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Direct Observation
• Describe methods and goals of direct observation
• Carry out an unstructured observation on a segment of video, writing up notes, with as little analysis as possible
Direct Observations
• Participant Observation
• Unstructured Direct Observation
• Structured Observation
6 differences between (ordinary) observer and participant observer
1 PURPOSE• engage in activities appropriate to the situation
• observe the activities, people & physical aspects of the situation
2. EXPLICIT AWARENESSnormally filter out much of what goes on in an activity, but not as a participant observer
3. WIDE-ANGLE LENStake in a much broader spectrum of information
4. INSIDER/OUTSIDER Experiencedo the activity and see what people around you are doing too, so can be both at the same time
5. INTROSPECTION-Normally take most of an experience for granted-As a participant observer, find out what it feels like to do something
6. RECORD KEEPING
Get close enough to people and make them feel comfortable
enough in your presence so you can record information about
their lives
Alternate between roles of
participant & observer • (active to passive),
participating observer (usual role for social research), passive
observing participant, active
What to do?
attend ceremonies (funerals, seasonal festive events)
– do the work– be around and talk when conversation
comes up– jokes
5 reasons to do participant observation to learn about culture
1 Can collect sensitive data, impossible as a stranger
STUDENT EXAMPLES
reasons to do participant observation to learn about culture
2. Reduces reactivity, get higher validity of data
(Beloksi visit)
reasons to do participant observation to learn about culture
3. Helps formulate questions, as you understand culture better
(supervision in health post workers)
reasons to do participant observation to learn about culture
4. Helps understand meanings, can make strong statements about cultural data you have collected
(telling mothers to boil water)
reasons to do participant observation to learn about culture
5. Basis for general understanding of how social organization works
(emic concept of poverty absent)
5 rules to follow for making an entry into fieldwork
1. Choose easy site over a difficult one, if all else is the same
rules to follow for making an entry into fieldwork
2. Bring documentation about yourself and project
rules to follow for making an entry into fieldwork
3. Arrange to be introduced, have a contact
(Gongtala, Ephrosini)
rules to follow for making an entry into fieldwork
4. Prepare answers to questions expected to be asked
What will you do with this information?
What are you doing here?
What are your qualifications?
Why do you want to do this?
Who sent you?
Who is paying you?
What good to us is the work that you do?
Why are you working with the other group and not us?
How many children do you have?
Is it true about American women that they.......?
How much money do you make?
What does your camera cost?
Do you have some medicine?
rules to follow for making an entry into fieldwork
5. Get to know the physical and social layout of the scene
• Ethnographies
• Maps
• Organizational charts
• Internet
Skills
Establish rapport
eye contact?
physical contact?
(materials about yourself, pictures)
Skills
Language esp. the sounds:
Skills
Explicit awareness (facial expressions, body language):
(Newars nose piercings)
Skills
Naiveté
Skills
Memory
Skills
Writing skills to expand what you observed
THICK DESCRIPTION
Possible conflicting roles
participant or observer:
Reactivity
Objectivity
Record your feelings and reactions to what you observe
Studying your Own Culture
FIELDWORK: Gender, Parenting,
Personal Characteristics, Sex
Consent issues:
– Many political aspects
Unstructured focused observations
Purpose is exploration
Speak in 5 different ways:– Body– Face– Eyes– Tone of voice– What we actually say (~20% of communication)
Emphasis on note-taking
– record what you see and hear, emphasize thick, detailed description
– video and film technology helpful, but limited to field of lens
Scripting format
– Time, activities in sequence– Can record a timeline when activities
occurred
Levels of observation
– regional (often impractical)– community (walk around, do a map, go
to markets, stores, temples)– neighborhood/compound (types of
buildings, where walls are, how used)– household/event– individual
Focal topic or subject
– person (follow child around)– location (meeting room for village
committee?)– event (wedding or meal, or disciplining
behavior)– have a guide like EFG
What to record?
– who – where– when– what (break behaviors into discrete
units)
What to record?
– why – key behaviors– what does not happen – maps and diagrams
Description Question Matrix
Spradley Participant Observation
Descriptive Question Matrix Pg. 82-3
SPACE OBJECT ACT ACTIVITY EVENT TIME ACTOR GOAL FEELING
SPACE
OBJECT
ACT
ACTIVITY
EVENT
TIME
ACTOR
GOAL
FEELING
SPACE OBJECT ACT ACTIVITY EVENT TIME ACTOR GOAL FEELING
SPACE Can youdescribe in
detail all the
places?
What are all theways space is
organized by
objects?
What are all theways space is
organized by
acts?
What are all theways space is
organized by
activities?
What are all theways space is
organized by
events?
What spatialchanges occur
over time?
What are all theways space is
used by actors?
What are all theways space is
related to goals?
What places areassociated with
feelings?
OBJECT Where are
objects located?
Can you
describe in
detail all theobjects?
What are all the
ways objects are
used in acts?
What are all the
ways objects are
used inactivities?
What are all the
ways objects are
used in events?
How are objects
used at different
times?
What are all the
ways objects are
used by actors?
How are objects
used in seeking
goals?
What are all the
ways objects
evoke feelings?
ACT Where do the
acts occur?
How do acts
incorporate the
use of objects?
Can you
describe in
detail all the
acts?
How are acts a
part of
activities?
How are acts a
part of events?
How do acts
vary over time?
What are the
ways acts are
performed by
actors?
What are all the
ways acts are
related to goals?
What are all the
ways acts are
linked to
feelings?
ACTIVITY What are all theplaces activities
occur?
What are all theways activities
incorporate
objects?
What are all theways activities
incorporate
acts?
Can youdescribe in
detail all the
activities?
What are all theways activities
are part of
events?
How doactivities vary at
different times?
What are all theways activities
involve actors?
What are all theways activities
involve goals?
How doactivities
involve
feelings?
EVENT What are all the
places events
occur?
What are all the
ways events
incorporateobjects?
What are all the
ways events
incorporateacts?
What are all the
ways events
incorporateactivities?
Can you
describe in
detail all theevents?
How do events
occur over
time? Is thereany sequencing?
How do events
involve the
various actors?
How are events
related to goals?
How do events
involve
feelings?
TIME Where do time
periods occur?
What are all the
ways time
affects objects?
How do acts fall
into time
periods?
How do
activities fall
into time
periods?
How do events
fall into time
periods?
Can you
describe in
detail all the
time periods?
When are all the
times actors are
"on stage"?
How are goals
related to time
periods?
When are
feelings
evoked?
ACTOR Where do actors
placethemselves?
What are all the
ways actors useobjects?
What are all the
ways actors useacts?
How are actors
involved inactivities?
How are actors
involved inevents?
How do actors
change overtime or at
different times?
Can you
describe indetail all the
actors?
Which actors
are linked towhich goals?
What are the
feelingsexperienced by
actors?
GOAL Where are goals
sought and
achieved?
What are all the
ways goals
involved use of
objects?
What are all the
ways goals
involve acts?
What activities
are goal seeking
or linked to
goals?
What are all the
ways events are
linked to goals?
Which goals are
scheduled for
which times?
How do the
various goals
affect the
various actors?
Can you
describe in
detail all the
goals?
What are all the
ways goals
evoke feelings?
FEELING Where do the
various feeling
states occur?
What feelings
lead to the use
of what objects?
What are all the
ways feelings
affect acts?
What are all the
ways feelings
affect activities?
What are all the
ways feelings
affect events?
How are
feelings related
to various time
periods?
What are all the
ways feelings
involve actors?
What are the
ways feelings
influence goals?
Can you
describe in
detail all the
feelings?
Practice Exercise
– Observing at mall
Structured observation
always preceded by unstructured observations
Quantifiable record of behavior(s) or the outcome(s) of behaviors collected by a trained observer through the use of a pre-coded or partly coded data instrument
Continuous Monitoringbehavioral stream
• behaviors observed in order, in context, get a sense of flow, duration of behaviors
• prioritization, develop set of rules, focal actor (e.g. child age 2-5 in the kitchen), & set of priorities in relation to actor & other activities in order, develop a sense of what comes first
• use codebook of “key behaviors” which are behaviors you have identified & defined from unstructured observations, Birdwhistell 1970 example lists body language
Continuous monitoring
– observer watches a subject(s) for a specific period of time & records their behavior as faithfully as possible, following a structured format with time, location & features of importance, tend to observe for an extended period of time
http://www.filmsdulosange.fr/kitchen-stories/
http://videodetective.com/home.asp?PublishedID=99843
spot check observationsobserver appears at randomly selected
places/times and records people’s activities when they are first encountered, recording behaviors in isolation from other behaviors (not part of behavioral stream)
New York Times Sept 17, 1996
Rating observations
need to make a decision based on observation about the presence or absence of a particular feature or abstract quality, often along some sort of scale, may need judgment
Rating observations
clear definitions essential, • Clean
• Dirty
Reliability
– clear operational definitions required, considering all possibilities (determined from key informant what if situations)
– need to train & standardize observers, look at intra-observer consistence over time, kappa or other measure
Reactivity (observer effect)
– record what you see (e.g. people eat with their backs to you)
– ways to reduce:• repeated observations
• extended visits
• interact or not (perhaps minimal interaction is best?)
Reactivity
identify reactive/non-reactive behaviors – determine those behaviors which are highly
reactive & those that aren’t – observing reactive behaviors is problematic
Con
tinu
ous
mon
itor
ing
Child feed / care and XerophthalmiaCase-Control Study in Nepal 78 pairs aged 1-6 (hh with Vit. A Def.)
7 day-long (6a-8p) (blinded) continuous monitoring over 15 months, ≥2 months apart, recording key behaviors, one record per 5 min. (time, location, actor (of behavior), recipient, behavior, food/quantity
Findings: – Cases tended to receive food from another's already served food (? Small initial
servings, so child requests food from others, more 2nd helpings
– Large meal gatherings protective
– Child neglect during feeding and other aspects of child care and care giving nurturing may directly influence quality of child's diet
Caregiver-child and child care behaviors more important than intra-household food allocation behavior in determining rural Nepali child's risk for xerophthalmia
Par
tici
pant
Obs
erva
tion
-->
Int
.
Participant Observation of homeless youth in SF
June-Sept. 1997, Castro District, San Francisco
Two 4-5 hour sessions a week during afternoons and early evenings
Alternating week-end and weed-days to sample youth in neighborhood at different times
"sitting on sidewalks with youth while they were panhandling or selling goods and walking around the site with a youth as they interacted with their peers"
Included being ask to "move along" by police
Led to finding key informant and interviews
Observation Exercise
Observe segment of video (no sound)
Write continuous monitoring notes
Do not analyze, report what you see
Exercise #2
Visual information, not dialogue, or description of etic events, explanations, etc.
CodingDevelop a scheme: Consider what are behaviors, observations,
events in the setting that are significant and make up a mnemonic code (discuss with team what elements will be) place in margin– Bernard and in exercise– Can modify afterwards
Discussed Session 7
Sampling
– samples are usually not random but purposeful, or convenient
– could do a cluster sample exercise, if wanted some element of randomness, and could also observe at random times