in initially in words like ‘up, uncle, under’ etc.
It occurs medially in ‘cup, Monday, gun’ etc.
6. /a:/ as in ‘cart’
During the articulation of R.P. /a:/ the highest point of the tongue is at the back and it is
in the fully op position. The lips are neutral and open. This vowel is comparatively long. We
describe this vowel as a back, open, vowel, pronounced with neutral lips.
Spellings
Some of the spellings for this vowel have the letter ‘r’, which in R.P. is pronounced only
before vowel sounds. Most of the Indian speakers include ‘r’ before the consonants and
others pronounce it after vowel sounds as in ‘mirror’.
a. ar + consonant letter
arch /a:tʃ/
b. Final - ar:
car /ka:/
c. as + consonant:
ask /a:sk/
fast /fa:st/
d. an + consonant:
answer /a:nsə/
e. af + consonant letter:
after /a:ftə/
f. au + consonant letter:
laugh /la:f/
g. er + consonant letter:
clerk /kla:k/
h. ear + consonant letter:
heart /ha:t/
This vowel occurs initially in words like ‘after, ask’ etc.
It occurs medially in ‘fast, branch’ etc.
It occurs finally in ‘car, bar, drama’ etc.
7. /ɒ/ as in ‘cot’
During the articulation of this vowel the highest point of the tongue is at the back
and it is in the open position. There is open lip rounding. The jaws are wide open. We
describe this vowel as a back open, rounded vowel.
Spellings
a. o pot /pɒt/
b. or + vowel letter
moral /mɒrəl/
sorry /sɒrɪ/
c. w + a+ consonant
quantity /kwɒntɪtɪ/
d. au because /bɪkɒz/
e. ou cough /kɒf/
f. o gone /gɒn/
g. ow knowledge /nɒlɪʤ/
This vowel occurs initially in words like ‘off, orange,’ etc.
It occurs medially in ‘cot, moral,’ etc.
8. R.P. /ɔ:/as in ‘caught’
During the articulation of this vowel the back of the tongue is raised to a position
between half-open and half-close. The lips are rounded. It is a long vowel. It is thus a back,
rounded vowel between half-close and half-open. Most Indian speakers use /ɒ/ instead of
R.P. /ɔ:/ in words like ‘all, bought, law, chalk’ etc. Some use ‘or’ in words like ‘form, north’
etc.
Spellings
a. a + ll ball /bɔ:l/
b. or + consonant letter corn /kɔ:n/
c. our court /kɔ:t/
d. or (final) & nor /nɔ:/
ore (final) more /mɔ:/
e. ough + t bought /bɔ:t/
f. oor door /dɔ:/
g. aw awkward /ɔ:kwəd/
h. au cause /kɔ:z/
R.P. /ɔ:/ occurs initially in words like ‘all, ought’ etc
It occurs medially in ‘bought, caught, short’ etc
It occurs finally in ‘more, door’ etc
9. /ʊ/ as in ‘book’
For this vowel the back of the tongue is raised to a position between close and half-
close. The lips are loosely rounded. /ʊ/ does not occur at the begging of words. Finally it
occurs only in the weak forms of words like ‘do, to, you’, etc
Spellings
a. oo book /bʊk/
b. o woman /wʊmən/
c. u bush /bʊʃ/
d. oul would /wʊd/
Some Indian speakers confuse themselves as to how they should pronounce ‘full’
and ‘fool’. Regular practice alone will enable them to come out with the correct
pronounciation of these words.
10. /u:/ as in ‘cool’
During the articulation of this vowel the back of the tongue is raised to the close
position. The lips are closely rounded. The tongue is tense. This is a long vowel. It is thus a
back, close and rounded vowel.
Spelling
a. u often pronounced /ju:/ if initial or followed by a plosive, a nasal or /f/, /v/, /h/.
duty /djutɪ/
future /fju:tʃə/
b. oo+ consonant letter
food /fu:d/
soon /su:n/
c. o do /du:/
d. ou soup /su:p/
e. ui fruit /fru:t/
f. ew sew /sju:/
g. eau beauty /bju:tɪ/
h. oe shoe /ʃu:/
i. wo two /tu:/
/u:/ occurs initially in words like ‘ooze, ooty’ etc.
It occurs medially in ‘show, boon, coup’ etc.
It occurs finally in ‘woo, too, through’ etc.
11. /ɜ:/ as in ‘bird’
During the articulation of this vowel the center of the tongue is raised to a position
between half-open and half-close. The lips are neutral. It is a long vowel. It is thus a central
vowel between half-open and half-close, pronounced with neutral lips. Most Indian
speakers do not use /ɜ:/ and replace it by /ər/. This vowel occurs only in accented syllables.
Spellings
a. er + consonant letter perfect /pɜ:fɪkt/
b. ir + consonant letter bird /bɜ:d/
c. ur + consonant letter church /ʧɜ: ʧ/
d. wor + consonant letter word /wɜ:d/
e. ear + consonant letter earth /ɜ:ɵ/
f. our + consonant letter journey /ʤɜ:nɪ/
/ɜ:/ it occurs initially in words like ‘early, earth’ etc.
It occurs medially in ‘term, learn’ etc.
It occurs finally in ‘sir, fur’ etc.
12. /ə/ as in ‘about’
During the articulation of this vowel the center of the tongue is raised to a position
between half-open and half-close, if the vowel occurs in non-final position. The center of
the tongue is raised to the half-open position, if the vowel is in the final position. The lips
are neutral. In R.P. /ə/ is a frequently occurring vowel, but it occurs only in unaccented
syllables.
Spellings
a. a about /ə’baʊt/
b. ar backward /bækwəd/
c. e sentence /sentəns/
d. er entertain /entə’teɪn/
e. o condition /kən’dɪʃən/
f. ou famous /feɪməs/
g. u succeed /səksi:d/
h. ur surprise /sə’praɪz/
Final /ə/ occurs in words like ‘drama, beggar, actor, colour, through, feature, picture,
centre’ etc. In the above examples cited it can be seen that this R.P. vowel will occur in
initial, medial and final positions.
DIPTHONGS OF ENGLISH
INTRODUCTION
The sequences of vocalic elements included under the term ‘dipthong’ are those,
which form a glide within one syllable. They may be said to have a first element (the
starting point) and a second element (the point in the direction of which the glide is made).
The R.P. diphthongs have as their first element sounds in the general region of /ɪ, e, a, ə, ʊ/
and for their second element /ɪ, ʊ, ə/. These elements may be treated as separate
phonemic entities. The following generalizations apply to all the R.P. diphthongs:
1. Most of the length and stress associated with the glide is concentrated on the first
element, the second element being only lightly sounded; diphthongs of this type are said to
be ‘falling’.
2. They are equivalent in length to the long vowels and are subject to the same
variations of quality, e.g. plays /pleɪz /, place /pleɪs/. The reduced forms show considerable
shortening of the first element.
3. They are particularly susceptible to variation in different regional and social types
of speech. Even within R.P. varieties, considerable variation is possible in both elements.
For this reason and because these diphthongs consist largely of articulatory movement,
typical formants are not given, though the glides may be identified acoustically in terms of
the formant structure of the first element and that of the second element.
4. No diphthong occurs before /ŋ/, except where word final /n/ is assimilate to /ŋ/ in
connected speech.
5. With the exception of /ɔɪ/, the R.P. diphthongs often derive from earlier pure
vowels.
Diphthongs
Of the eight diphthongal vowel glides, five are called closing diphthongs. They are
/eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, əʊ, aʊ/ and are known as closing diphthongs. We shall now look the description
for each one of them.
a. /eɪ/ as in ‘day
The glide begins slightly below the half-close front position and moves in the
direction of R.P. /ɪ/, there being a slight closing movement of the lower jaw; the lips are
spread. The starting point is therefore somewhat closer than R.P. /e/ of ‘bet’.
Spellings
a. a ape, late, make, lady, waste, bass.
b. ai, ay day, may, waist, rail, aim, rain.
c. ei, ey eight, veil, weigh, rein, they, whey.
d. ea great, steak, break.
Other Spellings
Halfpenny- / ‘heɪpnɪ/; gauge- / geɪʤ/ ; goal -/geɪl/
Foreign learners should give sufficient length to the first element of this diphthong,
making the correct reduction of quantity in the appropriate contexts. Care should also be
taken that the quality remains within the permitted R.P. limits.
b. /aɪ/ as in ‘time’
The glide of R.P. /aɪ/ begins at a point slightly behind the front open position and
moves in the direction of the position associated with R.P. /ɪ/. The glide is much more
extensive than that of /eɪ/, the closing movement of the lower jaw being obvious. The
starting point may be similar to the articulation used in the advanced R.P. type of /ʌ/. The
lips change from a neutral to a loosely spread position.
Spellings
a. i,y time, write, bite, climb, cry, dry, by.
b. igh, eigh high, light, fight, might, height.
c. ie,ye die, lie, pie, tried,dye.
d. ei,ai either, aisle.
Apart from the observing the proper reduction of quantity in syllables closed by a
foreign consonant, foreign learners should avoid over-retraction of the quality of the firat
element, so as to remain within the limits of the R.P. vowel; a front open starting point is
recommended.
c. /ɔɪ/ as in ‘boy’
For R.P. /ɔɪ/ the tongue glide begins at a point between the back half-open and open
positions and moves in the direction of /ɪ/. The tongue movement extends from back to
centralized front, but the range of closing in the glide is not as great as for /aɪ/; the jaw
movement, though considerable, may not be as marked as in the case of /aɪ/. The lips are
open-rounded for the first element, changing to neutral for the second.
Spelling
a. oi, oy boy, toy, noise, voice, boil, point.
This diphthong does not present very great difficulties to the foreign learners,
provided that, in addition to the appropriate variations of quantity, the quality of the first
element lies between the sounds of R.P. /ɔ:/ and /ɒ/. The glide does not extend beyond the
half-close front level.
d. /əʊ/ as in ‘home’
The glide of R.P. /əʊ/ begins at a central position between half-close and half-open
and moves in the direction of R.P. /ʊ/, there being a slight closing movement of the lower
jaw; the lips are neutral for the first element, but have a tendency to round on the second
element. The starting point may have a tongue position similar to that described for /ɜ:/.
Spellings
a. o so, old, home, both, folk.
b. oa oak, road, foal, toast, soap.
c. oe toe, doe, sloe, foe, hoe.
d. ou,ow soul, though, shoulder, snow, blow.
In most of the books dealing with the pronunciation of British English, this diphthong
is described as ‘ou’. Since the first element is clearly of a central type such a transcription
may be misleading. Foreign learners should avoid starting the glide with a truly back vowel,
but any kind of front rounded vowel is also wrong. It is advisable to learn /ɜ:/ first and to
modify it by adding lip rounding to the end of the vowel. Thus ‘fur’ may be modified to
‘foe’, ‘girl’, o ‘goal’, ‘burn’ to ‘bone’ etc. In addition proper prominence must be given to the
first element and reduction of the total length of the glide made in the appropriate
contexts.
e. /aʊ/ as in ‘house’
The glide of R.P. /aʊ/ begins at a point between the back and front open positions,
slightly more fronted than the position for R.P. /a:/ and moves in the direction of R.P. /ʊ/,
though the tongue may not be raised higher than the half-close level. The glide is much
more extensive than that used for /əʊ/ and is symmetrically opposed to the front glide of
/aɪ/. The lips change from a neutrally open to a weakly rounded position.
Spellings
a. ou,ow house, sound, cow, allow
b. Long in how, loud, town, cows.
c. Reduced in ‘shout, about, mouse, mouth.’
d. / l/ following in ‘cowl, fowl, owls.’
The foreign learners should be careful to use the correct first element, i.e., a variety
which is not so fronted or raised as to be dialectal; a starting point too near to /a/ should be
avoided. The first element should be the most prominent and the second element only
lightly touched on, the tongue closing to a position not higher than half-close.
Diphthongs + /ə/
All the preceding diphthongal glides /eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, ɜɪ, aʊ/ are falling (i.e. with length and
stress on the first element) and closing (i.e. gliding from a more open to a closer position);
three of them / aɪ, ɔɪ, aʊ / require an extensive movement of the tongue. All may be
followed by /ə/ within the word, either as an inseparable part of the word as in ‘fire, choir,
iron, hire, society, sour, tower’ etc., or as a suffix appended to the root as in ‘grayer, player,
slower, mower, higher, drier, employer’ such cases a third vocalic element /ə/ may be
added to the two elements of the diphthongal glide.
Centring Diphthongs: /ɪə, eə, ʊə/
f. /ɪə/ as in ‘dear’
The glide of R.P. /ɪə/ begins with a tongue position approximately that used for /ɪ/,
i.e., centralized front half-close and moves in the direction of the more open variety of /ə/
when /ɪə/ is final in the word; in non-final positions as in ‘beard, fierce’ the glide may not be
so extensive, the quality of the /ə/ element being of a mid-type, The lips are neutral
throughout, with a slight movement from spread to open.
spellings
a, eer, ear, ere deer, dear, tear.
b. eir, ier, ir weird, fierce, fakir.
c. ea, ia, eu, eo idea, Ian, museum, theological.
Foreign learners should avoid using the first element, which is too close, i.e., /ɪ/
should be used rather than /i:/ .’r’ should not be pronounced finally or before a consonant.
It should be remembered that an ‘r’ link is regularly made before a following a vowel, either
initial in the next word of the group as in ‘here and there’ or occurring in the following
syllable of the same word as in ‘hear’ and ‘hearing’.
g. /eə/ as in ‘care’
The glide of R.P. /eə/ begins in the half open front position and moves in the
direction of the more open variety of /ə/, especially when the diphthong is final where it
occurs in a syllable closed by a consonant the /ə/ element tends to be of a mid-type. The
lips are neutrally open throughout.
Spellings
a. are care, rare, share, mare.
b. air air, fair, pair, chair.
c. ear bear, pear, wear, tear.
The post-vocalic ‘r’ should not be pronounced, except as a linking form when a
following word begins with a vowel as in ‘a pair of shoes’ or when a vowel occurs in the
following syllable of the same word as in ‘care, Attention should also be paid to the half-
open articulation of the first element. In order to emphasize this point, it is often helpful to
begin the glide from the quality of R.P. /æ/ as in’cat, care’etc.
h. /ʊə/ as in ‘poor’
R. P. /ʊə/ glides from a tongue position similar to that used for /ʊ/ towards the more
open type of /ə/, which forms the end-point of all three centring diphthongs with a
somewhat closer variety of /ə/ when the diphthong occurs in a closed syllable. The lips are
weakly rounded at the beginning of the glide, becoming neutrally spread as the glide
progresses.
Spellings
a. oor poor, moor.
b. ure pure, endure, cure, sure.
c. ur curious, spurious, during, security.
d. ewer sewer.
e. our tour, dour, gourd.
It also occurs in words like ‘jewel, fluent, truant.’
Care should be taken to use the first element of a half-close kind rather than a quality
resembling that of /u:/. In addition, the spelling ‘r’ should not be pronounced, except when
a /r/ link is made before a following vowel, either occurring initially in the next word as in
‘poor old man’ or in the following syllable of the same word as in ‘tour, touring’ etc.
CONSONANTS OF ENGLISH
There are twenty-four consonantal phonemes. They are classified below in two
general categories:
a) Those articulations in which there is a total closure or a stricture causing friction,
both groups being typically associated with a noise component; in this class there is a
distinctive opposition between fortis and lenis types.
b) Those articulations in which there is only a partial closure or an unimpeded oral
or nasal escape of air; such articulations, typically voiced and frequently frictionless may
share many phonetic characteristics with vowels.
The consonants can be classified as follows:
1. PLOSIVES
A plosive or stop consonant is produced by a) a complete closure of the air passage
in the mouth, the nasal passage being also closed by raising the soft palate, b) the holding of
the closure and comparison of the air coming from the lungs c) a sudden release of air with
an explosive sound.
In R.P. there are three pairs of plosives : /p, b/ are biblical plosives, /t, d/ are alveolar
plosives, and /k, g/ are velar plosives. Of these /p, t, k/ are voiceless plosives and /b, d, g/
are voiced plosives.
A. Bilabial Plosives
In the production of these plosive sounds the two lips are closed and the air passage
in the mouth is shut off completely. The soft palate is raised thereby blocking the nasal
passage also. The air from the lungs is thus compressed. When the lips are separated, the
air escapes with an explosive sound. The vocal cords are held apart during the articulation
of /p/, but they vibrate during the articulation of /b/. So /p/ is a voiceless-bilabial plosive
and /b/ a voiced-bilabial plosive.
Distribution
For /p/: Initial position: pig, priest, etc.
Medial position: upper, spend, etc.
Final position: cup, sip, etc.
For /b/: Initial position boy, burn, etc.
Medial position about, etc.
Final position rubber, rub, tub, etc.
B. Dental plosives
In the production of /t, d/ the oral closure is made by placing the tip and blade of the
tongue against the alveolar ridge. The soft palate is raised thereby blocking the nasal
passage. The air from the lungs is compressed. When the mouth closure is released, the air
escapes with an explosive sound. The vocal cords are held apart for /t/ and they vibrate for
/d/. /t/ is thus a voiceless alveolar plosive and /d/ a voiced alveolar plosive.
Distribution
For /t/: Initial position: tin, ten,etc.
Medial position utter, settle, etc.
Final position pot, hunt, etc.
For /d/: Initial position din, door, etc.
Medial position adore, Madonna, bed, evil, etc.
Final position bond, band, etc.
C. Velar plosives
In the production of /k, g/ the back of the tongue is firmly held against the soft
palate and thus the oral passage of air is shut off. The soft palate is raised and the nasal
resonator is shut off too. The air that is compressed by pressure from the lung escapes with
an explosive sound when the back of the tongue is removed from the soft palate. The vocal
cords are held apart for /k/ and they vibrate for /g/. So /k/ is a voiceless-velar plosive and
/g/ a voiced-velar plosive.
Distribution
For /k/: Initial: cup, country, etc.
Medial: liquor, box,, etc.
Final: book, ache, etc.
For /g/: Initial: good, goose, etc.
Medial: finger, exact, etc.
Final: egg, bad, etc.
2. AFFRICATE
Affricates are produced by a) complete closure of the air passage and b) a slow
release causing friction. In English there are two affricates, They are /ʧ/ and /ʤ/. The
former is voiceless and the latter is voiced. They are both palate-alveolar affricates.
In the production of the affricates the air passage in the mouth is completely closed by a
contact between the tip and blade of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The front of the
tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate. The soft palate is also raised and the
nasal resonator is shut off completely. The tip and blade of the tongue are removed from
the alveolar ridge slowly so that the air from the lungs escapes with friction. The vocal cords
are held apart for /ʧ/ and they vibrate for /ʤ/.
Distribution
For /ʧ/: Initial: cheap, chain, etc.
Medial: achieve, teacher, etc.
Final: arch, batch, etc.
For /ʤ/: Initial: jump, jeep, etc.
Medial: soldier, religion, etc.
Final: edge, page, etc.
FRICATIVES
Fricatives consonants are articulated with a stricture of close approximation, that is
the active articulator and the passive articulators are brought very close to each other and
the air comes out through the narrow passage between them with audible friction. There
are nine fricative consonants in British R.P. They are labio-dental-/f,v/; dental-/ɵ, ð/;
alveolar-/s, z/; palate-alveolar-/ʃ, Ʒ/, glottal-/h/. Of the /f, ɵ, s, ʃ, h/ are voiceless and /v, ð,
z, Ʒ/ are voiced.
A. Labio-dental Fricatives
In the production of /f/ and /v/ the lower lip is brought very close to the edge of the
upper teeth, making a light contact with it. The soft palate is raised so as to shut off the
nasal passage. The air passes through the narrow space between the lower lip and the
upper teeth with audible friction. The vocal cords are held apart for /f/ and they vibrate for
/v/.
Spellings: For /f/
a. f fine, fear, father, etc.
b. ff coffin, coffee, staff, etc.
c. ph physics, photograph, etc.
d. gh cough, trough, etc.
Distribution
a. Initial: fine, fear, fun.
b. Medial: offer, defend, suffer.
c. Final: leaf, roof, loaf.
Spellings: For /v/:
a. v vest, vile, vain, etc.
b. f of
c. ph nephew
Distribution
a. Initial: vest, vine, village, etc.
b. Medial: over, silver, cover, etc.
c. Final: leave, five, move, etc.
B. Dental Fricative: /ɵ/
In the production of this consonant the tip of the tongue makes a light contact with
the edge of the upper front teeth. The soft palate is raised so as to shut off the nasal
resonator. The air that is compressed by pressure from the lungs escapes through the
narrow space between the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth, causing audible
friction. The vocal cords are held apart.
Spelling
a. th - thin, thick, theory, path, etc.
Distribution
/ɵ/ occurs initially, medially, and finally.
a. Initial: thin, thick.
b. Medial: either, anthem.
c. Final: path, oath.
2. Voiced Dental Fricative: /ð/
/ð/ is articulated exactly like /ɵ/ except that during the articulation of /ð/, the vocal
cords vibrate, producing noise.
Spelling
a. th - that, then, etc.
Distribution
a. Initial: then, though, etc.
b. Medial: leather, father, etc.
c. Final: with, soothe, etc.
3. Voiceless Alveolar Fricative: /s/
In the production of this sound the tip and blade of the tongue are brought very
close to the alveolar ridge so that the space between them is narrow. The soft palate is
raised so as to shut off the nasal passage of air. The air from the lungs escapes through the
narrow passage between the tip/ blade of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, causing audible
friction. The vocal cords do not vibrate.
Spellings
a. s sin, seal.
b. ss message, cross.
c. c+e, I, sc parcel, cease, science, scene.
Distribution
a. Initial: science, service, send.
b. Medial: casket, passing, master.
c. Final: ass, pass, chace.
4. Voiced Alveolar Fricative: /z/
/z/ is articulated exactly like /s/ as described above, except that during the
articulation of /z/ the vocal cords vibrate, producing voice.
Spellings
a. z zoo, zebra.
b. s(medial, final) poison, easy says, dogs.
c. ss scissors.
d. zz puzzle, muzzle.
e. x exact, examine.
Distribution
a. Initial: Zoo, zero, zenith.
b. Median: easy, lazy, exact.
5. Voiceless Palatoo0-alveolar Fricative: /ʃ/
In the production of this sound the tip and blade of the tongue are brought very
close to the alveolar ridge and the front of the tongue is also raised towards the hard palate.
The soft palate is also raised so as to shut off the nasal passage of air. The air that is
compressed by pressure from the lungs escapes through the narrow passage between the
tip, blade and front of the tongue and the alveolar ridge and the hard palate, causing
audible friction. The vocal cords are held apart.
Spellings
a. sh she, sheep.
b. ch machine.
c. s+u sure, sugar.
d. ti nation.
e. sci conscience
f. ci official.
g. e ocean.
Distribution
a. Initial: sheep, ship, shine, etc.
b. Medial: bishop, mission, cushion, etc.
c. Final: fish, bush, cash, etc.
6. Voiced palato-alveolar Fricative /Ʒ/
/Ʒ/ is articulated exactly like /ʃ/ as described above, except that during the
articulation of /Ʒ/ the vocal cords vibrate, producing voice.
Spellings
a. si decision, vision.
b. s+u measure, pleasure.
c. ‘ge’ in French loan words: rouge, siege.
Distribution
This consonant sound occurs medially and finally. It does not does not occur initially.
a. Medial: measure, pleasure, vision.
b. Final: rouge, beige.
7. Voiceless Glottal Fricative: /h/
For / h/, the air from the lungs escapes through a narrow glottis with audible friction.
Since in English /h/ occurs only in syllable initial positions, it may be regarded as a strong,
voiceless onset of the succeeding vowel.
Spelling
a. /h/ is always represented by the letter ‘h’.
b. Between vowels, /h/ may be voiced as in ‘behave - /bɪheɪv/; ‘behind’ -/bɪhaɪnd/.
Distribution
a. Initial: him, hire, here, etc.
b. Medial: behind, behave, etc.
D. NASAL CONSONANTS
Nasal consonants are produced by a) complete closure in the mouth and b) the
lowering of the soft palate so that the air cones out through the nose. There are three nasal
consonant phonemes in English. They are: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/.
A. Bilabial Nasal /m/
In the production of this sound the two lips are brought together and the oral
passage of air is blocked completely. The soft palate is lowered and the air comes out
through the nose. The vocal cords vibrate, producing voice. /m/ is thus a voiced bilabial
nasal.
Spellings
a. m money, mint, mausoleum, etc.
b. mm summer, ammeter, etc.
c. final mb comb, dumb, etc.
d. final mn autumn.
Distribution
a. Initial: man, mean, meander.
b. Medial: among, enemy, murmur.
c. Final: come, some, shame.
B. Alveolar Nasal: /n/
In the production of this sound the tip of the tongue makes a firm contact with the
teeth ridge, thereby blocking the oral passage of air. The soft palate is lowered and the air
escapes through the nose. The vocal cords vibrate, producing voice. /n/ is thus a voiced
alveolar nasal.
Spellings
a. n nation, norm, nostalgic.
b. nn manner.
c. kn knowledge.
d. gn sign.
Distribution
a. Initial: name, knee, etc.
b. Medial: many, money, etc.
c. Final: sin, can, etc.
C. Velar Nasal: /ŋ/
In the production of this sound the oral closure is made by the back of the tongue,
making a firm contact against the soft palate. The soft palate is lowered and the air comes
out through the nose. The vocal cords vibrate, producing voice. /ŋ/ is thus a voiced velar
nasal.
Spellings
a. ng sing, ring, tongue.
b. n+k monkey, uncle.
Distribution
a. This consonant does not occur initially.
b. Medial: singer, uncle, etc.
c. Final: sing, thing, etc.
D. LATERAL CONSONANT
Voiced Alveolar Lateral: /l/
A lateral consonant is articulated with a stricture of complete closure in the middle
of the mouth and the air comes out through the sides.
The English /l/ us articulated by the tip of the tongue making a firm contact with the
teeth ridge. Thus there is a complete closure in the idle of the mouth. The soft palate is
raised so as to shut off the nasal passage of air. The sides of the tongue are lowered so that
the air from the lungs is free to come out through the sides. The vocal cords vibrate,
producing voice.
Spelling
a. l light, meal, etc.
b. ll village, pull.
c. /l/ is silent in words like ‘talk, calf, palm, alms’, etc.
Distribution
a. Initial: lip, lord, lotus, etc.
b. Medial: clear, below, colour, etc.
c. Final: kill, pull, tell, etc.
E. ALLOPHONIC VARIANTS
a. A dental /l/ is used before /ɵ/ and /ð/ as in ‘health, wealth.’ etc.
b. In R.P. there are two varieties of / l/. One is called a clear /l/ and the other dark /l/.
A clear /l/ is articulated by making a closure in the middle as described above and
simultaneously raising the front of the tongue in the direction of the hard palate. It is used
before vowels and /j/. e.g. lily, valley, value, etc.
A dark /l/ is articulated by making a closure in the middle as described above and
simultaneously raising the back of the tongue in the direction of the soft palate.
It is used before consonants and finally. E.g. told, pull, etc.
In R.P. /l/ is syllabic in words like ‘little, bottle’ etc.
F. FRICTIONLESS CONTINUANTS AND SEMIVOWELS
A. Voiced Post-Alveolar Frictionless Continuant: /r/
In the production of this sound the tip of the tongue is raised in the direction of the
teeth ridge. The soft palate is raised so as to shut off the nasal passage of air. The air from
the lungs comes out through the space between the tip of the tongue and the post-alveolar
region without any friction. The vowel cords vibrate, producing voice.
Though the sound is vowel-like, it is classified as a consonant because its function in
the syllable is the same as that of other consonants. /r/ does not form the nucleus of a
syllable.
Spelling
a. r (only before a vowel sound in R.P)- red, run, round, trial, crime, etc.
Distribution
a. Initial: red, river, rise, etc.
b. Medial: try, pray, crew, etc.
In R.P. /r/ does not occur in final positions.
Allophonic Variants
a) A voiced fricative /r/ is used after /d/ as in ‘dry, drown,’ etc.
b) A voiceless fricative /r/ is used used after aspirated /p, t, k/. e.g. pray, try, crow,
etc.
c) An alveolar flap (single tap) /r/ is used when /r/ occurs between two vowels and
after /ɵ/. e.g. very, sorry, thrive, three, etc.
Linking /r/
In connected speech if the final orthographic ‘r’ (‘r’ followed by mute ‘r’) is
immediately followed by a vowel sound, the ‘r’ is pronounced. This is called the linking ‘r’,
For example, the word ‘pepper’ is pronounced /pepə/ in isolation, but in ‘pepper and salt’,
the final ‘r’ of ‘pepper’ is pronounced-/pepə rən’sɒlt/. The word ‘hear’ is pronounced as
/hɪə/ in isolation and in ‘here and there’ the ‘’r’ of ‘here’ is pronounced - /hɪərən’ðeə/
b. Semi-Vowels: / j/ and /w/
A semi-vowel is a vowel glide to a more prominent sound in the same syllable. In
English there are two semi-vowels. /j/ is a palatal semi- vowel and /w/ is a labio-velar semi-
vowel.
/j/ is a glide from /i:/ and /w/ is a glide from /u:/. Though these sounds are vowel-like
in their articulation, they are classified as consonants because they do not form the nucleus
of a syllable. They are also non-syllabic vocoids in pike’s terminology.
i. Unrounded Palatal Semi-vowel:/j/.
In the production of this sound the soft palate is raised so as to shut off the nasal
passage of air. The front of the tongue assumes the position for a vowel between close and
half-close and quickly glides to the position of the following vowel. The vocal cords vibrate,
producing voice. The lips are normally neutral or spread during the articulation of /j/, but
there may be anticipatory lip-rounding if the immediately following vowel is a rounded one
as in ‘you, your yawn’, etc.
Spellings
a. y yes, yard, yellow, beyond.
b. u, cau, ue, ew, iew union, university, tube , beautiful, due, dew, new, human,
view.
Distribution
a. Initial: yes, yard, young.
b. Medial: tube, stupid, beauty.
/j/ does not occur in final positions.
ii. Labio-velar Semi-vowel: /w/
In the production of this sound the soft palate is raised so that the nasal passage of air
is shut off completely. The back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate to
the position for a vowel between close and half-close and the lips are rounded. Then there
is a quick movement of the tongue and the lips to the position for the next vowel. The vocal
cords vibrate, producing noise.
Spellings
a. w west, wise.
b. wh when, why.
c. q, g+u queen, question, language.
D. Distribution
a. Initial: west, waste, wine.
b. Medial: queen, queer, quote.
/w/ does not occur in final positions.
CONSONANT CLUSTERS
A consonant cluster is a sequence of consonants at the beginning or end of a
syllable. In English two or three consonants may form a final consonant cluster. The
following is a list of common English consonant clusters:
Initial Clusters
/p/ as the first member of the cluster- /pl/ in ‘play, place, pleasant.’
/pr/ in ‘prayer, preach, prove.’
/pj/ in ‘pupil, pure.’
/b/ as the first member of the cluster- /bl/ in blade, behind, blue.
/br/ in bridge, brain, brass.
/bj/ in beautiful.
/t/ as the first member of the cluster- /tr/ in tray, tree, trial, trouble.
/tj/ in tube, tune.
/tw/ in twelve, twice, twist.
/d/ as the first member of the cluster- /dr/ in draw, dry, drain.
/dj/ in duty, during, dew.
/dw/ in dwindle, dwell.
/k/ as the first member of the cluster- /kl/ in class, clause, clear.
/kr/ in cry, crow, crowd.
/kj/ in cure, curious.
/kw/ in quick, queen, quote.
/s/ as the first member of the cluster- /sp/ in space, speak, spoon.
/st/ in staff, state, stay.
/sk/ in scale, school, sky.
/sm/ in small, smell, smooth.
/sn/ in snake, sneer, snow.
/sl/ in slave, sleep, slow.
3 consonant clusters in /spl/ in split, splash.
/spr/ in spread, spring, sprain.
/stj/ in stupid, student.
/skr/ in screen, scream.
Final Clusters
/p/ as the final element of the cluster- /mp/ in stamp, pump.
/lp/ in pulp, help.
/t/ as the final element of the cluster- /pt/ in adept, except.
/kt/ in act, fact.
/ft/ in laughed, reached.
/st/ in first, test, thirst.
/lt/ in tilt, belt.
3 consonants coming at the end: /dst/ in midst.
/kst/ in fixed, next.
/nst/ in against, danced.
/lpt/ in lelped.
/s/ as the final element of the cluster- /ps/ in cops.
/ks/ in box.
/ls/ in false.
3 consonants: /pts/ in accepts, opts.
/kts/ in acts, pockets.
/lts/ in belts, bolts.
4 consonants: /mpts/ in attempts.
/lf(s/ in twelfths.
TRANSCRIPTION
Transcription is substituting the IPA symbols for the orthographic version
Transcription is broadly classified under two heads. (i) Phonemic or broad transcription and
(ii) allophonic or narrow transcription. It should be noted that the phonemes are enclosed
in slant lines while allophones in square brackets [ ].
Transcription
Broad Narrow
Phonemic Allophonic
/ / [ ]
Eg. /teɪbl/ [theɪbl]
Points to be specifically noted in phonetic transcription.
1. For this purpose, it is enough that students need follow the system of broad or
phonemic transcription.
2. There is no punctuation mark used in the transcription.
3. Avoid using capital letters while using phonetic script.
4. In phonetic transcription every sound represented by a sybol and there is no
silent syllable. The word knight transcribed as /nait/, /k/ having no place.
5. Tone group boundaries are marked with singleoblique bar - /.
6. Sentence boundaries are marked with double oblique bars -//.
7. Week Forms most be used for ‘form’ or ‘grammatical’ words, Grammatical words
are articles, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliaries, conjunction and pronouns.
8. Tense endings and plural endings should be marked properly.
9. Some words could be run together, if they are pronounced so.
STRONG AND WEAK FORMS
English is a stressed language, that is, some words are stressed and other unstressed
in a sequence. Generally all lexical items such as nouns verbs, adjectives, adverbs etc., are
stressed and hence in transcription they have strong forms.
On the other hand grammatical words such as determiners, pronouns, propositions,
auxiliaries etc, do not carry the main stress and hence the weak for are used in transcription.
But, when these words are accented or when they are pronounced in isolation, the strong
forms of these words are used. When they are unaccented, the weak forms of these words
are used.
The ‘weak forms’ exhibit reductions of the length of sounds, weakening of the
vowels in them and also in the elision of vowels and consonants. Generally, many of these
words are pronounced with /ɪ/, /ʊ/ or /ə/ in their weak forms. Given below are the most
common of words with two forms.
orthography strong form weak form
Articles
a /eɪ/ /ə/
an /æn/ /ən/
the /ðiː/ /ðɪ /before a vowel
/ðə/ before a
consonant
Auxiliary Verbs
can /kæn/ /kən/, /kn̩/
could /kʊd/ /kəd/
have /hæv/ /həv/, /əv/, /v/
has /hæz/ /həz/, /əz/, /s/
had /hæd/ /həd/, /əd/, /d/
will /wɪl/ /l/
shall /ʃæl/ /ʃəl/, /ʃl/, /l/
should /ʃʊd/ /ʃəd/
must /mʌst/ /məs/, /məst/
do /duː/ /dʊ/, /də/, /d/
does /dʌz/ /dəz/, /z/, /s/
am /æm/ /əm/, /m̩/
are /ɑː/ /ə/
was /wɔ:z/ /wəz/
were /wɜː/ /wə/
been /biːn/ /bɪn/
Preposition
than /ðan/ /ðən/
at /æt/ /ət/
for /fɔ:/ /fə/
from /frɒm/ /frəm/
of /ɒv/ /əv/, /v/, /ə/
to /tuː/ /tə/, /tʊ/
Conjunction
and /ænd/ /ənd/, /ən/, /n̩d/,
/n̩/
but /bʌt/ /bət/
that /ðæt/ /ðət/
Pronoun
his /hɪz/ /ɪz/
him /hɪm/ /ɪm/
her /hɜː/ /hə/, /ə/, /ɜː/
you /juː/ /jʊ/, /jə/
she /ʃiː/ /ʃɪ/
he /hiː/ /ɪ/
we /wiː/ /wɪ/
them /ðɛm/ /ðəm/, /əm/
us /ʌs/ /əs/, /s/
Plural Endings
If a word ends in a voiceless sound except /s, ʃ and ʧ/ /s/ is added. If the word ends
in voiced sound except /z, Ʒ, and ʤ/, /z/ is added. If it ends in hissing sound /s, z, ʃ, Ʒ, ʧ,
andʤ/, /ɪz/ is added. Example:
Cats /kæts/
Dogs /dɒgz/
Houses /həʊsɪz/
Tense Endings
If the sequence ends in voiceless sounds except /t/, /t/ is added. If the sequence
ends in voiced sounds except /d/, /d/ is added. If it ends in/t/ and /d/, /ɪd/ is added.
Examples:
Walked /wɒkt/
Bagged /bægd/
Wanted /wɒntɪd/
PASSAGE FOR TRANSCRIPTION
An elderly couple had the alarming experience of waking one morning to find their
house of fire. It was winter and bitterly cold, and the ground was covered with snow. They
quickly threw on some warm clothing over their scanty night attire, gathered their most
precious possessions together and ran outside. By this time the place was ablaze and the
roof was in danger of collapsing. The neighbours had rushed to help and one had
telephoned for the fire-brigade. Suddenly the wife dashed into the burning house, saying
that she had forgotten something important. It was a reckless thing to do and she might
well have forfeited her life, but was soon back quite unconcerned and smiling with
satisfaction. She had obviously retrieved what she wanted. When she was asked what had
made her take such terrible risk, she replied that she had gone to get her false-teeth,
without which she could not have possibly faced the fire-brigade.
Transcription
//ən ˈɛldəli ˈkʌpl həd ði əˈlɑːmɪŋ ɪksˈpɪərɪəns əv ˈweɪkɪŋ wʌn ˈmɔːnɪŋ tə faɪnd ðeə
haʊs əv ˈfaɪə // ɪt wəz ˈwɪntər ənd ˈbɪtəli kəʊld / ənd ðə graʊnd wəz ˈkʌvəd wɪð snəʊ // ðeɪ
ˈkwɪkli θruː ɒn səm wɔːm ˈkləʊðɪŋ ˈəʊvə ðeə ˈskænti naɪt əˈtaɪə / ˈgæðəd ðeə məʊst ˈprɛʃəs
pəˈzɛʃənz təˈgɛðər ənd ræn ˌaʊtˈsaɪd // baɪ ðɪs taɪm ðə pleɪs wəz əˈbleɪz ənd ðə ruːf wəz ɪn
ˈdeɪnʤər əv kəˈlæpsɪŋ // ðə ˈneɪbəz həd rʌʃt tə hɛlp ənd wʌn həd ˈtɛlɪfəʊnd fə ðə
ˈfaɪəbrɪˌgeɪd // ˈsʌdnli ðə waɪf dæʃt ˈɪntə ðə ˈbɜːnɪŋ haʊs, ˈseɪɪŋ ðət ʃi həd fəˈgɒtn ˈsʌmθɪŋ
ɪmˈpɔːtənt // ɪt wəz ə ˈrɛklɪs θɪŋ tə dʊ ənd ʃi maɪt wɛl həv ˈfɔːfɪtɪd hə laɪf / bət wəz suːn bæk
kwaɪt ˌʌnkənˈsɜːnd ənd ˈsmaɪlɪŋ wɪð ˌsætɪsˈfækʃən // ʃi həd ˈɒbvɪəsli rɪˈtriːvd wɒt ʃi ˈwɒntɪd
// wɛn ʃi wəz ɑːskt wɒt həd meɪd hə teɪk sʌʧ ˈtɛrəbl rɪsk / ʃi rɪˈplaɪd ðət ʃi həd gɒn tə gɛt hə
fɔːls-tiːθ / wɪˈðaʊt wɪʧ ʃi kəd nɒt həv ˈpɒsəbli feɪst ðə ˈfaɪəbrɪˌgeɪd //
You will notice from the above passage that some words are stressed and some
others are not. For an effective grasp over stress, generally a difficult phonetic process for
the foreign learner, remember the following simple principle; content words and main verbs
in sentence are stressed. Structural words are not stressed Auxiliary verbs, personal
pronouns, possessives and prepositions undergo weakening in a number of cases and
therefore are not stressed.
Always remember that the transcription of a passage is complete only when the
patterns stress are marked.
THE DESCENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Language is something spoken, not written. Speech differentiates man from other
species. We do not have any means to know anything about the origin of language. There
are no direct evidences to say and prove it. The only means we have to know the kind of
language used by Julius Caesar or King Alfred the Great is the survived written documents.
So the tendency of thinking a language in terms of the written or printed word has grown.
Printing and writing are only substitutes for speech. Primarily language is oral. But what is
said is determined by what is written.
Language is evolutionary. Change is going on constantly. When we compare the passage
of Chaucer with the English that is spoken and written today, we find a lot of difference. If
we go further back to Anglo-Saxon period, we find still greater difference. But there is a
tendency to assume that it is a thing of the past and in all civilized countries language has
set fixed except the new words to express new ideas and inventions. But this is far from
truth. Change is still going on in pronunciation, in grammar and in the actual significance
attached to words. What is considered ‘Bad English’ in one’s school days is now tolerated.
Words which were considered slang twenty years before are considered respectable.
Reformed spellings are creeping in. this change is partly due to Americans influence
through the cinema and the television and partly through B.B.C’s attempt to establish a
‘correct standard’ for its announcers.
Speech or language is the distinguished characteristic of man. It differentiates him from
other animal species. Animals also have necessary speech organs. But the species which
developed mind and personalities alone developed speech.
Many learned treatises have been written on the origin of language. At present four
chief theories hold the field.
A. THE BOW-BOW THEORY
According to the theory, the earliest man attempted to imitate some characteristics
of some of the creature or the object to which he was referring. The young child adopts a
similar method of expression. The thing that distinguishes a dog from other animals is its
barking. So man begins to call it ‘how-how’. This imitative tendency is the beginning of
language, the roots of some words support such an assumption. In the word make we hear
the hissing sound. In the words ‘wind’ there is an imitation of whistling of the gust among
the tree-tops. The word ‘water’ has a liquid sound in it. In many words the onomatopoeic
element has played a important role. The recent coinage words such as ‘puff, whine, wail,
whistle, babble’ denotes sounds of one kind or other
B. THE DING-DONG THEORY
This theory is usually associated with the great German scholar and philologist,
Max Muller. According to this theory, the beginning of language are to be found in the
sense of rhythm which seems to be found inborn in man. This theory favours the imitation
of movement rather than of sound. Observing certain rhythm in the purling of the stream
or the swaying of the trees in the wind, early man ‘ding-donged’ phonetically to them. This
theory would connect the origin of speech with the same impulse which give rise to the
savage war-dance, the medieval ballads and the sea-chanties.
C. THE POOH-POOH THEORY
‘pooh-pooh’ is an exclamation implying contempt or disgust. Frequent use of this
expression has given the status of a (verb pooh-pooh= to decry). This theory traces all forms
of ‘speech utterance back to emotional interjections evoked by pain, surprise, pleasure,
wonder etc. these could have been similar to brute noises at the early stages and had got
refined in our rational language. This theory underlies the origin of all languages.
D. THE GESTURE THEORY
This theory was advanced by Wilhelm Wundt. Later it was re-stated by Sir Richard
Paget in his book ‘Human Speech’. The earliest method of communication was by sign and
gesture made with hands. Such a language was natural and spontaneous. Even today we
resort to it when we beckon to a person when we try to speak with someone whose
language which we do not understand. Every gesture of the hand is accompanied by a
corresponding movement of the tongue, the lips or the jaws. In the course of time the
hand-gesture was displaced by the language. When we speak the words I, me, the lips are
drawn in towards the speaker and for the word ‘you’ the movement is towards the person
addressed.
PLACE OF ENGLISH IN THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY OF LANGUAGES
The term ‘family’ refers to those languages that share common characteristics.
Languages having common characteristics belong to one family. They all descended from a
common parent. The world languages are classified under eight families.
1. Sino-Tibetan 2. Indo-European 3. Dravidian 4. Afro-Asiatic 5. Niger-Congo
6. Mayala-Polynesian 7. Nishadha languages 8. Khosian dialects
The English language belongs to Indo-European family of languages.
We cannot provide historical evidence to prove that English is descended from Indo-
European family. But similarities of certain sounds and the meaning of words lead us to
conclude that all the languages in the Indo-European family must have descended from a
common parentage. The ancestors of the languages of the Indo-European family must have
lived in one place to then diverted to different directions for various reasons such as in
search of new pastures, new place of their livelihood. Their language assimilates with the
local characteristics so that the parent language assumes new character. Sanskirt in the
Indian language and other Indo- European languages have similarities in vocabulary. So the
linguistic researchers gave the term Indo-European to these languages. They point three
areas which must have been the home of the Indo-European. 1. Scandinavia and the
northern part of Germany. 2. The Hungarian Plains and the stepes region in the Southern
part of Ukraine. 3. The north of the Black Sea. There is a lot of controversy about the home
of the Indo Europeans (Aryans). The opinion is certain. The Indo-European invaded the
Indian sub continent andcame too the northern part of India around2000 B.C. another
opinion prevails that the home of the Aryans was India and they left the land around 8000
B.C. and return around 2000 B.C.
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
There are eleven Indo-European groups of languages of which two groups of languages
Anatolian and Tocharian extinct. The remaining nine groups exist.
INDIAN
The Indo-European language is the Indian context is Sanskrit and Prakrit. Sanskrit is
representing the literary language. The Prakrit is accounting for dialects. The earliest of the
Sanskrit division is Vedic Sanskrit. It prevailed between 2000B.C. and 1500B.C. It is the
language of the four Vedar. A strong grammatical system in Sanskrit evolved in 4th century
B.C. it helped the language to attain literary status. This is called Classical Sanskrit. Sanskrit
is held as the mother of all north Indian languages and the language of Lanka-Sinhalese. In
the 6th Century B.C. Pail, a Prakriti dialect rose to literary status. From the Prakriti dialects a
number of North Indian and Pakistani languages evolved. A mixture of Arabic and Persian is
called Hindustani. Romany is the language of the gypsies of the north-west India. During
the course of their nomadic ventures around 5th century A.D they carried it to the various
parts of the world.
IRANIAN
Today’s Iran is formerly known as Old Persian region. There evolved two languages A)
Old Persian B) Zend. The normadic north Indian population mixed up with the Persians.
Together evolved to the central parrs of China and then to the Southern parts of the Russian
region. Then they mingled up with the Latvians. Then the features of Sanskrit entered
Lettic. Afghan Pushtu, Beluchi, Kurdish and a host of dialects account for the linguistic
varieties in the Iranian group.
ARMENIAN
Initially it was though that the Armenian language was a part of the Iranian group. Later
it was understood that it is an independent language of the Indo-European family. Old
Armenian is the language of the Christian scripture. It is known as literary Armenian. It is
known to the outside world from the 5th century A.D. onwards. It has similarities with
Iranian. There is no grammatical gender in the language. It prevails in the region between
the south of Caucasus mountains and the Eastern end of the Black sea.
AKBANIAN
It is known to the outside world from the 17th century A.D. This is the language of
ancient Illyria. It is spoken in the region North west of Greece. This language is of mixed
character with Latin, Turkish, Greek and Slovene. Its southern variation is known as Gheg.
Its northern variation is Tosk.
BALTO-SLAVIC
Prussian, Lettic and Lithuanian are Beltic languages. Prussian extinct. Thereis an inter
relatedness between Lettic and Sanskrit. The Slavic languages have two groupsthe south
eastern and western. Russians, Bulgarian and Illyria belong to the South eastern group.
Czech or Boemian, Polish, Serbian or Wen belong to the western group.
ITALIC
The Latin dialect belongs to this group. It is the literary language of ancient Rome. It is
known to us from about300 B.C. there were some other languages in the Italian region.
They are Ligurian, Etruscan, Messapian, Oscan, Venetic and Umbrian. Since the Romans
were dominant, their language Latinwas also dominant. There are twoo variations in Latin.
They are 1. Vulgar, 2. Classical. French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese were born of vulgar
Latin.
CELTIC
The Celtic population was spread in spain, Portugal, France, West Germany, Northern
Italy and England. The Celtic Branch includes three groups. A) the Gallic: it is little known to
us through names quoted by Greek and Latin authors or through inscriptions and coins. B)
the Brittanic: it includes the Welsh, the Cornish and the language spoken in North West
France. C) the Gaelic: it includes the Irish, the Scotch, the Gaelic and the language spoken in
the north of Ireland.
GERMANIC/TEUTONIC
English language belongs to this branch together with German, Dutch, Finnish and the
Scandinavian languages. The oldest representative of this branch is Gothic. It is preserved
partial translation of the Bible by Bishop Ulfilas who lived from 310 A.D to 381 A.D. old
Norse is Scandivanian. It was a single speech until 1000 A.D. Frisian is known from the 14th
century AD. The other languages under this group date from the seventh to ninth centuries.
From the above information it is clear that English is a member of the Indo-European
family. It belongs to the Germanic Teutonic group. It was introduced into Britain by
nomadic tribes from Germany. It is essentially a Low German dialect. We could not use the
terms English or England in connection with the language before the mid of the fifteenth
century.
Grimm’s Law
The Indo-European family of languages from which English has descended has eight
branches including the eastern ones like Aryan, Albanian, Armenian and Balto-Slavic and the
western ones like Greek, Latin, Celtic and Teutonic. It is from the last of these that English
takes its descent. The distinguishing qualities of the Teutonic branch are its verbal system,
the accent of words, and the series of sound changes to which the name the First Sound
Shifting has been given. The sound changes involved in the First Sound Shifting, though
originally discovered by a Danish scholar named Rask, were first formulated as a law by one
German scholar, Jacob Grimm (1785 – 1863). The law formulated by Grimm has been
named after him and is hence familiarly known to the students of history of English as
Grimm’s Law.
Grimm had found certain correspondences between some consonant sounds
occurring in the words of the classical languages like Sanskrit, Latin and Greek and those of
the Teutonic languages like English and Gothic. Grimm who studied these correspondences
more closely stated that there is regular shifting of certain series of Indo-Germanic
consonantal sounds in Teutonic. The law, as it was originally stated by Grimm, referred onlu
to the sound shifting of the Indo-Germanic voiceless stop consonants p, t,, k and kw. It has
been stated more completely and systematically as a result of the subsequent investigation
on the subject. In its present form Grimm’s Law includes the following series of changes.
a. Indo- voiced aspirated stop sounds bh, dh, gh become shifted in Teutonic to the
corresponding voiced stop sounds b, d, g.
b. The Indo-European voiced stop sounds b, d, g are shifted in Teutonic to the
corresponding voiceless sounds p. t, k.
c. Indo-European voiceless stop sounds o, t, k, kw become shifted in Teutonic to the
corresponding voiceless open sounds f, th, h, hw.
In order to illustrate this sound shifting we can take words from the classical languages like
Sanskrit, Latin and Greek as representative of Indo-European sounds because the Indo-
European consonant system is best preserved in these languages. Words from Old English
or Modern English or Gothic may be taken to represent the Teutonic sounds. Thus we have
in the following examples a full illustration of the First Consonant Shifting.
A. i. Indo-European ‘bh’ becomes Tuetonic b.
e,g. Skt. Bharata _ Mod. Eng. Brother
Skt. bhu _ Mod. Eng. be
Skt. Bharami _ Mod. Eng. bear.
ii. Indo-European ‘dh’ Teutonic ‘d’
e.g. Skt. Madhya _ Mod. Eng. middle.
Skt. Rudhira _ Mod. Eng. red.
Skt. dha _ Mod. Eng. do.
iii. Indo-European ‘gh’ _ Teutonic ‘g’
e.g. Skt. hamsa _ Mod Eng. Goose
Skt. stigh _ Mod. Eng. stige
Mod. Eng. stye
Skt. nidagha _ Old German. dag
Mod. German. tag
B. i. Indo-European ‘b’ _ Teutonic ‘p’
e.g. Indo-Euro. lunricus _ Gothic. sliupan
Old English slupan.
Latin. turba _ English. Thorp
Skt. kubja _ English. Hump
ii. Indo-European ‘d’ _ Tuetonic ‘t’
e.g. Latin cordis _ English heart
Skt. dasam _ English ten
Skt. svadu _ English sweet
iii. Indo- European ‘g’ _ Teutonic ‘f’
Grimm’s Law, however, did not operate under certain conditions, when combinative factors
were at work. For instance, if Indo-European ‘p’ or ‘k’ happerned to be followed by ‘t’, the
‘t’ remained unchanged so that from the combination pt, kt, we have in Teutonic ft, ht,
(Indo-Germanic p and ‘k’ being changed by the operation of Grimm’s Law,)
eg. Greek Kleptes becomes Old English hliftus
Greek octo becomes Old English eahta
Also if p,t,k were preceded by an ‘s’ in Indo-European, the combinations
remained unchanged in Teutonic as in the following examples.
Skt. stigh becomes Old English stige.
Lat. scrinium becomes Old English scrin
The causes of the sound shifting involved in Grimm’s Law are not clearly known. It is
assumed that the sound shifting was the result of the contacts, which the Teutonic people
had with some non-Germaic population after the segregation of their dialect from the
neighboring dialects of the parent language. This contact could have occurred through the
migration of the Germanic tribes to new territories or from the penetration of a foreign
population into Germanic territory. Whatever it be the Germanic sound shift, which was
still occurring as late as the fifth century AD is the most distinguishing characteristic marking
off the Teutonic languages from the languages to which they are related.
After the Grimm’s Law it was found that there were certain apparent exceptions to
it. In a pair of words like Latin ‘centum’ and English ‘hundred’ the correspondence between
the ‘c’ (k) and the ‘h’ was according to Grimm’s Law. But there was no such correspondence
between the ‘t’ of ‘centum’ and the ‘d’ of ‘hundred’. Instead of the ‘d’ in ‘hundred we
should had a ‘th’ sound, according to Grimm’s Law. Grimm himself was puzzled by the
existence of many pairs of words in which the Indo-European p, t, k were not represented in
Teutonic by the corresponding voiceless open consonants. As sound laws do not admit of
exception it was evident that the presence of the voiced sounds in Teutonic in place of
unvoiced sounds was the result of some combinative factor at work.
KARL VERNER’S LAW
Karl Verner, a disciple of Grimm, continued his research on the subject and forty
years later he discovered that the variable Indo-Germanic voiceless open responsible for the
hitherto unaccountable voicing of the Germanic voiceless open consonants, which has been
named after him as Berner’s Law. This Law, formulated in 1875, satisfactorily explains “the
apparent exceptions to the Grimm’s Law”. According to his law, when the Indo-Germanic
accent did not fall on the vowel immediately preceding the consonants in question, these
voiceless open consonants became voiced in Germanic. In West Germanic, the resulting
voiced open sound was changed into a voiced stop sound. Thus from Indo-Germanic ‘t’ in
‘centum’ West Germanic has a ‘d’ in ‘hundred’ instead of the corresponding voiceless open
sound, which was to be expected according to Grimm’s Law.
Let us now examine this by taking examples from Old English. In the Old English verb
‘weorɵn’ which is derived from Germanic ‘werɵan’ we find the operation of Grimm’s Law
because the Indo-Germanic word ‘wert has the accent preceding the ‘t’. But in the third and
the fourth stems of this verb Old English has the forms ‘wurdon’ and ‘worden’ containing a
‘d’ sound in place of the voiceless open ‘ ‘ sound in the first two stems. This has happened
because Old English ‘wurdon’ is derived from Germanic ‘wurdum’, which in turn is derived
from Indo-Germanic accent instead of preceding the voiceless stop consonant follows it .
Therefore it becomes a voiced open sound in Germanic and is in turn changed into a voiced
stop sound in west Germanic. This is true of all the voiceless stop consonants of Indo-
Germanic as represented in Germanic when the consonants in question are not preceded by
the Indo-Germanic accent. Therefore English words illustrating Verner’s Law contain the
voiced stop sound instead of the voiceless open sound in Primitive Germanic. This is
because in West Germanic the voiceless open sounds at a very early date became changed
into voiced stop sounds.
Under the same condition in which Indo-Germanic p, t, k became voiced open
sounds in /Germanic, Primitive Germanic‘s’ was voiced to’z’. This in West Germanic usually
appears as ‘r’. Hence we have in the four stems of the Old English verb ‘ceosan’ – (ceosan,
ceas, curon, coren) the first two stems with an ‘s’ sound and the later two stems with an ‘r’
sound. The ‘r’ in the modern form “were” is also formed in this way while “was’ has an‘s’.
Verner’s Law is thus seen to be of great importance in accounting for the forms of the
preterite tense in many strong verbs of English. Again we find the operation of Verner’s Law
in many causative verbs in English because the Indo- Germanic forms of these had their
accent on the ending and not on the stem. Thus from the verb ‘rise’ we have the causative
form ‘rear’. So Karl Verner has been able to vindicate the claim of regularity for the sound
shifting involved in Grimm’s Law by providing an explanation for the apparent exceptions to
the sound changes formulated by his master.
SEMANTICS (Changes in the meaning of Words)
Edward Sapir Writes: ‘Languages moves down time in a current of its own making. It
has a drift, Nothing is perfectly static’. This all-pervasive drift in language is clearly seen
particularly in the evolution of meaning in words. It is a universal process. The reasons for
change of meaning are, (1) language has been found to be inadequate in expressing the
inexhaustible variety in thought, and (2) words by nature are not static in their import.
Words are essentially the media for the expression of thought and ideas in a
particular context. Even the commonest man sometimes uses words in a new sense; all
such want is supplied by the new application of a word, the change of meaning gradually
becomes a permanent one. Sometimes the process of change results in the creation of
meanings far removed from the original one.
Semantics is the study of the historical evolution of meaning of words. Leonard
Bloomfield defines semantic change thus; “innovation which change the lexical meaning
rather than the grammatical function of a form are classed as a change or semantic change”.
The followings are a few methods by which words have changed their meanings;
1. GENERALISATION
This is the process by which a word changes its meaning very frequently. A term
which at one time had a specialised and restricted meaning comes in course of time to have
a wider application.
Box is one of the commonest of nouns in English Language. Originally, it was the
name of a tree. (In Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night. Sir Toby Belch and his party hide behind a
box tree to enjoy Malvolios discovery of the forged letter.) It was a rare and expensive wood
and so was used to make small caskets for costly jewellery. The casket was referred to by
the name of the wood “box”. Later the emphasis on the material was lost and the casket
made of any type of wood retained the original term “box”. But the idea of smallness was
still attached to it: a bigger kind of receptacle was called a chest. But in the course of time
“box” came to refer to any receptacle big or small, made of any material. Nowadays we
even speak of a horse-box on the railway, a signal man’s box at the theatre. A verb ‘to box’
has also been coined. Thus the meaning of the word ‘box’ has undergone a process of
generalisation.
Journey and journal are derived from the French noun jour meaning ‘day’. The root
meaning of ‘journey’ is a ‘day’s walk or ride, while ‘journal’ means a daily record of events.
Both the words have lost their restricted meaning. Now we speak of “a journey of several
weeks” of of “a monthly journal”. “Companion” meant “one who eats bread with another
person”. It is derived from Latin (coon=with, panis== bread). Comrade meant” one who
shares a room”. The persons with whom we eat bread or share the room become our close
friends. So, the words have acquire the generalised modern meaning.
Virtue first meant “manliness” the kind of “fortitude” required in war. Julius Caesar
uses this word in this sense in his Commentaries. The word was borrowed from French into
English language, and a general meaning became attached to it-‘power’, ‘noble or good
quality’ as opposed to ‘vice’. Quarantine referred originally to the period of forty days when
a man suffering from any contagious disease was kept isolated. Now the word is used
irrespective of the duration.
Salary is from French salaite. The French word is derived from Latin solarium, a
slum of money given to a Roman soldier to enable him to buy salt. Now salary refers to the
money given to any person periodically for service rendered. It has become generalised in
meaning.
Bend is used as a verb and it originally meant ‘to string a bow’. “Bending a bow”
implied “curving or arching”. When we say ‘bend one’s powers to a task’, we are using it in
the metaphorical sense, taken from the action of bending a bow.
Carry is another verb which has undergone a similar change. Etymologically it
means, conveying something in a wheeled vehicle. But it has become the most general
expression for the act of removing a thing, from one place to another.
Arrive is from Latin, ripa meaning ‘shore, bank’. Its original, meaning was “an arrival
by water”. But today, it has become generalised in meaning.
A very common from of generalisation is when the name of the material is extended
to the object made from it. Copper has come to mean ‘a copper coin’, tin a tin receptacle’,
nickel, ‘an American coin’ and glass wither ‘a mirror’ or ‘a drinking glass’. These are
instances where generalisation is carried to the extreme. The name of the container is also
used as a measure of quantity as in a jug of water, a tin of biscuits and a box of candles.
Another kind of change in meaning is the formation of words from proper names.
The transition for proper names to common nouns is a gradual one.
Jack is used in a variety of senses. It can mean a small ball sent down as a mark at
bowls and a tool used to lift a motorcar.
Guy is used as a common noun though it comes from the name of Guy Fawkes. Guy
today means a person, (Guy Fawkes was an English conspirator, notorious for his part in the
Gunpowder plot. Guy Fawkes Day is celebrated in England with fireworks and the burning
of ‘guys). In America, the word is used a more favourable sense: “regular guy” is a
complimentary term.
The phrase to boycott is derived from the name of Charles Boycott. He was an
estate manager in country Mayo, Ireland. He achieved notoriety during the agitation over
the Irish land question. When bad harvests threatened famine, the Irish and League was
formed. The League asked the tenants to have no social notices on them. Thus the term
boycott has come to acquire its modern meaning. The verb to burke means “to suffocate or
kill in order quietly”. The word came from William Burke’s career. He was a notorious
criminal. He committed a series of murders in Scotland. When the doctors and students did
not get enough corpses for dissection, he committed murders and sold the bodies to them.
2. SPECIALIZATION
Specialization is a more frequent process than generalisation. When words become
narrowed or restricted tin meaning the process is described as Specialisation.
Fowl originally meant any bird. WE find the word used to in Chaucer and the Bible.
It comes from Anglo-Saxon “fugol”. But the word bird also was in use in Middle English.
Gradually bird became a general term and/fowl/took on a specialised meaning.
Deer originally meant a wild animal. Caxton used it in this sense. Now the meaning
has been restricted to one particular species of animal.
Wed is an Anglo-Saxon noun meaning a pledge or a promise. A wedding also is a
kind of pledge- giving. Now the word is exclusively used to denote marriage as in
“wedding”.
Stay is derived from the Anglo-Saxon “slagen” (to strike) and is related to the sledge-
hammer in the Middle English period, it came to signify “to strike with fatal consequences”,
that is “to kill by a blow and now it has some to mean “to kill by any method”.
Toy originally stood for any kind of triviality or things of little value. Shakespeare in
his Twelfth Night has used it in this sense only.
Haply your eye shall light upon some toy
You have desire to purchase.
But now the word has restricted meaning- “a child’s plaything”.
‘Cousin’ is used by Shakespeare in a lose sense to mean a relative or even a close
friend without family connection. But now this means “a person who has blood
relationship”.
Strave is from old English ‘Steorfan’ meaning to die. But as time passed the meaning
came to be restricted to ‘dying out of hunger. In some districts of England it denotes “dying
from cold” also. Today, the word does not imply the idea of death, but only fasting or going
without food.
Corn meant originally grain. Today, to Americans it means the India corn or maize:
to the people of Scotland, it means ‘oat’ and in England it means “wheat” These are cases of
specizaliation of meaning.
Sad in old English meant ‘satiated or full’ One who is satiated becomes calm and
serious: Therefore the word next came to mean ‘serious’. as opposed to ‘trifling’. In the
seventeenth century the word became restricted in meaning and came to be used as the
opposite of merry, because unhappy people looked serious. Since serious and sad persons
are not easily moved the word by analogy came to mean ‘substances’ in the sense of solid
or compact. In Yorkshire people talk about ‘sad bread’ – a bread that has not risen properly.
A verb ‘to sad’ has come into existence, “to sad down” means to press something down so
as to make it compact.
Write meant only “to teat, to scratch”. In old English it specially referred to
actscratching ‘runes’ on a piece of Wood. Noe the meaning is restricted lo writing on paper.
Reat in old English meant ‘to guess a riddle or to interpret, or to divine’. ‘To read a
riddle’ is still a living expression used occasionally. The word has a specialised meaning
today and the idea of interpreting any riddle has been given up.
Generous originalling meant “of noble birth” and was then generalised to anyone
who had noble qualities. The sense has now been restricted to a selection of those
qualities, especially to open-handedness.
Bourt was “goodness” originally. Giving was considered a good and kind act and
therefore, it has come to mean ‘something given out of kindness’.
Cattle once meant ‘property’. In agricultural society living animals were chief forms
of property and so it came to mean living creatures that could be kept for profit. The older
meaning ‘property’ is preserved in Chattle which is the French doublet of cattle. Now the
meaning has been restricted to livestock, especially oxen.
Tobacconist is “one who has something to do with tobacco”. It was then restri cted
to a man who smoked tobacco. ‘But now it has the more restricted sense of “one
who sells it”.
Grocer is from old French grossier meaning “a wholesale dealer”. Then in course of
time it came to mean a “retail dealer” also. Now, by specialization, grocery refers to “one
particular class of commodities.
ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS
Words undergo semantic change when there is a gradual shifting of emphasis from
the original meaning to acquired ones.
French villain meant a labourer on the manorial estate. Since the labourer behaved
indecently, the word came to denote the rowdy behaviour of such people. From there the
meaning shifted to anyone who behaved badly. Thus the idea of ‘evil doer (villain) came to
be derived through the process of association.
Words which have a hard significance today acquired it through association of ideas :
Chuel: Anglo-saxon ‘ceorl’ is the root for this word and it meant ‘countryman’.
Churl has undergone the fate of villain. Rude behaviour is usually associated with
the villager.
Today, even an educated, town, living man if he behaves indecently, can be accused
of being curlish.
Heathen means a heath-dweller. People living in the heath were converted to
Christianity later. Therefore by extension a heathen came to mean a non-Christian.
Dilapidated etymologically means ‘unstoned’ i.e, a ‘building of stones in decay due
to the loss of stones or removal of stones. So strictly the adjective means “a stone building
in ruins”. In the course of time the idea of ruin came to stay and the reference to stones
was lost. Today we can call a book ‘dilapidated’.
Panel primarily meant a rectangular piece of cloth, parchment or paper. When it
was used for writing the names of jurors, teachers, examiners etc., it came to mean the list
of names written on it. The emphasis shifted from the actual paper, to the names written
on it. So, we today talk of a ‘panel’ a list of names chosen for a purpose.
Sabotage: It has connection with ‘sabot’ meaning a show.
If an expert shoe-maker deliberately produces a shoe of very inferior quality, the
inferior production is usually ascribed to te expert’s neglect of skill and carelessness.
Gradually the meaning shifted from neglect of skill in producing a thing to deliberate
destruction of any important machinery, building etc.
POLARISATION OR COLURING
Certain words acquire a definite colouring or an emotional significance though there
may be n etymological justification for it.
Propaganda was first used to refer to a committee of the Roman Catholic Church,
appointed to organise and propagate mission work. Later it came to cover any mission work
religious or non- religious. Its aim was to create an informed public opinion. Later sinister
associations developed, only after the first world was started in 1914 Nations circulated
false news. The aim of propaganda, therefore, was not to enlighten, but to mislead. Thus
the use of the word propagands acquired “a bad colouring”.
Anarchist is one who opposes any totalitarian Government. He wants to establish a
decentralised government with maximum liberty for the individual. Strictly speaking,
anarchy involves a very great sense of moral responsibility to the individual. The maximum
liberty for the individual has been misunderstood as lawlessness and so the word anarchist
has come to refer to anyone who advocates violent terrorism for political ends.
Amateur is one who does a thing for the love of it. Naturally his skill will be far
inferior to that of a specialist or a professional. Therefore the word amateur has come to
stand for a person who is not an expert and whose work is expected to be not perfect.
METAPHORICAL APPLICATION
Any word is capable of metaphorical use. But some words are deliberately used
metaphorically. The words under metaphorical application fall into two classes: (1) the
literal use of the word remains while the metaphorical use of it gains a new meaning (2) the
literal sense of the word is almost lost, only the metaphorical use of it remains. Under the
first category, we have the words which describe the feelings or certain qualities of
character and intellect. They are keen, dull, sharp, bright and volatile.
Sad and silly belong to the second category. Sad meant full. By the Elizabethan
period, it had come to refer to one who is ‘fullof sorrow’. We now say, “a man, full of sad
toughts”. Silly originally meant happy. Later it came to mean one ewho is simple and
therefore happy. Since ‘simplicity’ is often associated with ‘stupidity’, a simple person, that
is silly person, came to be known as stupid person. Thus silly has come to mean stupid.
Bias has an interesting history. Actually it is a technical term from the game of
bowls. Metaphorically it means leaning a person’s view or opinion. Today, we use the word
bias to refer to one’s inclination.
Outpost is a millitary metaphor; it has long since ceased to have any military
application. Hypocrite is a Greek word, meaning ‘ a play actor’. The word is now used in its
metaphorical sense to mean ‘one who pretends to be what he is not’.
Broadcast is an example of double metaphor, in the original sense. It meant sowing
seeds by taking a handful and scattering them. (The sense is completely lost today because
of the mechanical methods used in agriculture.) Later it referred to spreading information
by word of mouth. By extension it has come to mean spreading of information through
talks and even through wireless.
Thrill originally meant ‘to pierce’ and this meaning is now completely lost and only
the metaphorical usage survives.
The names of the human body are often used metaphorically, as in “the head of an
institution’, ‘the foot of page’ and ‘the heart of the matter’. But in the word chest the
process is reversed. The literal meaning of the word is ‘box’ and the use of the word to
describe part of the body is metaphorical
Daisy is originally “day’s eye” or “eye of the day”. Today it is the name of a flower,
through metaphorical application.
Tribulation meant ‘threshing’ originally. The etymological meaning reflects the belief
that suffering may have a purifying effect.
Bombast originally meant cotton wool which was used for padding. But the
figurative sense “inflated and turgid language” has completely replaced the original,
concrete sense.
Fustian originally meant “thick, strong, coarse cloth”, but is used figuratively to mean
“high-sounding, but is empty talk”.
Premise is a technical term in logic meaning a previous statement from which
another is inferred. In legal documents the plural premise was used to refer back to items
of property that has already been mentioned in a title deed, a detailed description of a piece
of property was given at the beginning and in the later parts of the document, the word
premises was used to avoid repetition. Hence the word has acquired the concrete sense of
buildings and grounds.
EUPHEMISM
This is the figure of speech in which a less offensive term is used for something very
unpleasant. The Euphemistic expression disguises the real nature of an unpleasant idea.
Euphemism in fact points to a sense of a consideration in the speaker for the person
concerned. Euphemistic expressions for the verb to die are the following: pass away,
breathe one’s last, succumb, expire, depart from this life, be taken or called, go to a better
world and go west. The dead person it alluded to as “the lost, deceased, departed, defunct’.
The word kill has the following euphemistic expressions: settle./do for, remove, destroy,
knock off, bum off, take for a ride, etc.
Cemetery is referred to as “a sleeping place”. Undertaker coming as such from the
“funeral undertaker” is actually a euphemism. But today, however “undertaker” itself is
considered a very unpleasant expression. So, many undertakers call themselves funeral
directors, funeral furnishers and morticians.
Certain euphemistic expressions are formed when the human impulse to swear is
checked by religious or social prohibitions. Some of them are: gan (God), darn (damn), dod -
burned, (God- damned), ‘sblood (God’s blood)’. Zounds (God’s wounds) etc. This is indeed
a curious exhibition of the human desire to sin combined with lack of courage.
Euphemism made its appearance in the language because of the observance of
certain taboos. Some taboos are the result of fear, other of a feeling of delicacy and others
agai of a sense of decency and propriety.
(i) The supernatural beings are looked upon with awe and fear. This results the
imposition of bans on their names. The jews are not allowed to refer directly to God; they
used the words maste- instead. The name of the devil has even rise to countless
euphemisms Hornie, Nick Clootie and the other one.
(ii) It is a general human tendency to avoid direct reference to unpleasant subjects,
particularly in the matters of sickness and death.
Disease was originally a euphemism, meaning lack of ease, uneasiness, though it has long
since lost any euphemistic value.
(iii) The three important spheres most directly affected by this form of toboo are sex,
certain parts and functions of the body and swearing. The nineteenth century American
ladies used the benders for legs and waist for body.
PRUDERY
It is false sence of delicacy and refinement and not a genuine desire to avoid giving
pains at the source of euphemistic expressions it becomes PRUDERY. The words of prudery
reflect an element of social sobbery and affectation. Lavatory is originally a euphemism
meaning a washing place. Now, expressions such as a convenience, a toilet are preferred to
lavatory. For manure the word, fertilizer is used nowadays. Other examples are ‘paying
guest’ for ‘boarder’, and ‘financier’ for money-lender and ‘sanitary engineer’ for ‘plumber
etc.
WORD MAKING IN ENGLISH
1. ROOT-CREATION OR IMITATION OR ONOMATOPOEIC OR ECHOIC PROCESS
This is the oldest and the crudest method of forming words. This process is
applicable to all languages. You might well remember from your reading of lesson I, how
this process has been postulated as one of the most important sources of all languages.
Such words were neither inherited from, Old or Middle English nor adopted from any
foreign language: but they made their own names. This is to say as Bradley puts it, “one of
the principal forms of root creation is that which is known by the name onomatopoeia. The
word is Greek and literally means ‘name-making’. It was used by the Greeks to express the
fact that a noise or the object producing it, sometimes makes its own name; that is to say, is
denoted by a word formed in imitation of the sound.”.
These words are called by Dr. Murray echoic words. By this process, a word is made,
imitating in its sound the thing which it is intended to describe’.
L.P. Smith explains the process with a fine anecdote. This means of word-making is
illustrated by the old story of the foreigner in China, who sitting down to a covered dish,
inquired ‘quack-quack’ and was promptly answer by ‘bow-wow’ from his Chinese attendant.
The word ‘hiss’ is formed out of the sound that snake produces while attacking its
enemy. Thus the word ‘hiss’ is created by the process of onomatopoeia.
In the same way, the following echoic words were created; bang, boo, boom, buzz,
cackle, chirp, click, fizz, giggle, hum, number, pop, quock, rumble, simmer, sizzle tick, titter,
twitter, whirr, whiz, ding-dong, flip, flop, hee-ho, pin pong, pom pom, ru-ba dub, tick-tack,
whip, etc.
Yet the sounds of nature have to be translated into articulate sounds which do not
imitate them but which suggest them to the mind. Thus the nightingale’s song is
represented by such divers sounds as bul-bul, jug-jug and whit-whit. Sometimes these
echoic sounds shall vary from generation to generation. For instance, the noise of the
bounce. This symbolism of sounds, the suggestive power to various combinations of vowels
and consonants, give rise to certain associations or suggestions.
a) For instance, long vowels suggest a slower movement than the short ones: “thus
dong is deeper in sound than ding; clank than clink; and chip is a slighter action than that
described bychop.”
b) qu: the words beginning with the consonants qu express the idea of shaking or
trembling as quiver, quaver, quagmire etc.
c) bl: suggests inflation and impetus where the breath is involved as blabe, balder,
blast, blow, blister, bloat, blob etc. In all these words, the blowing in, or blasting out
of the air is suggested: blow and blast indicate explosive movements also.
d) fl: expresses some clumsy movements as flop, flounder or the hurried action as
flash, flee, flicker, fling etc.
e) gr: indicates dissatisfaction as groon, groase, grudge, grumble, grunch, grunt; etc.
f) scr: signifies the sense of outcry such as scream screech etc.
g) k or p:these stop consonants suggest an and abrupt ending of a movement as
click, clip, clop, slap, snip, snap etc
h) sh: at the same time indicates a slow ending of action as dash, smash, splash etc.
i) mp: conveys the sense of a duller and heavier sound stopped in silence but more
slowly as bump, dump, plump, lump etc.
j) st: suggests stabity as stable, stage, stall, staunch, stand, statue, stay, steadfast,
still etc.
k) wh: stands for subdued sounds as whistle, whisper etc.
At this juncture, a caution may be noted against a notion that all the words beginning or
ending with the consonants as stated above suggest the meaning drawn against the each
item respectively. I only indicates that in the past they have been the principles underlying
word-making.
Abbreviatiation: It is not that all the words shortened become recognized words. For
example, even though very often people prefer to say exam in lieu of examination, yet the
word exam has not become a recognized one. On the other hand, the term bus has
replaced by omnibus.
a) And thus, even though the words like lab (laboratory) maths (mathematics),
photo (photograph), bike (bicycle) are in conversation usage, yet they are not considered
as recognized words.
But cinema (cinematograph), mob (mobile vulgus), mike (microphone), cab
(cabriolet), taxi (taxi-meter-cabriolet), fan (fanatic), piano (pianoforte), zoo (zoological
gardens), submarine (submarine vessel ) are recognized ones
b) Mr. Stuart Robertson interestingly points out in his book The Development of
Modern English, that all the names of liquor are the shortened forms: gin (genievre) brandy
(brandy wine), rum (rum-bullion), whisky (usque baugh), grog (grogram), hock (hockamore)
etc
c) English people took up the licence of clipping down cumbersome. Latin pharses
and thus they have formed the words; (of whom), affidavit (he has sworn): sybpoena (under
the penalty), veto (I forbid), status quo 9status quo antebellum – the state existing before
war), infardig (infra dignitatem), the pros and cons, percent etc.
The formation of the term, culprit, is very interesting. In the Norman French
‘culpable, prest’ meant (he is) guilty, (and we are) ready (to prove it). This was shortened as
‘culprest’ and finally culprit.
Another interesting accound lies with the words Miss and Mrs. Even though both
the terms were derived from the term mistress , they differ in meaning today.
The word gent, shortened from gentleman, today means something derogatory,
even though in its origin it was not so. But the term cit formed out of-citizen or citymun was
derogatory in its meaning from the beginning.
The terms extra, abbreviated from extraordinary and chap from chapman, differ in
meaning from their parent words.
d) Certain terms represent the whole line. For example certain biblical prayers are
shortened by the terms like paternoster (our Fatger, Ave Maria (Hail Mary), Nunc Dimitis
(new let us thou depart) Magnificant (My soul etc)
e) Some of the shortened words are on the way to be recognized soon, owing to
their profuse use: varsity (university), dip (diploma), prof (professor)etc.
f) Bradley observes that in Middle English and early Modern English periods, it was
common to drop the initial vowel owing to hurried pronunciation. And the word dropped of
the initial vowel becomes a new word in the long run with a different meaning. Thus no one
world imagine today that assize and size meant the same thing during the Middle English
period, though they are so distinctively different in meaning today. But size was only a
shortened magnitude of an article of commerce was settled by an assize or sitting of some
constituted authority. Hence the standard or authorized magnitude of anything was called
its assize or size and afterwords, that latter form came to mean magnitude in general.
And by this process the following words were created.
tend from attend
mend from amend
strain from distain
fence from defence
spite from despite
sport from desport
vie from envy
ADDING SUFFIX AND PREFIX
The suffixes that are being employed now, -by, -ness, -ic, -some, -;ess, -dom, --wise,
-ish, -ship, -er, -hood descended from Old English.
There are number of words coined with the help of those suffixes. Thus we have
the words, cleverly, cleverness, economic, mouthful, speechless, kingdom, clockwise, bluish,
kingship, writer, childhood, etc. and also ever so many words like these.
As a matter of interest, the following words may be cited, for example, to show the
change in Modern English words from those of the Anglo-Saxon while coining words with
the names of places and people. For instance: English (English – Old English), Londoonish
(Londenisc O.E.) and childish (chindisc O.E.) were coined by the addition of the suffix-isc. By
the fifteenth century, this suffix-isc came to be attached to the name of colour and so we
have bluish, blackish etc. The same suffix is made use of in assigning shades of meaning to
the coined terms. For example, to mean ‘somewhat good’ the term goodish is used.
The Old English suffix lice: The adverbial ending become:- ly in Modern English
owing to the non-pronunciation of the final’e’ and consequently the consonant. It was in the
sixteenth century, owing to the need for indicating the position in a numbered series, the
adverbial suffix-ly was added to the ordinal numeral and thus words like the following were
created firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly etc.
SYNCOPATION
This is a process whereby vowel is elided and the consonants on either side ofit are
run together, with the result that s syllable is lost. Take for example, the word else which
was originally eles.
Some more examples of this kind are;
Onse _ once
Hense _ hence
Folorne _ forlorn
Woren _worn
Shoren _ shorn
Boren _ born
To illustrate: the past participle of bear was (bear-bore) boren.
This boren owing to the process of syncopation became born.
TELESCOPING
This process differs from those of composition and syncopation. Because here the
words are jammed together. The two words in each case do on and off become don and
doff respectively. So also doubt is a result of the telescoping of do and out. At once, alive
and alone were formed by this process.
METANLYSIS
Apparently, this appears akin to the above process. But this is entirely different.
Metanalysis is a Greek term meaning reanalysis or different analysis. The term adder was
originally nadder. So nadder by the process of metanalysis became adder.
A nadder _ an adder
A napron _ an apron
A norange _ an orange
Reversal is also possible
An ewt _ a newt
An ick name_ a nick name
Apart from this, owing to hasty pronunciation some mistakes are made:
Ten egges _ ten eggs
Science and arts_ science and darts
Flashing eye _ flashing guy
Yet, neggs, dartsand guy are not recognised words.
PORTMATEAU WORDS
When part of one word is combined with part of another in order to form to form a
new word, carrying with it the ideas behind both the original terms, we have what is known
as a ‘pormanteau word’. For instance, Carlyle coined a new word ‘gigmanity’. Socially
superior people travelled in gigs during the period of Carlyle, and so Carlyle was tempted to
coin the words gig + enumanity = gigmanity; so also, Lewis Carroll coined galumph to convey
the idea of galloping in triumph (gallop + triumph =galumph.) But both those words are not
recognised ones.
But we have certain authorised words as
Tragi – comedy (tragedy + comedy)
Melodrama (melody + drama),
Electrocute (electro + execute),
Radiogram (radio + gramophone),
Lunch (lump + hunch), and so on.
On the analogy of this certain interesting words were coined for the sake of
interest. Walter de la Mare coined the word Brunch by combining breakfast and lunch
(perhaps to means the eating of something around 11-30 a.m.). Attempts were made
unsuccessfully by combining mutton and bacon to form macon: so also smog out of smoke
and fog.
CONTRIBUTION TO ENGLISH BY BIBLE
The Biblical English is on par with the style of Shakespeare, Milton and Thomas
Browne. So it is held in high esteem.
Biblical English has given life to a host of archaic words. Some of these words are,
‘damsel, travail, raiment, list, quick, firmanment, appare, slimy, interlunar, succour, sloth’.
The –th forms of verbs pertaining to third person singular which became handy
with poets was got from eeh Bible, (e.g.) knoweth, loveth, saith, hath, doth, leadeth,
giveth, hateth etc. The second person pronouns in the normative accusative and
genitive cases – thou, thee, thy are abundantly used in the Bible.
Wyckuffe made use of the foreign words ‘satiable, glorious, discref with the native
prefix –un. But these ewords were substituted with –in of Latin in the Authorised Version.
So, we have’insatiable, inglorious, indiscreet’ for ‘unsatiable, unglorious, undiscreef.
Hybrids such as ‘frailness, gayness, scepticdlness, cruelness’ disappeared amd
‘frailty, gaiety, scepticism, cruelty’, appeared.
Above all, there is a sense of adherence to the original Hebrew and Greek versions
prevailing among contemporary translators. But it does not help them to come with a
convincing translation to surpass, the splendour and significance of “The Authorised
Version”.
MAKERS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
A) SHAKESPEARE
Shakespeare’s contribution to English language is immeasurable. At the time of
Shakespeare, the English language was still in a liquid stage. it was passing “from
complexity relieved stage into modernity. The works of Shakespeare fall within the period
of the development of the English language known as Modern English (1500 A. D to revent
time). This period is a period of experiment both in the importation of new words and in
the formation of idioms and grammatical construction. During this period a great change in
vowel sounds and consequently in pronunciation took place. As there was no
corresponding change in spelling, these vowel changes resulted in the distribution of
accents and in the division of words in syllables. Shakespeare’s English means Elizabethan
English. The general features of this English are brevity, emphasis and tendency to
interchange parts of speech. There are difference in vocabulary and grammar also.
Use of archaic and obsolete words and words of different pronunciation
We find many archaic and obsolete words are used in Shakespeare’s plays. They
are, ‘afeard, full-force, ‘sonties, traneet, usance’ etc. Words such as ‘advised, continent,
danger discover, except, fond, virtue, shrewd, prevent, presently, mere’ etc., are used by
Shakespeare in a different sense. Certain words like ‘imposition, contemplation, occasions,
distinct, aspect’ etc. are pronounced in a different manner in Shakespeare’s plays.
Different between Shakespearean Grammar and Modern Grammar
English has changed from a highly inflected language to one with few inflections.
Hence some sages which are judged by the grammatical standard of present day English,
may appear to be erroneous. They are to be explained by early grammatical inflections and
usages. Therefore they are old-fashioned rather than incorrect.
During Shakespeare’s time, Grammatical rules had not been fixed with their present
rigidity. The first English grammar was written by Ben Johnson, the contemporary of
Shakespeare and all the best writers of that day. (e.g) the use of the double superlative and
the double comparative.
The plays of Shakespeare represent spoken language. So ellipses and abrupt
transition are frequent. Some of the loose grammatical construction of Shakespeare are
due to the desire to express more vividly the ellipses and changes of constructions which
occur in actual speech.
Striking features of Shakespearean Grammar
a) the frequent use of ellipses, b) the frequent use of emphatic construction c) the
use of compound words, d)the frequent interchange of parts of speech.
Deighton remarks that “In the works of Shakespeare, the English language rises to
its highest power and widest compass. Other writers have a recognizable and individual
style, but the completeness of Shakespeare’s mastery over the resource of the English
language made him a master of all styles, so that in his hands, his other-tongue was capable
of expressing the whole range of feeling and portraying the most divergent types of
characters.
Shakespeare’s use of Rhyme
The rhymed couplet is very frequently used by Shakespeare in his plays. He
adopted blank verse and gradually abandoned rhyme. The amount of thyme slowly
decrease in his late plays. In Love’s Labour’s Lost one of the earliest plays of Shakespeare,
there are about two thymed lines to every one of blank verse. In “The Comedy of Errors’
there are 380 rhymed lines to 1150 unrhymed lines. In ‘The Tempest’ there are only two
rhymed lines.
B. JOHN MILTON
John Milton’s English was influenced by ‘the bible’, Shakespeare and Latinism. His
poetic diction is high and pure. Mathew Arnold comments that in the sure and flawless
perfection of rhythm and diction Milton is unrivalled among English writer.
Coinage of New Words and Phraseologies
Milton’s word-power is considered far more extensive than Shakespeare’s. The
words, pandemonium, anarchy, irradiance, emblazoning, infinitude, impassive, Satanic,
moonstruck’ are some of his astounding coinages. ‘pillar of state, writ large, precious bane
for gold, the gorgeous east, confusion more confounded, secret conclave’, human face
divine, fresh woods and pastures new, rove a better morsel, dark and blaze of noon, the Sn is
dark, slimy serpent, to love bondage more than liberty dark orbs, tongue-doughty giant,
eyc., are some of his remarkable phraseologies.
Use of Rhymed Verse
Milton was a great metrical artist. He has used a number of metrics and verse
forms with great art and skill. His ‘L’ Allegro, IL penseroso and Lycidas’ bring out his skill in
the handling of rhyme in short lines of four, even three or two stresses, and his sonnets
reveal his mastery over the sonnet-form.
Use of Blank Verse
Milton’s later poetry including his ‘Paradise Lost brings out his skill in the handling
of blank verse (Iambic pentameter line without Rhyme). At the same time when ‘Paradise
Lost’ was written Heroic Couplet was considered as the only fit metre for poetry. But Milton
had shown great originality and boldness in going against the current vogue of the Heroic
Couplet and using Blank Verse.
Variety in Passes and Stresses
Milton imparts variety by varying the stresses and accents, and the placing of the
Pause, or Caesura. He continually varies the stresses in the line, their number, their weight
and their incidence, letting them fall, when it pleases his ear, on the first as well as on the
second syllables of the line. He permits the pause or caesura to fall at any place in the line.
His chief care is to vary the word in relation to the foot, and the sentence in relation to the
line.
The meaning of the poet wants to convey is conveyed in most part not in single
lines and in rigid couplets but overflows from one line to the line or lines which follow. This
gives us the famous Miltonic verse-paragraphs.
Use of Extra Syllable
Sometimes, not frequently, Milton made use of extra-syllable at the end of a line
(e.g.) “Cornice or frieze with bossy sculptures graven.” The extra syllable at the end is ‘en’.
Sometime this extra syllable is inserted somewhere inside the line.
Use of Ellision and Contraction
Ellision is frequently used by Milton. Thus ‘labouring’ becomes ‘labring’ and
‘adventurous’ becomes ‘adventrous’. Contraction,an another poetic device is also used by
Milton frequently. Milton made use of all these devices to avoid monotony and weariness
and imparts a rare flexibility and ease to his versification.
Verbal Melody
By his deliberated attention to the element verbal melody Milton gave a new
character to English blank verse. Verbal melody is a characteristic of Milton’s diction as well
as versification, Words are carefully chosen with reference to their sound. Often a proper
name is modified or contracted to make it more musical Alliteration and assonance are
constantly used with this end in view. Milton’s Latinism also an example of Milton’s ear for
sweet sounding.
C) SAMUEL JOHNSON
Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) was an incomparable authority on the English
language. He is a lexicographer, critic and a poet. He read classics widely, deeply and
strongly. His contribution to the stabilization of the English language lies in the dictionary
he produced in 1755. His dictionary provided the reading public with authenticity in use of
words. In the ‘Preface’ to the dictionary, he expressed his wish to be of service to record
the language of its stand.
Johnson’s Dictionary
During the early 17th century, there were dictionaries of the primitive kind, not
listing more than 3000 words. They were not authoritative and comprehensive. During that
time the English middle class society was emerging with better education and sensibility. It
was Johnson’s determination to act as the recorder of the English language. This was
instrumental in the compilation of his dictionary. What companies of learned men had
taken generations to do in foreign countries had been done in England within a few years by
the ability, industry and determination of a single scholar. There had been nothing of that
kind in England before. Now with a single stride England took an equal place with France
and Italy in the future of literature and civilisation.
FRENCH ELEMENTS IN ENGLISH
The impact of French on English is great because it entered thrice into England
during the Norman French, Parisian-French, and Modern Times. The first two phases
pertain to the Middle English period. The linguistic domination of Anglo-Saxon started
waning due to the conquest of Duke William of Normandy over England. The Normans
became the administrative machinery in England. Norman habits, customs, fashion and
culture started during the English folk.
French is nothing but a localized Latin. So many Latin words underwent many
transformations before becoming French. Thus the Latin words lost their original character.
Norman-French Words
The entry of Normans resulted in the assimilation of Norman-French words with
some consonantal changes.
The Anglo-Saxon retained the ‘s’ which the Norman had abandoned (i.e) beast, bite,
feast.
The Norman ‘g’ was changed to ‘j’ as gaol-jail; the English ‘ch’ was ‘sh’ in Norman
French. But the English retained the ‘ch; in Norman words, (chamber, charity etc.)
The English ‘i’ is retained in the pale of French ‘ch’. (e.g) caitiff, canker, carrion.
French Entry Period
The French influence pertains to the middle English period under Norman-French
and central Parisian French. The Modern English Period derving benefit from Modern
French. The first period is from 1066 until 1204. The next period is from 1204 until 1500.
The third period is from 1500.
Norman Period
The influence of Norman-French have begun the Normal conquest. The entry of
Norman French words started soon after 110A.D.
The following English words of French origin are found in the Middle English
Chronicle and still in use.
Castle, countess, court, empress, justice, miracle, peace, prison, privilege,
procession, rent, standard, tower, treason, treasure, war.
On the Norman occupation England, the Norman became the upper class and the
government and bureaucracy came to their control. So Norman-French words entered into
English vocabulary they are
Coroune (crow), estat (state), people (people), contree (country), parlement (parliament),
concile (council), etc
With the French, Feudalism came to England and words relating to that set-up came to
existence. They are,
Princeps (prince), per (peer), due (duke), visconte (viscount) etc.
Adjectives – Court Life
The following adjectives were formed out of terms relating to court life. They are,
honor (honour), glorie (glory), nobilis (noble), finis (fine) etc.
Military words
The Normans gradually amalgamated with the Anglo-Saxons. Still they continued to
dominate the military, legal and religious set-up. Hence words connected with these
entered into Middle English and passed into Modern English. They are,
a) Military Terms
Armata (army), werra (war), bataille (battle), armure (armour), lancea (lance) etc.
b) Legal Terms
jugier (judge), scquita (suit),aatonne (attorney) etc.
c) Religious Terms
Srvitum (service), trinite (trinity),virgine(virgin), clerc (clergy),preiere (prayer), etc.
d) Words of Morallity
merci (mercy), castus (chaste), charite (charity), gratia (grace).
e) Words pf Social Ranks
Sire (sir), Madame (madam),maistre (marster),ordre (order), riche (rich), poure
(poor), etc
Norman Surnames
The surname culture is a Roman custom. But it was introduced in England by the
Danes. The Norman gave colourings to the surname culture. Usually the place of birth was
fitted after the names of persons (e.g) Martin of Stamford. Artisans and trades people were
signified by French terms, butcher, barber, carpenter, draper, mason, tailor.
Words related to Food Terms
The following words related to fooditems were from the Norman-French words.
Beuf (beef), moton (mutton), piz (pork), veneison (vension). Besides these words,
the following words. ‘banquet, supper, dinner’ were adopted.
Words of Family Relationship
The following words related to family relationship were used, ‘uncle, aunt, nephew,
niece, cousin, grand father, father-in-law, mother-in-law’.
The Parisian/literary French words entered English toward the fag end of the
thirteenth and the beginning of the fourteenth century. Chaucer employed Norman-French,
Parisian French and East Middle words in his works. During the fifteenth century much of
French works were translated into English. It led to Frenchification of Middle English. The
Middle English language started acquiring Parisian French words which replaced Norman
French words, but the meanings differed.
‘rage’(Norman French wor), ‘mirage’ (Parisian French word).
Feast (NF)
Wine (NF)
Beauty (NF)
Grandeur (NF)
Coy (NF)
Suit (NF)
Fete (PF) ravine (PF), beau (PF), Connoisseur (PF), reservoir (PF), suite (PF)
Dress
Dress, apparel, costume, garment
Art and Architecture
Colour, image, design, ornament, arch, vault, column, chapel, cloister, villa, cottage,
emporium, palace, mansion.
Literary Words
Commence, concea, nourish, prevent, search, outer, interior, exterior.
Words relating to Merchandise
Brigade, cache, indigo, machine, moustache, partisan, pilot, vase, volley etc.
17th Century French Words
Corpus (corpo, policie (police), cantine (canteen), brocher(brochure)
19th century French Words
During 19th century words relating to textiles, literature, politics, vehicles, dress,
furniture, and military were accommodated into English. As far as English is
concerned this century is considered to be the French-rich century.
Textiles
Crepe, suede, reticule
Dress
Blouse, rosette,negligee, beret
Literature, Art and Letters
Cliché, resume, renaissance, matinee, motif etc.
Food and Cooking
Café, menu., restaurant, chef etc.
Social Life
Fianc, elite, chauffeur,chic etc.
Military and Pollitics
Barrage, chassis, communiqué, attaché, debacle etc
The two world wars facilitated flush of French words and phraseologies into English.
The French words maintain their pronunciation and stress in Eglish. These words are within
the speech among the intellectual elites. But when these words pass into the hands of the
commoner then occurs the English pronunciation. (e.g) garage, popularization of French
words takes place through magazines and newspapers. (Eg) Revue, verslibre, limousine and
camouflage.es and
Caiques and Doublets
Certain English expressions like ivory tower, third world, flea, market etc., are
reminders of French expressions. There are many English doublets of provincial
French. Loyal/legal, poison/potion, frail/fragile, custom/costume and so on.
LATIN ELEMENTS IN ENGLISH
First the Romans had come to Britain before the birth of Jesus Christ. Then for the
second time they had come under the Roman General Septimus severus after the time of
Jesus. There were three great avenues for the Latin impact on the British soil.
a. When the language influenced the Germanic tribes while they were still in
the continent
b. When the Romans came to Britain and mixed with its original inhabitants, the
Brythonic celts.
c. When the Germanic tribes Angles, Saxons and Jutes had settled downin
Britain.
At the end of 6 A.D, the Romans came with the Prime purpose of Christianizing
the people. The result was Romanization of England and Latinization of English.
Continental Influence of latin
In the history of the world, the Roman made a sweep of most of the European
countries and the Germans made their way to the Scandinavian region and Britain. Before
these exploits the Germans and Romans had relationship with each other. Thus many Latin
words entered into the various Germanic dialects. So Latin words relating to agriculture,
trade of different articles and products entered into their vocabulary.
Words connected with war
Camp, battle, wall, pit, sheet, mile.
Words connected with Building materials
Chalk, copper, ppitch, tile
Words of Mercandise
Chapman, commerce, monger, mint, wine, kettle, table, pillow, kitchen, cup, linen, line,
gem, poppy, cherry, butter, onion.
Miscellaneous Words
Emperor, oil, daughter, dragon.
The Germanic tribes came to Britain with these Latin words in Germanic form. These
Germanic forms constituted the Anglo-Saxon forms of these Latin words. The Anglo-Saxon
words underwent process of changing and finally the words become modern in the form in
which they exist today.
2. Assimilation of Latin Words from Celtic
Assimilation of Latin words from Celtic into Anglo-Saxon took place at the fag end of
the 5th century A.D. the Romans had ruled Britain when the Brython Celts were the sole
occupants of the land. Naturally Latin would have swept the linguistic scene, but it was
otherwise. Therefore there was no possibility of direct influence of Lati on Anglo-Saxon pr
Old English. It had taken place through Celtic transmissions. The Latin words had found
their way into Celtic and must have been assimilated during the period of Co-existence of
the Celts and Anglo-Saxons in England.
The Latin word ‘castra’ is ‘caeoter’ in Celtic. It means ‘camp or town’. It is found in
the names of the following English towns. Manchester, Whinchester, Lancaster, Gloucester,
Worcester etc.
The other words found in English apart from the word are, ‘port, mountain,
tower,village, street,wine, wall, must’. Latin influence During the period of Christianization.
When St. Augustien landed in England in 597 A.D, the old English was limping due to
arbitrary grammar, insufficient vocabulary and absence of literature and phonology. He
came to England with forty monks and literary scholars to spread Christianity. They began
to translate the ‘Bible’ into Old English. During the process of translation many Latin words
entered the Old English language.
Abbor, alms, altar, angel, ark, candle, canon, cleric, deacon, disciple, bishop, manna,
minister, mass, church, giant, noon, nun, offer, palm, pope, priest, psalm, shrine, relic,
temple.
Christianization of England was a continuous process. A Greek bishop Theodore and
Hadrian Aldhem showed extraordinary interest in spreading Christianity. Learning was
encouraged by King Alfred the Great. There were theological writings through classical
native scholars Latin words entered in Anglo-Saxon writings.
They are, apostle, prophet, Sabbath, accent, brief, term, title, cucumber, ginger,
cedar, express, fig, laurel, cancer, paralysis, plaster, camel, scorpion, tiger, cap, chest, cook,
dish, fan, fever, -fidde, imp, inch, kitchen, linen, nut, mill, mortar, pan, pin, pit, pole, sack,
sickle, silk, strap, etc.
The following words were assimilated in their original stage. They are corporals,
cathedral, bascilla, prologue etc.
Psudo-Classic Words
New words have been coined with Latin roots (Latin) complacence, basis, exemplary,
machanisation.
Qusasi-Classic Words
The inquisitive nature of English writers made them love everything unusual or
fanciful with regard to Latin or Greek.
Their coinage of new words were odd. So nobody dared to use them in their regular
tongue.
Inquisiturient (Milton), logodaedaly (Coleridge), vocular (Dickens), and nometer
(Tennyson), circumbendibus (Goldsmith),hybrids
New thoughts and ideas of Renissance were conveyed by Latin prefixes and suffixes.
-action - starvation
-ist - feminist
-ite - ruskinite
-ism - funnyism, witticism
-ocracy - shorpocracy, barristerocracy
-ize - womanize, Londonize
-ative - talkative
-aceous - gossipaceous
-iacal - dandiacal
Impact of Latin Grammar on English
a) Prepositions
Formation of new words with the help of-ex, -anti, ante, -de with verbs ending with –ize,
-inter,-pre, -pro, and –re.
Ex-king, and slavery, intermix, ante nuptial, pre-telegraphic, proforeign.
b) Native Nouns and Latin Adjectives
in English there exist a number of words for which the adjectival forms are Latin.
Mouth -oral, nose -nasal, eye -occular, house -domestic, moon -lunar, school -
scholastic
c) Native Adjectives with Latin Adjectives
Use of Latin adjectives remain a word of linguistic snobbery.
Fatherly -paternal, motherly -maternal, silsterly -soronal, brotherly -fraternal,
waterly -aquatic, heavenly -celestial, earthly -terrestrial, timely -teporal
d) Use of Coumpound Nouns
Eye ball - ocular globe
Chin nerve -mental nerve
Easte nerve -gustatory nerve
e) Plurals
In English plural is formed by the addition of –s to a singular word. But Latin had altered
this methodology,
Phenomenon (sing) - phenomena (Plural)
Nucleus (Sing) - nuclei (Plural)
STANDARD ENGLISH
Introduction
English is a language now spoken by millions of men and women spread over the
entire world, belonging to different social classes and following different occupations. It is
as much the speech of the Cockney bus conductor and of the butcher’s boy as it is the
speech of the masters at Winchester of Harrow or of the precise Oxford don. In other
words it includes the speech, which is neglected and degenerate, in sounds or in words or
both, as well as the finely modulated and eloquent periods of the cultivated and the
scholarly. All these different speakers of English neither use identical sounds nor employ the
same vocabulary. But because all of them are sharers of English speech they influence it to
a certain extent. Besides these different classes of people using the English language, the
writers, the poets, the scholars, the journalists and the speakers on the radio also influence
it to some extent. As we move from one social class to another or from one part of the
country to another, we cannot help becoming conscious of the separate currents in
Professor board river of English speech. Of the three main currents, which are discernible,
the first is that of the local dialects, which are well defined in character and confined to
restricted areas. The second is that of a form of English speech spoken by some people in all
parts of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The third represents a majority of people in
each region, more or less closely related to the second current, but lacking its uniformity
and bearing traces of affinity to one or another of the dialects. The last two forms of English
speech are commonly known as Standard English. Professor H.C. Wyld distinguishes the
second from the third by the term ‘Received Standard’, while he uses the term ‘Modified
Standard’ for the third.
Of these three forms of English speech, only the last two, which constitute Standard
English, are of importance now. Though Englishmen of all ranks spoke their respective
regional dialects till the 15th century, written English began acquiring a single standard form
after the introduction of printing an the fixation of spelling by the printers. The dialects
have gradually lost their importance and have become more and more overridden by
Standard English, so that there are now mixture of standard and dialects forms. Standard
English rose into prominence as the speech of the metropolitan population and gradually
spread over the whole country. Between the end of the Middle Ages and the close of the
16th century the language had become standardized in the form it still retains, except for
minor modifications in spelling and pronunciation. Though this Standard English has first
been affected to some extend by local varieties of speech, any change, which has come over
it during the last three centuries; had been due to the influence of various forms of
Modified Standard. What Prof. Wyld designates as Received Standard is the speech of the
more socially fortunate and the best educated people. As it is the speech of the products of
the English public school education, it is often referred to as public school English. It is also
the speech of the by-products of the public School system. It is more uniform in
pronunciation than the Modified Standards.
Modified Standard, which is spoken by the majority of people in England is the most
important variety of English now in use. It may be defined as the speech of that large
number of people who have been brought up in a regional or occupational taught in schools
and colleges. However, they have not succeeded in achieving anything more than a
compromise between their original speech and the standard English aimed at. It is seen
that this Modified Standard has innumerable shades and varieties and its speakers far
outnumber those who use the Received Standard. It is also seen that every form of
Modified Standard is closely related to its counterparts in other regions as well as to
Received Standard. The compass of Modified Standard in each region is a wide one, ranging
from a speech hardly distinguishable from Received Standard to the inferior speech of slum-
dwellers in the city and of the villagers whose immediate ancestors spoke the regional
dialect.
Good English and Standard English
In speaking about Standard English one question, which is usually asked is “What is
good English and what is the relation of Standard English to other forms of good English?”
The answer to the question is that good English is “the English of the educated classes used
without self-consciousness.” It is presupposed that such educated people would have well-
assimilated the good traditions of English speech, would have discipline enough to avoid
vagueness or jargon or clichés and would have developed their personality in such a way as
to use the resources of the language fully. They will naturally use that relatively uniform
pronunciation which is becoming current generally with the sensitiveness of ear, which
would prevent sounds and usages ugly or harsh to the majority of people. It is also to be
remembered that the term ‘Received Standard’ applies to the educated speech of England,
so far as pronunciation is concerned. There are many other types of good English used by
speakers of the language outside England, like that of Edinburgh in Scotland or of
Pennsylvania or New York in America. However, so far as the written language concerned,
we find that there is relative unity among the more educated users of English the word over.
Good English, therefore, has to be taken to mean what educated speakers use – not what
they ought to use, according to the notions of grammar or lexicon.
Though it is true that the needs of modern life call for the universally clear and
comprehensible form of English and though it would seem desirable that a received
standard of pronunciation should be learned and used by all, there is nothing superior to
this form of good English, when compared with other regional dialects. Standard English is
preferred by speakers all over the world because it is not a logical dialect and because it has
qualities far superior to those of any other regional dialect. The superior place now
assigned to Standard English among the varieties of English speech today is not the result of
speech snobbery, but of commonsense. However, it is true that ‘Reviewed Standard’ being
the speech of the best educated Englishmen has a social value, which is of some material
advantage to the speaker. Hence it is continually imitated and cultivated for the sake of the
social status it confers on the speakers. So Received Standard is all the time gaining at the
expense of the Modified Standard, which, having no social prestige to confer, gradually
becomes neglected and degenerate.
Northrop Frye (1912-1991).
Northrop Frye is a Canadian critic. He developed the archetypal approach. The term
archetypal signifies “narrative designs, characters types and images which are found in a
variety of literature”. Frye has brought out a book called ‘fearful symmetry’. A study of
Willian Blake’ and later ‘Anatomy of criticism’. He said that critics, should take the role of
medicinal discipline. Along with Frye there are two more critics who warrant and mention.
They are James Frazer who write ‘ The Golden bough’ and C.G. Jung. This type of criticism
was first experimented by Maud Badkiln in his book ‘Archytypal Patterns in Poetry’. Other
practitioners of this type of criticism were Wilson Knight and Philip Wheelwright.
Frye’s essay, “The Archetypes of Literature” stresses a new critical point. Its
all about production. Frye asserts that one must read literature in a certain way. He
proposes reading as a scientific discipline. He feels that great poems have the
characteristics of science. Words produce meanings scientifically. Studying this kind of
critical science the student becomes aware of a centrifugal movement which carries him
away from literature.
Frye is not very happy with classrooms. For he feels that criticism is not
decentred in the hands of teachers. He laments the lack of perception which only takes the
readers to a meaningless statement or conclusion. He calls this meaningless criticism.
According to him, a teacher becomes a representative of a literary chit-chat. Thus we
conclude that the foreground of reading lies in he impact of the reader.
Frye says the criticism is science for criticism generates his calories.
According to Frye the poet’s task is to deliver the poem. It is his desire for self-expression.
The critic takes over where the poet leaves of. The poet is cut-off. The poem is taken over
by the critic.
Literature should be read in its totality. The search of Archetypal is a must.
Archetypes classify meaning. Archetypes are totemic. The term Archetype in criticism
denotes recurrent narrative design. It also includes character types or images drawn from
myths, dreams and even rituals. Myth to Frye is the central informing power. Myth is the
archetype. Myth is the centrally figure in narrative. The importance of this myth has been
forced on literary critics by C.G. Jung and Frazer. Comedy, romance, tragedy and irony
become elements of a central unifying myth. Myth is the central point in the literary work.
Hence, a literary critic must go on a quest for myth. It is part of the critic’s business to
establish how literature stands deep rooted in myth. Even other fields like psychology and
anthropology arise from myth.
Frye provides us a beautiful illustration. He quotes, “religion as one myth,
which is centered on literature”. He is right when he says that creative writer cannot escape
the presence of the divine in their writings. In the ‘Paradise Lost’, the Christian myth is the
character. Therefore we conclude that the central myth of literature is attached to the
importance of god or the hero who executes truth. This hero’s quest is centered on the
archetypal religious love. In politics too, there is a hero figure. The leader tries to save his
community by fighting the hostile forces that have enveloped the community. Frye suggests
that criticism should be systematic and cognitive. He believes that criticism should be
viewed in its totality. This knowledge of myth informs the critic the entire totality. In simple
words tobe a common man, myth is an expression of belief. It informs the believers of a
particular cultural group. Myth is traditional. Again, myth is legendary. As we find in the
stories of Robin Hood and King Arthur. Archetypal criticism is myth criticism. It seeks for
identify archetypes in literature. Thus to Frye, myth is an integrating element in literature. It
connects literature and the critic with the evolution of human life. A writer may use myth in
three different ways: 1) mythical hero eg: the national myth such as ‘Laxman Rekha’ which
means a warning taken from the Ramayana. 2) the four elements of life (earth, air, water
and fire) 3. Symbols.
That is why myth criticism has been marginalized in the realms of critical
theory in the 20th century
ELAINE SHOWALTER: TOWARDS A FEMINIST POETICS
Elaine Showalter is one of the most well-known names in the field of criticism, in general,
and Feminist criticism, in particular. ‘Towards A Feminist poetics’ is one of Showalter’s most
important and most influential critical essays. Like most of her other major works, in this
essay she tries to analyze the field of feminist criticism from different points of views and
suggests some changes required to make the field more effective. In this essay, she
discusses:
Woman as reader [Feminist Critique],
Woman as writer [Gynocritics],
The problems of Feminist Critique,
Program of Gynocritics, and,
Feminine, Feminist and Female Stages.
1) Woman as reader [Feminist Critique]
Elaine Showalter identifies two varieties of feminism one of which studies ‘woman as a
reader’ and the other one ‘woman as a writer’. She terms the first one as ‘Feminist Critique’
and the second one as ‘Gynocritism’.
She states that as a reader, woman studies the texts created by male writers. She presents
the belief that as a reader, female could change the established idea of a given text. This
analysis undertaken by female is what she calls feminist critique. The subjects studied under
it include the images and stereotypes that are presented in association with women in
literature. It also considers the exclusion of women in criticism as well as the
misconceptions about them that prevail in the field of criticism. The treatment given to
female characters by the male writers in the literary history is also analyzed to find gaps.
Showalter has also mentioned that display of women in consumer products is like
exploitation of female audience.
2) Woman as writer [Gynocritics]
When feminist criticism is studied in concern to woman as writer, Showalter terms it as
‘Gynocriticism’. This is the concept that analyzes themes, genres and structures created by
women. Woman, here, is considered as the producer of a literary text as well as its meaning.
Study of woman as a writer includes study of the following subjects:
a) The psychodynamics or the behavior of creativity as shown by females
b) Various aspects of female language and problems concerned to it
c) Career of female literary field
d) Literary history
e) Analysis of female writers and their works
Showalter derived the term ‘Gynocritics’ from the French term ‘la gynocritique’. She derived
the term since the field of study analyzing concepts she summed up did not have any
particular term in English till then. The Feminist critique is also considered to have political
and polemical association.
3) The problems of the Feminist Critique
Since women have played limited role in literary history, there arises a problem for Feminist
Critique. The problem is that it is male-oriented as it derives its matter from what men have
felt. Another problem is that role of male theoretician is a must in some fields of
specialization. Thus, the study of the various aspects of Feminist Critique in the desired way
does not take place.
4) Program of Gynocritics
Gynociticism aims at analyzing women’s literature that is based on women’s experiences.
Thus, the program that Gynocritics plans includes construction of a frame-work that could
analyze women’s literature and development of a new models deriving its basis from female
experience. Showalter realizes that Gynocritics arise when the dependence on male literary
tradition is discarded.
5) Feminine, Feminist and Female stages
Showalter is of the view that female tradition has evolved following some identifiable
patterns and phases. She divided this period of evolution into three stages – the Feminine,
the Feminist, and, the Female stages.
1) The ‘feminine phase’ dates from about 1840-1880. Women, in this stage, wrote to level
standards of intellectual achievements with that of male culture. However, inferiority
complex in the mind of female writers was quite clear. Use of male pseudonyms on the part
of female writers is one of the most unique aspects of this stage.
2) The ‘feminist phase’ ranged from 1882 to 1920. It followed the efforts to win rights for
women. The New Women Movement had become quite strong and women had won the
right to vote. During this stage, women writers expressed their feelings regarding sufferings
of women in the society.
3) The ‘female phase’ has been continuing since 1920. Showalter considers imitation and
protest to symbolize dependence of female on male. Thus, women rejected both these
phenomena. Women, here, depend on their own attitude and experiences to participate in
the literary process. Writers like Dorothy Richardson and Virginia Woolf, who represent this
stage, also identified uniqueness of female experience. They went to the extent of
identifying differences between male and female sentences.
Women, in general, began to be more aware about forms and techniques of art and
literature.
Thus, in the essay, Showalter has summed up the process of evolution of feminism, the
reasons that have hindered its development and also the ways it could be what it should be.
TERRY EAGLETON --- CAPITALISM, MODERNISM AND POST-MODERNISM
This essay was published in ‘New Left Review’ in 1985 as a response to Fredric Jameson’s
essay “Post Modernism”. Eagleton takes up Jameson’s question, ‘ Is Post modernism in any
significant sense a critique of contemporary society’ and answers it in the negative. Terry
Eagleton’s essay interprets post modernist culture precisely in terms of hollow version of
the revolutionary avant gard’s desire to erase the boundaries between culture and society.
He claims that Post modernism mimes the formal restoration of art and social life
attempted by the avant grade while employing it of its political content.
Post Modernism is a name given to the period of literary criticism that is now in full
bloom. It is said to have come in the post war period of the 1950s. This period comes after
the modern period. Post modernism came about as a reaction to the established tenets of
the 19th C and before. The practitioners of Post modernism react to the rational, scientific
and historical aspect of the modern age. They are self-conscious, experimental and ironic.
Post modernism is concerned with impression and unreliability of knowledge and with
epistemology, the study of what knowledge is.
Jameson argues that Pastiche is the appropriate mode of Post modernist culture.
Pastiche, according to Jameson is the literary work just imitating the style of another author.
It is a neutral practice. It does not love the satiric impulse and laugh of parody. But
Eagleton argues that parody is certainly a feature of Post modernism. Post modern culture
with its desolation of art in commodity avant-garde . post modernism is parodying in the
form of a sick joke., a serious attempt by the revolutionary Avant-garde to dismantle the
frontiers between art and social life. Thus post modern literary writings are commodity
anti-facts. In these commodity artifacts of post modernism, the avant-garde dream of an
integration of art and life becomes monstrately caricatched form. Eagleton is hostile to post
modern culture an account of its, depthless, styleless, being. Further, he attacks it because it
abolishes critical distance and expels political content in its conflation of itself with the form
of a stereo type. Post modern culture is not meant to erase frontier between art and life
but to parodies such an alienation.
Since the whole sphere has commodified and aestheticized, it migh as well give up all
claims to separate steps. It simply copies the copy and becomes one more commodity. This
miming of mime has carried a revolutionary force, an explosive, anti-representational
power. Aesthetics of post modernism is a dark parody of anti-representation. If art no
larger reflects society, it does not seem to change the world. It is rather a mimicry if art
cohich no longer reflect truth because then is no then there too be reflected, no reality to
be reflected. The commodity is an image of itself. If the artifact can be a commodity, the
commodity also can be an artifact. Arts and life interbreeds. Arts models itself upon a
commodity for where is already invested with aesthetic allurement.
According to Lyotard, in Post modernist culture, it is not difficult to see a relation
between the philosophy of austine Ipm. Classical models of truth and cognition are
increasing art of favour in a society where what matters whether the goods delivered are
commercial or rhetorical. If the work of art is really a commodity, it might as well admit it
rather than linguisting is an introble conflict between its material reality and its aesthetic
structure.
Eagleton calls modernist fashion and it refuses to abandon struggle for meaning as it is
caught up in metaphysical depth and wretchedness and experiences psychic fragmentation
and social alienation. The distinguishing features of post modern literature are a mixing and
blending of cultures and plurality. There is a tendency to imitate amplify. New material is
gradually born from the encountel or inter section of different element. The essence of Post
modernism is mixing, disintegration and instability of identity. Eagleton’s essay provides an
interesting feature of the phenomenon which shows that how post modernism has
developed from a peculiar combination of aesthetic modernism from which it inherits the
fragmentary self or schizoid self.
“INTRODUCTION” OF ORIENTALISM- EDWARD SAID
Orientalism is primarily a term used for the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern
cultures in the West by writers, designers and artists. Since the 19th century, "orientalist"
has been the traditional term for a scholar of Oriental studies. Nonetheless, the 20th
century saw considerable change in the term's usage. In 1978, American scholar Edward
Said published his influential and controversial book, Orientalism; he used the term to
describe a pervasive Western tradition, both academic and artistic, of prejudiced outsider
interpretations of the East, shaped by the attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and
19th centuries. (Wikipedia). In the “Introduction” of Orientalism, Said introduces and
explains what he means by the term Orientalism, before going on to analyse the various
manifestations of this meaning in various texts.
Said begins by talking of French journalist’s response to destruction of Beirut – sad at
destruction of the Orient of Nerval and Chateaubriand – of their romanticised perception of
Beirut not the reality of Beirut – example of how the Orient is an imagined ‘reality’ for the
West – comes to main argument of the book: Orientalism is a way of “coming to terms with
the Orient” because of special place the Orient has in European experience – Orient richest,
greatest and oldest colonies, and “one of its deepest and most recurring images of the
Other” – especially true for England and France and to a lesser extent to Germany or
Portugal or Russia and America.
Said then offers three related, explanatory definitions for Orientalism:
1. “Anyone who teaches, writes about or researches the Orient” is an Orientalist and “what
he or she does is Orientalism”;
2. A more general meaning: “a style of thought base upon the ontological and
epistemological distinction made between ‘the Orient’ and . . . ‘the Occident’” i.e, the
felt difference between the West and the East was responsible for theories, novels,
social/ political descriptions about Orient, its people, customs, mind, etc;
3. A combination of the above definitions; “a Western style for dominating, restricting and
having authority over the Orient” by making statements about it, teaching it, settling it,
ruling over it - Orientalism thus a discourse in the Foucaultian sense – responsible for
the European culture being able to ‘produce’ the Orient politically, militarily,
ideologically, imaginatively during the post-Enlightenment period – Orient therefore not
a “free subject of thought or action” - i.e Orientalism guides West to see East in certain
ways.
Said proceeds to explain Orientalism in greater detail – first restates basic argument – the
Orient is a ‘creation’ of the Western mind – both Orient and Occident are man-made
entities – not “inert fact of nature” – but (1) there is a “brute reality” corresponding to the
Westerner’s conception of the Orient – completely different from perceived Orient –
Disraeli’s Orient is an Orient imagined by Western culture – not real Orient; (2) the
‘Orientalising’ of the Orient did not happen accidentally – it happened because relationship
between Occident and Orient is relationship of power and domination, of “varying degrees
of a complex hegemony” – reflected in K.M Panikker’s classic work Asia and Western
Dominance – the Orient could be submitted to be made Oriental – Flaubert’s description of
Egyptian courtesan mistress created influential model of Oriental woman – possible because
of Flaubert’s power over her as wealthy, male Westerner – she did not have freedom to
present her emotions, history; (3) Orientalism not merely lies or myth (being imagined)
which will blow away when truth revealed – Orientalist discourse has “sheer knitted-
together strength” – closely tied with powerful socio-economic and political institutions –
Orientalism not “airy European fantasy about the Orient” but “a created body of theory and
practice” created with considerable material investment – “an accepted grid for filtering
through the Orient into Western consciousness” – Orientalism’s strength and durability can
be explained in terms of Gramsci’s notion of hegemony/ cultural hegemony – (certain ideas
become powerful/ influential in a culture through consent) – idea of superior European
identity in comparison with non-European cultures responsible for cultural hegemony –
natural because of extraordinary ascendance of Europe after Renaissance – power over the
Orient meant power to create knowledge about Orient – no history of England by Indian or
Arab – so found in all kinds of knowledge about Orient (linguistic, anthropological, historical,
etc)
To show how Orientalism and knowledge are connected, Said examines relationship
between power and knowledge and between pure knowledge and political knowledge – acc.
to Said general consensus that ‘true’ knowledge is “fundamentally non-political” obscures
“the political circumstances obtaining when knowledge is produced” – general belief that
knowledge should be non-political, scholarly, academic, impartial, above small-minded
doctrinal ideology – but there is assumption that writing on Keats or Wordsworth is non-
political – but writing on Russian economics political – but impossible acc to Said to detach
scholar from “circumstances of life”, “facts of his involvement with a class, a set of beliefs”,
“social position” – so nothing like ‘pure knowledge’ – all knowledge political, but in different
degrees – therefore argues that “all academic knowledge about India and Egypt” is tinged,
impressed with, violated by colonialism – a European or American studying Orient “comes
up against the Orient as a European or American first, as an individual second” – this is why
all knowledge of the Orient is political and seen through prism of Orientalism – but it was
culture which created this interest in an Orientalist viewpoint, along with brute political,
economic and military power.
Said then goes on to expand his definitions of Orientalism -- Orientalism not mere political
subject matter or something reflected passively by culture – nor is Orientalism large and
diffuse number of texts on the Orient – nor is it part of a Western plot to subdue the East –
it is (1) a “distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic,
sociological, historical and philological texts; (2) “an elaboration of not only of a basic
geographical distinction” but also of a series of multidisciplinary ‘interests’ which creates
and maintains it; (3) it is an intention to understand or control a very different world,
through various kinds of power (political, intellectual, cultural or moral) – argues that
Orientalism is a “considerable dimension of modern political-intellectual culture” and has
less to do with the Orient than “’our’ world” – it is conceded that intertextuality can affect
an individual writer – but reluctance to agree that “political, institutional and ideological
constraints” act in same manner on individual – so philosophers discuss Locke’s empiricism
ignoring relationship between their philosophy and justifications of slavery – “an intellectual
and historical impossibility” to avoid the role of political imperialism in study of Orient –
easy to show that liberal cultural heroes like John Stuart Mill, Arnold, Carlyle, Newman,
Macaulay, Ruskin, George Eliot, and Dickens had definite views on race and imperialism –
does not however indicate that culture is demeaned by Orientalism – culture has become
richer through it. Said therefore believes that philology, lexicography, history, biology,
political and economic theory, novel-writing and lyric poetry “came to the service of
Orientalism’s broadly imperialistic view of the world”.
Said makes two related points on Orientalism before concluding his essay – firstly every
writer writing about the Orient adopts a stance towards his subject – he locates himself/
herself vis-a vis the Orient – this revealed in kind of narrative voice he adopts, the
structures, images, themes and motifs in the text – further each text on the Orient “affiliates
itself with other works” – they have a unity as they frequently refer to each other – secondly
Orientalism does not lie hidden in the text – it is on its exterior – because what is presented
in such a text is only a re-presentation – the Orientalist poet or scholar makes the Orient
speak – explains and make Orient simple to the West – it is not the ‘truth’ about the Orient,
but representations, which are creations of the Orientalist with the Orientalist always
outside the Orient.
Said concludes by drawing attention to the changes in Orientalism across the centuries –
after the 1860s, i.e in modern Orientalism, “the range of representations expanded
enormously” because of the expansion of colonialism and the developments in science –
gave expanded scope and more refined techniques for receiving the Orient – in the
contemporary, electronic postmodern world there has been “reinforcement of the
stereotypes by which the Orient is viewed” – this standardization and stereotyping on TV, in
films, have further demonised the ‘mysterious Orient’ – aggravated by three facts 1. history
of popular anti-Arab and anti-Muslim prejudice in the West; 2. the struggle between Arabs
and Israeli Zionism and its effect on liberal culture; 3. total absence of a cultural position
which enables identification with or dispassionate analysis of Arabs or Islam – it is therefore
the “nexus of knowledge and power” which creates the ‘Oriental’ and “obliterates’ him/ her
as a human being – ends with argument that literary culture and society “can only be
understood and studied together”.
JAQUES DERRIDA - STRUTURE, SIGN AND PLAY IN THE DISCOURSE OF HUMAN SCIENCE
Derrida, in his essay Struture, Sign and Play in the Discourse of Human Science, firstly
describes the idea of freeplay, which is a decentering of systems within the systems
themselves. Centering of systems is supposed to limit freeplay, yet this centering of
systems, deisgned to give coherence to the system, is contradictory because it is there by
force of desire, not by any fundamental principle. The basis of a structure comprise of
historic patterns and repetitions that can be observed through historical records, and these
patterns comprise of a series of substitutions for the center. The moment of substitution,
which Derrida called "rupture", is the moment when the pattern or repetition reasserts
itself through decentering and re-centering the structure, an example of freeplay (within the
system) disrupting history (a series of events that provides linear, logical coherence to a
system).
The three major critiques of de-centering (by Heideggar, Freud and Nietsche) use the
language of metaphysics to breakdown / critique / deconstruct the principles of
metaphysics itself. This paradox is relevant as it applies to the dislocation of culture,
whether historically, philosophically, economically, politically, etc. The developement of
concepts birth their opposing sides (binary oppositions).
Derrida then moves into the discussion of Levi-Strauss' bricolage - the necessity of
borrowing concepts from other texts (intertextuality of whatever concepts seem handy to
give coherence, an intertextual collage) (obviously subject to change). This bricolage leads to
the idea of myth, and while it is assumed that all myths have an engineer, [the
concept/person] who creates concepts "out of whole cloth", the idea of the engineer is
impossible since it would mean that a system is created from concepts from outside the
system - so where did the engineer get these concepts from? Levi-Strauss suggests that the
bricoleur invented it - but suspecting the engineer's existence would be to threaten the
bricoleur's centered system.
Bricolage is not just an intellectual concept; it is also mythopoetical. Yet for a myth-based
concept it seems to command respect as an absolute source. To go back to an absolute
source, it is important to reject existing epistèmè (foundations / sciences), yet to oppose
mythomorphic discourse on myth, mythomorphic principles must be used. It is a similar
quandry the triple philosophers have towards metaphysics.
Myth has no authour, therefore determining that it requires a source is a historical illusion,
which brings up the question: does this principle (that the absolute source is a historical
illusion) also apply to other fields of discourse?
Levi-Strauss only brings up this question, and Derrida does not attempt to answer it.
Instead, he writes that there is an assumption on many philosophers' parts: to go beyond
philosophy is impossible - there is no language beyond what is available, therefore there is
no language that could explain the outer bounds of the centered system. Derrida suggests
that to go beyond philosophy, it has to be read in "a certain way", not assume there is
something beyond it. Empiricism (gathering of information which relies on what can be
expressed within the system), which informs the language and information base we have to
center our systems around, menaces scientific discourse by constantly challenging it, yet it is
based in scientific discourse. Paradoxically, structuralism - the school of critique that
emphasizes a system of binaries - claims to critique empiricism, and Derrida points out that
Levi-Strauss' books and essays are all empirical stuff that can challenged as well.
The concept of sciences calls for the concept of history, as history records information / data
and enables sciences to have a center for reference in empirical principles. Empiricism also
fails as a system that informs because in order to be completely valid, all information must
be gathered (totalization). However, due to freeplay (constant substitutions of the center),
totalization of all this infinite information is impossible.
Freeplay not only disrupts the sense of history, it also disrupts presence. Although Levi-
Strauss points this out, there is a sense of centered-ness in his critique to ground its
presence in a sense of origin, speech and an unmarred source.
Finally, Derrida points out the two reasons for schools of interpretations which are
irreconciliable yet exist simultaneously: 1) the interpretation which seeks to decipher an
original Truth that is uncluttered by freeplay, and 2) the interpretation which affirms the
role of freeplay within the system.
Derrida’s philosophy of not being centered in a single one philosophy has validity. Derrida,
as taught in the school of deconstruction, encourages the use of several perspectives
(several centers, so to speak) to view a concept. This does not help to affirm any holistic
view, but it enables a chance to find common ground between perspectives even though
the idea seems impossible. If the purpose of freeplay is to de-center within a system, then it
is perhaps possible to use the idea of freeplay to develope and enlargen the system in order
to accomodate new centers for thought. This seems to be the point of the post-modern
spirit: finding new ways of viewing the world that is not set in any specific system, but
constantly moving around with the principles of freeplay in order to participate in the world
better.
