DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS FACULTY OF … · 2016. 2. 3. · Wariboko Sobere, Dr. Magaji Waziri, Mr. Augustine Okoye, Nimiteinbo-ofori Harry, Mrs. Felicia Mormah, Uche

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WALSON, OMININI BROTHER ASAKO PG/Ph.D/09/52080

DEMOGRAPHIC AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF PRINCIPALS’ PERFORMANCE IN THE MANAGEMENT OF

SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SOUTH-SOUTH NIGERIA

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

Ebere Omeje Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name

DN : CN = Webmaster’s name

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

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TITLE PAGE

DEMOGRAPHIC AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF PRINCIPAL S’ PERFORMANCE IN THE MANAGEMENT OF SECONDARY

SCHOOLS IN SOUTH-SOUTH NIGERIA

By

WALSON, OMININI BROTHER ASAKO PG/Ph.D/09/52080

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, IN

FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF

PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS FACULTY OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

MAY, 2015

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APPROVAL PAGE

This thesis has been approved for the department of educational foundations, University

of Nigeria, Nsukka.

By

_____________________ ______________________

PROF. F.A.OKWO INTERNALEXAMINER SUPERVISOR

_____________________ ______________________

EXTERNAL EXAMINER PROF. C.J.A. ONWUKA HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

______________________________

PROF. (MRS) UJU C. UMO DEAN OF THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION

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CERTIFICATION

Walson, Ominini Brother Asako a postgraduate student in the Department of Educational

Foundations, with Registration Number PG/Ph.D/09/52080, has satisfactorily completed the

requirements for research work for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Educational

Administration and Planning. The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been

submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other University.

_______________________ _______________________

Walson, Ominini B. Asako Prof. F.A.Okwo

(Candidate) (Supervisor)

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my Parents: Mr. Brother Asako Walson and Mrs. Evelyn B.A.

Walson.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The researcher is very grateful to the handiwork of Almighty God for his favour,

kindness, grace, love, protection, good health, guidance and strength bestowed on him and every

member of his family throughout the course of this study.

The researcher appreciates in a very special way his thesis supervisor, Prof. F.A.Okwo,

whose expert advice, encouragement, mentorship and meticulous supervision brought this study

to this level. His sincerity of purpose and dedication to duty were clearly manifested in the sense

of direction which made the task of producing this research work possible. The researcher is

indeed grateful and pray God to continually show his blessings of good health, long life and

prosperity on you and your family.

The researcher wishes to express his profound gratitude to the following professionals

and academics: His external examiner Prof. N.P. Ikediugwu and internal examiner Prof. N. O.

Ogbonnaya, Associate Prof. (Mrs.) A. I. Oboegbulem, Prof. J.C. Omeje, Dr. (Mrs.) L.N.

Onuigbo, Dr. D.U. Ngwoke, Dr. (Mrs.) T. Ogbuanya, Dr. F.M. Onu, Dr. (Mrs.) A.N. Okolo,

Dr. B.C. Madu, Dr. S.C. Ugwoke, Dr. (Mrs.) G.T.U. Chiaha, Dr. J.O. Ezeugwu, Dr. Ibenegbu

Christopher, Mrs. Obalum Marueen and the host of others who contributed in one way or the

other in making this study successful.

The researcher is very grateful to Chief (Barr.) and Mrs. Oris U. Onyiri, JP, for their

magnanimity and empowerment to foster the course of this programme. I thank them immensely

and may the Almighty God continually grant them abundant blessings. Many thanks also to the

management and staff of Vondorix Services Nig. Limited for their financial and moral support.

The researcher’s regards also go to his brothers, sisters, friends and well wishers whose

advice and encouragement remain outstanding, especially Mr & Mrs. J.O. Obiene, Mr. & Mrs.

D.B.Michael, Dr. Willie Obulom, Dr. N.S. Okoroma, Freshba Asako, Dr. (Engr.) Scott Akpila,

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Mr. Ibere Karibi, Mr. Denis Ngo-Abo, Engr. Amaechi Walson Asako, Mr. Ibim Walson Asako,

Wariboko Sobere, Dr. Magaji Waziri, Mr. Augustine Okoye, Nimiteinbo-ofori Harry,

Mrs. Felicia Mormah, Uche Osogwa, Mr. Ugwude, Anthony Chudi, Mrs. Amadi Maria Akunna,

and Mrs. Uba Felicia for their moral and financial support.

The researcher is very grateful to the research assistants whose sincerity of purpose

made a research of this scope successful. Among them are Bob Okoni, Levi Macus, Donald

Joseph, Iyasere Blessing, Aghogho Happiness, Joe Sampson and Nneji Jesline Nwakama.

Finally, the researcher acknowledges with deep appreciation the support and kind

understanding of his wife Mrs. Blessing (Lelee) Ominini Walson Asako and children: Veronica,

Godwin (Aziboabom), Raymond (Azibabhel), and Queen (Masebheziba) while the programme

lasted. He prays that the Almighty God rewards them abundantly.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page TITLE PAGE i

APPROVAL PAGE ii

CERTIFICATION iii

DEDICATION iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

APPENDICES x

LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF FIGURES xv

ABSTRACT xvi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

Background to the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 11

Purpose of the Study 13

Significance of the Study 15

Scope of the Study 17

Research Questions 17

Hypotheses 19

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 21

Conceptual Framework 22

Concept of Management 22

Secondary Education 32

School Principalship 35

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Performance in the management of secondary Education 37

Demographic factors in School Principalship 79

Personality Factors in School Principalship 88

Theoretical Framework: 97

Situational/Contingency theory 97

Human relations theory 101

Behavioural science theory 102

Hertzberg’s two-factor theory 103

Review of Empirical Studies 107

Studies related to demographic variables and principals’ performance 107

Studies related to Leadership styles and principals’ performance 128

Studies related to motivation and principals’ performance 140

Summary of Literature Review 145

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD 149

Research Design 149

Area of the Study 149

Population of the Study 151

Sample and Sampling Technique 151

Instruments for Data Collection 152

Validation of Instruments 155

Reliability of Instruments 156

Method of Data Collection 157

Method of Data Analysis 157

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CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS 160

Summary of the Findings 222

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION, EDUCATIONAL

IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY 225

Discussion of Results 225

Conclusion 249

Educational Implications of the Study 250

Recommendations 252

Limitations of the Study 253

Suggestions for Further Study 253

Summary of the Study 253

REFERENCES 258

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APPENDICES

Appendix A - Summary of population of the study 278

Appendix B - Taro Yamen’s formula for sample size determination 279

Appendix C - List of sampled schools per senatorial zone of the six States in South-South Nigeria 281

Appendix D - Letter of Introduction 287

Appendix E - Principals’ Motivational Factors Questionnaire (PMFQ) 288

Appendix F - Principals’ Leadership styles Questionnaire (PLSQ 291

Appendix G - Principals’ Performance Scale (PPS) 293

Appendix H - Plant Observation Rating Scale (PORS) and Bench Mark 296

Appendix I - Comments/Suggestions of Validates 301

Appendix J - List of Secondary Schools Used for the trial testing of instrument in Enugu State 302

Appendix K - Results of Reliability for Principals’ Motivational Factors Questionnaire (PMFQ) 303

Appendix L - Results of Reliability for Principals’ Leadership styles Questionnaire (PLSQ) 320 Appendix M - Results of Reliability for Principals’ Performance

Scale (PPS) 323

Appendix N - Results of Reliability for Plant Observation Rating Scale (PORS) 352

Appendix O - Data analysis print out for frequencies 354

Appendix P - Data analysis print out for correlation co-efficients 367

Appendix Q - Data analysis print out for Regressions 382

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LIST OF TABLES Page

1. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ age in South-South, Nigeria 160

2. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ gender in secondary schools in South- South Nigeria 161

3. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ years of working experience in South-South Nigeria 161

4. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ educational qualifications in South-South Nigeria 162

5. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ area of specialty in secondary schools in South-South Nigeria 162

6. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ marital status in South-South, Nigeria 163

7. Means ratings of principals’ leadership behaviours in the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria 164

8. Means ratings on ‘nature of work itself’ as Motivating factor 166

9. Means ratings on ‘recognition’ as a motivating factor 167

10. Means ratings on ‘responsibility’ as a motivating factor 168

11. Means ratings on ‘achievement’ as Motivational factor 169

12. Means ratings on ‘advancement’ as a Motivating factor 170

13. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in instructional supervision 171

14. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in communication 172

15. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in decision making 173

16. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in the provision of incentives to teachers and students 174

17. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in human resource development 175

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18. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in public relations 176

19. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in financial management 177

20. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’

performance in adhering to legal status 178

21. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in conflict management and resolution 179

22. Mean ratings of plant management (classrooms) of principals 180

23. Mean ratings of plant management (staffrooms) of principals 181

24. Mean ratings of plant management (laboratories) of principals 182

25. Mean ratings of plant management (workshop) of principals 183

26. Mean ratings of plant management (toilets facilities) of principals 183

27. Mean ratings of plant management (water facilities) of principals 184

28. Mean ratings of plant management (playground) of principals 185

29. Mean ratings of plant management (electricity) of principals 185

30. Mean ratings of plant management (compound) of principals 186

31. Mean ratings of plant management (fire extinguisher) of principals 186

32. Mean ratings of plant management (medical facilities) of principals 187

33. Mean ratings of plant management (library) of principals 187

34. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in instructional supervision 189

35. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in communication 190

36. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in decision-making 191

37. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in provision of incentives to teachers and students 192

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38. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in human resource development 194

39. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in public relations 195

40. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in financial management 196

41. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in adherence to legal status 198

42. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in Conflict Management and Resolution 199

43. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in plant management 200

44. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Instructional Supervision 202

45. Model Summary for Instructional Supervision 202

46. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on instructional supervision 203

47. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Communication 204

48. Model Summary for Communication 204

49. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Communication.. 205

50. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Decision-Making 206

51. Model Summary for Decision making 206

52. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Decision Making 207

53. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Provision of Incentives 208

54. Model Summary for provision of incentives 208

55. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Provision of Incentives 209

56. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Human Resource Development 210

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57. Model Summary for human resource development 210

58. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Human Resources Development 211

59. Analysis of Variance of Regression in Public Relations 212

60. Model Summary for public relations 212

61. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Public Relations 213

62. Analysis of Variance of Regression in Financial Management 214

63. Model Summary for financial management 214

64. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Financial Management 215

65. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Adherence to Legal Status 216

66. Model Summary for adherence to legal status 216

67. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Adherence to Legal Status 217

68. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Conflict Management and Resolution 218

69. Model Summary for conflict management and resolution 218

70. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Conflict Management and Resolution 219

71. Analysis of Variance of Regression on School Plant Management 220

72. Model Summary for Plant Management 220

73. t-Values of the Demographic and personality Variables School Plant Management 221

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LIST OF FIGURES Page

Fig.1 - Organogram of Secondary School System 37

Fig. 2 - Schematic representation of Conceptual Framework 96

Fig.3 - Schematic representation of Theoretical Framework 106

Fig.4 - summarized findings of (tables 34-43) on correlations between demographic and personality factors and principals performance in the

management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria. 201

Fig.5 - Summary of (table 44-73), demographic and personality variables that predicted principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria. 222

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Abstract

The study examined the relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria. The corelational survey design was adopted for the study. 13 research questions and 10 hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study comprised of 1,356 principals of public secondary schools. The sample for the study consisted of 310 principals obtained using Taro Yamen’s formula. Proportionate stratified random sampling was used to select the number of principals per state while disproportionate stratified random sampling was used to select the number of principals per senatorial zone for fair representation. Four instruments namely: principals’ motivational factors questionnaire (PMFQ), principals’ leadership style questionnaire (PLSQ), principals’ performance scale (PPS), and plant observation rating scale (PORS) were used for data collection. These instruments were face validated by three experts: Two in educational administration and planning, and one in measurement and evaluation, from University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The overall internal consistency reliability co-efficient index of the instruments obtained through cronbach alpha method were 0.97 for principals’ motivational factors questionnaire, 0.60 for principals’ leadership style questionnaire, 0.93 for principals’ performance scale, and 0.95 for plant observation rating scale. The data collected were presented using means, standard deviations, and correlation co-efficient. The null hypotheses were tested using multiple regressions and associated t-tests at 0.05 level of significance. It was found that most principals were males, married, had first degrees in different aspects of education, and have served as principals and vice principals for not more than 11 years. Principals in South-South, Nigeria exhibited open leadership styles. The factors that motivated principals in the performance of their duties were nature of work, recognition, responsibility, achievement and prospects for advancement. Principals’ performance was high in instructional supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of incentives, financial management, adherence to legal status, and conflict management. Their performance was low in human resources development, public relations, and school plant management. Leadership styles, educational qualification, and working experience had substantial correlation coefficients with principals’ performance in some task areas of management of secondary schools. Demographic and personality factors had joint significant relationship (P<0.05) with principals’ performance in all the task areas of management of secondary schools. These variables predicted 16.3%, 25%, 28.7%, 38.3%, 32.6%, 20.8%, 15.2%, 17.4%, 34%, and 6.8% of the variance in instructional supervision, communication, decision making, provision of incentives, human resource development, public relations, financial management, adherence to legal status, conflict management and resolution, and plant management respectively. The following variables predicted performance in different task areas; Leadership style predicted in all the task areas except plant management; location in instructional supervision, communication and plant management; marital status in decision making and public relations; experience as principals in financial management; and academic qualification in plant management. Age and gender did not predict principals’ performance in any of the task areas. Major implications is that leadership style, experience, qualification and marital status impacted positively on principals’ performance; and the performance of principals will not depend whether the person is a male. Based on these findings and implications, it was recommended that appointment of principals should not be based on age and gender since they have no substantial relationship with any of the task areas while educational qualification, years of working experience, and marital status should be considered since these variables have significant and substantial relationship with principals’ performance in different task areas of management. Professional development and capacity building programmes in human resources development, public relations, and school plant management should be constantly organized by government for principals since their performance was low in these tasks areas. Besides, effort to improve the level of motivation of principals should be made by the respective state governments on the provision and maintenance of school facilities, and the involvement of principals in decision-making.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Secondary Education is a six-year form of education which children receive after primary

school before proceeding to the tertiary level of education. According to the National Policy of

Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004), secondary education is the form of education

attended by children after primary education and before tertiary education with the aim of

preparing individual for useful living within the society and for tertiary education. Secondary

educations exist within the ambits of the law and are supervised by the Ministry of Education

and its State agencies. For instance Section 18(3)b of the Constitution of the Federal Republic

of Nigeria 2011 as amended provides for the existence of free secondary education while the

Nigerian Educational Edicts and laws promulgated in 1955 and 1965 covered the rights of

Secondary Education. The education laws promulgated by the states in the Federation laid down

rules and regulations in respect of administration and management of Secondary Education.

The principal is the administrative head of secondary schools who ensures the effective

implementation of policies and progammes for the achievement of the school goals. For the

attainment of the objectives of secondary schools, the curriculum has been developed to suit such

desires which are to be implemented by the Principal with the coorporation of competent

teachers.

The authority of the secondary school principal, according to Ogbonnaya (2009), is

viewed in the position occupied as well as the functions performed. The Principal implements

the educational programmes of the school, ensured the provision of facilities and equipment,

keeps records both statutory and non-statutory in addition to creating a conducive teaching and

learning atmosphere in schools. These are summed up by Ogbonnaya cited in Mgbodile (2004)

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into five areas, namely: Development and implementation of educational programmes,

Development of teaching staff, Student relation function, Community relation function and

financial function. Similarly, Ocho and Okeke (1997) classified these functions into five namely:

management of instructional programme, staff personnel administration, student personnel

administration, financial and physical resource management. Stoner (2002) noted that

supervision of the teaching and learning process, decision making, conflict resolution,

communication, record keeping, fund management, plant management, public relations and

compliance to legal stipulations are critical aspects of school management. In this study, the

following aspects namely: Instructional supervision, communication, decision making, provision

of incentives for teachers and students, human resource development, public relations, funds

management, plant management, adherence to statutory provisions, and conflict

management/resolution are considered.

Instructional supervision has to do with what the principal does to promote or direct

teaching and learning in the school. This according to Mgbodile (2004) involves the task of

ensuring that organized teaching and learning is effective in the school system. This is done by

the principal to see that meaningful learning takes place in all classes and that teachers are

teaching what they are supposed to teach and are undertaking the teaching in a manner that the

students understand and enjoy their lessons. The essence of instructional supervision is to assist

teachers with ideas and suggestions that will improve their instructional delivery, as well as

identify their needs and problems. Haruna (2008) noted that instructional supervision is the first

and the most important responsibility of a school principal. No wonder Carter (2008) explained

that the cardinal index of the performance evaluation of the school administrator rests on the

leadership ability in instructional supervision. Similarly, Chika and Ebeke (2007) observed that

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among many factors that influence learning and achievement in secondary schools, principals’

instructional management seem to be the most critical intervening factor.

Communication is a basic administrative responsibility of the principal in ensuring that

educational goals are achieved. Communication, according to Craig (2009), is the process of

sharing information and exchange of significant messages, ideas, attitudes, and feelings in ways

that produce a degree of understanding between two or more people. Communication is the

ability to convey in the simplest form information or ideas which the recipient can easily

understand; and the ability on the other part of the recipient to reciprocate in such a way that he

can easily be understood (Otamiri, Isaiah and Wori, 2002). If the principal’s communication

style is unfavorable to teachers working with him, there is the tendency that the teachers would

not co-operate with the principal and performance would be affected.

Decision making is also a critical aspect of an administrator’s responsibility in the

management of secondary schools. It is simply the process of choosing from among alternatives

ways of providing a solution to a problem towards achieving objectives (Mgbodile, 2004).

Decision making involves making choices. In the school system, the principal makes informed

decisions that guide whatever the school does. Oboegbulem and Onwurah (2011) noted that

decision making is vital in such managerial functions as planning, organizing, influencing and

controlling. Participatory decision making in a collaborative form with stake holders in school

usually improves the quality of decisions since diverse organizational experience is drawn and

this increases the understanding of the group as well as their commitment to the decisions. This

ownership perception motivates them to successfully implement the decisions.

Provision of teaching and learning incentives to teachers and students is another area of

principals’ responsibility in school administration. These incentives are those things that

encourage teachers and students action or efforts in the teaching and learning process which fall

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within the limits of the principal (Amirize, 2009). These include stimulating, controlling,

disciplining and evaluation of teachers and students for the purpose of effective instructional

delivery (Mogbodile, 2004). Understanding that teachers and students are the most important

assets in the school is very necessary for school management. Due to the importance of teachers

and students in the school system, Mgbodile (2004) reiterated that they must be handled very

adroitly. The principal must understand how to deal with them to get the best out of them.

Human resources development is another crucial area of principals’ responsibility in the

management of secondary schools. This could also be known as professional development

(Gareth and Jennifer, 2006). These are the series of articulated training programmes designed

for enhancing values re-orientation and attitudinal change of the human resources in an

organization (Lawson, 2007). These specialized training when given to the teachers will make

them more professionally effective than those who are not exposed to such training. This is so

because these training programmes empower and motivates teachers for better performance.

Therefore, in the opinion of Achunine (1998), the length of time one stays on the job does not

necessarily make one perform efficiently rather, professional training is a more important factor

than on-the job experience in job performance.

Public relations function is another area of responsibility of the school administrator. It

underscores the need to establish good rapport and human relations between the school and the

various stake holders especially the parents, government and philanthropists (Sherlekar, 2005).

This demands that the administrator seeks appropriate ways of relating with the public on issues

of mutual interest. The performance of this function, according to Worlu (2007), could be by

operating an open door policy where administrator can easily be accessed; regularly sending out

newsletters that address school and student progress over the course of the time and indicating

dates of special events and volunteer opportunities; helping to establish PTA and working co-

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operatively with them by holding regular meetings where parents, teachers and community stake

holders discuss salient issues as well as correct the views people hold against the school; making

appeals to philanthropists in the locality to track down needed supplies in the school; and

inviting the community to important school functions such as price giving day, annual sports

competition and end-of-year events. By this, the school will endear itself to the public and will

attract support and assistance in various ways (Bander, 2008).

Fund management is one of the major tasks of the school administrator. The success or

failure of any school programme depends very much on the way the financial resources are

managed and this in turn affects the overall performance of the school. Ogbonnaya (2010)

pointed out that public schools derive most of their financial resources from the government but

the principal of such schools should be aware of other avenues for the school to generate fund for

its use. However, the crux of the matter is not just the inflow of funds but also on how best the

funds are utilized. It is therefore important that all school heads have sufficient knowledge of

financial management in order to be effective financial managers as chief accountants of their

schools. Ogbonnaya cited in Mgbodile (2004) noted that the failure of many schools is due poor

financial management. Without good fund management measures, the programmes of

educational institutions will not be properly implemented.

Plant management is another crucial area of principals’ responsibility. School plant refers

to the school site, the building, the playground ground, the equipment and other materials

provided for effective teaching and learning (Onwurah, 2004). Continuing Onwurah described

school plant as the space interpretation of the curriculum, noting that the programmes of the

school are expressed through the site, the building, play grounds, the arrangement and design of

the school buildings. The school plant in this study are the school facilities which enhance

teaching and learning such as classrooms, staff offices, compound, laboratories and libraries.

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The importance attached to school facilities as a vehicle for effective teaching and learning

cannot be over emphasized. The school plant if not properly managed and utilized could

dilapidate and wear out to the extent that the school would not derive optimum benefits from it.

Consequently the educational goals for which such educational facilities are acquired would not

be achieved. Ezugwu (2005) posited that properly designed and fully utilized school plant with

wide array of teaching aids provide effective delivery of schools curriculum and are positively

related to academic achievement. The school administrator, in addition to other duties is

expected to effective utilize and maintain school plant to achieve school goals.

Adherence to legal status is also an important area of responsibility for the school

administrators. In contemporary times people are becoming more aware of their rights within the

school system. The school administrator in the discharge of the duties is expected to work

within the confines of the laws guiding school administration. This is because any act to the

contrary will be ultra-vires and ignorance of the law is no excuse. In this age of enlightenment

ignorance relative to the rights, duties and obligations of school administrators Obi (2010) noted

may no doubt be costly if not disastrous to the individual, the educational system and others

within the school environment. Proper understanding of the roles and codes of conduct as they

impact on the rights and responsibilities of teachers, students and other stakeholders in the school

system affords school administrators and teachers the opportunity to define their limits of

individual behaviours and enhance principals’ role performance in the management of secondary

education (Peretomode, 2001).

Conflict management and resolution is an important task area of principals in the

management of secondary education. Conflict ordinarily is an inescapable reality for workers in

organization which takes any form. It may be a disagreement about how to complete a task,

allocate resources, personality clash between associates, misunderstanding among students, or

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differences in individual value system (Oboegbulem and Onwurah, 2011). Leah (2008) posited

that in which ever level conflict manifests in the school of organization, be it intra-personal,

interpersonal, inter- organization and community related, if not properly diagnosed or left

unchecked can be a highly destructive force. Good conflict resolution and management strategies

in the school system brings about an enviable and productive environment for the achievement

of school goals. Hence school administrators should apply conflict management and resolution

strategies to control and prevent conflict from becoming destructive (Oboegbulam & Onwurah,

2011).

Principals’ effective performance on these critical aspects of administration determines

the achievement of educational objectives. Ibukun (2011) viewed principals’ performance as the

rate or frequency at which they carry out their daily functions towards the attainment of

educational goals. Principals’ performance in this study refers to how well or the frequency with

which the principals execute tasks in the critical areas of school administration for the

achievement of goals. Principals’ task could be high or low depending on the task area. The

more frequently principals carry out their functions in the critical task areas, the higher their

performance and the better for the achievement of school goals. High performance would lead to

discipline and the overall improvement in the teaching and learning process in the school system.

The performance of principals in the management of secondary schools in South-South

Nigeria has remained questionable in contemporary times as there is still public outcry. Several

authors attributed it to the performance of school administrators in task areas like supervision of

instruction, decision making, communication, human resource management, conflict

management and resolution, and plant management. Evidence abound for poor infrastructure,

teachers poor attitude to work due to vacillating nature of principals like nagging, and non

involvement of teachers in decision making. Indiscipline among staff and students are not

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uncommon. Students’ performance in external examination is low. Student’s unrest, continuous

rancor between staff and student, and illegal activities like embezzlement of funds and cheating

are also perpetrated in secondary schools. Okujagu (2005) questioned the management of

secondary schools by principals who have abdicated their functions and compromised their roles

to the extent of aiding and abetting examination malpractice which led to the removal of four

principals and the relocation of several centres for the West African School Certificate

Examination in Rivers State. He noted that this has not augured well for the school system.

For principals to perform efficiently and effectively, it is presumed that demographic

could essential. They also need to adopt certain management styles and be motivated (Oredien,

2004). Peretomode (2001) noted that demographic variables such as age, gender, educational

qualification, experience and marital status, could be advantageous or disadvantageous in the

principals’ performance of duties. In the Nigeria setting, according to Ibukun (2011), age has

been considered with other factors like qualification, and experience in the appointment of

teachers into position of principalship with the believe that these factors would make some

individuals to be more effective than others. Therefore, there is the need to examine the

relationship between these variables and principals performance.

Age is viewed as the length and time a man has lived from birth (Sturman, 2000). The

general proposition is that younger principals exhibit better management capabilities than the

older principals since individuals tend to gradually disengage from active work with age

(Feldman, 1990). The age of a person could also enhance his performance since age and

experience go together. Due to these inconsistencies, it has become necessary to determine the

extent to which age relate to principals performance in the critical task areas of management of

schools.

9

Gender is described as the behavioral characteristics distinguishing between males and

females in any society. Gender according Onyeonoru (2005) refers to the differentiation in roles

between men and women which is different from sex but construed by society through

socialization. Sex is the biological differentiation between the roles of men and women. There

are contrasting views over which gender performs better in the management of things in the

society. This work seeks to contribute in resolving this controversy on gender as it affects

principals’ performance in the management of secondary schools.

Professional qualification is the requisite knowledge and skills a person has acquired

from training to enable him carry work proficiently in his occupation. Akpan (2007) described

professional qualification as the knowledge and skills acquired after a period of training and

instruction by seasoned experts. Professional training could expose one to knowledge, skills,

and values needed for effective job performance. However, there are contrasting views. This

study seeks to resolve this controversy as it relates to principals performance in the management

of secondary schools.

Experience as viewed by Sturman (2000) is the culmination of context based events that

a person perceives. It is the professional growth as a result of a period of continued work,

training and retraining on the job and other related processes. Sturman further noted that

experience has some level of influence on principals’ job performance. It has been suggested by

Nwangwu (2006) that experience assists in developing the required social and intellectual skills,

in learning how to work closely with other people and in finding out about individual interests

and differences. This indicates that experience may be related to performance. However,

Achunine (1998) opined that the length of time one stays on a job does not necessarily make one

efficient; and argued that professional training is a more important factor than on-the-job

experience in an administrator’s job performance. It is therefore important to determine the

10

extent experience relates to principals’ performance in some aspects of the management of

secondary schools.

Marital status is the state of being married or not married by a man or a woman

(Anyanwu, 2009). It has been suggested by Enukoha (1999) that marital status influences

teachers and administrators motivation, commitment to duty and task performance; and that

married school administrators and teachers were more satisfied than the single ones. This implies

a significant positive relationship between marital status and task performance. However,

Okpalogu (2008) found an insignificant relationship between marital status and students

achievement in schools administered by married and single principals. It is therefore necessary

that the relationship between marital status and performance in different task areas be

determined.

Leadership styles are the behavioral approach a leader adopts to influence subordinates in

the pursuit of organizational goals. Oboegbulem and Onwurah (2011) described leadership styles

as the underlining needs structure of an individual that determines his behavior in various

leadership situation. Oredien (2004) submitted that variables like gender, experience and

qualification do not influence performance with respect to staff and students achievement, rather

school factors such as style of principal’s management do influence the staff and students

achievement. Leadership styles considered in this context are democratic, autocratic and

laissez-faire. The features of these leadership styles could depict an open or close form of

leadership. An open leadership style has democratic tendencies while a close leadership style has

autocratic and laissez-faire tendencies. It is possible to determine the extent which a principal

frequency exhibit a more open or close leadership style and relate to the principals’ performance

in some task areas of management of secondary schools. This is examined in this study.

11

Motivation is described as the psychological forces that determine the direction of a

person’s behaviour, level of effort and persistence in an organisation (Hoy and Miskel, 2005). It

is concerned with the forces that influence people’s behaviour in certain ways. Motivation is

therefore necessary for effective performance at work. In the view of Sinden and Hoy (2008), the

principal who is the chief executive officer of a secondary school needs to be well motivated

towards achievement of educational goals. Ekere (2010) asserted that no matter how automated

an organization may be, high productivity or performance depends on the level of motivation.

The relationship between motivation and principals’ performance is to be examined in this study.

The extent to which demographic and personality variables have become factors in the

performance of principals in the different task areas of school administration is a subject of

concern for verification. Therefore there is need to examine the relationship of these variables

with the performance of principals in the task areas of management of secondary schools in

South-South Nigeria.

Statement of the problem

In South-South Nigeria, appointment to position of principalship is from a pool of

teachers without considering the demographic and personality factors which can influence their

performance. Their selection is based largely on their seniority as classroom teachers, salary

grade level, and possession of some tertiary level qualification such as a first degree in

education. In some cases many teachers who have not gained any experience are upgraded to

principalship position to learn on the job while many who have served as Vice Principals still

remain in those position unremembered due to primordial considerations (Nwosu, 2009).

The method of selection of school principals which does not consider demographic and

personality variables is unsatisfactory and gives room for concern. The consequences of this

anomaly are that most school principals grope around and often use trial and error method in

12

their daily school administration which results to noticeable lapses which has led to public

outcry. For instance there is evidence in poor performance of students in West African

Examination Council and National Examination Council examinations, cheating, embezzlement

of fund, dilapidated facilities, students’ unrest, teachers’ poor attitude to work, and other illegal

activities perpetrated in public schools in South-South, Nigeria.

Although there are theoretical connection among these demographic and personality

variables and principals performance. For instance experience of the principals could enable

them monitor and supervise the various aspects of school activities like teaching and learning to

ensure that teachers are teaching what they are suppose to teach and students are learning what

they are suppose to learn in the teaching and learning process. Experience could also be a burden

to the principals if their professional experience and academic base is weak. It might be an

obstacle to innovation. Similarly, marital status could enable a principals adjust properly to

handle complex issues since marriage comes with emotional stability, love and tolerance which

could be extended to relationships with teachers and students to promote cooperation in the

general administration of schools. Being married could also be a hindrance to the effectiveness

of the principal as marriage subjects couples to more responsibilities which gives them little time

to attend to official matters very regularly and punctually in the management of schools. This

could impact negatively on supervision of instruction, communication, decision making, public

relations and other task areas of management of schools. The negative impacts may possibly

result to poor performance of students, and indiscipline among teachers and students. However,

the extent to which these demographic and personality variables relate with or predict principals

performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools have not been determined in

spite of their presumed connection. Their relationship may differ depending on the task area.

Perhaps lack of empirical evidence has limited the consideration of demographic and personality

13

variables in the appointment of principals, in spite of the presumed connection between these

variables and performance. Although studies have been done on the relationship between these

variables and performance, no study to the knowledge of the researcher related the variables to

principals’ performance in the critical task areas of management of secondary schools in South-

South, Nigeria. The problem of the study is: To what extent do demographic (age, gender,

qualification, experience, marital status) and personality (leadership styles, motivation) variables

relate with or predict principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary

schools in South-South, Nigeria?

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between demographic and

personality factors, and the performance of principals in the task areas of management of

secondary education in South-South Nigeria. Specifically, the study seeks to determine:

1. Demographic (age, gender, qualification, experience, marital status) profile of principals

of secondary schools in the South-South Nigeria.

2. Personality (leadership styles, and motivation) profile of principals of secondary schools

in the South-South Nigeria.

3. Performance of principals in the task areas of management (instructional supervision,

communication, decision-making, provision of incentives, human resource development,

public relations, financial management, adherence to statutory provisions, conflict

management and resolution, and plant management) of secondary schools in the South-

South, Nigeria.

4. Relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance

in instructional supervision in the management of secondary schools in South-South,

Nigeria.

14


in communication in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.


in decision making in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.


in provision of incentives in the management of secondary schools in South-South,

Nigeria.


in human resources development in the management of secondary schools in South-South,

Nigeria.


in public relations in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.


in financial management in the management of secondary schools in South-South,

Nigeria.


in adherence to legal status in the management of secondary schools in South-South,

Nigeria.


in conflict management and resolution in the management of secondary schools in South-

South, Nigeria.


in plant management in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.

15

Significance of the Study

This study will be beneficial in theoretical and practical dimensions. Theoretically, the

study hinges on the human relations theory and the Herzberg’s two factor theory. The human

relations theory proposed that when workers in an organisation are treated humanely by giving

attention to their personality, productivity or performance is likely to increase regardless of

actual changes in working conditions. According to the theory, what spur workers to higher

performance are non-monetary incentives as recognition of their personal values, encouraging

their sense of achievement and making the job challenging and interesting. The human relations

theory is also the basis of democratic management which supports the involvement of all

members in a group in decision making process. This theory is important to this study because it

provides the basis for examining the relationship between leadership styles, motivational factors

and principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools.

Besides, Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation hold that one set of factors consists

of the motivators or satisfiers which are concerned with the content of the job. These factors are

nature of work itself, recognition, responsibility, achievement, and advancement. They are seen

to be effective in motivating an individual to superior performance. The finding of this study will

essentially provide information to validate the persistence of these factors as motivators as

proposed by the theory.

Practically, the findings of this study will be of importance to the government, school

proprietors, administrators, parents, general public, students and researchers in the area of

educational management.

The result of this study will provide the ministries of education and the education boards

with the factors that relate to principals’ performance in the management of secondary schools.

This will guide them in selecting from the pool of teachers rather than consider variables which

16

are insignificant to management effectiveness and result-oriented performance. For instance, it

will unveil the relationship between age, gender, experience, qualification, marital status,

leadership styles, motivation and performance. This will enable the government use such

significant variables to principals’ performance in the management of secondary education as

benchmark during the selection and re-training of principals.

The findings of this study will be used by government, especially the Ministry of

Education, in formulating, developing, sustaining and evaluating policies and programmes that

will positively impact upon the performance of secondary school principals. This will reduce

lukewarmness and poor job performance among principals in secondary schools in the South-

South, Nigeria. By determining task areas of management on which principals do not perform

well, areas of interest to organize seminars, workshops and in-service trainings as professional

development initiatives to improve principals’ performance will be identified.

The findings of this study will help school principals as administrators to identify their

inadequacies and make effort to improve upon their managerial skills in communication,

instructional supervision, human relations, plant management, conflict management, decision-

making and financial management. The findings will form the basis on which the Association of

Principals would organize in-house seminars for their members.

By identifying areas were principals have not performance well and efforts made by the

government to enhance them will create a school climate for effective interaction and

interpersonal relationship for parents and the general public.

The findings of this study will serve as a source of data to students and researchers in

educational administration and related field of study as a reference material on the subject which

will also stimulate further research.

17

Scope of the Study

The study is de-limited to principals of government owned Secondary Schools in the six

States of South-South Nigeria, namely Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross Rivers, Delta, Edo and

Rivers State.

The study focuses on demographic (age, gender, professional qualification, working

experience, Marital status) and personality (leadership styles, and motivational factors) variables

as correlates of principals performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools

namely instructional supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of incentives,

financial management, public relations, human resource development, plant management,

adherence to legal status, and conflict management and resolution.

Research Questions

The following research questions were posed to guide the study:

1. What is the demographic (age, gender, educational qualification, working experience and

marital status) profile of principals of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria?

2. What is the personality (leadership styles and motivation) profile of principals of

secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria?

3. What are the principals’ mean performance scores in the task areas of management

(instructional supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of incentives,

financial management, public relations, human resource development, plant management,

adherence to statutory provisions and, conflict management and resolution) of secondary

schools in the South-South, Nigeria?

4. What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and

principals’ performance in instructional supervision in the management of secondary


18


principals’ performance in communication in the management of secondary schools in

South-South, Nigeria?


principals’ performance in decision making in the management of secondary schools in



principals’ performance in provision of incentives in the management of secondary



principals’ performance in human resources development in the management of



principals’ performance in public relations in the management of secondary schools in



principals’ performance in financial management in the management of secondary



principals’ performance in adherence to legal status in the management of secondary



principals’ performance in conflict management and resolution in the management of


19


principals’ performance in plant management in the management of secondary schools in


Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of probability. 1. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals’

performance in instructional supervision in the management of secondary schools in the

South-South, Nigeria.

2. There are no significant linear relationships between demographic and personality

variables, and principals’ performance in communication in the management of

secondary schools in the South-South, Nigeria.

3. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly predict principals’

performance in decision making in the management of secondary schools in the South-

South, Nigeria.


variables, and principals’ performance in provision of incentives in the management of


5. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly predict principals

performance in human resource development in the management of secondary schools in

the South-South, Nigeria.

6. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals

performance in public relations in the management of secondary schools in the South-

South, Nigeria.

20


variables, and principals’ performance in financial management in the management of


8. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly predict principals’

performance in adherence to legal status in the management of secondary schools in the


9. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals

performance in conflict management and resolution in the management of secondary

schools in the South-South, Nigeria.


variables, and principals’ performance in plant management in the management of


21

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents a review of literature that are related to the present study. A

preliminary survey of books, journals, theses and other resource materials was carried out with a

view to finding out what works other researchers had done on the study and other related studies.

The literature review was organized under Conceptual Framework, Theoretical Framework,

Review of Empirical studies and Summary of Literature Review.

• Conceptual Framework

Concept of management

Secondary Education

School Principalship

Performance in task areas in the management of secondary education

Demographic Factors in Secondary School Principalship

Personality Factors in Secondary School Principalship

• Theoretical Framework

Situational/Contingency theory

Human relations theory

Behavioural science theory

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

• Review of Related Empirical Studies

Studies related to demographic variables and principals’ performance

Studies related to Leadership styles and principals’ performance

Studies related to motivation and principals’ performance

21

22

• Summary of Literature Review

Conceptual Framework

Concept of Management

Management has been described in a variety of ways by different scholars. Management

is seen as a group of people or as a team of individual in an organization who perform specific

functions (Mgbodile, 2004). Others see management as a profession with certain responsibilities

like special training, guided by code of conduct with benefits from well spelt out conditions of

service (Heinz and Harold, 2005). In this view management ensures a life-long vocation/career,

permanent membership and possession of self-authority to control admission, recruitment,

training, qualifying examinations, license and certification, standards of practice and retention of

members. Ndu and Anagbogu (2007) defined management as an executive function which

involves the strategic process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals,

working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims.

Management is a collaborative effort geared towards the utilization of human and

material resources for the attainment of organizational objectives. Nwachukwu (1990) viewed

management as the coordination of all the resources of an organization through the process of

planning, organizing, directing and controlling in order to attain organizational goals. It is the

process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals working together

efficiently to accomplish selected aims. Tony and John (1994) defined management as an

activity involving the responsibility of getting things done through people. It is the co-ordination

of the resources of an organization in order to attain organizational goals. This involves the

organization and mobilization of all human and material resources in a particular system for the

achievement of identified objectives.

23

The effective utilization of human and material resources of an organisation promotes

co-operation which foster the achievement of results. The United Nations Education Scientific

and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) cited in Ogunu (2000) observed that management as a

social process is designed to ensure the co-operation, participation, intervention and involvement

of others in the effective achievement of a given or predetermined objectives. In the view of

Peretomode (1996), management is a process involving a sequence of co-ordinated events –

planning, organization, coordinating and controlling or leading in order to use available

resources to achieve a desired outcome in the fastest and most efficient way. Gareth and Cuthert

(1994) observed that the essence of management in every human setting, organization, society or

culture is to see that valuable scarce resources are effectively and efficiently used for the well

being and prosperity of the people. From these definitions of management, it is deduced that:

Management is a social process by which goals are achieve through planning, organizing,

leadership and coordinating the efforts of people. Precisely, management in this context is about

planning, organizing, coordinating and stimulating available human and material resources of

secondary schools towards achieving desired goals or objectives.

Planning has to do with decision making. Thus, to plan is to decide in advance what is to

be done and how to do it. The importance of planning in the management of school activities

according to Olagboye (2004) is to decide, in advance the objectives to be achieved in the school

and how to utilize the available resources in achieving these objectives. The function of planning

consists of forecasting; establishing objectives; programming; scheduling; budgeting; developing

procedures; and establishing and interpreting policies. Within the secondary school system,

Olagboye noted that virtually all the various programmes and activities should be planned. The

principal in collaboration with the teachers may be involved in planning for a number of school

activities like examination, sports, prize giving day, school plant maintenance, time-tabling and

24

applying and distribution of functions to teachers, disciplinary procedure for erring ones and

acquiring and distributing instructional materials and equipment for the school. In a way to make

school plans effective, the principal should endeavour to involve as many teachers as possible in

formulation and implementing plans, since people tend to avoid implementing plans they did not

help to formulate. Such Plans should be flexible to accommodate changes which may be coming

up from time to time. This is geared towards ensuring efficient management of school activities

in the pursuit of it objectives.

Organizing is the management function which relates to arranging work schedules in

such a way that they can be carried out most effectively by people. Odimegwu (2003) viewed

organizing in the school system as an administrative process which provides a structure whereby

posts are created and functions assigned to such post for the purposes of performing specific

duties. The function of organizing includes activities like designing the organizational structure,

delegating responsibilities and authorities and establishing relationships. Since no school

administrator like the principal can function alone without the assistance of others, it becomes

necessary that in order to achieve the set educational objectives, there should be a framework or

structure for the school on which post are created and assigned to people. For instance within

the secondary school system, there is a structure on which such post as those of the principal

through the vice down to the school prefect exist. Each post has specific functions attached to it

to ensure that no conflict in functions comes up in course of performing school functions.

Organizing helps in delineating areas of interactions within the system. Odor (1995)

noted that organizing is undertaken because of: the need for people to co-orporate in the

achievement of organizational goals. Without proper organization, the teachers, pupils and non-

teaching staff will not be able to cooperate with their principal or even among themselves in the

execution of school activities since each one will be acting independently. Organizing enables

25

the administrator to assign duties to people according to their competence. This ensures that

people put in their best efforts in the execution of assigned duties which in turn promotes

organizational efficiency. Organization tends to minimize conflicts in schools since each person

knows his own area of influence and limitation; finally, organizing helps the organization to

coordinate the various activities of the establishment. Practical instances of activities relative to

organizing in the school system according to Peretomode (2001) are: assigning teachers to

various classes or subject areas according to training, experience and specialization whereby

teachers with qualifications in similar or related disciplines are made to belong to the same

department or teach the same subjects; assigning duties to teachers for instance games master,

social master, choral master, and farm and craft mistress etc is based on competence; creating

administrative sub-units, departments or committees and assigning activities to them; appointing

sectional or departmental heads, based on laid down criteria, and assigning duties to school

prefects.

Coordination is a function of management which involves the process of bringing human

and material resources together to achieve the set educational objectives. It is a basic

administrative process for educational and other institutions. According to Odor (1995),

coordination is the process of fitting together the various groups and operations into an integral

pattern. In effect, coordination is a process of directing and harmonizing resources and group

activities for achieving set educational goals without frictions. Supervision, directing and

leadership are aspects of coordination. Therefore, the various departments, units, and individuals,

with their different functions in the school system must be properly harmonized to ensure that

the set school objectives are achieved. Practically, coordinating activities in the school system

includes: principals ensuring that every teacher is working towards the attainment of school

goals without coming into conflict with one another; the existence of an effective time-table;

26

ensuring that conflict do not arise from the use of school facilities such as laboratories, libraries,

games pitches and music rooms; appointment of games masters, hostel matrons and student

affairs master to co-ordinate the various aspects of the school system to achieve specific

objectives; appointment of subject co-ordinators like subject heads; appointment of committees

in handling school programmes like inter-house sports, send off ceremonies, Parents’ day and

founders’ day.

Stimulating, otherwise known as motivating, is another management function which

refers to the process of making people to work efficiently without force. Osuku (2004) noted that

stimulating is a condition of mind which activates and directs human behaviours towards

achieving desired goals. It is important to recognize that motivation depends on the goals to be

achieved, and the conditions for achieving them. Where the two are satisfactory and attractive, it

is likely that individuals will be motivated. Mgbodile (2004) identified practical aspects of

stimulating and motivation in the school system to include: encouraging sense of achievement by

ensuring that staff who perform certain feats are duly rewarded; recognizing staffs’ personal

value by delegating functions to them according to levels of competence; ensuring that school

policies in place are not frustrating. Others include provision of adequate incentives like praise;

recommending staff for training and re-training; involving staff in decision-making process;

showing concern to staff welfare; and delegation of function to staff. The application of these

management functions in educational institutions is educational management.

Concept of Educational Management

Educational management is the process of applying the functions of management in the

routine activities of educational institutions to foster the achievement of their set objectives.

Okoroma (2000) and Mgbodile (2004) described educational management as the process of

formulating educational polices or programmes with a view to achieving educational goals. Their

27

view is considered as an aspect of educational management. Educational management is seen as

the process by which educational objectives are achieved. Peretomode (2001) stated that,

alternatively, “educational management can be defined as the application of the processes of

planning, organizing, coordinating, controlling and evaluating human and material resources in

order to achieve stated educational goals or objectives”(P.34). These definitions imply that

educational management is concerned with the process by which school administrators like

principals utilize human and material resources by bringing them together, setting objectives and

working out modalities like arranging structures and activating them to achieve such objectives.

This is done while appraising situations in order to determine their relationships with the stated

goals to guide against deviation from targets.

The importance of educational management as an instrument par excellence for achieving

growth, progress and national development cannot be over emphasized. Advanced nations of the

world have attained a high level of social, economic, scientific and technological advancement

through well planned and implemented educational systems. Educational management,

according to Abraham (2006), is the cardinal factor that determines the success or failure of

educational plans. The effective management of educational institutions helps in the

implementation of policies and programmes aimed at realizing envisaged educational targets.

The importance of management of educational institutions cannot be over emphasized.

According to Ogbonnaya (2009), it is with efficient management that an organization or

institution can coordinate its activities to achieve predetermined goals. Thus, the task of

educational administrators is to establish the environment for group effort in such a way that

individuals will contribute to group objectives with the least amount of such impact as money,

time, effort, comfort and materials. The essence of educational management as highlighted by

Ogbonnaya (2009) are: enhancing the planning and implementation of policies and decision in

28

the educational system. Educational administrators/managers help to plan, direct and implement

policies and decisions in the educational system; as an administration or management tool for

service delivery through which the fundamental objectives of educational process may be

efficiently realized; as a tool used to determine clarity and develop educational goals and

policies; education institutions are managed for the effective utilization of funds; management

of educational institutions ensures that educational programmes are well coordinated by the

control of factor resources for the achievement of educational goals/objectives; management of

educational institutions also ensure that physical facilities and equipment are provided and

maintained (P. 46).

The essence of management of educational institutions is the enhancement of teaching

and learning. The administrative heads of educational institutions must ensure the provision and

prudent use of all the available human and material resources for the achievement of educational

objectives.

The effective management of secondary education in South-South, Nigeria, has remained

questionable in contemporary times as there is still public outcry on the standard of education.

Several authors attributed it to the performance of school administrators in specific task areas

like supervision of instruction, decision making, communication, human resource management

and conflict management and resolution. Evidence abound for poor infrastructure and teaching

facilities, teachers poor attitude to work, indiscipline, students poor performance in external

examination, students unrest, continuous rancor between staff and student, and illegal activities

like embezzlement of funds and cheating. Okujagu (2005), in an article titled “government goes

tough with schools” questioned the management of secondary schools by principals for

abdicating their functions and compromising their roles to the extent of aiding and abetting with

students in public examinations which led to the removal of four principals and the relocation of

29

several centres for the West African School Certificate Examination in Rivers State. He stated

that principals have built a culture of collecting examination fees from students as implied source

of revenue to aid them in perpetrating examination fraud. The level at which Principals

compromise their roles in the management of secondary schools in South-South Nigeria

according to Awosiyan (2009) was clearly manifested in Delta State. Awosiyan observed with

dismay the poor management of secondary schools which has eaten deep into the fabrics of our

educational system as only 23.5% of Nigerian candidate who sat for Nationwide West African

School Certificate Examination in 2008 passed. He also noted that the result in 2009 May/June

West African School Certificate Examination did not record a better performance as only 25% of

the Nigerians were successful.

The situation in Delta State was more awful according to Awosiyan (2009) who observed

with dismay the poor management of secondary school students in West African School

Certificate Examination in 2008. He also noted that the result in 2009 May/June West African

School Certificate Examination did not record a better performance as only 25% of the Nigerians

were successful.

In Cross Rivers State it was observed that the Ministry of education banned six secondary

schools from conducting external examinations for three years for involvement in examination

malpractice between 2012 and 2013 academic period despite repeated warnings to the principals

(Ukeh, 2013). The ministry expressed with dismay, the act perpetrated by these schools and

attributed it to the laxity of the principals who compromised their roles in managing the affairs of

their respective schools.

The cases of student unrest and infrastructural decay in most Secondary Schools have

been stressed. An instance in Rivers State were two rival cult groups engaged themselves and led

to the killing of four students was reported (Obinna, 2013). Additionally, most schools have

30

experienced dearth in infrastructure to the extent that classrooms, laboratories, libraries and

playfields are going extinct. Some authors (Adejo and Sam, 2012) regard this as a development

that does not promote an all round development of the students. Adaeze (2013), in an article

titled ‘schools without playground’ noted that the social skills that children develop on

playground become lifelong skills that are carried forward into their adulthood. She pointed out

that there is a general consensus that physical activities reduces the risk of psychological

problems in students and fosters their self esteem in learning. The principal should ensure that

infrastructural facilities are improved and utilized optimally in secondary schools for the

achievement of desired educational objectives.

Principal in their unique position, according to Awosiyan (2009), can utilize their

leadership and managerial behaviours to create a more conducive school climate for teachers,

students, parents and the general public to work and enhance meaningful teaching and learning.

This position was reiterated by Eboka (2010) that principals can enhance proper overhaul in the

management of secondary education. This they can do by exercising full control of teachers and

students activities, as well as supervising various sections of the school system rather than

delegating functions which are not supervised.

The implication of indulging in examination mal-practice by students or aiding and

abetting by school authorities was made apt by Asuru (2004) who noted that the law specifies

jail terms for perpetrators. Asuru also noted that principals are expected to continually let

teachers and student know their rights and limitations by providing the relevant laws guiding

school activities. This is to enable them adjust properly as cases of litigations in the school

system in contemporary times are not incidental.

Proper control of students’ activities is essential to cub the rising menace of students’

unrest and indiscipline in the school system. Musa (2013) noted that a principal who is ill-

31

motivated, lacks managerial acumen by way of demonstrating democratic principles as well as

exercising control over his school. To that extent, the principal cannot effectively maximize

machineries to inculcate discipline and provide a healthy environment needed for effective

teaching and learning.

The ineffective management of instruction has also brought about some irregular

conducts in the school. Shaman (2006) noted that most principals have not adequately handled

the issue of instructional supervision in their schools. This could have checked the excesses of

teachers by regularly inspecting their lesson notes as well as paying unscheduled visits to classes

as some teachers skip their periods for their private business. Teachers also skip classes due to

lack of the subject matter. Musa (2013) noted that this cannot be unconnected with the fact that

most teachers have compromised their roles as loco parentis and seem to have lost the passion

and commitment for the teaching profession, and taking teaching as the last resort amidst the

high rate of unemployment. The principals in their leadership and supervisory roles can re-shape

teachers focus to realize that it is the teacher that holds the key that unlocks the door to students

academic excellence. This, the principal could do by recommending teachers for professional

development or creating avenues for their value re-orientation and attitudinal change (Lawson,

2007). Jennings (1998) noted that principals should encourage others working in the school

environment to achieve educational objectives. In implementing policies and programmes in

secondary schools, the principal acts as a catalyst and control agent (Scott, 1998). Scott also

noted that in the process of managing human and material resources, the principal of secondary

schools need to be inspired to enable them inject humour towards achieving school objectives of

improving the knowledge, skills and competencies of the learner. This fact has been emphasized

by Ehiametalor and Aderoumu (1995) that in the management of educational institutions,

32

administrators have to be enthused to enable them interact with other members of the school

system to promote team spirit towards achieving the expected goals.

In effective management of secondary schools, principals are urged to be concerned with

how best to plan, organize, coordinate and stimulate the limited human and material resources,

such as men, materials, finance, and time, to achieve needed objectives. Managing these

resources in the school system according to Handy (1996), is a very difficult task. Hence

administrators are expected to rely on standard procedures for routine administrative operations

to guide them. In the management of educational institutions, administrators should appreciate

the fact that high performance is ensured when there are standard procedures in routine

administrative operations which are adhered to by members in the pursuit of organizational

goals. From the foregoing, it can be said that the management of secondary schools in South-

South Nigeria, may depend on certain demographic and personality variables. This study tried to

determine these variables.

Secondary Education

Several definitions of secondary education have been provided by scholars. Rowntree

cited in Ogbonnaya (2010) referred to secondary education as full time education provided after

primary education for pupils in secondary schools between the ages of twelve and eighteen plus.

Worlu (2007) described secondary education as a transitory level of education received by pupils

between primary and tertiary education whose curriculum is pre-vocational and academic at the

junior level and comprehensive with core-curriculum designed to broaden pupils out look at the

senior level. It is further defined in the National Policy on Education (Federal Republic of

Nigeria, 2004) as education children receive after primary education and before tertiary stage.

From these definitions one can deduce that secondary education is the form of education which

33

children receive after they have received primary school education. It constitutes post primary

education and is a link between primary and tertiary level education.

Secondary education is managed by the state ministry of education and its agencies such

as states education boards. Secondary education is a six-year course and is in two stages of

three-year duration, called the junior secondary school stage now known as upper basic 1-3,

and the Senior secondary stage (Implementation guidelines of the Universal Basic Education

programme, Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2000). The policy document specifically states that

students who complete Junior Secondary School shall obtain the Basic School Certificate and

thereby streamed into either the senior secondary school, technical college, out of school

vocational training centre or an apprenticeship scheme. The streaming shall however be based

on the results of test to determine academic ability, aptitude and vocational interest. At the junior

secondary level, students are thought both academic and pre-vocational subjects.

The senior secondary school will be for those able and willing to complete six year

education based on their academic aptitude and are expected to have the Senior Secondary

Certificate on completion (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). It will be comprehensive and

diversified in nature but will have a core curriculum designed to broaden pupils’ knowledge and

outlook. The core curriculum is the group of subjects every student must take in addition to his

or her specialty and will enable students to offer art or science in the higher education. The

broad aims of secondary education in the National policy on Education (Federal Republic of

Nigeria) include the following: Preparation for useful living within the society; and preparation

for higher education.

Emphasizing the importance of secondary education in nation building, Ogbonnaya

(2010) stated that secondary education helps to produce good citizens whose greatest pride is in

their contribution to the happiness and joy of others and of themselves through hard work,

34

sacrifice, tolerance, diligence, kindness, consideration, sympathy and truthfulness. It inspires in

youths the desires for achievement and self-improvement. In addition, secondary education

serves as a stepping-stone to higher education by providing opportunities for primary school

leavers to acquire more knowledge, develop skills and prepares them to live successfully in our

changing society. Ogbonnaya further stated that the broad and diversified curriculum of

secondary education provides for differences in talents and opportunities. Some secondary

school graduates are of the junior secondary school level while some continue up to senior

secondary. Others go into technical trades and crafts or commercial areas. Secondary education

helps to encourage cooperation among students with the establishment of unity schools or

Federal Government Colleges and the learning of one Nigerian language other than the child’s.

Secondary education apart from helping in the development of potentials of our youths

and their cultural talents through the teaching of music, craft and religious studies, also

compliments the manpower demand approach to educational planning. Graduates of the

secondary school serve as feeders to tertiary institutions where high level manpower training is

sustained for the manpower needs of the society for economic development (Okoroma, 2000).

The management of secondary education lies in the hands of the Post Primary Schools

Board under the ministry of education with the Principal as the administrative head (Nakpodia,

2006). The education laws promulgated by the states in the Federation lay down rules and

regulations with respect to the administration of secondary education and statutory system of

public education in Nigeria. The education Edicts of 1980 amended in 1985, and 1987 (Official

gazette, Rivers State Ministry of Education), cover the establishment of State Education Boards

under the Ministry of Education to cater for Secondary Education. The boards are charged with

the responsibility of recruitment, posting and discipline of staff of secondary schools. They

allocate resources like funds and aids to educational institutions.

35

The Post Primary School Board oversee the activities of secondary schools. Peretomode

(1996) described the Post Primary Schools Board, under the Ministry of Education as saddled,

among other things, with the responsibility of managing post primary schools and the

establishment of conditions of service for Secondary School employees subject to approval by

the commissioner of Education. Some State Ministries have the final say on the admission of

students to post primary institutions. Alternatively, the decision is left to the School Principal

with little or no interference by the Ministry in the selection of pupils for state secondary

schools. Mgbodile (2004) noted that the Post Primary schools Board which is headed by an

administrative chairman also supervises the activities of Post Primary Institutions through the

Principal with a view to ensuring that available resources are committed earnestly for the

achievement of educational goals of the institutions. To ensure effective management of

secondary schools, the state government provides grants to the Post Primary Schools Board

through the ministry for financing secondary education such as payment of staff salaries and

other overhead cost.

School Principalship

The Principal as the administrative head who is accountable to the Schools Management

ensures the effective and efficient utilization of human and material resources towards the

achievement of educational goals. Reiterating on the position of the School principal,

Peretomode (2001), posited that the school as a social system and a formal organization, and like

every formal organization, elements of administration must be used in running the organization.

Some of these elements are clear statements of aims and objectives, hierarchy of authority, unity

of command, delegation of authority, division of labour, and effective communication and

coordination of various tasks such as staff development and students’ personnel functions. In the

Secondary School, these responsibilities of coordinating the activities normally fall on the

36

principal. The Principal is appointed based on qualification and seniority to oversee the proper

running of the school in terms of staff and students’ welfare and discipline. Oyewale and Alonge

(2013) noted that the principal in the school system is a professional leader and foremost

supervisor who combine the roles of administration supervisor, instructional supervisor and

subject supervisors. Hence the growth and development of secondary schools in Nigeria

depends largely on the administrative effectiveness and efficiency of the principal.

In essence, the principal implements the policies of secondary education by coordinating,

controlling and organizing available resources for the achievement of set objectives. Igwe

(2003) listed the duty of the principal to include oversee the proper running of the school in

terms of staff and students’ welfare, development and implementation of educational

programmes, provision of proper instruction, school-community relations, discipline and proper

keeping of school records. Other duties to be performed are; students admission, proper

documentation of school finance and creating a conducive learning atmosphere. Stoner (2002)

identified critical task areas of principals in the management of secondary schools namely:

instructional supervision. Communication, decision making, provision of incentives to staff and

students, human resource development, public relations, financial management, adherence to

legal status, conflict management and resolution, and school plant management. Principals

performance in these task areas are examined in this study.

Secondary Schools have the following organizational structure or organogram with the

Principal, Vice-Principal, the staff (teachers), students, prefects, non-tutorial staff and the

community as major components. The organizational chart of secondary school is shown in

fig. 1. However, it is the principals knowledge, experience, marital status and personality that

affect his/her performance. Hence this study attempted to examine how these variables related

with principal effective management of the schools.

37

P r in c ip a l

G u i d a n c e C o u n s e l o r

B u r s a r

V .P A c a d .

Y e a r H e a d s

P r e fe c t s

A d m i n . S t a f f

M in is t r y o f E d u c a t io n

F o r mte a c h e r s

F o r mt e a c h e r s

S tu d e n t s

( H . O . D ’ s )

B u r s a r

V. P. A d m in .

M in is t r y o f E d u c a t io n

F o r mte a c h e r s

H e a d o f D e p t ’s

P o s t P r im a r y S c h o o ls B o a r d

Fig. 1: Organogram of a Secondary School System (Adapted from Oboegbulem &

Onwurah, 2011 P.10)

Performance in task areas in the management of secondary education

Performance is the frequency or how well a job task is carried out by a person. Principal

performance is the measure of how well or the frequency at which principals carries out their

duties in the task areas of management of secondary schools. Rosenthal and Pittsky (2002) stated

that task performance is an individual level variable which indicate whether a person did well

or not in his expected roles. It is therefore the measure of how well a job task is performed by

38

the principal in his roles towards ensuring that effective teaching and learning take place for the

achievement of secondary school goals.

With schools facing increased pressure to improve teaching and learning, Stoner (2002)

posited that the duties and responsibilities of principals expanded further to include task areas

were their performance is measured like instructional supervision, communication, decision-

making, provision of incentives for teachers and students, professional development, financial

management, public relation, adherence to statutory regulations in school administration,

conflict management/resolution, and plant management. Thus, success in school reforms to

increase student achievement often hinged upon a principal's ability to effectively perform his

duties within the context of these task areas in the management of schools.

The performance of principals in supervision of instruction could made teachers teach

effectively. Supervision of instruction is the process of ensuring that effective teaching and

learning takes place in the school system. According to Mgbodile (2004), supervision of

instruction involves the school administrators’ ability to effectively see that aspects of

instructional delivery in the school system are properly carried out to enhance learning.

Supervision is one of the indispensable task of an effective administrator in the operation of a

good school system because in addition to arranging and organizing for effective teaching and

learning to take place, the school head must undertake to supervise the instruction going on. It is

the duty of the Principal to see that meaningful learning is taking place in all the classes and that

the teachers are teaching what they are supposed to teach, and in a manner that the students

understand and enjoy their lessons.

Supervision of instruction is a vital area in the management of secondary schools.

According to [Ezeuwa (2005) instructional supervision entails the process which by means of

advice, direction and discussion, principals as supervisors help to see that available resources,

39

manpower, finance and capital equipment are utilized for the achievement of effective teaching

and learning. Hence supervision of instruction is interactional in the sense that it involves the

relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee. Udochukwu (2003) described

supervision in school management as the process by which school administrators bring about

improvement in instruction by working with teachers who are working with students to ensure

that effective teaching and learning takes place. It is also the process through which the principal

stimulates growth in teachers and helps them to help themselves. Nwuzor and Ogbonna (1995),

and Peretomode (1996) described instructional supervision as a set of activities carried out with

the purpose of making teaching and learning better for the learner.

Instructional supervision also involves effort made by the principal to enhance effective

teaching and learning. According to Igwe (2003), it includes all designated school efforts

directed towards leadership to teachers and other educational workers in the improvement of

instruction. It involves the stimulation of professional growth and development of teachers; the

selection and revision of education objectives, material of instruction and methods of teaching,

and the evaluation of instruction. Eferakeya cited in Igwe (2003) posited that the role of

instructional supervision in educational management and control may be viewed as that of

monitoring different aspects of the school system in terms of resource utilization and relating

them to the level of educational goal achievement. This role would embody establishing and

clarifying role relationship; developing the curriculum - setting goal, planning learning

experiences, allocating resources; supervision of programmes including procurement and

allocation of instructional materials and equipment; evaluation of programmes – checking of

notes of lesson, scheme of work, diaries, registers and financial records; provision and

submission of all school records on demand to the inspectors for cross-checking.

40

Principals role in instructional supervision include curriculum development and

evaluation. Curriculum development in instructional supervision suggest that teachers and

principals need to work together to decide what the programme ought to be, how it should be

implemented and how it is to be evaluated (Keoreng, 2004). The development of the curriculum

is an aspect were the principal is expected to play a leading role in instructional development.

The principal should play this role as a team leader by way of guiding teachers either directly or

in conjunction with the heads of department in terms of helping to indentify relevant goals to the

community, planning and selecting relevant learning experiences, helping to implement

programmes improvement and evaluating changes.

Evaluation as principals’ role in instructional supervision entails judging the extent to

which school objectives have been achieved. According to Mgbodile (2004), evaluation of

teachers is needed in the school to measure the quality of services rendered by the teachers.

Mgbodile noted that the school head should undertake periodic supervision of the classes to

ensure that meaningful teaching and learning are taking place. Enyi (2012) noted that principal

should also inspect teacher’s notes of lesson before hand to ensure that they were well written

and set in line with the scheme of work to enhance effective teaching. The Principal will also

have to observe the teacher in class during class delivery to get an insight into the teacher’s

mastery of the content, method of lesson delivery, the use of instructional media, classroom

control, technique of asking questions and manner of involving students in active learning as

well as his evaluation techniques to ensure that student understand and enjoy their lessons

(Agbo, 2013). On the other hand, students’ evaluation is also necessary as a measure of their

progress. Through the evaluation of the students orally, written or practical examination, the

extent to which they understand the curriculum content is ascertained. Through evaluation of

students, the principal will be able to determine the capability of his teachers and determine

41

whether the pupils are learning, and whether they are making progress individually and

collectively. Oyewale and Alonge (2013) noted that the principal as the school administrator

should, therefore, perform the within-school supervisory role in instructional improvement and

in evaluation of education by assisting teachers determine the right methods, teaching facilities,

physical setting, and classroom attributes that are likely to promote effective learning. Through

evaluation, the principal and teachers are able to identify areas where special attention should be

paid in a particular subject for the interest of the learner.

The objectives of instructional supervision have been stressed. Lamude & Torres (2000)

noted that instructional supervision enhance quality control through regular and continuous

monitoring of instructional services, and identifying the needs and problems of teachers.

Contributing on the subject, Okwor (2001) emphasized that a situation where the principal

devotes little or no time to instructional responsibilities, the quality of education been offered to

the students cannot be effectively and adequately ascertained and guaranteed. Akubue (1998)

noted that the primary purpose of supervision of instruction in the school system is to help

teachers improve their instructional practice in the classroom, quality control, professional

development to encourage teachers’ growth, remediation of weak teachers, and empowerment to

develop teachers’ autonomy. Aburdene and Naisbitt (1992) noted that for effective school

management, the principal can be the catalyst for a successful teacher supervision and evaluation

which leads to a consistent and flourishing system of school improvement. The primary purpose

of instructional supervision is to improve classroom teachers’ link between the planned

curriculum and the learning experienced by the students. Thus, for the principal effectively

supervise instruction, he must have extensive knowledge of teaching skills and theory to enable

him recognize what should be obtainable in the classroom. This knowledge according to Brown

& Cooper (2000) includes lesson planning, teaching methods and skills, and evaluation.

42

The essence of instructional supervision seems not to be achieved in most schools.

Ezeocha (1990) noted that effective supervision of instruction is lacking in most Nigerian

secondary schools hence the perceived decrepitude in the standard of education. He emphasized

that Nigerian society demands qualitative education to give the youth functional education,

which cannot be achieved without effective supervision of instruction to check if learning

content in the curriculum is taught the students. Therefore, without adequate commitment to the

performance of the school administrators in their instructional role, categorized as supervision

and curriculum development and innovation, and other aspects of school management, the goals

of educational programs will continue to be shattered. The extent some factors will relate with

principals performance of the task of supervision will be examined in this study. Effective

instructional supervision is enhanced by communicating specific issues through advice, direction

and discussion to teachers and students by the principals as supervisors.

The concept of communication has been defined in different ways by different authors.

Koontz (1992) defined communication as the transfer of information from the sender to the

receiver with the information being understood by the receiver. Karen (1993) regarded it as the

process of meaningful interactions among human beings which involves the transmission of

information, direction, ideas, feelings and understanding. Communication is thus the process of

sharing information, ideas, or attitudes in ways that produce a degree of understanding between

two or more people. Otamiri, Isaiah and Wori (2002) view communication as the ability to

convey in the simplest form information or ideas which the recipient can easily understand; and

the ability on the other part of the recipient to reciprocate in such a way that he can easily be

understood. In this case, communication is perceived as a psychic as well as verbal

understanding between the sender and the receiver of which the essential point is the ability of

the parties to share information, idea or attitude. Communication is said to have been

43

accomplished if the message is interpreted in the same way by the sender and the receiver. It is a

transactional process where people construct meaning and develop expectations about what is

happening around them through the exchange of symbols. Constructing meaning involves,

people using symbols that is, objects or words that stand for ideas, feelings, intentions, and other

objects, to describe their experiences with others.

In this regard, communication is defined as the exchange of information, feelings or

messages between the principal and other members of the school system for effective

achievement of goals. Communication is important in any social setting because it is one of the

chief means by which its members work together. According to Hoy & Miskel (2005), the

influence an executive has over his subordinates is partly a matter of his position on the

hierarchy and partly a question of his competence which is partly dependent on the existence of a

complete and sensitized communication system. Communication is vital in the relationship

between employers and their employees, supervisors and their subordinates in any organisation.

It is the process through which work gets done by way of giving instruction. Communication in

organizations according to Kate (2010) serves a number of key purposes such as, production and

regulation, innovation, and individual socialization and maintenance. Production and regulation

purposes include activities aimed at doing the primary work of the organization, such as teaching

and learning in schools. They include setting goals and standards, transmitting facts and

information, making decisions, leading and influencing others, and assessing outcomes.

Innovation purposes include messages about generating new ideas and changing programmes,

structures and procedures in the school. Finally, socialization and maintenance purposes of

communication affect the participants’ self esteem, interpersonal relationships and motivation to

integrate individual goals with the school objectives.

44

Other purposes of communication have been highlighted. Oboegbulem and Onwurah

(2011) enumerated the purposes of communication in the school system as: influencing the

performance of organizational members – that is to motivate, direct, instruct and evaluate; to

clarify and express feelings; and to serve as an information input or exchange. In the school

system, communication is vital in the relationships between principals, teachers, students,

parents and the public for the achievement of the goals and objectives of education. Effective

communication could play an important part in all forms of relationship between the school and

the public. This is because it is the process by which ideas, attitudes, and opinions are exchanged

between the school and the public. Oboegbulem and Onwurah further noted that the medium of

communication is perhaps one of the most crucial determinants for effectiveness of

communication in the school system. They enumerated the following as medium the principal

could use to enhance communication in the management of secondary schools. These include

school morning assembly, letters and memoranda, staff meetings, school rules and regulations,

signs, meeting with school functionaries, and prefectorial representatives. If the principal’s

communication style is unfavorable to teachers working with him, there is the tendency that the

teachers would not co-operate with the principal and productivity would be affected.

The communication climate created by the school management directly influences the

extent to which communication is positive or negative in an organization. Richard (1999) opined

that an open or supportive communication climate promotes co-operative working relationship

and it is therefore conducive for effective information gathering and transfer. A closed or

defective information climate has the opposite effect. The communication climate influence

productivity. Jack cited in Richard (1999) suggested that in an open or supportive

communication environment, people are more likely to have a sense of worth and speaks freely

without fear of reprisal. This kind of environment created by the school administrator promotes

45

an understanding of what each team member wishes to accomplish and the mutual coexistence

towards a common goal of the school. Scorth (1992) stated that in the school system, when

suggestions are welcomed and acted upon, and mistakes used as an opportunity to learn while

crises being evenly handled, then staff are more likely to be open in their communication. They

will feel trusted, secured and confident in their jobs for the organizational growth as a whole.

Thus effective team working, flexibility and a sense of involvement all contribute to and benefit

from an open and supportive communication climate operated by the principal in the

management of secondary schools. The relationship between some factors and principals’

performance in communication will be examined in this study.

Decision-making is the act of choosing between alternatives in the process of solving a

problem to bring about optimum results. Decision-making is defined by Charis (2001) as a

process of identifying and selecting a course of action to deal with a specific problem or take

advantage of an opportunity. Decision-making is the heart of administrative process and

leadership in schools. According to Charis, a good decision is arrived at from five stages which

include: recognizing and defining the problem, analyzing the problem, establishing the criteria

for solving the problem, developing a plan or strategy for problem solving and imitating the plan

for action.

A good decision could reduce tension in schools. As a fundamental process in an

organization, decision making is the central responsibility of the educational administrator

(Peretomode, 2001). Decision making according to, Peretomode, is the process of choosing from

among alternative ways of achieving an objective or providing a solution to a problem. It

involves choice and entails cost although not an end in itself but a means to achieving

organizational goals and objectives. Decision making from the view of Heinz and Harold (2005)

is the process of selecting a course of action from among alternatives. It is the core of planning,

46

as a plan cannot be said to be complete unless a decision involving commitment of resources,

direction, or reputation has been made. Gareth and Jennifer (2006) described decision-making as

the process by which school administrators respond to the opportunities and threats by analyzing

options and making determinations about specific school goals and courses of action. They

pointed out that good decision results in the selection of appropriate goals and courses of action

that increase organizational performance while bad decisions result in low performance.

Decision making in response to opportunities in the secondary schools occurs when

principals search for ways to improve organizational performance to benefit students, teachers,

parents and the government. On the other hand, decision making in response to threats occurs

when events inside or outside the schools are adversely affecting its performance and the

principal searches for ways to enhance organizational performance. Thus, principals in

secondary schools are faced with myriads of challenges in administrative activities which seem

to have consistently hampered the realization of the objectives of the school. These problems

according to Hallinger and Heck (2009), require unified effort from the principals and the

teachers for quality and effective decisions in the management of schools. The most typical areas

of decision-making in secondary school administration include curriculum and instruction,

students’ personnel management, discipline, sports, recreation, physical facilities, evaluation,

continuous assessment, staff personnel management, delegation of authority or responsibility and

supervision. These decisions areas as noted by Ijaduola (2007) and Dosunmu (2004) will affect

the principal performance in the pursuit of school goals if not properly handled. Hence the

principals' decision-making competence would go a long way in influencing performance.

It has been observed that Principals who are effective in decision making process could

reduce a lot of rift, conflict, misgiving and hindrance to the realization of the objectives of the

school goals (Olagboye, 2004). This is so because the success or failure of any secondary school

47

is largely dependent upon the decisions taken by the principal who is the administrative head.

Hence his actions or inactions could make or mar the school system. Abbot cited in Peretomode

(2001) identified five decision-making skills that contribute to the effectiveness of the school

administrator in the management of secondary schools. These include: Skill in differentiating

among types of decisions, skill in determining the amount and type of information needed to

reach a decision, skill in determining the appropriate involvement of other people in reaching

decisions, skill in establishing priorities for action, and skill in anticipating both intended and

unintended consequences of decisions.

There are different types of decisions that could be taken by the Principal. Simon cited

in Peretomode (2001), distinguished between two types of decisions taken by the principal in the

management of schools. They include programmed and non programmed decisions depending

on the type of problem. Programmed decisions are those which are structured, repetitive and

general routine in nature which have defined rules and procedures in handling them. The risks

involved are not high and can therefore be more easily delegated. Perhaps most of the decisions

made by the principal are routine; for instance, calculation of grade points and disciplinary

measures for students, in which case rules or guidelines to be applied have been developed in

that circumstance. Another example of Programmed decision making, according to Gareth and

Jennifer (2006), takes place when a school principal asks the schools board to hire a new teacher

whenever students’ enrollment increases by 40 students. Non- programmed decisions on the

other hand are those that are out of the ordinary or are unique and which the administrator is

expected to rely on the directives of the government. They are new and non-repetitive;

unstructured and entail high risks. It means that non programmed decisions cannot easily be

delegated to subordinates as there are not established procedures for handling the problem

48

because of its novelty. Example of non programmed decision is a decision to construct a new

classroom facility.

Making a good non- programmed decision is critical for running an effective

organization. Stoner (2002) stated that the ability to make a good non-programme decision helps

to distinguish effective managers from ineffective managers. He reiterated that for

administrators to be successful in making non programmed decisions which has no decision

rules, they may rely on their intuition or may make reasoned judgment. Intuition requires little

effort and information gathering, and result in on-the spot decisions while reasoned judgments

requires decisions that take time and effort to make and result from careful information

gathering, generation and evaluation of alternatives. However, “exercising” one’s judgment is a

more rational process than “going with” one’s intuition (Gareth and Jennifer, 2006). They

suggested that effective and efficient decisions are taken when the various groups in the school

are consulted and involved. This implies that involving these groups of human resources could

mean utilizing their intellectual abilities which help in the development of such an organization

or school.

Involving teachers in decisions may lead to job satisfaction. Udoh and Akpa (2007)

asserted that where teachers are adequately involved in decision making process, there would be

commitment and adequate support with the principal and the realization of school goals will be

easy. In this regard, apathy and opposition within the school will be minimized. Glew and

Griffin (1995) called the system of involving other parties rather than the principal taking

decisions alone, as participative decision making. It is higher level individual’s effort to provide

those at a lower level with a greater voice in organizational performance. Participative decision

making represents a deliberate change from traditional management in which minority of upper-

level management employees make all of the decisions regarding organizational policies and

49

functioning. Jewell (1998) summed up participative decision making as an effort to avoid the

“nobody asked” syndrome; and explained it to mean soliciting employee’s idea for turning the

situation in an organization around.

Disenchantment may result when teachers are not involved in decision-making. Ndu and

Anagbogu (2007) noted that when teachers are not involved in decision-making, they behave

like strangers within the school environment. That is why most teachers do not put in their best

to have full sense of commitment and dedication to the school, hence principals performance is

hampered. Mullins (2005) was of the opinion that many people believed that staff participation

in decision making leads to higher performance and this is necessary for survival in an

increasingly competitive world. Wolfson (1998) reiterated that boredom and frustration at work

is often the result of an employee’s lack of involvement in decision making processes within the

organization and a feeling that their ideas are not wanted or listened to. Wilkinson (1999)

corroborated this view and noted that the involvement of teachers in decision making also

empowers them while a neglect of them in decision making was seen as an assumption that they

were untapped resources with knowledge, experience and interest in becoming involved.

Employers need to provide opportunities and structures for their involvement. Wilkinson also

assumed that participative decision making is likely to lead to job satisfaction and better quality

decisions and that gains are available both to the principal to increase efficiency and workers job

satisfaction. In short, an everyone-wins scenario is maintained.

Staff cooperation is believed to be an indisputable asset to school management. Ukeje,

Akabogu and Ndu (1993) reiterated that involvement in decision making process by the

teachers could ease the principal’s mounting problems as many heads would be put together to

intellectually solve problems that could have remained unsolved by the principal alone.

Ukeje, et tal stated further that continuous involvement of teachers in decision making by the

50

principals will enhance teachers’ development and job satisfaction. The principals should not

totally neglect the less experienced teachers in decision making as they also need to be

developed on the job. Principals should also attend more workshops and seminars to know how

to manage the younger teachers so as to build them up since they will eventually take up the

mantle from them later. Brown (2005), observed that Principals relied heavily on information

fed to them by others. Continuing, Brown noted that there were no laid down procedures for

decision-making, while level of education and administrative experience were not factors in the

decision-making process of principals. Therefore, most principals in Nigerian Secondary

Schools are poor decision makers and their performance is affected by this. In this study,

attempt will be made to examine the relationship between some demographic and personality

factors and performance of the principal indecision making.

Incentives are the set of activities carried out by the principals with the aim of sensitizing,

mobilizing, and motivating staff and students in the school towards performing their duties

optimally in terms of achieving stated aims and objectives of the School. Due to the importance

of teachers and students in the school system, Mgbodile (2004) maintained that they must be

handled very adroitly. The principal must understand how to deal with teachers and students to

get the best out of them. Kanabe (2013) posited that to make a teacher committed, the school

management must motivate them by showing that they are cared for by listening to them and

assisting them in their personal problems. Continuing, Kanabe noted that frequent

acknowledgement of teachers and students whose performance are outstanding will make them

consistent and spur others work hard to the lime light. Teachers must be handled with care and

encouraged to do their work. Their feelings and problems must be understood by extending love

and friendship towards them as this will add value to their welfare, and repudiate the notion of

treating them as mere working tools for achieving school goals. The principal should help to

51

secure discipline among the students, monitor their attitudes to their studies and their

commitment to hard work and learning and rewarding hard work like excellent performance in

examination. Provision of incentives could also entail monitoring their needs such as the need

for affection and attention, for play, for safety and protection, for convenience such as having

adequate urinal and toilet facilities and medicare in order to give meaning for learning to take

place.

Teachers need to be motivated for effectiveness and efficiency. Oyewole and Alonge

(2013) observed that one of the problems confronting schools today is that of motivating

teachers to perform assigned task to meet predetermined goals. Consequently, the teachers have

to be motivated to be in the right frame of mind to deliver qualitative instruction to the students.

The authors reiterated that if teachers are well motivated, they will be happy to put in more

efforts on their jobs, and better results will be achieved. Chukwu (2003) posited that in

motivating teachers, principals should employ democratic leadership skills, involve teachers

fully in programme development, provision of adequate teaching materials and improved

condition of service by liaising with the Schools Board. Mgbodile (1986) argued that since the

planned objectives of an organization must be achieved using people, it is important that

administrators try to create conditions that encourage workers to do good job. Administrators

can make excellent plans and organize work operations efficiently, but if they lack the ability to

motivate the workers, their efforts at planning and organizing will be rendered useless. Thus, the

key success in any organization lies on the effective use of the human resources.

There are little things that affect principals’ relationship with teachers. Mgbodile listed

some basic but often forgotten little things that matter in human relationship, to include: smile at

workers, show recognition for their efforts like rewarding them for job well done, show

sympathy and understanding when they make mistakes, encourage them when they lack the

52

spirit to go on. Listen to them, appreciate their problems, feel concerned about their welfare like

ensuring that the learning environment is safe from hazards, and rendering both official and

unofficial assistance to them in times of need. These will make workers perform at high level.

An effective administrator could as well motivate the staff through avoidance of the little things

that kill or dampen the morale of workers such as shouting at them in the public, using

derogatory words against them, rebuking them in the public or before those under their control,

refusing to treat them as human beings and generally carrying a stern face all the time. These

agree with the views of Otuya-Thom (1998) that:

the human nature is so complex that it is not easy to determine the how’s and why’s of human behaviour. Therefore, administrators should regard the human resources as having feelings that can be hurt, nerves that can be shattered, prides that can be injured and hopes and ambitions that can be frustrated, hence if administrators have the habit of shattering subordinates nerves, hurting their feelings, injuring their prides and dashing their hopes, then they will lose interest in working for their organizations and worst still they may cause serious trouble in the organization. (P. 27)

In the light of this, Mgbodile (2004) stressed that while avoiding the behaviours that keep

the subordinates sad, dispirited, nervous and tensed up, the principal should make effort to see

that his teachers enjoy a measure of security by ensuring that they get what belongs to them in

due time especially as it concerns regular and timely payment of salaries, promotion and

allowance by liaising with the schools boards. This will make teachers to be prepared to work

cooperatively with the principals in the pursuit of school goals. The extent of provision of

incentives to the teachers and students and the factors that relate to this will be examined in this

study.

Human resources development is the series of training and retraining given to workers in

an organisation to increase their knowledge and skill for better job performance. Human

resource development otherwise known as professional development according to O’Neil (1995)

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is the series of activities engaged in by employees in an organisation to enhance their knowledge,

skills and attitude in order to improve productivity. Uwalaka (1998) described human resource

development as the comprehensive process by which educational institutions working with and

through their faculty design both on and off campus, a variety of programmes and activities to

strengthen faculty members in their Institutions. Okendu (2009) asserted that human resource

development in the educational system are planned activities concerned with increasing and

enlarging the capabilities of teachers to successfully improve instruction. It enables them occupy

higher positions in the hierarchy to handle current responsibilities. It is geared towards

improving upon workers’ performance with the ultimate aim of achieving set organizational

goals.

Human resources are the most important factor of production. The human resources in

any organization according to Hunter (2006) is the fulcrum upon which all other resources

revolve. Igwe (1990) pointed out that in the educational system, the teachers are the most

important elements. This according to him is because with the best of all facilities, books,

infrastructure and other materials and equipment, the aims and objectives of education may still

not be achieved if the teachers/principal as the organizers of all these are incompetent.

Therefore, instructional professional development is important to realize the ever cherished

dream of a greater tomorrow. This implies that no organization can succeed without the

availability of human resources in the right quantity and quality. Lawson (2007) reiterated that

the human resources even when available in the right mix could not attain organizational goals

because they are either not properly utilized for effective performance or may not have been

properly harnessed for effective result-oriented purposes.

Proper training and development programmes are expected to be continually given to

workers relative to their roles in an organization to enhance their performance due to

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innovations. The principal according to Ikpeba (2012) should ensure the professional and

academic development of his staff through meetings, nominating staff for in-service training like

seminars and workshops, building a sense of team work to help each staff achieve their

potentials, and setting time in staff meeting to discuss professional issues relative to instructional

improvement as well as personal contacts. Continuing, Ikpeba pointed out that the principal

should encourage those nominated for seminars to share their knowledge and experiences to

other members of staff as a way to impact on their wellbeing for service delivery. Through these

learning activities joint problem solving attitude/spirit is cultivated which have a direct impact on

instructional improvement.

The importance of continuous training cannot be overemphasized. Kabiru (2000) noted

that for the school teachers to be fully equipped for their professional duties, continuous training

in instructional development, teaching skills, and managerial ethics are needed so as to meet the

objectives of education. Continuing, Kabiru noted that the glaring insinuation of a short fall in

the administrative competency level of teachers and administrators in state secondary schools in

Nigeria is a direct reflection of lack of training of incumbent and would be administrators by the

educational planners. Buttressing this point, Nwosu (2009) stated that from available evidence,

it has been discovered that the methods of selection of secondary school principals in Nigeria is

unsatisfactory. This is so because a situation where all shades of graduates without teaching and

administrative experience are appointed principals of school gives room for concern. The

consequence of this anomaly according to Nwadinigwe (1997) is that most of the school

principals grope around and often use trial and error method in the day-to-day administration of

their school. Commenting, Iguisi (2009) stated that the shallow knowledge of teaching and

managerial skills of most teachers and principals tend to affect negatively their morale,

perception and work attitude. Hence the need for continuous re-training to update their

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knowledge with new work methods, ethics and skills about their work and organizational

environment to enable them handle complex situations and do better jobs with the aim of

achieving set objectives.

Leadership skills are required for high performance. However, acquiring and mastering

the requisite skills of school management and leadership, especially in the context of

contemporary pressures and expectations is a supremely challenging and difficult task for school

teachers and administrators (Ogunsaja, 1990). This can only be harnessed through in-service

training, seminars, symposia, workshops and conferences. In these fora they are exposed to

modern techniques to sharpen their creative, imaginative and analytical disposition towards

solving instructional and administrative problems especially in developing communication,

conflict management and supervisory skills. It becomes important to point out that pre service

education is never adequate to cope with the tremendous changes in the educational system.

Hence, professional development service serves as a medium of complementing teachers and

principals’ skills in handling complex situations in secondary schools (Lawson, 2007).

For effective implementation of the curriculum, the teachers/principals’ attributes,

professional background and orientation are to be considered. Instructional development of

teachers act as a way of assisting the school to initiate, coordinate, and provide programme

planning and actualization. Okendu (2009) emphasized the need for teachers/principals to

improve their knowledge, administrative skills, attitudes and behaviour while on the job. This is

necessitated by the fact that pre-service training rarely prepares principals for their future

positions and their accompanying responsibilities. Constant changes in educational policies

coupled with educational technological innovations which are nurturing unprecedented

innovations in the transmission of information, which greatly affect the speed of knowledge,

production and transfer have rendered most teachers/ principals inadequate in policy

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implementation. Other reasons include: public and organizational disenchantment with the

quality of the educational products; the rate of youth restiveness; cultism and indiscipline in

secondary schools; the dissatisfaction of teachers over the leadership style of the principal;

inadequate maintenance of school plant, equipment and materials; ineffective communication

flow among the school personnel, and lack of mission, vision statement in secondary schools

(Lawson, 2007).

For human resource development to be successful and worthwhile Akanwa, (2003)

reiterated that it must be embedded into the job with fund and time consciously committed to its

process. This is because, in any professional development programme, it is observed that

finance and time has been woefully neglected. Brown and Cooper (2000) pointed out that in

times of fiscal difficulty, professional development of employees would first be cut off. A job-

embedded human resource development programme is one in which administrators and teachers

align their respective roles with research best practices, and with national

educational/professional standards. Continuous human resource development will enhance the

administrative effectiveness and efficiency of principals and improve the teaching skills of

teachers. The extent demographic and personality factors relate with principal’s performance in

professional development of teachers’ in the management of secondary schools will be examined

in this study.

Public relations is the practice of managing the spread of information between an

individual or an organization and the public to ensure mutual co-existence. The school as an

institution is a social organization which is designed to serve the needs of various stake holders

of whom the students are the main clients, while parents, government and the society at large are

the secondary clients (Peretomode, 1996). The school system cannot ignore the existence of

these groups hence school administrators are concerned with techniques of relating with each of

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them effectively. No school can ever operate in a social vacuum outside the society it serves.

This is so because it derives its existence and life blood from the various individuals and groups

which it is established to serve and from which it is supplied with human and material resources.

This means that the school interacts with the elements within and outside the system with a

mutual relationship exiting between the school system and other systems in the school

environment. Idemili (1990) observed that the survival of the school is a function of the strength

of its social, economic, legal and political environment. Based on these realities, it is assumed

that each school should establish public relations that are good enough and favourable to the

school.

Public relation is about mutual understanding. Public relations, according to Nwosu

(1996), are concerned with creating subsisting rapport among the students and teachers and the

environment consisting of parents, government, and the society at large. The immediate

environment or community in which the school is built is an important aspect of the general

society which the school relates and derive its support. The public image of the school depends

largely on the opinions which the public either wrongly or rightly holds about the school. The

concept of public relations could be seen from the leadership point of view where the

administrator has concern for the organizational goals and working in accord with the various

interest groups (Odigbo, 1999). Therefore, the effective school administrator tries to balance his

concern for organizational goals with those of the stake holders in the school system through

good public relations practices. In essence, public relations as an administrative tool is people –

oriented, work-oriented, effectiveness-oriented and very useful at all levels of the hierarchy in

the organizational set up.

In the administration of secondary schools, the principal tries to integrate all the

components involved. The work of the school is a joint effort of the principal, teachers, students,

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members of the community where the school is situated, and government agencies. These

groups are expected to be placed in a good standing by strengthening the relationship with them

for the achievement of desired educational objectives (Mark, 1998). Good public relations

between the principal and the various stake holders are therefore necessary. As basic components

of the system their behaviours determine the systems effectiveness (Ezeocha, 1990). Ensuring

that communications are maintained with the various stake holders of the school system is

important for mutual co-existence.

The community members according to Mgbodile (2004) need to understand clearly what

happen in the school as early understanding of school events could enable the public to form

correct opinions about the school. Early corrections of wrong information which the society

members hold about the school will help to prevent damage to the reputation of the staff and the

school as a whole. The school programmes must aim at projecting the achievements, hopes,

aspirations of the school and also propagating the needs of the public. Mgbodile reiterated that

the students programmes should be communicated to the community early enough through the

students and Parent Teachers Association (PTA) members so that when the same programmes

are made public, they will receive public acceptance instead of rejection. The principal gets the

public informed about events, needs and programmes in the school through various ways

namely: through personal contact, the staff, the students, the PTA, and through the public use of

school facilities. Stanfill (1990) observed that Parents who are involved in school activities and

interact with staff will often reject negative generalization about the school. They defend the

school against erroneous publications and rumours. If parents are unsured of the validity of a

report, they are likely to check it up with the school staff if they generally know what is

happening in their school.

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It is the principal’s role to initiate Parent Teachers Association meetings during which

explanations about the school activities, events, problems and needs are given to the parents. The

association is a valuable advisory body to some reasonable extent. The opinion of the PTA

according to Idemili (1990), is the representative sample of the community views. This is

because it is in a better position to interpret the community to the school and also interpret the

school to the community as a representative of the public. In this regard if the PTA is properly

organized, informed and involved in school affairs, then through the association, the community

will learn to develop right notions, and pride about the school programmes, objectives and

achievement attained by the school head, the staff and the students (Okwor, 1998).

Effective communication could play an important part in all forms of relationship

between the school and the public. This is because it is the process by which ideas, attitudes,

opinions are exchanged between the school and the public. Communication in this sense could

be relating with people within and outside the school such as parents, teachers, students and

friends through writing notes, and letters upon which feedback are received for necessary

actions. Benson-Eluwa (1998) explained that apart from formal PTA meetings, the school could

establish good public and school relations by allowing and inviting parents to participate in a

variety of school events such as prize giving day, end-of-year activities, sports fiesta like inter

house sports competition, seminars, workshops and symposia. Benson-Eluwa reiterated that

parents could be encouraged especially those who are guidance counselors to educate the

students about careers choice relative to their interests, skills and aptitudes. Health personnel

among the parents could be invited to present talks on health matters such as the causes and

prevention of AIDS, the importance of personal hygiene, the place of parents in child health

care. If parents were encouraged to pay visits to the principals and staff in order to discuss the

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behaviour and academic achievements of their children and also express their suggestions on

how to improve the school, then these could help to raise school and promote public relations.

The identification and clarification of role relationship in the school system is a task

which the school administrator must ensure to keep the arms of the school system properly

incorporation into the school programmes. This includes sustaining school-community relations,

teacher and students’ relations and principal-teacher-student relations. In school-community

relations, the principal should by his training and interactions with the immediate community

endeavour to participate in communal activities to which he is invited. He should on the other

hand invite parents, the community stakeholders to some of the school activities like inter-house

sports, sales of agricultural products, and end of year activities. According to Nwuzor and

Ogbonna (1995), the principal should maintain a good channel of communication with Parents

Teachers Association (PTA) for purposes of getting new ideas, being sensitive to the feelings of

parents and acquainting parents and guardians with the problems of the school. This can be done

through initiating Parents’ workshop, school visitation by parents’ organisation to enhance their

interaction with teachers. The emphasis on school-community relations according to Odigbo

(1999) is to enable the principal know the community, facilitate community participation in the

life of the school since education for all is the responsibility of all especially now that effort is

been made to promote public-private partnership (PPP) in infrastructural development scheme in

the school system since government alone cannot provide the needed facilities. The principals

need not relent in his responsibilities in this direction to ensure that the community and the

school share there expected economic and social benefits since the school is a microcosm of the

community.

The school and public relations programmes which are based upon principles of objective

participation of parents and teachers, using PTA as a major organ, can bring more merits to the

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school and its personnel (Blasé, 1997). Continuing, Blasé observed that a PTA under an able

and effective school principal, if sufficiently motivated and mobilized, could be a lasting asset

which can establish and maintain cordial relation between the community and the school.

Idemili (1990) noted that school principals who are considerate in allowing members of the

public to use some school facilities e.g halls, play grounds indirectly establish rapport and

invariably strengthen school public relations. It is suggested that principals should encourage

community use of school facilities by allowing the school premises to serve as venue for

community events of non-commercial nature such as football competition, church and

association meeting among others but supervising their use to avoid destruction of facilities

(Nkado, 2012; Maica, 2009; and Combs, 2007).The merits of such positive school public

relations practices are immense to the existence of the school in maintaining cordial relations

with the community where it situates. But these benefits could only be derived by both the

school and the community, and from each other when mutual understanding through effective

communication, cooperation and unity of purpose exist between the school and the public. The

extent of principals’ performance in public relation and factors that relate to it will be examined

in this study.

Managing school funds is one of the major tasks of the principals which accounts for

their performance in the management of secondary education. According to Mgbodile (2004),

effective financial management is the pivot of effective school management. The success of any

school programme depends very much on the way the financial inputs are managed and this, in

turn affects the overall performance of each school. Mgbodile noted further that financial

management is one of the areas where many practicing school administrators have neither pre-

service nor in-service training prior to their appointment and has contributed to the failure of

many schools. The Federal Ministry of Education (1993) observed that it is important that all

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school administrators should have sufficient knowledge of financial management to be effective.

It also noted that financial management is one of the areas where many practicing school

administrators have neither pre-service, nor in-service training prior to their appointment. This

has contributed to the failure of many school programmes. Without good measures of financial

management, educational programmes will not be properly implemented. George and Storey

cited in Mgbodile (2004) stated that proper fund management in educational institutions entails

essential elements like: educational plans, revenue plans and spending plans. Education plans

refer to the objectives of the educational programme or the desired outcomes that are to be

achieved as a result of the expenditure of money. The revenue plan refers to the ways to obtain

needed resources. The school principal should be aware of various sources of funds for the

operation of the school. Some of the sources of fund in secondary schools are government

grants, school fees, proceeds from school activities, communities, individuals and charitable

organizations, endowment fund, external aids and trust funds. Spending plan refers to the

activities and materials that would be used to achieve the desired outcome. The generated

revenue has to be judiciously managed to achieve the objectives of the school.

Financial management entails sourcing and use of funds. According to Ogbonnaya

(2009), the central purpose of financial management is the raising of funds and ensuring that the

funds are ultilized in the most effective and efficient manner. Mogbodile (2004) noted that the

principal is expected to keep accurate records of all incoming monies to the school as well as a

proper account of the disbursement and expenditure of such monies. This is prudent financial

management that ensures that funds are judiciously spent for the purpose they are meant.

Commenting on the effective use of funds for educational programmes, Okoroma and Walson

(2010) advised that adequate plans be made by government on how the funds realized in schools

from various sources be accounted for to avoid misappropriation. “Adequate funding alone does

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not guarantee the success of any school programme, rather effective management of funds and

other resources is imperative to enhance effective implementation of the programme” (P.8).

The concern for effective financial management has been expressed. Mgbodile (2004)

cautioned principals to eschew the temptation of embezzling or mismanaging school funds as

these not only work against the progress of the school but could attract unpleasant consequences

to them and the school in general. Judicious management of funds ensures availability of funds

for procuring instructional media for promoting teaching and learning. Aitken (1995) identified

behaviours that demonstrate the skill of financial management to include: knowledge of financial

terms; keeping close check on financial matters; prioritizing financial allocation according to

needs; ensuring budgets agree with goals and objectives; working within the confines of budget;

knowledge of appropriate financial system and regular reports of progress against budgets

figures.

Therefore, effective principals must engage in financial management. In view of this,

Odor (1995) enumerated principals’ financial management activities as involving: budget

preparation, securing revenue, managing expenditures of the school, keeping accounts of money

received and spent by the school. Therefore, good knowledge of budget preparation and

financial accounting is essential for effective financial management. School budgets could help

school principals and their staff to develop plans for instructional procedures, guidance services

and students activities. However, Odor noted that incompetent school administrators may

mismanage a good budget even when the funds are available while on the other hand a

competent school administrator is most likely to administer and control the school budget

judiciously and prudently towards the desired objectives. It is not enough to prepare a good

budget, but there must be effective supervision, administration and control of the activities in the

budget by the school administrator. Odor identified the following as functions of the school

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budget: Provision of an operational cost-time and frame work for the implementation of school

programmes; serves as an instrument for the delegation of authority in the schools; shows the

particular people responsible for specific programme; and as an instrument for controlling and

evaluating performance.

Other functions of school budget have been articulated. Ogbonnaya (2009) outlined the

following as importance of budget: Controls financial behavior of administrators in schools,

preventing waste or reckless spending as the implementers are compelled to follow the approved

estimates in expending funds, budgets attracts the interest and support of tax payers, and finally,

budget authorizes expenditure. Thus, Ogbonnaya emphasized the need for principals to involve

teachers, especially the management staff, in budget preparation as this will help them collect the

necessary data and information which constitute the income and expenditure of the institution for

the financial years. Failure to involve staff who are concerned in budget preparation is a mark of

administrative incompetency and ineffectiveness. This could result to mistrust, lukewarm

attitudes, and lack of co-operation by the subordinates who always complain that they are not

considered as part of the organization.

In any case, the achievement of educational goals depends on adequate financial support.

In spite of the efforts of government to provide funds for secondary schools, there is still lack of

funds to implement various programmes. Okoroma and Walson (2010) observed that inadequate

financial resources have been the cause of failure of educational programmes in Nigeria.

Ogbonnaya (2009) argued that since various governments cannot adequately fund the

educational institutions, the institutions should look for possible sources of revenue for financing

their programmes. Based on this, the Federal Ministry of Education (1993) emphasized that the

school administrators need to have appropriate knowledge and skills of revenue mobilization

from other sources. It posited that once the needs for human and material resources have been

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identified, estimates of the amount of finance required to deploy and use these resource

effectively should be worked out. Therefore, school administrators should be able to identify

sources of school funds and plan on how to raise money from such sources. The Federal

Ministry of Education identified such sources to include government, parents, community, Non

Government Organizations (NGO’s) as well as the school itself through finance generating

projects like school farms, business centers, craft or handwork. Ogbonnaya (2009) also outlined

means through which secondary schools raise funds for the implementation of their programmes

to include: school fees, government grants, proceeds from school activities, community support,

donations from individuals, charity organizations, endowment funds and Trust Funds. Mgbodile

(2004) and Ndayelechi (2011) added that the school can also raise fund from sports fees, caution

fees, library fees, development fees, appeal funds and proceeds from agricultural products

concert and local craft.

The principal as the school head is expected to know how to keep complete and accurate

financial information and to present the information properly. This according to Federal

Ministry of Education, should include the sources of revenue and accurate entry of expenditures,

avoiding errors or omissions as much as possible. Odimegwu (2003) posited that the principal

should ensure that the financial provisions are made for the running of the school in the annual

budget. In conjunction with the bursar, the principal should ensure that the school funds are

spent according to the provisions of the budget in a prudent manner. The Federal Ministry of

Education (1993) further stated that at each financial year ending, principals are statutorily

obliged to prepare and present to the school board a financial report for auditing. Such audit

would enable a competent auditor to determine and form an opinion on the true and fairness of

financial statement of the school for the period under review. This, it noted will give a true and

fair view of the financial position of the school. The Federal Ministry of Education identified the

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objectives of auditing to include to: enable auditors to form an opinion on the accuracy of the

financial statement prepared by the school principal; help the school principal improve the

school accounting system, and detect or prevent errors. Principals’ performance in financial

management and its relationship with some factors was examined in this study.

School plant refers to the material provisions of the school. The school compound,

buildings, playgrounds, library, laboratories, classrooms, furniture, equipments, hostels, common

room, canteen – all these put together form school plant. The school plant is an integral part of

the learning environment. School plant or educational facilities are the tangible assets of an

institution such as building, land, equipment, machineries, furniture, fittings and fixtures which

are put into use for and capable of producing excellent educational services (Njoku, 2004).

Educational facilities also known or referred to as school plant include school buildings

(classroom, laboratories, libraries and workshops etc), teaching aids and devices such as modern

educational hardware and their software in the form of magnetic tapes, films and transparencies

like projectors. Bryce (2006) described educational facilities as those things of education which

enable a skilled teacher to achieve a level of instructional effectiveness that far exceed what is

possible when they are not provided. Educational facilities imply substantial cost to the school

system for their establishment but they facilitate teaching and learning in the school system.

There are other views of school plant. Mgbodile (2004) described the school plant as the

space interpretation of the school curriculum. The programmes of the school are expressed as it

were through the school site, the buildings, playgrounds, the arrangement and design of the

buildings. It seems that a well designed functional school building with a wide array of teaching

aids therefore provide effective delivery of schools’ curriculum and are positively related to

academic achievement. Peretomode (2001) opined that school management in the traditional

form was often thought of as involving the management of only men (teachers and students) and

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perhaps money (school finance). The building, school space and equipment are usually taken for

granted as given, for they are there or ‘on the ground’ as it were and therefore should not be

given attention. This assumption is unwarranted for they are usually not there. Therefore, if not

properly managed and maintained, they dilapidate, and wear out faster than their normal “life

span”. If not properly utilized, the school system and the particular school units would not derive

optimum benefits from their use. For effective management of secondary schools, adequate

facilities and equipment must be provided for the achievement of educational programmes. This

is because, physical facilities and equipment can be said to be physical expression of the school

programme and activities. It is a consciously designed and controlled environment with the sole

aim of promoting teaching and learning activities within the school.

When these instructional facilities are lacking, the principal and teachers will hardly

perform their instructional roles. According to Amirize (2009), the importance of physical

facilities and equipment is expressed in a conducive physical accommodation like classrooms

and offices with furniture, libraries, laboratories and playground. Donnelly (2009) observed that

the physical appearance and general condition of school physical facilities are striking basis upon

which many parents and friends of any educational institution make their judgment about the

quality of what goes on in the school. That is to say that the facilities play a major role in

determining the type of relationship between the school and the community. This is because

parents and pupils make their judgment and take their decisions on whether to associate

themselves with a particular school after a careful evaluation and consideration of the physical

facilities and equipment in the school. Ndu, Ocho and Okeke (1997) opined that if the quality

and quantity of the physical facilities attract the admiration of a parent, the conviction of the

parent will be that since the quality and quantity of the school physical facilities and equipment

are of such level, the quality of the staff and school will be of high standard. Therefore, in an

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attempt to attract the admiration and acceptance from the community, there is need for a well

planned physical facilities plant.

The principal as the head should see that the necessary requisition for infrastructure are

sent to the appropriate authority for provision. This point was made more emphatic by Hanushek

(1998) who stated that some administrators do not give regard to school facilities by making

necessary request from the board and following up till they are supplied to serve the needs of the

school. The consequence is obvious and students are left with no choice than to sit on the bare

floor in some schools, with the staff room if any, having neither chairs nor tables for teachers to

sit comfortably.

The cost of providing school plant is high. According to Peretomode (2001), the cost of

the stock of educational facilities in the school system in Nigeria is enormous even at the present

state of their insufficiency and inadequacy. They represent substantial financial outlay to the

tax-payers. Establishing new educational facilities is no longer that easy because of the current

state of economic depression and constantly rising costs. These factors make it imperative for

administrators to ensure that the existing facilities are regularly maintained to extend their useful

life and maximize their utility. In view of this, Enyi (2012) pointed out that, for effective

performance in the management of schools, administrators are expected to have a good

maintenance programme in the schools to protect the initial capital investment made by

government. Proper utilization of facilities through an effective maintenance culture is a prime

means of reducing the total cost of school operation and make achievement of objectives

effective and efficient. This fact was further buttressed by Bryce (2006) that the actual role of

school administrators in the area of plant management is maintenance. Therefore, resources

available to them should be used to maintain the buildings, furniture and equipment as far as is

possible in their original condition either through repairs or by replacements.

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The maintenance of school plant is important in the management of schools. MacCabe

(1998) reiterated that government should build maintenance cost into educational budget since

wear and tear or deterioration of educational facilities is a natural process. It is inevitable that

maintenance be conceived as an on-going activity designed to keep the educational function and

environmental conditions of school buildings and other facilities at maximum efficiency and

effectiveness. This would be to the enduring benefit of school principals both now and in the

future in the management of their schools.

School plant maintenance refers to keeping of school property in a condition close to

their original state. Although it is impossible to convert an old material or equipment to an

entirely new one but renovation would in all cases add life to that material or equipment. Plants

generally loose values continuously as soon as they have been put into use. Lack of use also

reduces durability of equipment which therefore calls for maintenance. The factors that cause

depreciation and loss of value of school plant, according to Allen (2007), include: wear and tear,

physical decay, obsolescence or growing out of use, and accidents. Depreciation of school plant

is a usual occurrence and it is inevitable, and can cause setback in the achievement of school

aims and objectives. Achunine (1997) noted that adequate programme for school plant

maintenance include detecting and repairing or replacing damaged or lost portion of school

facilities. This is done to prevent total deterioration by getting rid of obsolete materials which

are no longer useful as the need arises.

Management of School plant entails a lot of activities. Mgbodile (1986) indicated major

areas of responsibility and duties that need to be performed for proper management and

maintenance of school plant to enhance their life span. These are: regular replacing roofs, doors,

windows, repairs of broken chairs and tables as well painting of offices and classrooms. Others

include ensuring that gardeners and labourers keep tidy the plants and flowers through regular

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pruning for esthetics. Fire Prevention and Safety to put off fire outbreaks, with the use of fire

fighting materials which are kept in strategic corners of buildings are also necessary. Buckets can

also be filled with sand which could be used to put off any minor fire outbreak. These provisions

are necessary because students who attend well organized and equipped schools prove some

level of superiority over those that attend classes under dilapidated buildings and untidy

environments.

Lack of school plant maintenance makes the environment untidy and unsafe for staff and

students. It is also important to note that maintenance of building and equipments provide safety,

and reduce accidents, stress and time for the individual in the school community. Principals who

lead schools that have dilapidated structures stand the risk of answering question of poor

performance in examination and regular accidents as well as damages within the schools

(Amadike, 2002). Similarly, most causes of anti-social behaviour by students could be traced to

the state of the school or the school environment. This is so because a cozy environment can

kindle the behaviour of students as well as staff. Bryce (2006) noted that school compound

where property are defaced, esthetics destroyed, classrooms not swept and machines rendered

unproductive, leaves students unsecured, frustrated, discomforted and may encourage

indiscipline and wanton destruction of property and total disorder in the school. This same

experience may be observed in laboratories and libraries that are ill-maintained and may affect

the students’ academic performance through poor teaching and learning. Therefore, school plant

management is critical to students’ performance. In this study, the extent of Principals

performance in the management of school plant, and the factors that predict it was explored.

Conflict refers to some form of friction, disagreement, or discord arising within a group

when the beliefs or actions of one of more members of the group are either resisted by or

unacceptable to one or more members of another group. The pluralist theory, according to Okene

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(2001), looked at the workplace, the school inclusive, as a microcosm of the society replete with

diversity of social groups, social interest, values and beliefs that generate discord among

members. The proponents of this theory according to Okene saw these diversities as the basic

sources of conflict which to some extent do enhance group unity and brings solution to problems

in the society. This is so “if the basic relationship in a society were codified, we would have a

very static society and if the fundamental relationships were sympathetic in character we would

have anarchy” ( P.48). Organizational conflict, according to Gareth and Jennifer (2006), is the

discord that arises when the goals, interest or values of different individuals or groups are

incompatible and those individuals or groups block or thwart one another’s attempts to achieve

their objectives. Conflict, according to them, is an inevitable part of organizational life because

the goals of different stakeholders such as administrators and subordinates are often

incompatible. They outlined the sources of organizational conflicts as: incompatible goals and

time horizon, overlapping authority, task interdependence where roles are not properly defined,

and individuals getting on each other’s way, scarce resource, status inconsistencies and

incompatible evaluation or reward system.

There are different levels of the manifestation of conflict. In which ever level of conflict

manifests in the school system, be it intra-personal, interpersonal, inter- organization and

community related, if not properly diagnosed or left unchecked can be a highly destructive force

(Bouta, George, & Bannon, 2005). Hence school administrators should apply conflict

management/resolution strategies to control and prevent conflict from becoming destructive.

Conflict management and resolution is therefore an important area of principals’ responsibility in

the management of secondary education. Conflict resolution involves implementing strategies to

control the negative aspects of conflict and to increase the positive aspects. These strategies

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include compromise, collaboration, competition, accommodating, and avoiding (Smulyan,

2000).

Compromise is a method of conflict resolution which involves the process of negotiation

and bargaining were feuding parties give-and-take certain concessions to reach a resolution.

Peretomode (2004) noted that in compromise, feuding parties are made to give up some and take

up some issues which led to the conflict. It is often known as middle of the way option where

you win-some and lose-some. If compromise is properly utilized, it can create an atmosphere of

understanding and peace within an organisation. A principal who uses compromise in resolving

disputes ensures that concession is reached between feuding parties on the causes of the conflict.

In which case, the feuding parties concede some issues in order to have peace for them to meet

their objectives

Collaboration is a problem-solving approach to conflict resolution which is characterized

by a win-win scenario. This option according to Okon (2008) involves a joint effort of

disputants to solve a problem that led them to the conflict. In using collaborative option, Okon

reiterated that all parties endeavor to understand the issues which are considered. Solutions are

developed collectively by the feuding parties with mutual trust and respect. Although considered

as the best or ideal conflict resolution method, the collaborative option has a reputation for time

consumption. The problem-solving nature of the collaborative option according to Ohio

Commission (2004), involves brain storming with the goal of identifying as many solutions as

possible for resolving a conflict. Albanese cited in Okon (2008) noted that several conditions are

involved using the collaborative option. These conditions include an attempt to depersonalize

the conflict were efforts are made in the conflict channel towards solving the problem rather than

defeating each other; the goals, options, attitudes and feelings of all parties are seen as legitimate

and acceptable concerns which play a constructive role; and the parties realize that a conflict

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issue can make a constructive contribution to the quality of human relationship. The principal

who is good in using collaborative option according to Idoko (2010) gives equal consideration to

people and production of results; views conflict as beneficial if handled in an open manner were

all cards are laid on the table; guides the group through the basic problem-solving procedure;

attempts to reach a consensus by spending a great deal of time to achieve purposeful results; and

tends to lead in an open management style.

Competition is a conflict resolution technique which involves a strong desire of a person

to attain or satisfy his interest at the expense of others. The Ohio Commission (2004) noted that

competition can be appropriate in certain circumstances when one knows that he is right on a

conflict issue and would contest at all cost to prove that point right. In the management of

schools, the competition option in conflict resolution is advantageous when a quick decisive

action must be taken. According to Smulyan (2000), school administrators who practice the

competition technique of conflict resolution view the results expected of the school as their

personal goals which are more important than the people and therefore see nothing wrong using

force when necessary and are quite willing to endanger some relationship and satisfy others in

order to have the school goals realized; views conflict as a win-lose situation or as a contest of

power in which one person must fail so that the other can succeed without the opportunity for

compromise; have great respect for power and would submit to arbitrators only if their power is

greater; and tend to lead in the blind management style, that is autocratic, over-confident and

seldom seeks feedbacks. The consequence of this style in school administration is the attempt by

the principal to dominate, suppress, intimidate or coerce the subordinates in accepting solutions

to the conflict but does not indicate the resolution of the conflict. The conflict could erupt again

as cordial relationship, team spirit and cooperation is hampered in the pursuit of school goals.

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Accommodation is a conflict resolution strategy in which one party simply allows the

other to achieve its goals without interruption. It portraits a win - lose syndrome. The primary

strength of this option according to Gareth and Jennifer (2006), is that it energies co-operation

were one person oblique to the other in order to preserve a relationship. This style highlights

hypocrisy by giving up something now and eventually getting something of value in return at

another time. This technique depicts the Chameleons symbol which changes its colour to match

the color of its environment to fit quietly in the surrounding. Using accommodation in conflict

resolution focuses on appeasement of another with the aim of maintaining harmonious

relationship at all cost through self sacrifice by one party to the conflict. Adopting this technique

by administrators, Idoko (2010) noted the negative aspect as docile, dependent and submissive

personality which leads to lack of influence and recognition. On the positive side, the

accommodation option may be very beneficial as a starting point to handle intense and

aggressive feelings of subordinates. A school administrator when confronted by a highly

emotional subordinate who is shouting and pounding the desk, may well find this approach

beneficial to calm down the situation by obliquing his actions. Peretomode (2004) noted that

principals whose conflict resolution style is oriented towards the accommodation option are

those who believe that harmony is important in maintaining a good relationship and gaining

personal acceptance. The principals give high esteem for people regardless of the production of

results. In this way, they try to smooth over or ignore conflict in an attempt to keep everyone

happy. However, principals who use the accommodation technique tend to lead by a hidden

management style with distrust on people and desires for social acceptance while over using feed

backs.

Avoiding is a conflict resolution approach by which feuding parties refuse to recognize

the real source of the problem and act as if there was no problem. This approach to conflict

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resolution according to Smulyan (2000), may be appropriate when the conflict in question is

perceived to be minor and the cost of solving the problems are greater than the benefits derived.

Smulyan further noted that although the avoidance option is perceived appropriate when the

conflict is minor, the gravity of the conflict builds up between parties when used by principals. It

is therefore important that conflict between parties should be resolved immediately when noticed

to avoid situation of perceived withdrawal, evasion, flight, isolation and apathy capable of

building up non communication and corporation by the feuding parties. If left alone and

unaddressed through the avoidance technique, conflicts have the tendency to grow and the cost

of declined performance is potentially huge. However, principals who exhibit avoidance

approach should show the following characteristics: treating everybody equally; being neutral at

all cost and looking at conflict as worthless; not taking sides to parties experiencing any form of

conflict; non involvement in any situation that might possibly produce conflict; give little

concern for people or production of results; tends to lead in closed management style, that is a

non communicator and seldom seeks feedback.

On the other hand, conflict management involves the reduction, elimination or

termination of all forms and types of conflicts. This could take the form of mediation and

arbitration. Mediation refers to a broad variety of practices that includes techniques designed to

promote relaxation, build internal energy or life force and develop compassion, love, patience,

generosity and forgiveness among people. By mediating, the principal helps to counsel feuding

parties to generate an emotional state for the purpose of analyzing that state such as anger,

hatred, or cultivating a particular mental response to various phenomena to produces a deep state

of relaxation and a tranquil mind for compassion on others in the group. During mediation,

Jennifer and Gareth (2006) noted that attention is focused on eliminating the stream of jumbled

thoughts that may be crowding the minds of feuding parties with respect to improperly defined

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roles. This process may result in enhanced physical and emotional well-being by resolving the

conflict through role specification. In mediation, the principal ensures that role conflicts are

minimized by ensuring proper school organisation by defining roles and responsibilities to avoid

a clash.

Arbitration is a conflict management process which involves private and informal

adjudicatory process for settling disputes between feuding parties. Jennifer and Gareth (2006)

pointed out that in arbitration the disputants believes that solutions to their problems could be

determined by the arbitrator. The principal acting as the arbitrator make decisions that are

binding in honor and respected by the parties. The hearing is much less formal in procedure, but

each party has the right to present proofs and arguments to substantiate their claims if any in

issues giving rise to the conflict. Therefore, properly managed conflict increases learning

through increasing the degree to which groups ask questions and challenge the status quo

(Luthans, Rubach and Marnik, 1995).

The aim of conflict management and resolution is to enhance learning and group

performance in an organizational setting (Rahim, 2002). Okontoni and Okontoni (2008) asserted

that most school administrators are not knowledgeable in conflict management and have led to

high rate of conflict situations and indiscipline in the schools. The school principal is expected in

the light of this to adopt possible management strategies which will remove all sources of

conflict in the school system and resolves conflicts amicably.

Good conflict resolution and management strategies in the school system bring about

enviable and productive environment for the achievement of school goals. The school principal

as an administrator is expected to possess and employ the skills for resolving conflicts among his

subordinates, so as to maintain peace and harmony which is very crucial for team work

(Ikoya and Akinsende, 2009). The Federal Ministry of Education (1993) noted that dispute is

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part of human life and that there is no human organization where workers from time to time

would not have conflict among them. It argued that when such conflicts occur, it is expected that

the school administrators should be able to resolve conflicts amicably to allow staff and students

work harmoniously and co-operatively towards the achievement of the school goals. However,

to resolve conflicts amicably, school administrators need the following competencies: ability to

state what is acceptable and what is not; intervene if and when appropriate; discuss fairly; be

neutral; don’t take sides; clarify needs; show a clear understanding of natural justice and equity;

know the rules and apply them confidently; absorb external resolution; work to get consensus;

calm people down; negotiate to achieve resolution; compromise where necessary; get others

involved if necessary; look at the suggested solutions required; and know when to get outside

assistance.. This study provides an opportunity to determine the extent school Principals manage

and resolve conflict and those factors that make this possible.

Effective school administration is the pivot upon which the success of the entire

educational system of the nation revolves. The school administrators in the discharge of their

duties are expected to work in confines with the laws regulating administration of secondary

school (Obi, 2010). Otherwise there will be mischief which could lead to series of litigations in

the school system. Obi noted further that in contemporary time everybody is getting aware of

his/her rights with respect to the roles and code of conduct as they impact on the rights and

responsibilities of teachers, students and other stakeholders in the secondary school system.

These rights ought to be respected. According to Ellah (2004), knowledge of the legal

provisions of principals rights and privileges, roles and codes of conduct as they relate especially

to the rights and obligations of teachers and students should be of great concern not only to the

school administrator but to all members of the society who are directly or indirectly involved in

the educational system. This is important in order to define the limits of individual behaviours,

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provide understating, inject respectability and mutuality of interest and induce co-operation for

the smooth running of the school for the attainment of its goals. Any mistake made to the limits

of their respective rights are very costly and in several instance; have resulted to series of

litigation in the school system which may not augur well to the effective administration of

schools (Kalagbor, 2004). This position is buttressed by Ozurumba (2007) who noted that:

in Nigeria, there is the awareness of the increase in attention given to individuals’ rights, especially those described as fundamental rights of the citizens. This state of affairs has led to more litigations in schools. Given the climate of the times, it appears not only prudent but also necessary for educational administrators and teachers to understand their own rights and limitations, as well as the legal implications of what they do, particularly in dealing with students and parents’ in educational matters (P.34)

Therefore a knowledge of their rights and responsibilities to others and the legal

implications of their actions and inactions through rules and regulations governing the

administration of the system will probably enhance principals effectiveness in their respective

roles in the school system. According to Igwe (2003), most school administrators and teachers

are not aware of their rights, duties, obligations and responsibilities under the law. They are also

not aware of the probable consequences or implications of their actions in their day-to-day

activities within the school system. Thus, in this age of enlightenment, such ignorance may no

doubt be costly, if not disastrous, to the individual, the educational system and others within the

system. As stipulated in the Nigerian Teachers’ Service Manual cited in Igwe (2003), it is

expected that principals shall continually seek to uphold the constitutional provisions and the

various state education laws in order to protect their own rights and the rights of students. It is

expected also that upholding the constitutional provisions will make principals effective

professionals as administrators and academic heads in the management of secondary education.

In this study, Principals’ adherence to statutory regulation, and the factors that relate to this was

determined.

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Demographic factors in School Principalship

These are factors such as age, gender, qualification, experience and marital status that

may impact on the performance of the principal in the management of schools. In Nigerian

setting, Ibukun (2011) stated that factors such as age, qualification, gender and experience have

been considered in appointing teachers to principalship position with the belief that some

individuals would be more effective than others.

Age is the number of years a person has lived. Age may not be a determinant of a

man’s sense of good judgment. Reyes (1990) and Feldman (1996) asserted that the general

proposition is that younger principals in their fifties exhibit better management capabilities than

the older principals since individuals tend to gradually disengage from active work with age. It

may as well be that older principals will be more effective than younger ones. This was

buttressed by Oredien (2004) that showed a positive relationship between principals’

productivity and age. However, in a study Domina (2005) found that there was no significant

relationship between principals’ age and administrative performance. In this study, these

assertions will be tested.

Gender refers to the socially constructed roles of men and women. Gender could

also be described as the behavioral characteristics distinguishing between masculinity and

femininity in any society. Gender, according to Pollard and Morgan (2002), refers to the socially

constructed expectations for male and female behaviours which prescribe a division of labour

and responsibilities between males and females. According to Oluseyi (2001), gender studies is

traced to the 1976 University of Sussex workshop on the subordination of women where a

consensus emerged that unlike sex, which is biologically determined, women’s subordination is

socially constructed. Hence, while sex refers to the biological differentiation between males and

females in terms of their reproductive functions, gender refers to the differentiation between the

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roles of men and women as socially constructed by society through socialization (Onyeonoru,

2005).Thus, while sex is biological and fixed, gender is varied in space and time and is culturally

determined. The World Bank report on gender, conflict and development according to Bouta,

George and Bannon (2005),viewed gender as socially construed roles ascribed to women and

men as opposed to biological and physical characteristics, and which vary according to

socioeconomic, political and cultural contexts, and are affected by other factors including age,

class and ethnicity. They posited that gender roles are learned and negotiated, or contested and

are therefore changeable. Although, there are differences in roles between men and women, both

can also combine different roles individually over time, or even simultaneously. Madunagu

(2005) defined gender as a widely shared ideas and expectations concerning men and women

which are typically masculine and feminine characteristics and abilities. Gender, therefore,

refers to commonly shared expectations of how women and men should behave in various

situations. These ideas and role expectations reflect and influence the different roles, social

status, economic and administrative power of men and women in the society.

Scholars have given contrasting views about gender difference in performance

effectiveness among school administrators. Daresh and Male (2000), reported that females

principals are more effective and efficient in school administration because they extend their

motherhood roles to the school environment. Uko (2002) contend male superiority over females

as male principals usually apply their domineering capabilities to achieve the school goals. The

tacit assumption in most South- South States of Nigeria according to Ezeh (1997) is that males

are superior to females in most things that count. Females are assumed to be dependent on males

for taking initiatives and for leadership. Since principalship involves exercising the role of a

leader or administrator in secondary school, one wonders whether the socio-cultural influences

that expose males to different problems solving situation and place females in subordinate

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position would affect the performance of the different genders in school administration. These

suggest that there are fundamental differences in the leadership, beliefs and practices of male and

females leaders. Ezeh further stated that it has been frequently claimed that female leaders are

more collaborative and relational. This means that female principals relate more friendly with

subordinates teachers and students as well as the community where the school situates.

There are indications that these assumptions may not be always true. Recent gender

discourse, according to Fadekemi and Isaac (2011), reveals growing skepticism with the validity

of gender typecast of men as instrumental, bureaucratic and competitive being and women as

nurturing, relational and collaborative. Accordingly, theories based upon transmission models of

gender socialization are also too simplistic. They fail to recognize that individuals who become

teachers and principals draw their beliefs from a range of value system and undergo extensive

periods of training and reflection which may lead them to question broad social norms. This

could imply that there are a lot of complex social forces which interact with gender to produce a

range of beliefs and values which could be cultural, institutional, historic, and environmental in

performance effectiveness (Gbinigie, 2001). Grogan (1996) argued that women were not only

positioned by the discourse of educational administration but were simultaneously positioned by

other dominant discourse of motherhood, house hold management, labour and relationships.

Therefore, many of the obstacles women face are a consequence of the demands of these

clashing discourses. Those women who were successful had found ways to navigate their career

path through the demands of competing discourses. Saduwa (2011) maintained that gender has

its own advantages and disadvantages for management effectiveness of an administrator but

there is more emphasis on their capabilities. Research suggests that among the whites and

middle-class Americans, the following gender schemas are prevalent: Men are action-oriented,

assertive, independent and task-focused; women are expressive, nurturing, and oriented towards

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and caring of other people (Gareth and Jennifer, 2006). It was also noted that any schemas such

as these are bound to be inaccurate. For example, not all women are alike and not all men are

alike, and there are many women who are more independent and task-focused than men.

In assessing male and female principal’s managerial performance, Vincent (1998)

pointed out that men exhibit low dependency on feelings of competence in judging self-work

while women are more sociable and caring. It is sometimes argued that since women have been

socialized to be more “open” or “interpersonally aware”, their managerial style is likely to be

less autocratic than that of many men. In some parts of Nigeria, there are fewer women than

men that hold administrative position. According to Peil cited in Wagbara (2004), employers of

labour are always reluctant to accept women in key sensitive positions which demand high

frequency of attention such as monitoring and overseeing specific performance. Men are highly

effective in this position than women because of time spent by women on their pregnancy,

maternity leave and monthly flow which make their male counterparts more effective than them.

The role of gender in school-community relationship has been discussed. Ozunna (1997)

stated that women by their nature and nurture are generally less prone to the vagaries and

vicissitudes characteristics of the political arena. They are consequently very apprehensive of

such acts which are likely to polarize their self-actualization and thus create an internal distortion

within them. It has been known that apart from few women who have made significant impacts

on their job, administrative positions have been one of the areas women have not performed so

wonderfully (Reshine, 1993). Continuing, Reshine maintained that women are limited in their

capabilities and endeavors to establish remarkable school-community relations. Male principals

always maintain better relationship with the problems often associated with local politics,

especially in a community torn apart by bitterness and feud. Nwagwu (1995) observed that in

some countries only very few husbands if any, would allow their wives to be exposed to the

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problems, harshness and uncertainties of community politics in the name of running a school.

Wives are therefore seriously cautioned against this which have made some women even afraid

of the community they find themselves. This makes some to disregard the community oblivious

of the fact that the school cannot exist without the community. This therefore goes to buttress

the claim that most schools led by female principals have problems coping with the

establishment and maintenance of good community relationship (Wagbara, 2004).

Most scholars hold the view that men make better principals than women, but in actual

fact it may not be so. Akande (1997) stated that only very few of the women in the labour force

find themselves in the supervisory and managerial cadres in their respective occupations.

Women are looked down because of their weaknesses and are seen as inferiors but statistics have

shown that they equally perform well as school principals. Akande further noted that although

management has been traditionally male dominated, statistics show that women can do the work

of principals, even in some cases perform better than their male counterparts. The contrasting

views on which gender enhances principal’s performance in the task areas of secondary school

management was tested in this study.

Professional qualification refers to the skill and standards of behaviour expected of a

trained person to perform specialized tasks. Mgbodile (2004) defined professional qualification

as a body of knowledge acquired by a person after a programmed learning designed for

performance in a specific task. The body of knowledge, skills and values makes person a

professional, and capable of high performance. According to Williams (2000), professional

qualification are required for practice at a high level in certain jobs or professions. Professional

qualification refers to the competencies of members of a given profession. Onwurah (2004)

stated that professional qualification is the increased growth and advancement in knowledge,

skills attitudes and sophistication needed for continued effective performance of a profession and

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its members. Onwurah further explained that professions have specific certification that qualify

one to become a member. It is only possible to join these professions if one has passed the

prescribed courses the professional body has approved. Professional training plays important role

in the task performance of educational administrators. In view of the role of professional

training in the functioning of the school principals, Okolo (2001) emphasized the need for

training and development of newly appointed principals.

Professional qualification is a vital factor for Principals to exercise positive influence,

control and have authority over the behaviour of the teachers, students and the entire staff in the

school. It is a symbol of one’s intellectual maturity and experience not only in his management

of school staff but also in management of school finance (Onyejemezie, 1991). Fletcher and

Mclnemey (2005) opined that professional training is critical to efficient performance of school

principal. According to Kalagbor (2004), professional qualification of a principal when

juxtaposed with administrative effectiveness has some relationship. It serves as a means by

which the principals potentials for maximum effectiveness is assessed. Ellah (2004) commented

on the issue of qualification of principals and noted that the academically qualified principals

have shown the tendency to succeed more than their non-qualified counterparts in a situation

where many things have to be managed. This is so because adequately qualified ones have the

confidence and courage to use their initiative and to experiment. Ibukun (2011) reported that

principals with professional qualifications are more productive than those without such

qualification. It is believed that specialized training empowers and motivates such principals for

better performance. Eyike (2001) also affirmed that principals who completed in-service

trainings were more effective than those who did not. An important implication of this is that

professionally trained principals perform their roles better than non-professionals in the

management of secondary schools. From the fore going, principals’ professional qualification

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seem to have a relationship with their performance. Though professional qualification has some

research evidence in support of its potential in improving principals’ job performance

(Nwangwu, 2006), Ogbaji and Oti (2006) posited that professional qualification of principals has

no impact on their job performance. It is therefore important that the relationship between

professional qualification and principals’ performance in the critical task areas be examined.

This study provides an opportunity to examine this relationship.

Experience is the number of years or the period a worker has been performing assigned

duties. The term experience is defined as professional growth that takes place in the educator as a

result of continued stay, or study on the job and other related processes (Hallinger and Heck,

1996). Experience as viewed by Sturman (2000) is the culmination of job specifics from action,

practice and perception of the task and duties associated with a specific job due to training and

retraining on the job. Experience is a person’s particular instance for encountering or

undergoing through something. This relates to a person finding himself in some situation and

being aware of it. Carroll and Harrison, (2008) explained experience to mean the totality of such

events in the past of an individual or group; a sense of knowledge that one saw or participated in

previously. Specifically, administrative experience is a growth in personal and inter-personal

leadership skills, knowledge and values due to continued stay on the job or through training. The

general notion according to Obasi (1999) is that every employer believes that employees with

high level of experience perform better than those with lower experience. This conception is still

a matter of great debate among researchers in education and management sciences. The truth is

that the more an individual performs a job over and over; there is a higher tendency for

specialization as a result of experience as he remembers more of what he does (Okpalugo, 2008).

Many authors believe that experience is related to performance. Nwangwu (2006) opined

that experience is a major feature of most profession. Such experience has been observed to

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assist in developing the required social and intellectual skills, learning how to work closely with

other people and in finding out about individual interests and differences. Peretomode (2001)

pointed out that experience enables principals to monitor and supervise the various aspects of the

school activities like teaching and learning school plant and records, as well as extracurricular

activities. Experience is one factor or quality, which cannot be over emphasized in the choice of

school administrators. This is because in climbing the seniority ladder, the teacher would have

been a form master/mistress, headmaster/mistress, games master/mistress or a vice principal.

After going through these various positions, the individual would have acquired enough

experience to be able to lead other people in the development of leadership trust and team work.

This is also why supervisors of schools are selected from experienced teachers and principals

(Mbiti, 1993); for job experience leads to accumulation of relevant knowledge, skills and

abilities for the effective performance of a particular job.

Professional experience comes through training, and working on the job. According to

Peretomode (2001), the principal who is an instructional supervisor in the school system is

expected to have professional experience which is not spontaneous but acquired through

developmental and professional training programmes. This position therefore holds that

experience can influence the administrative ability of principals. Fadekemi and Isaac (2011),

affirmed that experienced principals operate from a deeper and more sophisticated knowledge

base. Their years of working experience have given them extensive repertories to effective

management, counseling, supervision, and evaluation of teachers under them.

From the foregoing, there is a perceived relationship between experience and

performance effectiveness of principals in the management of schools. This statement is

supported by Okolo (2001) who opined that the major influential factor to effectiveness of

school administrators today is experience gained in the course of working. Experience can also

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be a burden to the principals, especially if the persons professional and academic base is weak.

It may be an obstacle to innovation. In this study, the relationship between experience and

performance of the principal was determined.

A person can either be married, single, divorced, or separated. Marital status is the state

of being married or not married by a man or woman (Anyanwu, 2009). Continuing, Anyanwu

noted that the traditional vitures of marriage such as love, fidelity and mutual fulfillment imbibed

by married men and women are often presumed to transcend to the work place. There they

exhibit love and fidelity with the drive for mutual fulfillment of individual and organizational

goals. The married principal (Thompson, 2000) imbibed the culture of tolerance and apply it to

their relationship with students and teachers in the general administration of schools. The

presumed maturity that comes with marriage could enable the principal to handle some complex

problems that face the school. There is a general notion (Obasi, 1990) that most married

individuals tend to be more stable and focused with “things” of life. No wonder, it is argued that

those who are not married are not yet accountable and their responsible life style is always in

most cases doubtful. Otamiri (1998) stated aptly that;

the problems encountered by principals in their administration of students personnel such as cheating, sneaking out of class and school compound, fighting, poor feeding, propensity to be heard, accepted and loved, freedom of choice and rather passive participant than active participant in the learning process calls for principals who are empathic, caring and passionate which comes with child care relative to child bearing in marriage life…(P.46).

This implies that marital status is related to performance.

A single person who works as a principal may have emotional instability. Accordingly,

Forgaty and Hayghe cited in Anyanwu (2009) reported heightened emotionality and lack of

concentration among singles who work with people. Anyanwu (2009), also noted that females

are more vulnerable to negative or psychological effects of marital distress than men and this

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may inadvertently affect their effective performance. Findings reported by John and Tarlor

(1999), and Tsui, Leun, Cheung, Mok, and Ho (1994) indicated that married people were more

committed to their organisation than unmarried people. Married people have more family

responsibilities and need more stability and security in their jobs; and therefore, they are likely to

be more committed to performance of their duties than their unmarried counterparts. Besides,

Enukoha (1999) opined that marital status influences teachers and administrators motivation,

commitment to duty and task performance; and concluded that married school administrators

and teachers were more satisfied than the single ones. Married principals may also do better

because instructional leadership may be seen as an extension of fatherhood and motherhood

responsibilities. However, married principals may face more distractions than the singles and this

may affect their performance. The contrasting views on marital status and principals’ task

performance was tested in this study.

Personality Factors in School Principalship

Personality factors refer to the attributes of a person which provide mental and emotional

dimensions to the persons’ activities. Personality factors are those individual or organizational

factors which can spur a leader towards achieving prescribed goals (Osuku, 2003). Continuing,

Osuku stated that these factors vary depending on individuals. They include self concept,

honesty, realism, drive and tenacity (motivation), psychological openness, leadership styles,

ambition, emotional stability and conscientiousness. Charan (2007) stated that leadership styles

and motivation are personality factors that can distinguish people who can perform from those

who cannot. Oredien (2004) submitted that factors such as style of principal’s leadership and

level of motivation do influence staff and students achievement. In this study, personality factors

considered are leadership styles and motivation as they relate with performance effectiveness of

school administrators.

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Leadership styles

Leadership styles are the behavioural approach adopted by a leader to influence

subordinates towards goal achievement in an organisation. Leadership styles according to

Okoroma (2000), are the various patterns of behaviour leaders adopted in the process of directing

the efforts of subordinates towards the achievement of organizational goals. Oboegbulem and

Onwurah (2011) described leadership styles as the underlining needs structure of leaders that

determines their behaviours in various leadership situations. Leadership styles identified by

different theorists are democratic or people oriented, autocratic or task oriented, laissez-faire, and

eclectic or situational.

Democratic leadership involves the workers in all aspects of management. Democratic

leadership style otherwise known as people-oriented style, demonstrates openness, and respect

for every person in the group (Udeh, 2000). It is characterized by adequate welfare attention,

shared responsibilities, and group members involvement in decision making. These encourage

individual and group initiatives and creativity. In Blake and Moutons’ managerial grid,

democratic leadership style depicts high concern for people and low concern for task (Donnelly,

2009). Nwankwo, Loyce and Obiorah (2011) noted that democratic leadership of the principal

in his performance effectiveness has an objective dimension of accomplishing school goals by

applying democratic principles. These principles are overcoming resource constraint, building

teams, providing feedback, coordination, and conflict management, creating communication

networks, practicing collaborative politics, and modeling the school’s vision. The school

administrator who adopts the style tries to be very objective in his praise and criticism and at the

same time becomes a regular group member without doing much of the work. Each group in the

school system ensures that their contributions are earnestly made for the success of the task since

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each member has been involved in the task right from the planning stage hence none of them

could allow it to fail.

Conversely, autocratic leadership concentrates decision making on the leader, with

minimal involvement of the workers. Autocratic leadership style, according to Tony and John

(1994), is task-oriented and believes in task performance as the primary concern. The principal

identifies the work to be done and closely supervises the performance of each worker by

assuming complete control of all segments of the work. Subordinates are allowed little freedom

to exercise initiative or creativity in their operation. This leadership style according to Cynthia,

Lyle, and James (2003) is characterized by the following: denial of group members respect,

welfare of group members accorded little or no consideration, little participate in decision

making process by group members, leader exercising control in decision-making process, and

imposition of task to subordinates without due consideration of their aptitude. Continuing,

Cynthia et al noted that individual and group initiatives and creativity are discouraged while the

leader alone exercises the authority for determining policy and procedures for achieving goals.

The leader uses command to give directives and exert compliance on group members with

constant suspicion and distrust on members.

A principal may adopt autocratic leadership style. Onyiri (2007) noted that the autocratic

leadership style is a direct opposite of the democratic leadership style and signifies a self-

centered leader whose administration is centered on him. Onyiri reiterated that the autocratic

leader is the center of all the activities that go in the organisation by his dogmatic nature and

leads by withholding or giving rewards and punishment. The school principal adopting the style

(Dididjon, 2002), may be feared but not respected. Dididjon noted further that autocratic leaders

have the advantage of taking speedy decisions since he does not consult others most times. The

implication of this is that a principal who adopts autocratic management style may not achieve

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much result through the co-operation of teachers and other staff. This according to Nwokafor

(2010) will be a direct reflection of teachers’ reaction in many ways to cope with his stringent

management style for which many may show resentment and resort to eye service and

sycophantic behaviors. In this way, the leader will find it difficult to get genuine love, support

and co-operation from teachers who regard his administration as a one man show thereby

achieving few results. Graham and Benneth (1998) stated that autocratic leadership cause test

subjects to become aggressive, discontented, and lack initiative and commitment when

accomplishing task. In the school system, teachers will pretend to be serious in the presence of

the leader while the task is left non-accomplished in his absence.

Laissez-faire leadership style is a behavioural approach that shows indifference. Laissez-

faire leadership style also known as free-reign is the pattern of leadership behaviour distinctly

marked by indecision, vacillation and indifference towards group members and activities, goal

setting and goal achievement of both the group and organisation (Osuku, 2003). Continuing,

Osuku stated that in this type of leadership style, group activities are not interfered by the leader

except on invitation and much freedom given to subjects to do as they like. The leader does not

possess a clear vision of the group goals nor develop policies for it. This type of leadership

behaviour according to Fowers (2008) does not make any meaningful progress in an organisation

rather would lead to a state of organizational anarchy since every member acts independently.

This situation Fowers noted is a common case were school principals give instructions to class

masters, house masters, and association heads with little input in their affairs. In this case, they

are simply given goals to accomplish and using their experience and ingenuity. In this way, the

teachers explore their potentials for self development which does not promote group cohesion

and unity towards the achievement of the set goals. The teachers according to Salako (1998) will

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lose direction and lack control in the absence of the principal and easily collapse in crisis

situation.

This style has no concern for either the organisation or workers. Laissez-faire leadership

style, according to Donnelly (2009), is likened to an impoverished management style labeled as

[1,1] in Blake and Mouton’s managerial grid which has low concern for people and task. It was

noted that such leaders have neither concern for people nor task. Their behaviour may be

passive or political. Their passive behaviour is expressed in acts of laziness, apathy, and

resistance to change. They are not involved in group activities and blame others for creating

intolerable conditions. Their political nature is expressed in concern about status, quick to

criticism, drawing attention to others faults and their inconsistency in decision-making.

Eclectic leadership style is a behavioural approach based on surrounding circumstances.

According to Glasscock (2006), Eclectic leadership style is also known as situational leadership

style. It describes the leadership behaviour adopted by a leader on the situation that best fits the

surrounding circumstance he finds himself. Most scholars in the areas of leadership, according

to Pieters (2008), now agree that neither a set of personality trait approach nor the search for

the ‘best’ leadership style or behaviour was adequate to deal with the complexities of the

underlying process in the management of organizations. Consequently, contingency leadership

approach has been advocated which suggests that leadership effectiveness depends upon the fit

between personality, task, power, attitudes and perception. It is obvious that most effective

school administrators are neither authoritative nor democratic but flexible to select a style that is

not only comfortable to them but also appropriate for the situation they are handling. Within the

contingency leadership approach, a principal may be more open or closed in the leadership style.

An open leadership style is one which has the tendencies of democratic principles such as

collaborative decision making, delegation of authority, concern for people, and creating

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communication networks. A close leadership style has the tendencies of autocratic principles

such as imposition of task, and denial of group members respect and concern. A principal may

be more open or closed depending on the situation, and this reflects the personality of the

principal. The open-close leadership styles is a continuum, in which a principal may exhibit

more frequently a more open or closed leadership style. It is possible to determine the extent a

principal is open or close by behaviours demonstrated in the normal course of managing schools,

and relate it to the performance on some administrative task. This is one of the objectives of this

study.

Motivation

Motivation is the process of stimulating and directing human behaviour towards

achieving desirable goals. Motivation is a very important concept in school organisation and

management. It is very essential in achieving effective teaching and learning. Odenewu (2005)

described motivation as an inducement, incentive, inspiration, or encouragement in order to

incite an individual to action. Motivation can also be seen as the over-reaching concept that

includes a number of relatively particularized conditions, which are geared towards realizing

certain objectives (Fabunimi, 2001). In this way, motivation is central to all forms of learning

and can be described as that which is responsible for the initiator and sustenance of behaviour

that is goal directed. It is an abstract construct, something we cannot see but observe the effect.

In the school situation, staff motivation if properly utilized, gingers staff competitive

responsibility, and a sense of belonging and participation. Ekere (2010) asserted that no matter

how automated an organization may be, high productivity or performance depends on the level

of motivation for the effectiveness of the workforce. Motivation is therefore a drive or intrinsic

force within the individual or human organism that makes him take action towards the

achievement of an organizational goal. Thus, to motivate is to ‘translate one into performing

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what he would not naturally perform. Accordingly, Chukwuemeka (2008) argued that while

knowledge and skills possessed by the employee are important in determining his job

performance, these factors alone are not sufficient. An understanding of what motivates the

individual is needed to reveal how abilities and skills are activated and their personal potentials

realized. The managerial function and responsibility for eliciting this desired organizational

behaviour is referred to as ‘Motivation’ (Ekere, 2010).

Motivation is what people need to perform better. However, the same things motivate

individually differently. Where one gets motivated, obtains satisfaction, and consequently

performs better from getting additional responsibility assigned, another may feel much better

valued and encouraged to higher productivity if he or she is merely being listened to, or given

some flexibility in his or her work schedule. This means that individual differences also

contribute to motivation and performance effectiveness. The principal as an administrative head,

manager, public relations officer, a supervisor, an instructional leader, a curriculum innovator

and a catalyst towards the achievement of educational goals in secondary schools (Adenuga,

2008), is expected to be motivated to demonstrate effectiveness in the performance of the

duties.

Operationally, motivation can be defined as the process of stimulating principals to action

to achieve desirable educational objectives. In this context, motivation refers to the ability of the

government through the Ministry of Education to influence or energize the principals to respond

in certain expected ways to perform their functions effectively. Chukwu (2003) noted that if the

school, like any other organization, is set to make maximum utilization of its workforce by

recognizing the role of the human resources as facilitators and coordinators then there is need to

effectively articulate this factor by way of motivating it especially when we consider the high

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level of service expected from the principal. Leithwood and Jantzi cited in Uduchukwu (2003)

noted that school principals who have succeeded in their role performance are properly

motivated by way of a range of mechanisms like promotion, recognition, and advancement for

personal and organizational growth through professional development. When the job

description of the principal is challenging and interesting that requires their initiatives and

contributing to decision making concerning their schools while being commended for doing

well, with freedom of exercising job roles without restrictions in a environment where cordial

relationship exist with opportunity for promotion and professional growth and self actualization

could lead to strong motivation, satisfaction, and performance effectiveness. This was verified

in this study. The relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals

performance in the task areas of management is presented in fig. 2.

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2

3

1

D1

D2

D3

D5

D4 Professional

Qualification

M4

Motivators

M3M1

M2M5

Age

Gender

Experience

MaritalStatus

Personality Factors

Demographic Factors

Leadership Styles

L1 L2

Principals’ Performance

Pp1 InstructionalSupervision

Pp2 Communication

Pp3 Decisionmaking

Pp4 Incentives

B

A

Pp5

Pp6

Pp7

Pp8

Pp9

Public Relations

Human Resourcesl Development

Financial Mgt

Conflict Mgt./ Resolution

PlantMgt.

Pp10

Adherenceto LegalStatus

KEY= M1 = Nature of work itself M2 = Recognition M3 = Responsibility M4 = Achievement M5 = Advacement L1 = Open leadership style L2 = Closed leadership Style

Fig 2. Schematic representation of Conceptual framework

The relationship between demographic and personality factors as the independent

variables and principals performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools as

dependent variable is shown in fig.2. The principal as the executive officer of the secondary

school carries out several tasks in the management of secondary schools. These tasks are

represented in the oval marked 3 and range from pp1….pp10 which are instructional supervision,

decision making, communication, provision of incentives to teachers and learners, human

resource development, public relations, financial management, plant management, conflict

management and resolution, and adherence to legal status. The effective performance of these

tasks in the management of secondary schools may depend on certain factors. These factors

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include demographic and personality factors represented in the oval marked 1 and 2 respectively.

The demographic factors labeled D1…D5 are Age, gender, Experience, professional

qualification and marital status respectively. The personality factors in the oval marked 2 consist

of motivators and leadership styles. The motivators in the oval marked A are the nature of the

work or work itself (M1), recognition (M2), responsibility (M3), achievement (M4) and

advancement (M5). The leadership styles in the eccentric oval marked B exist in a continuum L1

to L2 representing open-close leadership styles continuum. The demographic and personality

factors may be independently or jointly related to principals’ performance in the task areas of

management of secondary schools.

Theoretical Framework

Situational/Contingency theory

Situational/Contingency theory provides that leadership effectiveness in an organization

depends upon the fit between personality, task, power and perceptions. Two perspectives to the

theory are: Tannenbaum and Schmidts situational approach which holds that effective

performance of a leader depends on forces in the administrator, situation, and subordinate. The

other perspective is Fielders Contingency Approach which is of the view that leaders achieve

greater influence on subordinates for effective performance if: there is positive or good leader-

member relations, high task structure, and strong position power.

Tannambaun and Schimidt’s situational approach

This perspective of the situational/contingency theory is developed in 1934 by

Tannambaun and Schimidt and describes a set of factors that influence a managers or

administrators choice of leadership style in a particular situation. This theory proposes that

managers should not stick to a particular leadership style but rather be flexible enough to cope

with different situations. The exponents of this theory argued that administrators are often faced

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with difficulty in deciding what type of action is most appropriate for handling a particular

problem. When faced with this situation, the school administrator/manager should consider

three sets of forces acting in the organization before choosing a type of leadership style. These

forces are: those on the administrator, forces in the subordinates and forces in the situation.

Forces on the School administrator are forces within an administrator which influence his

behaviour in a particular situation e.g, the value system, background, experience, knowledge,

confidence in subordinates, leadership tendencies and security. For instance, a school

administrator who strongly values individual freedom and has self-confidence and trust in

himself may allow subordinates a great deal of independence in carrying out their assigned

duties. Conversely, a school administrator who believes that the needs of the individuals come

second to the needs of the organization may take a more directive role in his or her subordinates’

activities.

Forces in the subordinates are characteristics or behaviour patterns and expectations

exhibited by an individual or subordinate in an organization which affect his or her personality.

A school administrator can allow a greater subordinate participation and freedom under the

following conditions or circumstance: When subordinates crave independence and freedom of

action; when they want to achieve decision making responsibility; when they identify with

school goals; when they are knowledgeable and experienced enough to deal with the problems

efficiently and when their experience with previous boss leads them to expect participative

management. When these conditions are missing, school administrators lean towards the

authoritarian style, but may however vary their behavior when subordinates gain self-confidence

in working on the assigned duties.

Forces in the situation may influence an administrator to behave in a particular way or

choose a type of leadership style. Such situational factors include school climate, the nature of

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subordinates, work task, members’ attitudes towards constituted authorities, group effectiveness,

the pressure of time and nature of the problem.

Therefore from this approach, it is deduced that the most effective leaders are not those

who are either autocratic or democratic, but those who are flexible to select a style that is not on

comfortable to them, but also appropriate for the situation they are handling. Thus, a secondary

school principal who uses leadership style depending on the task and situation is most likely to

be effective in task performance towards achieving school goals. When a principal uses

predominantly a particular leadership style, then it is possible for performance to vary from task

to task, since that leadership style may not suit all tasks. The correlation between leadership

styles and performance in different tasks areas may also vary. This theory is related to the study,

which among other objectives examined demographic factors in relation to principals’ leadership

styles and the relationship between leadership style and performance in different task areas.

Fielders Contingency Approach

The Fielders Contingency theory was propounded by Tom Burns and Stalker of Britain,

and Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsch of the United States of America in 1960 but expanded by

Fielder in 1967. This theory was proposed to address the problem of identifying the best

situational conditions for task performance. Fielder posited that effective group performance

depends on the proper match between leader’s style of interaction with subordinates and the

situation. The implication of this proposition is that for any school administrator to achieve

enviable results with his teachers and others in the school system there is need to match

leadership style to any given situation. This is on the presumption that no one leadership style is

appropriate for every situation. The different leadership styles will have different impacts in

different situations. Fielder pointed out that the effectiveness of a leader or the performance of

a group is dependent on the interaction of the leaders’ style or behavior and certain

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characteristics of the situation namely: leader-member relations, the task structure, and leaders’

position power.

Leader-member relations refer to the degree of confidence, trust and respect the

subordinates have in the leader. If high or considered good, will make it easier for the exercise

of influence and leading informally without having to rely on formal rank, authority and

directives to accomplish organizational goals. Therefore the quality of leader-member relations

is the most important influence on the school administrators’ effectiveness and efficiency.

The task structure refers to the degree to which the task to be accomplished is

programmed. The task may be structured, routine or spelled out via established procedures.

This is the degree to which duties are simplified for easy understanding of subordinates.

According to Fielder, the more the task structure is simplified, the greater the influence of the

leader on administrative effectiveness and efficiency.

Leaders’ position power refers to the power inherent in the leadership position measured

by the degree to which the leader can reward, punish, promote and demote subordinate

employees in the work group. However in determining the leaders’ position power, questions

as to whether a school administrator can recommend reward and punishment to his or her boss;

punish or reward subordinates on his or her own; and recommend promotion or demotion of

subordinates are obvious. But Fielder contended that such questions provide a profile of high or

low position power. The position power can vary from strong to weak. Hence, the more control

leaders have over reward and promotion, the greater their position power and the greater their

influence on effective and efficient school management.

Fielder contended that the most favorable situation for greater leaders influence for

effective task performance is one characterized with positive or good leader-member relations;

high-task structure and high or strong position power. Given the not too high position power of

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principals of secondary schools in Nigeria, the interaction of leadership style and other variables

and their effect on performance in different task areas is not known. Leadership style may also

vary not only according to the structure of the task, but also on the position power of the

principal in relation to the tasks. This study provided opportunity to verify these assumptions.

Human Relations Theory

This theory was propounded in 1904 by Mary Parker Folleft as the fore runner and

subsequently expanded by her associates Lewin (1938), Roethlisberger (1939), Mayo (1945),

and Yauch (1949). This theory proposed that individuals are spurred to participate actively in the

pursuit of organizational goals when they are treated adroitly. The proponents of this theory

believed that organizational goals will be better achieved with the cooperation of the workers

when their welfare is taken into consideration. The exponents of this theory were also of the

view that human problems in an organisation will be minimized when there is cooperation

among the workers. Based on this, they emphasized coordination as the basis of any

organization to achieve optimum goals.

The proponents of human relations theory argued that employees are human beings and

not machines, as such should be given due recognition to their welfare. The theory further hold

that economic rewards are not the only motivators, incentives such as recognition of personal

values, and encouraging their sense of achievement, could make them productive. This theory

apart from being accepted as the basis of democratic administration is important because

building of a dynamic interpersonal relationship is an important issue in school management.

The principal can achieve this through effective communication; delegation of functions to

teachers; collaborative decision making; developing interest in teacher’ welfare; and maintaining

open-door policy with the staff, students and the public. Besides, this theory will help school

administrators to understand the school organization as a complex social group which requires

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effective handling of its activities. The human relations theory is the basis of democratic

management in the work place by giving cognizance to collective decision. This process gives

subordinates a sense of belonging in the implementation of school programmes. Involving

subordinates in decision making is a sense of encouragement and motivates them to higher

performance in the discharge of their duties. This theory is relevant to the present study as the

basis to determine the relationship between leadership styles and motivational factors, and

principals’ performance in different task areas of management of secondary schools.

Behavioural Science Theory

This theory was propounded by Chester Barnard, Max Weber, and Herbert Simon in the

early 1940s when the behavioural science movement started from the social science. They

assumed that the best approach to facilitate work and productivity in an organisation is through

an understanding of the worker, his job content, and the work environment. The theory proposes

that to achieve organizational goals effectively, consideration should be given to both the job

content and the worker and the work environment. It is no longer desirable to concentrate on the

job alone, as in the classical management era, or on the worker alone, as in the human relations

movement. An integration of the two and the work environment was considered more helpful in

the realization of organizational and personal goals.

The behavioural theory proposes that administrators should draw their knowledge and

experience from the various subjects in the social sciences, such as psychology, philosophy,

economics, anthropology, sociology and a host of others. This will enable them to facilitate the

job performance of the workers. Based on the three-dimensional concept of administration

consisting of the men, the job and the social setting, the school administrator should ensure that

there is equal attention to human welfare elements, achievement of set educational objectives

and provision of the necessary tools and safe environment in working towards the achievement

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of school goals. The principals by their training are expected to have learned some psychology,

philosophy, sociology and the like necessary for a more effective performance of their duties.

This theory is important to the present study because it provides the basis for examining the

relationship between principal’s qualification and their performance.

Herzberg’s two-factor Theory

The two-factor theory of satisfiers and dissatisfiers was developed by Herzberg and his

research associates in 1957. They conducted a research on a group of 200 accountants and

engineers, as higher level professionals, who worked in different companies in Pittsburgh in the

United States of America in which they sought to examine conditions that made them satisfied

and dissatisfied with their work. The two-factor theory proposed that one set of factors consists

of the satisfiers or motivators are concerned with the content of the job. The other set of factors

are the hygiene factors or dissatisfiers.

The motivators when present in the work situation lead to strong motivation, satisfaction,

good job performance, and positive attitudes because they are related to the nature of the work,

the content of the job itself and satisfy the employee’s need for growth and development in the

work place for self-actualization. These motivators include: nature of the work itself,

achievement, recognition, advancement, and responsibility. They are seen to be effective in

motivating the individual to superior performance and effort.

Nature of work itself relates to the meaningful nature of the work which gives pleasure

and spurs one to stay busy on the job to do meaningful and challenging work without possible

threats while deriving essential benefits comparable to other professions. The nature of work

itself refers to the doing of the work and the type of work. The job can be repetitive or changing,

creative or monotonous, easy or difficult. The jobs that are motivating and satisfying are those

that provide skills, variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback. The nature

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of the job when challenging and interesting is a possible predictor of overall performance of an

individual. Therefore, variety and flexibility in principals’ task roles are important factors in their

performance in the management of secondary education.

Recognition relates to commendations received from stake holders for work done. This

includes praise for valued opinion in PTA meetings and conferences, as well as being used as a

point of reference for outstanding performance. Recognition is a fundamental source of self

conforming belongingness identity.

Responsibility relates to the freedom of exercising job roles without restrictions and

matched with the necessary authority to discharge it properly. This includes presiding over staff

meeting, supervising various sections of the school for proper accountability and improvement of

teaching and learning, as well as being the custodian of essential records of the school and being

a PTA officer.

Achievement relates to feeling of accomplishments on the job. This includes students

doing well in examinations, staff making some social and economic progress, improvement in

infrastructure, cordial school-community relations, and wining laurels in competitions.

Advancement relates to promotion from one grade level to the other, opportunities for personal

growth and professional development on the job such as attaining further education, attending

national and international conference for value re-orientation and attitudinal change.

Advancement refers to opportunities for professional growth in an organisation. It also

involves actual changes which enhance position or status at work. Many employees tend to

experience job satisfaction and subsequent higher performance if they perceive career

advancement to be a real possibility in an organisation.

The other set of factors consists of dissatisfiers or the hygiene factors which are

concerned with the context of the job. Among the hygiene factors are supervision, interpersonal

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relations with superior and peers, physical working conditions, organizational policies and

administrative practices, salary, job security, and all other elements that are extrinsic to the job

such as personal life, and status. It is believed that improvement in the hygiene factors will serve

to remove the impediments to motivation but does not directly result in motivation. This is due

to the fact that these factors are all related to the context or environment of the job. When these

factors deteriorate beyond a level that is tolerable for the employee, job dissatisfaction ensues.

Herzberg believed that when hygiene factors of a particular job situation are undesirable,

organisation members will become dissatisfied. Making these factors more desirable for

example, by increasing salary will rarely motivate people to do a better job, but it will keep them

from becoming dissatisfied. In contrast, when the motivating factors of a particular job situation

are high, employees usually are motivated to do a better job. Therefore, when principals are

motivated by way of recognition in their achievements, making their job challenging, and

providing opportunities for advancement in their job, they will perform better in the management

of secondary schools. This was verified in this study.

However, the validity of the motivators in Herzberg’s two-factor theory to cause job

satisfaction and subsequent higher performance has been questioned as satisfaction may or may

not be directly related to job performance. This is because Herzberg’s work paid little attention

towards testing the motivational factors and performance implications of the two-factor theory.

Besides, it was also noted that Herzberg’s dual factor theory was based on a sample of

professional level accountants and engineers. Hence critics are of the view that it is not possible

to say that the findings of this limited sample can be applied equally to other occupational groups

such as principals as used in this study. The limited scope of the respondents does not justify

any generalization that will be applicable to different technologies, environments and

backgrounds. Although most studies in motivation showed that when the employees are

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professionals or of managerial level, the theory is applicable, but when they are of lower level or

manual workers the findings are less supportive of the theory. This present study could provide

the opportunity to verify the theory since managerial level employees who have low personality

that is, principals are involved. The relationship between the demographic and personality

variables, the theories and performance is presented in fig. 3 below.

Human RelationsTheory

Situational/ContingencyTheory

LeadershipStyles

Principals’Performancein Different TaskAreas

Herzberg’sTwo-FactorTheory

Demographic Factors (Experience,knowledge, age, gender, and marital status

Behavioural Theory

QualificationMotivators)

Fig. 3 Schematic representation of theoretical framework

The relationship between the theories used in the study, namely Behavioural science,

Situational/Contingency, Human Relations, and Herzberg’s two-factor theories and the

independent variables (demographic and personality), and dependent variable, principals’

performance is shown in fig. 3. Principals’ performance could be enhanced by the influence of

the demographic (age, experience, qualification, gender, and marital status), and personality

factors (leadership styles and motivators). These factors are indentified by these theories to

enhance performance. For instance, the human relations theory identified motivators and

leadership styles, the Herzberg’s two-factor theory recognized motivators, the

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Situational/Contingency theory identified demographic factors and leadership styles while the

behavioural science theory identified qualification as a demographic factor. Premised on these

propositions, the theories are relevant to this study having identified the independent variables,

demographic and personality factors, which may relate with the dependent variable, principals’

performance as examined in this study.

Review of related empirical studies

This section reviewed some empirical studies that are related to the study in the order:

demographic factors, leadership styles, and motivation studies relative to performance.

Studies Related to Demographic variables and performance

A study on Relationship between organizational factors and administrative effectiveness

of University academic managers in Imo and Rivers State of Nigeria, was carried out by Njoku

(2004). The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between organizational

factors and administrative effectiveness of University managers in Imo and Rivers State. The

study adopted the corelational survey design. Four research questions and four hypotheses

guided the study. The population of the study was 2400 teaching staff in Universities in Imo and

Rivers State. The sample of the study was 450 teaching staff obtained from a population through

a proportionate stratified random sampling technique. A researcher developed questionnaire with

a reliability coefficient of 0.83 was the instrument for data collection. The data were analyzed

with means, standard deviations and a 2-way Analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results

showed that in a continuum of factors such as age, centralization of authority, formalization of

rules, years of administrative experience and mode of assumption to their position, only age and

years of administrative experience had a significant relationship with their administrative

effectiveness. The findings also revealed that since age and experience grow together,

administrative effectiveness was actually higher as age and experience increase and was above

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the overall average. Academic managers who were older in age were more effective in

administration than the younger ones with similar years of experience. This may have been

attributed to the fact that the older managers are more experienced in administration since they

may have been in administrative position for a long time. It was also revealed that administrative

effectiveness usually decreased with increase in years of administrative experience. The reason

according to him may be that as academic managers get older they tend to become obsolete in

administration as management and administration are dynamic fields which change

continuously. They lose vigor and desire to research or to develop themselves professionally and

rather than settle on the routine rudiments of administration. This study relates with the present

study in the design, and since both examined the influence of age on administrative performance

but differs in the statistical tool for data analysis.

Another study on Principals Personal Attributes and their Administrative Effectiveness of

Public and Private Secondary Schools in Rivers State, Nigeria was carried out by Onyiri (2007).

The purpose of the study was to ascertain the personal attributes of Principals in public and

private secondary schools which enhance their administrative effectiveness. The descriptive

survey research design was adopted for the study. Five research questions and five hypotheses

guided the study. The population of the study was 245 principals of public secondary schools. A

sample of 180 Principals randomly selected from a population was used for the study. The

instrument for data collection was a 32-item questionnaire titled Principals Personal Attributes

Rating Scale’ (PPARS). The reliability coefficient of the instrument determined using test-retest

method was 0.75. Percentage, means, and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Co-efficient

were the tools used to analyze the data. The results revealed that Private School Principals are

more effective in administration due to close supervision by proprietors than their counterparts in

Public Secondary Schools irrespective of their personal attributes like age, experience,

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qualification and forthrightness. It was also revealed that although, Principals of public

secondary schools were also effective in administration, lack of supervision limited their level of

performance. It was concluded that if given the same responsibilities all things being equal, both

Principals will bring forth similar results irrespective of their personal attributes. This study has

relationship with the present study since both investigated the relationship between personal

attributes and administrative performance. However, this study differed from the present study in

focus since it was a comparison of administrative effectiveness of private and public secondary

schools. Also, this study is narrower in scope and area relative to the present study.

A study on demographic variables and conflict resolution options of secondary principals

in Cross River State, Nigeria was conducted by Okon (2008). The purpose of the study was to

investigate the influence of demographic variables on conflict resolution options of secondary of

secondary school principals. The study adopted the descriptive research design. Four research

questions were posed and four hypotheses formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance.

The population of the study which served as the sample was 260 principals of government

owned secondary schools. No sampling procedure was involved since the population was a

manageable size sample. Instrument for data collection was the conflict resolution option

questionnaire (PCROQ) made up of two parts- A and B. Part A sought personal data of the

principals, while part B with five clusters sought information on different conflict resolution

options of the principals. The overall reliability coefficient of the instrument determined using

crombach alpha was 0.88. Data collected were analyzed using means, and standard deviations to

answer the research questions, while the hypothesis was tested with One Way Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA). The findings revealed that no significant influence exists between

demographic variables and principals conflict resolution options. It was also found that there was

a wide use of compromise and collaboration conflict resolution options by principals. This study

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is related to the present study since it considered demographic variables, data analysis tools but

differs in design, and scope.

A study on relationships between principals’ demographic characteristics and

organizational effectiveness in secondary schools in Kogi State, Nigeria was conducted by

Okwor (2012). The purpose of the study was to determine whether relationship exists between

principals’ demographic characteristics and organizational effectiveness in secondary schools in

Kogi State. The design of the study was correlational survey. The study was guided by five

research questions and five hypotheses. The population of the study comprised all 250 principals

and 3977 teachers of public secondary schools in Kogi State. The sample of the study was 100

principals and 800 teachers, eight per school, who rated their principals. The sample was

purposively selected and represented 40% of the population of teachers and principals in the

state. Data were collected using Principals’ Demographic Characteristics Questionnaire (PDCQ)

for principals as respondents, and Principals’ Organizational Effectiveness Questionnaire

(POEQ) for teachers as respondents. The data collected were analyzed using means, standard

deviations, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and Multiple Regression. The

results showed that principals regularly meet with teachers and students to discuss school

activities, and disseminate information to staff and students; that principals in the discharge of

their duties applied the rules without minding who were involved, and that they used disciplinary

measures to create an atmosphere of commitment and dedication to duty. The results further

revealed that of all the demographic variables (Age, Qualification and experience as vice

principal), only experience as a vice principal has significant relationship with principals’ overall

organizational effectiveness. This study is related to the present study in the design, respondents

and data analysis tools but differs in the area of the study and scope.

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A study on Gender differences in marital dysfunction, occupational maladjustment and

performance among clerical workers was carried out by Anyanwu (2009). The purpose of the

study was to investigate the relationship among gender, occupational maladjustment and

performance among clerical workers in Enugu State. The design of the study was the corelational

survey. Four research questions and two hypotheses guided the study. The population of the

study was 401 secretaries and accounting officers in the administrative cadre. A sample of 274

respondents was drawn from population from nine out of 13 ministries and six out of 16 extra

ministerial departments using random and purposive sampling techniques. The instruments for

data collection were a four-point scale questionnaire titled “Dyadic/Occupation Adjustment

Scale” with items on relationship domain of Moos and Insil’s (1971) work environment scale,

and Supervisors rating scale on staff performance. The instruments were trial tested and internal

consistency coefficient of 0.80 and 0.79 were got for the Dyadic/Occupation Adjustment Scale

and Supervisors rating scale on staff performance using cronbach alpha method. The results

showed that gender has a low inverse relationship with both occupational maladjustment (-.145)

and performance (-.254). That is, as gender varies, occupational maladjustment increases or

decreases. Gender also varies as marital dysfunction increases or decreases. However, the

relationship was weak. The result on gender differences in the extent of marital dysfunction,

occupational maladjustment and performance of clerical workers showed that while the males

adjusted better maritally, the females adjusted better occupationally. Although their mean score

showed that both males and females adjusted martially and occupationally, and performed

highly, the males performed better. The difference may have accounted for the low negative

relationship among gender, occupational maladjustment and performance. Gender tends to

predict performance better than occupational maladjustment. This study is related to the present

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study in design, and both examined the relationship between gender and performance but

differed in focus, population, sample and sampling technique.

A study on Principals personal characteristics and administration of secondary schools in

Rivers State, Nigeria was carried out by Aguh (2003). The purpose of the study was to

investigate principals’ personal characteristics and administration of secondary schools. The

focus was to ascertain the extent to which personal factors of the principals such as gender, age,

qualification and experience could influence their administration. The descriptive survey was the

design of the study. Five research questions and five hypotheses guided the study. The

population of the study comprised of 245 principals in the state. A sample of 120 principals

randomly selected from population. Data were gathered from the sampled respondents through a

Likert- type rating Scale titled “Principal Personal Characteristics Questionnaire (PPCQ). The

reliability of the instrument determined using cronbach alpha was 0.76. Means and standard

deviations were used to answer the research questions while t-test and One-Way Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA) were used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 probability level. The results

showed that there was no significant difference between male and female principals in their

administration of secondary schools in Rivers State. The result further indicated that female

principals tend to be very strict than male principals in demanding attendance and devotion to

duty on the part of teachers to demystify the general notion that they are the weaker sex. In

essence, they try to overdo things in order to boost their ego but ends up being unpopular with

their subordinates. It was also found that female principals were less committed to their job than

the male principals in the school since most of them as mothers and housewives are duty bound

to care for their husbands, children and take care of the house chores. Therefore, they are left

with little or no time to follow up official matters outside office hours. This makes it impossible

for the female principals to attend to their official work very regularly and punctually so that

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they feel no qualms about being stringent in the discipline of staff. Similarly, it was found that

the male principals also do not make time allowance for staff attendance since other business

commitments outside the school unrelated to their official assignment always keep them out

hence they are not also too committed like their female counterparts in the discipline of staff.

The study further revealed that there was no significant influence of years of working experience

and educational qualification on principal’s administration of secondary schools. The number of

years of working experience as a principal had nothing to do with the principal’s administration

of secondary school because the principal must have acquired all the techniques of good

principalship during the training period as a student of education in the higher institution and

when he/she worked under some principals. Educational qualification was not a significant factor

in the principals’ administration of schools. Principals without postgraduate qualifications

performed as highly as those with postgraduate qualifications in the administration of secondary

schools. This study is related to the present study since both of them examined the relationship

between personal characteristics of principals and administrative performance. They differed in

design, population, sample and sampling technique and tools for data analysis.

A study on Gender factors and the administrative performance of principals of secondary

schools in Rivers State, Nigeria was conducted by Wagbara (2004). The purpose of the study

was to determine the influence of gender factors and the administrative performance of

principals of secondary schools. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. Four research

questions and four hypotheses were posed and tested at 5% level of significance. The population

of the study was of 245 Vice-principals of public secondary schools in Rivers State. A sample of

105 Vice Principals drawn from a population using simple random sampling technique was used

as respondents. A 40-item questionnaire titled “gender factors and administrative performance of

principals of secondary schools in Rivers State” with a reliability co-efficient of 0.75 obtained on

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trial testing was the instrument used for data collection in the study. The research questions were

answered with the use of simple percentage while the hypotheses were tested using the t-test.

The findings revealed among others that male and female principals differed significantly in the

discharge of their supervisory roles while male and female principals did not significantly differ

in their administrative capabilities in the management of secondary schools in Rivers State. The

relationship of the study to the present one is that both examined gender variables but they

differed in design, population, sample size and tools for data analysis.

A study on some challenges facing principals in school management in Bayelsa State was

conducted by Agoh (2000). The study focused on the challenges of Secondary School Principals

and their perception of the challenges of school management in relation to gender. The study

adopted a corelational survey design. Four research questions were posed and four hypotheses

tested at alpha level of 0.05. The population of the study comprised of all 148 principals of

government owned secondary schools in the State. A sample of 95 principals was drawn from

the population using simple random sampling technique. The instrument for data collection was

a structured 35-item questionnaire with two sections. Section A sought personal data of the

principals while section B consist of five clusters of managerial challenges such as funding,

indiscipline among students, attitude of teachers, poor facilities, and parental attitudes. The

reliability coefficients of the instruments determined using Cronbach Alpha section B were 0.78,

0.65, 0.73, 0.69 and 0.77 respectively. Means and standard deviation were used to answer the

research questions while t-test was to test the hypotheses. The results showed that poor school

facilities, funding and students’ indiscipline pose serious challenge to principals in school

management. It was also revealed that male and female principals did not differ in the way they

perceive the challenges in school management. It concluded that principals face the same kind

of problems irrespective of their genders. Both principals face the same challenges due to their

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official position. The study related to the present study since both of them investigated gender

variable but differed in focus as the study focused on challenges of management rather than

performance which is the concern of the present study.

Another study on Sex difference of principals and their effectiveness in school-

community relations as perceived by teachers in Osun State, Nigeria was conducted by Olaleye

(2001). The purpose of the study was to determine the influence of gender differences of

principals in their effectiveness in school-community relations. The research study was based on

stereo-typical assumption that female principals do not have what it takes to perform their job

effectively unlike their male counterparts particularly in school management. The study adopted

the descriptive survey design. Four research questions and four hypotheses guided the study. The

population of the study comprised of all principals and teachers in public secondary schools in

Osun State. A sample of one thousand (1000) teachers made up of 500 male teachers and 500

female assessed the principals. The teacher observation questionnaire (TOQ) with a reliability

coefficient of 0.78 established using cronbach alpha was used to assess the level of principals’

performance in the establishment of school-community relations. The research findings revealed

that the gender of the principals had no impact on their ability to establish good community

relations. Both female and male principals perform equally well and employed similar leadership

behaviour in this regard. The relationship between the study and the present one is that both

examined the influence of gender variable on principals’ job performance but differed in the

design, and areas of principals’ job performance examined. The study of Olaleye focused on

only one aspect of principals’ job areas while the present study examined the relationship of

gender and other variables and critical task areas of principals’ performance in the management

of secondary education.

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A comparative assessment of leadership styles of male and female principals in Enugu

State Secondary Schools were carried out by Ikediugwu (1996). The purpose of the study was to

compare the leadership styles of male and females principals in Enugu State Secondary Schools;

to find out whether male principals are more democratic or more laissez-faire than female

principals. The study adopted descriptive research design. Three research questions and three

hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study consisted of all secondary school

teachers in Enugu State. Six hundred and eighty-six teachers in Enugu State Secondary Schools

were sampled through stratified random sampling technique. The instrument for data collection

was questionnaire with a reliability coefficient of 0.67. Means, standard deviation and 2 by 2

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were statistical tools for data analysis. The findings revealed

that both male and female principals were all autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire and that

location was a strong factor in secondary school administration in Enugu State while gender was

not. The study like the present study examined gender as a variable. It differs from the present

study by focusing on leadership styles not job performance. It also differed from the present

study in the design, sample and sampling technique and data analysis tools used.

Another study on an examination of gender’s influence on teachers’ productivity in

secondary school teachers in Delta State, Nigeria was carried out by Akiri and Ugborugbo

(2008). The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of gender on the productivity of

teachers. The study was a descriptive survey that employed an ex-post-facto design. Five

research questions guided the study. The population of the study was 11,499 teachers who are

employees of Delta State Post Primary Education Board as at 2004/2005 school year. A sample

of 979 teachers made up of (460) males and (519) females was drawn from the population using

stratified random sampling technique which involved multi level sampling procedure. The

instruments for data collection were two questionnaire namely: Teachers Effectiveness

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Questionnaire 1 (TEQ1) with 22-items to evaluate the teaching effectiveness of teachers; and

Teachers Effectiveness Questionnaire 11 (TEQ11) also with 22-tems for students to evaluate

teachers classroom effectiveness. Percentages, t-test, z-test and single factor analysis of variance

(ANOVA) were used to analyze the data. The result showed that the performance of teachers

was significantly influenced by location with weighted means of 72.10, 70.92, and 70.35 for

urban, semi-urban and rural schools respectively. The results further revealed that there was

significant difference in the mean productivity of male and female teachers. The male teachers

were generally more productive than their female counterparts in rural areas, while the female

perform best in urban schools than their male teachers. It was recommended that school

administrators should consider gender when posting teachers to various locations. Efforts should

be made as much as possible to post female teachers to urban and semi-urban schools. More

male teachers be retained in rural schools and attractive incentives should be used to achieve

this. Furthermore, in-service training aimed at enhancing job performance should be organized

regularly, especially for female teachers in the first five years of employment. Efforts should also

be made to retain experienced female teachers in secondary schools. Finally, more males should

be encouraged to teach in secondary schools. The study is related to the present study which

examined gender variables but differed in focus, design and some aspects of data analysis. The

study focused on productivity of teachers while the present study focused on performance of

principals.

Another study on relationship between teacher’s demographic variables and classroom

management in Imo State, Nigeria was conducted by Ezeh (1997). The purpose of the study was

to ascertain the relationship between teacher’s demographic variables and classroom

management in Imo State. The corelational survey was the design for the study. Four research

questions and four hypotheses guided the study. The population comprised of all 6,784 teachers

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in government owned secondary schools in Rivers State. A sample of 450 teachers drawn from

the population using stratified random sampling technique was used for the study. The Teachers

Classroom Management Questionnaire (TCMQ) with reliability coefficient of 0.67 was used in

collecting the data. The findings revealed that there was a significant relationship between some

demographic variables and classroom management. The findings showed that there was a slight

variation between male teachers and their female counterparts in classroom management.

Specifically, male teachers have better classroom management skills than the females teachers.

The higher the academic level of the teachers, the more effective they were in classroom

management and control. Experienced teachers managed their students better than

inexperienced teachers in the classroom. The study has relationship with the present study as

both examined demographic variables but differed in focus, instruments for data collection and

the subjects. The study focused on classroom management of teachers rather than performance

of principals as in the present study.

A study on the influence of gender, leadership styles and administrative effectiveness of

principals in Cross River State, Nigeria was carried out by Uko (2002). The purpose of the study

was to examine the influence of gender and leadership styles on administrative effectiveness of

principals in secondary schools. The design of the study was the descriptive survey. Three

research questions guided the study. The population of the study comprised of all teachers,

principals and vice principals of public secondary schools in Cross River state. A sample of

1000 teachers and 200 principals and Vice-Principals were randomly selected as respondents

from 100 secondary schools in Cross River State. Two instruments namely principals’

leadership style Questionnaire (PLSQ); and principals performance effective Questionnaire

(PPEQ). The reliability coefficients of the instruments determined using cronbach alpha method

were 0.78 and 0.65 respectively. Using Chi-square to analyze the data on the influence of

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gender on principals’ leadership styles, it was found that women scored low on human relations

because they were seen to be more officious in their relationship with people including staff,

student and visitors. Men on the other hand, were seen to be able to camouflage their emotional

problems to the extent that they could easily handle difficult situations. The findings revealed

that men are better school administrators. This study relates to the present study since both

examined gender variables but differed on the statistical tools used for data analysis.

A study on the influence of demographic variables and school climate on principals’ job

performance in public secondary schools in South-East, Nigeria was conducted by Okpe (2010).

The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of demographic variables and school

climate on principals’ job performance in public secondary schools. The study adopted ex-post

factor research design. Four research questions and five null hypotheses guided the study. The

population of the study comprised all the principals in public secondary schools in South East,

Nigeria. The sample consisted of 298 principals randomly drawn from public secondary schools

in South-East Nigeria. Three research instruments were developed and used by the researcher

for data collection. The instruments are: Demographic Data of Principals Questionnaire (DDPQ)

which sought the personal data of the principals; The School Climate Descriptive Questionnaire

(SCDQ) with 25-items which sought information on school climate; and the Principals Job

Performance Description Questionnaire (PJPDQ) with 62 items. The reliability coeffients of the

instruments determined using crombach alpha are: 0.96 for SCDQ, and 0.97 for PJPDQ. The

data obtained were analyzed using mean, standard deviation, ANOVA, and multiple regression.

The major findings of the study are professional qualification, experience and gender

significantly influenced principals’ job performance; Professional qualification significantly

influenced principals’ job performance; School climate significantly influenced principals’

performance. It was concluded that the appointment of principals should strictly be based on

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required professional qualifications and that principals’ should encourage and support positive

school climate. The study relates to the present study since both are interested in the relationship

between demographic variables and principals’ performance, but differed in terms of area of the

study and research design. The study was carried out in South-East, Nigeria using ex-post facto

design while the present study was carried out in South-South, Nigeria, using a correlational

survey design.

A study on effect of principals’ preparation programmes on principals’ behaviour was

carried out by Halili (2008). The purpose of was to determine the effects of principal’s

preparation programmes on Principals’ functions in public secondary schools inTurkey.

Specifically, the study focused on the effects of in-service training programme on principals

administrative practices as perceived by teachers who have worked with a principal before and

after the reform effort in the same School. The study adopted the ex post facto design. Three

research questions and three hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study was 500

principals who participated in the training programme. The sample for the study selected using

purposive sampling technique was 100 principals and 240 teachers who served as respondents.

The instrument for data gathering was a 24-item questionnaire title “Dimensions of

Administrative Practices of Principals” (DAPP). The instrument had a reliability coefficient of

0.84 determined using cronbach alpha method. Means, standard deviations, and t-test were used

as statistical tools for data analysis. The findings showed that the training programme had a

considerable influence on principals’ administrative practices on a number of dimensions. On

account of this finding, it was recommended that teachers due for promotion to principalship

should undergo a preparatory training programme to enhance their administrative skills. The

study differed from the present study in terms of focus, design, area of the study, population and

sample.

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A study on the relationship between the professional qualifications of the teachers and

academic performers of their teachers was carried out in Burewala city of Pakistan by Khalid

(2008). The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between the professional

qualification of teachers and students academic performance at secondary school level. A

descriptive research design was adopted for the study. Three research questions guided the study.

The population of the study comprised of all male and female students of matriculation of the

years 2004 and 2005 and all male and female teachers who taught the matriculation students.

The sample of the study was 167 respondents comprised of eighty students and eighty-seven

teachers from five schools in Burewala city was drawn using table of random numbers. A

questionnaire which elicited basic information about teachers’ academic and professional

qualifications for teachers, and students results scores for 2004/2005 session were the instrument

for data collection. Arithmetic mean, percentage and matrix correlation were used to analyze the

data. It was found that the performance of students taught by untrained teachers with BA/B.Sc

qualifications was better than the students taught by trained teachers with professional

qualifications like B.Ed and M.Ed. On account of these findings, it was recommended that

professional qualification should not always be a basis of emphasis in the promotion and

appointment of teachers to position of principalship in secondary schools. This is so because

without professional qualification as revealed by the study students achieved better academic

results than their counterparts taught by teachers with professional qualifications. The study has

relationship with the present study since both examined the influence of professional

qualifications on performance. The study focused on the influence of professional qualification

of teachers on students’ achievement but the present study focused on the relationship between

professional qualification and principals’ performance.

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Another study on the relationship between years spent in education and productivity in

South-South, Nigeria was carried out by Ebong (2003). The purpose of the study is to find out

the relationship between years spent in education and workers productivity in both the private

and public education sector in South-south, Nigeria. The study adopted the corelational survey

design. Four research questions and four hypotheses guided the study. The population of

comprised of all employees in the private and public education sector in South-South, Nigeria.

The sample of the study was 1000 employees randomly selected. The instruments for data

collection were questionnaire and oral interview. Mean, standard deviation and Pearson product

moment correlation were statistical tools for data analysis. The findings showed that individuals

with higher degrees achieved set goals because they understood the job description as experts.

People exposed to many years of professional training or education engaged in and enhance

productivity in their different responsibilities. They are punctual to work, execute duties, achieve

set goals and have alternative solutions in crisis situations. The study is related to the present

study since both examined the relationship between professional qualification and workers

productivity or performance but they differed in design, population, sample and sampling

technique.

Another study on the role of principals’ professional qualification on principals’

instructional leadership and effect on teachers’ job performance was carried out by Chika and

Ebeke (2007). The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between professional

qualification, principals’ instructional leadership and teachers’ job performance in government

owned Secondary Schools in Asaba metropolis of Delta State. The corelational survey design

was adopted for the study. Three research questions and three hypotheses guided the study. The


the state. A sample of twenty (20) principals and two hundred and forty (240) teachers were

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randomly selected from the population. The instrument for data collection was a questionnaire

titled “instructional leadership Questionnaire of principals” (ILQP). The reliability coefficient of

0.84 was determined using cronbach alpha. The research questions were analyzed with mean

and standard deviation, while the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 significant level using the

Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. The results indicated that principals with

professional qualifications such as N.C.E, B.Ed and M.Ed performed better in instructional

leadership than those without professional qualifications such as BA/B.Sc. Professional

qualifications also had significant relationship with principals’ instructional leadership. The

study revealed that the professional qualification of principals is the most important school-

related factor influencing their instructional leadeship. It was recommended that appointment of

teachers to principalship position should be based on professional qualification. The study

relates to the present study since both examined the relationship between professional

qualification and principals’ performance. However, they differed in terms of scope and

statistical tools for data analysis.

A study on professional development and administrative effectiveness of principals in

secondary schools in Ikwerre and Emuoha Local Government Areas of Rivers State was

conducted by Okendu (2009). The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of

professional qualification on administrative effectiveness of principals in secondary schools. The

study adopted a descriptive survey research. Three research questions and three null hypotheses

guided the study. The population of the study was 52 principals of government owned

secondary schools, which comprised of 24 principals for both junior and senior secondary

schools in Ikwerre and 28 junior and senior secondary schools principals from Emuoha Local

Government Area. A sample of 42 principals from the population was drawn using random

sampling technique. A 25-item structured questionnaire was the instrument for collecting data.

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The respondents were required to react to statements on aspects of professional development,

instructional supervision, interpersonal relations with teachers and decision making. Frequency

and percentage were used to answer the research questions and Pearson Product Moment

Correlation Coefficient was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significant. The results

indicated that principals’ instructional development has a significant relationship with

supervision of instruction of teachers, and the schools organizational development has a

significant relationship the decision making of principals in the school, while personal

growth/development has no significant relationship with principals’ inter-personal relations with

the teachers. The study has relationship with the present study since both examined the

relationship between professional qualification and principals’ performance though not in the

same task areas. They differed in the, design, statistical tools used for data analysis of the

hypotheses. While the study used Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient, the present

study used multiple regression and associated t-test.

Another study on principals’ personal variables as determinants of administrative

effectiveness and efficiency was conducted by Adenuga (2008). The purpose of the study was to

determine the combined and individual contributions of the personal variables of sex, age

teaching experience and qualification to the variance of principals’ administrative effectiveness

and efficiency in secondary schools in Ogun State, Nigeria. The study adopted the descriptive

corelational survey design. Five research questions guided the study. The population of the

study comprised of all principals in government owned secondary schools in Ogun State. A

sample of 300 principals randomly selected from four divisions of the state was used for the

study. The Leaders Personal Variable Questionnaire (LPVQ) made up of 10-items that sought

the demographic information of the respondents and Personal Effectiveness Scale (PES)

consisting 50 items that sought information on the effectiveness and efficiency of personnel were

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used to collect data for the study. The instruments were duly validated and trial tested and

yielded reliability coefficients of 0.76 and 0.85 for (LPVQ and PES) respectively using

Cronbach Alpha method. The Multiple Regression and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were

used to analyze the data. Findings from the study revealed a low, positive correlation (R=0.20)

exists between the four predictor variables (age, gender, experience and qualification) and

principals’ administrative effectiveness. The regression analysis was not significant at 0.05 level

as shown by the ANOVA test (F=1.527, p>0.05). The R2 value of 0.04 showed that the 4

variables when combined accounted for only 4% of the variance observed in principal’s

effectiveness. Other factors not included in the study accounted for the other variance (96%).

Hence the four predictor variables jointly and insignificantly contributed 4% of the variance in

principal’s personal effectiveness. This result according to Adenuga might be as a result of the

fact that for anybody to be the head of a school, he/she must have been matured both in age and

in qualification coupled with his experience in life. The gender of the principal might not have a

well pronounced influence(s) on his achievement most especially in this contemporary world

when women have been known to achieve excellence in different field of callings. It was

recommended that principals’ personal variables of experience and qualification should be

considered in appointing teachers to position of authorities in schools. This study relates to the

present study since both are interested in demographic variables as predictors of principals’

administrative performance but differed in the area of the study and instruments used for data

gathering. In the present study, the relationship between these variables, other variables like

leadership styles and motivation and performance was examined.

Another study on the influence of experience on principals’ effectiveness in government

secondary schools in Abia State was conducted by Ibian (2005). The purpose of the study was to

investigate the influence of experience on principals’ administrative effectiveness in Abia State

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government Secondary schools. The study adopted a descriptive research design. Four research

questions and four hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study comprised all

principals and teachers in government secondary schools in Abia State. A sample of 30

principals and 600 teachers (20 from each school) was drawn from the population. Data were

gathered with a questionnaire titled “Principals’ Job Evaluation Questionnaire” (PJEQ). The

reliability coefficient of the instrument determined using cronbach alpha was 0.89. The data

were analyzed using one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Fishers Least Square difference

and independent t-test statistic. The results of the study indicated that experience has significant

influence on principals’ effectiveness. The study is related to the present study because both are

interested in how experience relates to different aspects of principals’ job. They differed in the

instrument used for data gathering. It is expected that since the study used different statistical

tools for data analysis, the results may differ from the findings of the present study.

A study on the relationship between principals’ demographic variables and the academic

achievement of secondary students in Rivers State was carried out by Okpalugo (2008). The

purpose of the study was to ascertain the relationship between principals’ demographic variables

and students’ achievement in secondary schools. The study adopted a corelational survey design.

Five research questions were posed and five hypotheses were postulated and tested at 0.05 level

of significance. . The demographic variables adopted in the study are gender, age, experience,

qualification and marital status. The Senior School Certificate Examination SSCE results of

12,656 students in English, Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry and Economics from 2002 – 2006

were used. A validated 45-item self-designed instrument titled Principals demographic variable

questionnaire (PDVQ) with reliability co-efficient of 0.72 was used to collect data. Data

collected were analyzed with the lamder correlation co-efficient and z-test. The findings of the

study revealed that there was a significant relationship between principals’ age, gender,

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experience, qualification, and marital status with student’s academic achievement. Specifically,

schools administered by married principals with higher qualifications had the best results. The

study relates to the present study in design, and since both are interested in demographic

variables and performance. However, the present study will examine other variables such as

leadership styles and motivation.

Another study on the effect of sex and marital/parental status on performance evaluations

and attributions was carried out by Michael and Russel (2003). The purpose of the study was to

determine the effect of sex and marital status on performance evaluation and attributions in order

to explore some of the issues and potential problems concerning women’s performance in their

employment. An ex post facto design was adopted for the study. Four research questions guided

the study. A population of 1785 students was used for the study. A sample of 320 male and

female undergraduates drawn from the population provided performance evaluation and

attributions for a poor–performing stimulus employee depicted as male or female and as single

or married. The cohort sampling technique was used to select the sample. The instrument for

data collection was a self-structured questionnaire titled – performance evaluation and attribution

questionnaire (PEAQ). A reliability coefficient of 0.63 using cronbach alpha was established.

Means and standard deviations were used to answer the research question. The findings showed

that married women were ascribed more favorable personality traits than single women. The

researchers interpreted their findings in terms of social values that individuals hold with respect

to employment and marital status. Being employed is positively evaluated because it is perceived

as a factor contributing to an individual’s sense of life satisfaction and positive mental health.

Likewise, Married women were viewed more favorably than singles because marriage is often

seen as a highly valued or desirable characteristic as well as a necessary state for an individual’s

development. Single women were perceived as having a pervasive negative stereotype. That is,

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they were perceived as irresponsible, immature, less adjusted, unstable and incomplete. This

study relates to the present study since both examined gender and marital status relative to

performance but differs in design, focus and tools for data analysis.

Studies Related to Leadership styles and performance

A study on leadership behaviour of secondary school principals in Ondo Local

Government Area, Ondo State, Nigeria was carried out by Adeboyeje (1997). The purpose of the

study was to identify the dimensions of leadership behavior of secondary school principals in

relation to ideographic variables like age, gender, experience, educational qualification and type

of school. The study adopted the corelational survey design. Two research questions and three

hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study was 53 principals of government

secondary schools in Ondo LGA. A sample of 36 secondary schools principals was drawn from

the population using purposive sampling technique on a criterion basis of principals who have

served in their school for at least three years with five teachers from each school who have spent

not less than two years in their current school as respondents. A study adopted the 36-item

leader behaviour descriptive questionnaire form-twelve (LBDQ-12) developed by the Ohio State

University Personnel Research Board with twelve subscales as instrument for data collection.

The twelve subscales were representation, reconciliation, tolerance of uncertainty,

persuasiveness, initiation of structure, tolerance of freedom, role assumption, consideration,

production emphasis, predictive accuracy, integration, and superior orientation. The instrument

was not pretested by the researcher as previous studies in Nigeria had validated and established

the reliability of the instrument. Frequency and percentage were used to answer the research

questions while the hypotheses were answered using correlation coefficient. The results showed

a negative correlation co-efficient. The findings revealed that there were no significant

relationship between the dimensions of principals’ leadership behavior and gender, experience,

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school type and qualification; while age significantly related to the principals leadership role.

The findings of his study were not interesting and were attributed to the prevailing conditions of

service and on the way the teachers saw their principals’ behavior. Majority of the school

teachers were influenced by the prevailing unfavorable conditions of service in Ondo State

namely teachers’ salaries falling in arrears and lack of adequate school physical facilities, etc.

Under such demoralizing conditions of service, it is likely that a majority of the teachers saw

their principal as too business like or system oriented and not showing much interest in their

welfare and as such rated their principals’ leadership behavior the way they did. The study

relates to the present study in design, but differs in area, instruments for data collection and focus

as the study not relate leadership to performance, one of the purposes of the present study.

Another study on the influence of head teachers’ leadership styles on students

performance in public secondary schools in Taita District, Kenya was conducted by Truman

(2007). The purpose of the study was to investigate the Influence of head teachers' leadership

Styles on students performance in public secondary schools. The study was necessitated by the

poor performance of students in Kenya Council Schools Examinations over the years. The study

attempted to establish whether there was a relationship between leadership styles and

demographic variables such as gender, professional and academic qualifications, professional

experience, category of school, age and academic performance of students. The study adopted

ex-post facto research design. Five research questions were formulated to guide the study. The

population of the study comprised of all head teachers and teachers in the 20 primary schools in

Kenya City Council. A sample of 20 head teachers and 117 teachers was drawn from population

using random sampling technique. A 36-item researcher leadership style questionnaire was use

for data collection. The reliability coefficient for the instrument determined using cronbach alpha

was 0.68. The findings revealed that there was a significant relationship between head teachers'

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leadership styles and students' performance. The findings further revealed that autocratic

leadership led to high performance. It was also revealed that majority of teachers perceived their

head teachers as being democratic. There was no significant relationship between teachers'

gender, age, and academic qualification and their perception of their head teachers' leadership

styles. It was also found that there was no significant relationship between gender, age, academic

qualifications, teaching experience of head teachers and students academic performance.

Findings also revealed that there was no significant difference in head teachers' leadership styles

in various categories of schools. The study relates to the present since leadership styles of school

administrator were examined. However the differs from the present study as dependent variable

in the study was in the dimension of students achievement while in the present study it is

principals performance.

Another study on democratic leadership in handling disciplinary problems in schools:

implications for quality assurance in teacher preparation was carried out by Nwankwo, Loyce

and Obiorah (2011). The purpose of the study was to ascertain the processes of using democratic

leadership in handling disciplinary problems in schools as well as determining how to improve

the quality of students and teachers to be able to handle disciplinary problems through

democratic leadership. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. Two research questions

and two hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study comprised 288 respondents

made up of 107 lecturers in faculty of education, Ebonyi State University and 181 lecturers from

Ebonyi State College of Education. The instrument for data collection was a researcher-

developed questionnaire structured into three sections. Section ‘A’ was on the background

information of the respondents; section ‘B’ elicited information on utilization of democratic

leadership style in handling disciplinary problems while section ‘C’ was on ways to improve the

quality of students-teachers through democratic leadership in handling disciplinary problems.

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The instrument was validated by experts and the reliability coefficient obtained using Pearson

Product Moment Coefficient were 0.5 and 0.45 for sections B and C. Data were analyzed using

descriptive statistics like means, percentages for the research question while z-test was used to

answer the hypotheses. The results showed democratic leadership style as the most effective of

all other styles of leadership as the principals in handling disciplinary problems in schools. It was

also found that consultation with significant others and collaboration are among the processes of

using democratic leadership in handling disciplinary problems in schools. This study relates to

the present study since both examined leadership styles. However, they differed in focus, design

and statistical tools use in testing the hypotheses.

A study on the influence of principals’ leadership styles on teachers and students in

Nigerian secondary school was carried out in Delta State, Nigeria by Nakpodia (2010). The

purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of principals’ leadership styles on teachers

and students of Secondary Schools. A descriptive research design was adopted for the study.

Five research questions were posed and two hypotheses formulated and tested at 0.05 level of

significant level. The population of the comprised of all principals, teachers and students in

government owned secondary schools in Ndokwa East Local Government Area of in Delta State.

A sample of 368 respondents comprised of 12 principals, 130 teachers, and 226 students drawn

from the population using simple random sampling technique. Three types of questionnaire for

teachers, students and principals adapted from Ajayi’s leadership opinionnaire instrument were

used to collect relevant data. The instruments designated for the teacher were the Leadership

Style for Teachers (LSQT) of 30- items and Relationship Questionnaire Form for Teachers

(RQFT) of 24-items. The students’ questionnaire was Leadership Style for Students (LSQS) of

12-items, and Relationship Questionnaire Form for Students (RQFS) of 30-items, and

Relationship Questionnaire Form for principals (RQFP) of 20-items. The teachers and students

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were requested to rate the leadership styles of the principals in terms of the statements contained

in the questionnaire. The independent t-test was used to analyze the data. The result of the study

showed that the dominant leadership style indentified by both teachers and students was the

democratic-idiographic leadership style; the prevalent principal-staff and principal-student

relationship indentified by both the teachers and the students was formal relationship; there was

no significant difference between leadership style of experienced and less experienced

principals. There was a significant difference between leadership styles of principals with

degrees and professional educational qualifications and those without degrees and professional

educational qualification. The autocratic-self leadership style of the principal can also lead to

cordial principal-staff and principal-student relationship. The study relates to the present study

since both examined leaderships styles of principals. However, the study did not examine

performance which is the dependent variable in the present study.

Another study on the correlation of the perceived leadership style of middle school

principals to teacher job satisfaction and efficacy was carried out in East Tennessee by Jack

(2012). The study was carried out on the presumption that middle school principals could

possibly impact on teachers’ effectiveness in the classroom through the relationship of the

teacher- perceived leadership style of the principal to teacher job satisfaction and efficacy. The

study adopted a bivariate corelational design. Two research questions and five hypotheses

guided the study. The population of the study was 860 public middle school teachers in East

Tennessee school district. The sample consisted of 142 certified teachers from 8 public middle

selected from the population using a simple random sampling technique. Two instruments were

used for data collection. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) of 45-items

measured the transformational, transactional or passive avoidant leadership style of the principal

as perceived by the teachers, while the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) was used to measure the

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level of job satisfaction experienced by each teacher responding. The reliability coefficient for

(MLQ) and (JSS) are 0.70 and 0.91 respectively. Means and Pearson Product Moment

Correlation Coefficient were used to analyzed the data. Findings from this study suggest that the

middle school teachers’ perceptions of their principal’s leadership did not have a statistically

significant relationship to teacher job satisfaction. It was further revealed that the middle school

teachers’ perceptions of their principal’s leadership style had a statistically significant

relationship to teacher efficacy. Based on the findings, it was recommended that leadership style

training be organized for principals desiring to indirectly influence academic achievement by

influencing teacher job satisfaction and efficacy within their schools. A new insight from the

study suggests that principals should find ways to lead beyond teacher perceptions to address the

needs of teachers in order to promote and encourage higher levels of teacher job satisfaction.

The relationship of this study with the present study is that both examined leadership styles of

the principal. They differ in the scope, focus, and area of the study.

A study on the influence of principals’ leadership styles on secondary school teachers’

job satisfaction was carried out by Omeke and Onah (2012). The purpose of the study was to

examine the influence of principals’ leadership styles on secondary school teachers’ job

satisfaction in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State, Nigeria. The design of the study was a

descriptive survey design. Three research questions were posed and one null hypothesis was

formulated and tested. The population of the study comprised of all teachers in the twenty- eight

government owned secondary schools in Nsukka Education Zone. Using a stratified random

sampling technique, a total of 280 teachers (10 per school) was drawn from the population. The

instrument for data collection was a four-point type questionnaire of 30-items with a reliability

coefficient of 0.54. Data collected were analyzed using mean and standard deviation while t-test

was used to test the null hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The results revealed that there

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was significant difference in the mean rating of the leadership style of the principals on the job

satisfaction of male and female teachers. It was also revealed that principals adopted three

leadership styles in their administration namely; autocratic, laissez faire and democratic

according to their dominance. Teachers irrespective of gender agreed that only democratic

leadership enhances their job satisfaction. The study relates to the present study since both

examined leaderships styles of principals and used similar tools in data analysis. However, the

study differs in focus, design and sampling technique with the present study.

A study on principals’ leadership styles and teachers’ job performance in senior

secondary schools in Ondo State, Nigeria was carried out by Adeyemi (2010). The purpose of

the study was to investigate the influence principals’ leadership styles and teachers’ job

performance in senior secondary schools. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. Four

research questions were posed and four hypotheses formulated and tested in the study. The

population of the study was 7460 teachers and principals of all 281 government owned

secondary schools in Ondo State. A sample of 2040 respondents from the population comprised

of 240 principals and 1800 teachers was drawn through a stratified random sampling technique.

The instruments for data collection were the Principals’ Leadership Style Questionnaire (PLSQ),

and the Teachers’ Job Performance Questionnaire (TJPQ), with reliability coefficients of 0.72

and 0.67 respectively. The data collected were analyzed using frequency counts, percentages,

correlation matrix and the t-test. It was found that the democratic leadership style was the

commonly used leadership style among principals of senior secondary schools in the state.

Teachers’ job performance was also found to be at a moderate level in schools having principals

with democratic leadership tendencies such as open communication, shared decision-making,

delegation of duties, support and trust, working with teams, empathy, focus on improved human

relations, and teaching and learning. Teachers’ job performance was found to be better in

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schools having principals using autocratic leadership style than schools using laissez-faire and

democratic leadership styles. It was recommended that school principals should imbibe a mixture

of autocratic and democratic styles of leadership in their school administration in order to

enhance better job performance among teachers. The use of laissez-faire style should be

discouraged among school principals as it could not bring a better job performance among

teachers. The study relates to the present study since both examined leaderships styles of

principals and used similar tools in data analysis. However, the study differs in focus and

sampling technique with the present study.

Another study on the influence of principals’ leadership style and organizational climate

on teachers’ morale in secondary schools in Delta State, Nigeria was conducted by Ebuka

(2009). The study adopted the expost facto design. Six research questions and four hypotheses

guided the study. The population of the study was 367 principals and 11, 402 teachers in 367

public secondary schools in Delta State. A sample of 72 principals and 2,506 teachers was

drawn from the population using simple random sampling technique. The instruments for data

collection were multifactor leadership questionnaire (MFLQ) with 26-items; organizational

climates description questionnaire (OCDQ) with 25-items; and Purdue Teachers Opinionnaire

(PTO) with 32-items. The reliability coefficients of these instruments determined using

crombach alpha were 0.84, 0.83, and 0.88 respectively. Data collected were analyzed using

percentages, means, standard deviations, and stepwise multiple regression. It was found out that

leadership styles of principal, gender, and organizational climate jointly influenced teachers’

morale in secondary schools; while organizational climate and gender had no significant

influence on teachers’ morale. The study relates to the present study since both examined

leaderships styles of principals and used similar tools in data analysis. However, the study differs

in focus, design and sampling technique with the present study.

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Another study on principals’ leadership strategies and the attainment of educational

objectives in Public Secondary Schools in Akwa-Ibom State was conducted by Okorie (2010).

The purpose of the study was to examine leadership strategies adopted by the principal in the

attainment of educational objectives in public secondary schools. The study adopted the

descriptive research design. Five research questions and five hypotheses guided the study. The

population of the study comprised of all teachers in the 234 public secondary schools in public

secondary schools in Akwa-Ibom State. A sample of 350 teachers purposively sampled from the

population was used for the study. The principals’ leadership strategies Questionnaire (PLSQ)

with a reliability coefficient of 0.78 was used to gather data for the study. Means and standard

deviation were used to answer the research questions while t-test was used to test the hypotheses

at 0.05 level of probability. The results showed principals’ motivational strategies ranking

highest among others leadership strategies adopted in the attainment of school goals. The

findings identified verbal commendation of teachers, presentation of gift items, provision of

residential quarters to staff, and delegation of duties to teachers as motivational strategies which

enhanced principals’ effectiveness in the attainment of educational objectives in Public

Secondary Schools. The study also revealed a strong correlation between principal’s supervision

strategies and attainment of educational goals. Students who are taught under the strict

supervision of the principal have better achievement and self improvement in the society thus

leading to a generation of responsible adults in the society. This study relates to the present study

since both examined the leadership styles as they relate to principals’ performance but differed in

the research design and statistical tools for data analysis.

Another study on leadership styles of principals and job performance of staff in

secondary schools in Delta State, Nigeria was carried out by Duze, (2012). The purpose of the

study was to examine the leadership styles of principals and the effect on job performance of

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teachers and supportive staff in senior secondary schools. The study design was descriptive

survey. Three research questions and two hypotheses guided the study. The study population

comprised all principals, teachers, and support staff in 358 senior secondary schools in Delta

State. A sample of 1777 respondents comprised of 120 principals, 1,254 teachers, and 403

supportive staff from 120 schools was selected through the simple random sampling technique.

The instruments for data collection were the Principals‟ Leadership Style Questionnaire (PLSQ),

Teachers‟ Job Performance Questionnaire (TJPQ) and Supportive Staff Job Performance

Questionnaire (SSJPQ). Each was in two parts – A and B. Part A elicited demographic

information such as the name of the school, location, year of establishment, number of teachers,

and number of students, number of years spent in the school, rank of the staff/principal, years of

experience, and qualification. Part B of PLSQ had three sections which elicited information on

types of leadership, effective utilization, and performance of supportive staff. Part B of PLSQ

in addition to requesting information on what leadership style was being used by the principal in

the school and how effective a school principal was in utilizing the adopted leadership style in

the school also elicited information on teachers’ competencies. Part B of SSJPQ, besides

eliciting information on what leadership style was being used by the principal in the school and

how effective principals utilize such adopted leadership style in the school also elicited

information on principals’ regularity and functionality in school affairs. Reliability coefficient of

0.87, 0,89, and 0.83 were obtained for PLSQ, TJPQ, and SSJPQ respectively using Pearson

Product Moment Correlation from data collected on two set of test.

Frequency counts, percentages were used to analyze the research questions, while one-

way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression statistics were used to test the null

hypotheses at the 0.05 alpha level. The results showed that there was a significant relationship

between principals‟ leadership styles and the job performance of teachers and support staff in

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secondary schools in Delta State, Nigeria. It was also revealed that a significant relationship

exists between democratic leadership style and staff job performance, and that the democratic

leadership style was up ahead of laissez-faire, and laissez-faire ahead of autocratic as having a

more significant positive relationship with staff job performance. On account of these findings, it

was recommended that principals of secondary schools should adopt the democratic leadership

style in their school administration in order to enhance job performance among teachers and

supportive staff which will in turn boost the desired productivity of students and staff. The use of

the autocratic leadership style by secondary school principals should be discouraged since it

resulted in the lowest level of job performance for all staff in the study. This study relates to the

present study since both examined leadership styles, but differed in the focus, design and

instruments for data collection.

A study on the relationship between leadership styles of principals and organizational

climate of secondary Schools in Anambra State, Nigeria was conducted by Nwaeze (2003). The

purpose of the study was to examine the on the relationship between leadership styles of the

principals and organizational climate of secondary schools. The design of the study was

corelational survey. Four research questions and four hypotheses guided the study. The


Anambra State. The sample of the study was 110 principals and 1660 teachers drawn from the

population in the five education zone of Anambra State. The sample was selected using the

stratified proportionate sampling technique. The instruments for data collection were

Organizational Climate Questionnaire (OCQ), and Principals leadership styles questionnaire

(PLSQ) of 25-items with five subscales in which the respondents (teachers) were expected to

indicate how their principals exhibited the listed behaviours relative to democratic, autocratic,

laissez-faire, initiating structure and consideration. The overall reliability coefficient of 0.87 and

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0.65 respectively was established for the instruments using cronbach alpha method. Descriptive

statistics such as percentages, means, standard deviation, were used to answer the research

questions. The hypotheses were tested using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient.

The results revealed that the various leadership styles have significant relationship with

organizational climate. The findings also showed that the democratic style of leadership

correlated significantly with production emphasis, thrust and intimacy consideration, in all five

zones. The overall evidence in the study suggested that democratic leadership style behaviour

and initiating structure have positive correlation with organizational climate. The relationship of

this study with the present study is that both examined leadership styles of the principal but

differed in focus. The study focused on organizational climate while the present study focused on

performance.

Another study on the attributes of principals’ leadership styles and capacities in

secondary schools was carried out in Malaysia by Shaman (2006). The purpose of the study was

to examine the relationship of teacher’s perception of the leadership style and capacities of their

principals to the leadership qualities of empathy, decision making, time management, conflict

resolution and comfort. A descriptive research design was adopted for the study. Three research

questions and three hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study comprised of all

798 principals and teachers. A sample of three hundred school (300) teachers as respondents

was drawn from the population using stratified random sampling technique. A Self- developed

questionnaire on leadership style and capacities with a reliability index of 0.76 was used to

collect data. The findings showed that the principals were perceived to exhibit both democratic

and autocratic leadership styles with Moderate leadership capacities and qualities. However,

there was a strong positive correlation between perception of teachers on leadership style and

capacities and qualities of principals. The relationship of this study with the present study is that

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both examined leadership styles of the principal relative to performance. The results of the

present study could vary since they differ in scope, design and area of the study. The present

study will examine other variables such as demographic factors and motivation.

Studies Related to Motivation and Performance

A study on motivational factors as correlate of Librarians’ job satisfaction in Nigerian

University Libraries was conducted by Ekere (2010). The purpose of the study was to determine

the relationship between motivational factors and Librarians job satisfaction in University

libraries in Nigeria. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. Seven research questions

were posed and five hypotheses formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The

population of the study was 685 librarians comprised of 456 librarians from 25 Federal

Universities and 229 librarians from 26 state Universities. A sample of 453 respondents

representing 80% of the population was drawn using random sampling technique. The

instrument for data collection was the Librarians Motivational Factors Questionnaire. It was

adapted from the Minnestota Satisfaction Questionnaire (1977) to reflect local conditions and job

peculiarity of Librarians in Nigeria, The instrument was divided into three sections Section ‘A’

sought background information of the subjects with respect to gender, age, and years of working

experience. Section ‘B’ contains items designed to find the level of motivation, and section ‘C’

was on how satisfied the subjects are with the various job variables under study. The reliability

coefficient determined using Spearman Brown formula was 0.99 for section B, and 0.98 for

section C. Simple percentage, means, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient, Analysis

of Variance, and t-test were used to analyze the data. The findings showed that all the factors,

namely, work itself, achievement, recognition, responsibility and advancement were perceived

by the librarians as motivational factors. The results also revealed that age and years of working

experience had significant influence on Librarians’ job satisfaction. Gender had no significant

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influence on Librarians’ job satisfaction in university libraries in Nigeria. It was recommended

that the identified motivators (job satisfiers) should be re-directed by university Library

management to effectively impact on the lives of Librarians. The study has relationship with the

present study since both examined motivational factors, and used similar statistical tools for data

analysis. But differs in design, sampling technique, and focus, while this study was on job

satisfaction, the present study was on performance.

Another study on Motivational factors and principals’ job performance in secondary

education in Ondo State was carried out by Kolawole and Fashina, (2009). The purpose of the

study was to examine the influence of motivational factors as catalyst in propelling, encouraging

and stimulating principals as character moulders of students who are Nigerian future leaders. The

study adopted a descriptive research design. Five research questions and five hypotheses were

posed to guide the study. All 150 principals of government owned secondary schools in Ondo

West education zone comprised the population of the study. A sample of 110 principals was

drawn from the population using convenience sampling technique. A research instrument titled

‘Motivational Factors and Principals Job performance in secondary schools was designed to

measure the level of motivation in the area of job itself, promotion, prospects, recognition for

achievement, supervisory styles, wages and salary, interpersonal relation with co-workers,

quality of work done and knowledge of the job. The reliability coefficient of the instrument

obtained using split-half method was 0.93. The data were analyzed using a two-way Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA) to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of probability, and pair wise comparison

done by a Scheffe Post Hoc Test. The results showed that the motivational variables were found

to impact significantly on job performance of principals of secondary schools. The study relates

with the present study since both examined motivational factors on principals’ performance in

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public secondary schools. They differed in design of the study, specific motivational items,

instruments for data collection and statistical tools for data analysis.

A study on Teachers motivation and job satisfaction in schools of Nursing in South-East

Zone of Nigeria was conducted by Ejike (2011). The purpose of the study was to examine the

relationship between teacher motivation and job satisfaction in schools of Nursing in South-East

Zone of Nigeria. The study adopted the expost facto design. Eight research questions were

posed and six hypotheses formulated and tested at 0.05 level of probability. The population of

the study was 158 teachers in Schools of nursing in South-East zone of Nigeria. The sample was

the 158 teachers and no sampling technique was involved as the population was a manageable

size. Two instruments were used for data collection namely Teachers motivational pattern

questionnaire (TMPQ) which sought question items on performance orientation, mastery

orientation, and avoidance orientation; Teachers job satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ). The

reliability coefficients of the instruments determined using crombach alpha were 0.93, 0.83 and

0.91 for TMPQ clusters; and 0.93 for TJSQ. Data were analyzed using means, standard deviation

and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). It was revealed that teachers in schools of nursing in

South-East, Nigeria have different motivational patterns; motivational patterns of teachers in

schools of nursing significantly relate with job satisfaction; while gender, educational

qualification, years of working experience had no significant relationship with patterns of

motivation and job satisfaction. This study relates to the present one since both examined

motivational factors on employee performance. However, this study differs from the present

study in sample and instrument for data collection and respondents.

A study on staff motivation as a tool for effective secondary school administration in

Aguata Education Zone of Anambra State, Nigeria was conducted by Oragui (2011). The study

was carried out on the presumption that teachers in secondary schools no longer manifest

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expected desirable attitudes, behaviour and competencies and that poor motivation has

contributed to these poor work attitudes. The purpose of the study was to examine staff

motivation as a tool for effective secondary school administration. The study adopted the

descriptive survey design. Two research questions and two null hypotheses guided the study.

The population of the study comprised of all 791 teachers in Aguata Education Zone of Anambra

State. A sample of 400 teachers was drawn from the population using simple random sampling

technique. A Staff Motivational Questionnaire (SMQ) of 24-items was use for data collection. It

had two sections A and B. Section A is for personal data of respondents, while section B with

two clusters 1 and 2 which contains question items that sought information on innovative

motivational strategies and motivational measures for staff respectively. A reliability coefficient

of 0.86 and 0.91 for cluster 1 and 2 was determined using Cronbach Alpha from data collected in

a trial test. Data were analyzed using means, standard deviation and t-test. The findings

revealed that rural and urban teachers in secondary schools were aware of the strategies that

would enhance the motivation of teachers towards better performance. These strategies include

regular payment of salaries, opportunity for advancement in the teaching profession etc.

Measures indicated for enhancement of staff motivation were communication between staff and

schools administrators, good working environment, recognition of staff for the work they do, and

paying staff salaries on regular basis. The study is related to the present study since it

investigated the impact of motivation on employee performance. However, the results may vary

since they differ in design, scope, and area of the study.

Another study on the influence of motivation on job satisfaction of secondary school

teachers in Lokoja education zone of Kogi State was carried out by Okolo, Haruna and Oguche,

(2013). The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of motivation on job

satisfaction of teachers. The study adopted ex-post facto research design. Four research

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questions and two null hypotheses guided the study. From a population of 849 teachers, a sample

of 400 teachers (200 males and 200 females) was selected through purposive sampling

technique. The instrument used for data collection was a 20-item questionnaire. Mean and

standard deviation were used in answering the four research questions while t-test statistic was

used in testing the two null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed,

among others, that teachers need both intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors to attain job

satisfaction. There is no significant difference between the mean response of male and female

secondary school teachers on the extent to which motivation influences teachers’ job satisfaction.

The study relates with the present study since both examined motivational factors of employees

in public secondary schools. They differed in sampling technique, specific motivational items,

instrument for data collection, statistical tools for data analysis and area of study.

A study on influence of motivation on students’ academic performance in Essan West

Local Government Area of Edo State, Nigeria was conducted by Oriahi, (2009). The purpose of

the study was to investigate the influence of motivation on students’ academic performance. The

study employed the descriptive survey design. Four research questions and four hypotheses

guided the study. The population of the study comprised of 4,460 made up of all senior and

junior secondary school students, teachers, principals from 169 public secondary schools in

Essan West Local Government Area of Edo State. A sample of 720 respondents was drawn from

the population using random sampling technique. The Secondary School Students Questionnaire

(SSSQ), the Secondary School Teachers Questionnaire (SST), and interview conducted on target

group of educationist, psychologists, parents, and other public figures were the instruments for

data collection. The reliability coefficient based on split-half method was 0.76. Simple

percentage was used to answer the research questions while t-statistic was used to test the

hypothesis at 0.05 level of significant. The findings showed that motivation significantly

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influenced students’ academic performance. It was also revealed that teachers, principals, school

organizations, parents, and home environment have great role to play in the motivation of

students for an improved performance. The study relates with the present study since both

examined motivational factors in public secondary schools. They differed in focus, sampling

technique, specific motivational items, instrument for data collection, and statistical tools for

data analysis.

Summary of Literature Review

The literature review for this study focused on three sub-heading: Conceptual

framework, theoretical framework, and review of empirical studies. Secondary education is a

six-year form of education which children receive after primary school education and before

tertiary education. It is aimed at preparing individuals for useful living within the society and

preparation for higher education. Secondary education serves as a link between primary and

tertiary level education. The Principal is the administrative head who is accountable to the

Schools Management Board of the ministry of education and is responsible for the management

of secondary schools. The effective performance of the duties in the task areas of management

largely determines the growth and development of secondary schools in Nigeria.

Principals’ performance referred to how well or frequently they execute their

responsibilities in areas such as instructional supervision, communication, decision-making,

provision of incentive to teachers and students, financial management, plant management,

human resource development, public relations, conflict management/resolution, and adherence to

statutory rules.

In Nigeria demographic factors such as age, qualification, gender and experience have

been considered in appointing teachers to principalship position with the belief that individual

difference based on these factors would influence performance. It has also been observed that

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personality factors such as principals leadership styles and motivation may influence principals

in the management of secondary schools. The conceptual framework of the study is premised on

the assumption that demographic and personality variables relate with principals performance in

the task areas of management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.

The Situational theory states that certain forces in the administrator, subordinates and

the situation determines an administrators choice of a particular leadership style. Hence

principals’ performance could vary depending on the task since no leadership style will suit all

situations. Therefore, this theory becomes relevant to the study for it provided the basis to

determine among others the relationship between principals’ leadership styles and performance

in the different task areas of management of secondary schools. On the other hand, the

Contingency theory proposes that the performance of a leader is dependent on the interaction of

leadership styles and factors like leader-member relations, the task structure and leaders position

power. Accordingly, good leader-member relations, simplified task structure and high position

power give rise to high effectiveness of principals in secondary school management. However,

given the low position power of principals in Nigerian secondary schools, the effect of the

interaction of leadership style and other factors on performance in different task areas is not

known. This theory becomes relevant to the present study by providing the basis to determine

how the factors of leader-member relation, task-structure and the low position power of

principals relative to their leadership styles affect performance in different task areas.

The human relations theory proposes that performance of workers in pursuit of

organizational goals can be enhanced when they are treated humanely by giving recognizance to

their personal values and encouraging their sense of achievement. This theory apart from being

accepted as the basis of democratic management and supportive of collaborative decision-

making, also recognizes the role of motivators in performance. The relevance of this theory to

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the present study is that it provides the basis to examine the relationship between leadership

styles, motivational factors and principals’ performance in the task areas of management of

secondary schools.

The behavioural science theory, on the other hand, proposes that effectiveness in

performance is achieved through an understanding of the worker, the job and the working

environment. This three-dimensional approach to enhancing performance in school management

can only strive when principals use the knowledge and experience obtained from their training in

different subjects like philosophy, sociology and psychology to give optimal attention to human

welfare, educational objectives and provision of enviable working environment for a more

effective performance of their duties. This theory provides the basis for examining the

relationship between principals’ qualifications, experience, age, gender, marital status and

performance in the management of secondary schools.

Herzberg’s two-factor theory proposes that certain factors called motivators activate

individuals to job satisfaction and subsequent higher performance. They include: the nature of

the work, recognition, responsibility, achievement, and advancement. Principals are motivated

to higher performance by due recognition of their achievement, making their job challenging,

and providing opportunities for advancement in their job. This theory provides the basis to

validate the capacity of the motivators to cause job satisfaction and subsequent higher

performance. The study, is therefore anchored on these theories.

The review of empirical studies revealed that although studies have been done relating

demographic and personality variables to performance in the achievement of educational goals in

secondary schools, no study to the knowledge of the researcher related these variables to

principals’ performance in the critical task areas of management of secondary schools in South-

South, Nigeria. The literature reviewed brought to the fore the presumed connection between

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demographic and personality variables and performance which is limited by empirical evidence.

The present study, therefore, is an attempt to determine the relationship between demographic

and personality variables and principals performance in the task areas of management of

secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter presents the general procedure used in the study. This includes the design

of the study, area of the study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique,

instruments for data collection, validation of the instruments, reliability of the instruments,

method of data collection, and method of data analysis.

Design of the Study

The design of the study was correlational survey. The correlational survey design

according to Howell (2007), examines the degree, patterns and strength of relationship between

two or more variables being studied rather than explore causal relationship between them. Thus,

the correlational design provides clues for the proper understanding of patterns of relationships

among variables in the study. Therefore, the correlational survey design becomes imperative

since this study is a multivariate analysis of the relationship among demographic and personality

variables and principals’ performance in the management of secondary education in South-

South, Nigeria.

Area of the Study

This study was carried out in the South-South zone of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. It

was limited to all government owned Secondary Schools in the six states which make up South-

South, Nigeria, namely Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross Rivers, Delta, Edo and Rivers States. Each

of these states have three senatorial zones which give a total of eighteen senatorial zones in

South-South, Nigeria. They incclude Akwa Ibom North-East, Akwa Ibom North-West, and

Akwa Ibom South for Akwa Ibom State; Bayelsa East, Bayelsa Central, and Bayelsa West for

Bayelsa State; Cross River North, Cross River Central, and Cross River South for Cross River

State; Delta Central, Delta North, and Delta South for Delta State; Edo Central, Edo North, and

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150

Edo South for Edo State; and Rivers East, Rivers South East, and Rivers West for Rivers State.

The zone is located in the south of the southern part of Nigeria. It lies between longitude 4˚ N

and 8˚ N and Latitude 4˚ E and 10˚ E. It is generally a lowland area of about 0-30m above sea

level for Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta and Edo states; and a lowland of about 20-50m for Akwa-Ibom

and Cross River states. South-South zone is bounded by Bight of Bonny (Atlantic Ocean) and

Gulf of Guinea in the South, Lagos state in the South-West, Ondo state in the North West and

shares a boundary with Kogi and Benue in the North. In the Eastern part, it is bounded by Imo,

Abia, Ebonyi and Cameroon.

The South-South region of Nigeria according to Tekena (2011) provides the economic

mainstay of the economy – oil. In addition to oil and gas, the region has key resources like

timber, palm trees, raffia, limestone, quartzite, silica, lignite, tar sand, silver nitrate, Barite, glass

sand, and gravel which are of utmost importance to the industrial sector for investment

opportunities in tourism and agriculture. The occupation of the people is predominantly farming,

fishing, carving, lumbering, weaving, hunting and trading.

The major ethnic groups in South-South Nigeria are: Annang, Oron, and Ibibio in Akwa-

Ibom; Ijaw, Nembe Ogbia, Epie-Atisa in Bayelsa State; Ehagham, Ogoja, and Efik in Cross

River State; Itsekiri, Isoko, Ukwuani, and Urhorobo in Delta State; Esan and Bini in Edo State;

Kalabari, ogoni, and Ikwerre in Rivers State. There are about 250 dialects spoken by these

ethnic groups.

The effects of many decades of the exploitation and exploration of oil in the fragile Niger

Delta communities of South-South Nigeria have been enormous. Local indigenous people have

seen little improvement in their standard of living while suffering serious damage in the natural

environment. Since then, local indigenous communities agitation against commercial oil

refineries and pipeline companies in the region have increased in frequency and militancy.

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The secondary schools in the area have similarities and differences in terms of education

programmes, social amenities, infrastructural development and school management hence the

choice of the area for the study

Population of the Study

The population of this study is 1,356 principals of government owned secondary schools

in South-South, Nigeria. This population is made up of 234 for Akwa-Ibom State, 148 for

Bayelsa State, 248 for Cross River State, 244 for Delta State, 237 for Edo State, and 245 for

Rivers State. The total number of teachers in the public schools 29,820. This number consisted

of 5,489 for Akwa-Ibom State, 2,893 for Bayelsa State, 5,430 for Cross River State, 5,388 for

Delta State, 4,081 for Edo State, and 6,539 for Rivers State. The population of principals and

teachers was obtained from the ministries of education of the six states of South-South, Nigeria.

The summary is attached as Appendix A on page 278 (Ministry of Education, South-South States

of Nigeria, 2012).

Sample and Sampling Technique

A sample of 310 principals of government owned Secondary Schools in South-South,

Nigeria was used for this study. This sample size was determined using the Taro Yamen’s

formular shown in Appendix B on page 279. The Taro Yemen formular was used to ensure that a

manageable sample was obtained from the population. A proportionate stratified random

sampling technique was used to select the number of principals for each state. This was done by

dividing the population of principals in each state by the total population of principals in South-

South Nigeria then multiplying the result by the sample size obtained using the Taro Yamen’s

formular. To ensure fair representation, a disproportionate stratified random sampling technique

was used to select equal number of principals for each senatorial zone of each of the six states.

This was done by dividing the number of schools per state by three since there are three

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senatorial zones in each state. Then the disproportionate stratified random sampling technique

was used to select six teachers three each of male and female as respondents to provide

information about the principals in each school. This gave a total of 1,860 teachers for all the 18

senatorial zones in South-South, Nigeria. The list of the sampled schools per senatorial zone

obtained from the Ministry of Education of their respective states is attached as Appendix C on

pages 281-286.

Instruments for data Collection

The research instruments used for data collection were the Principals’ Motivational

Factors Questionnaire (PMFQ), Principals’ Leadership Styles Questionnaire (PLSQ), Principals’

Performance Scale (PPS), and Plant Observation Rating Scale (PORS). These are attached as

Appendices E, F, G, & H respectively on pages 288 to 296.

The Principals’ Motivational Factors Questionnaire (PMFQ) had two sections A & B (see

Appendix E on p.288-290). Section A seeks to elicit the demographic data of the principals.

This included information on age, gender, years of working experience, professional

qualifications and marital status of the principals. Section B consisted of the Principals’

Motivational Factors. It was adapted from the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)

which was developed in 1977 at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, United States of

America in order to reflect local condition peculiar to principalship in Nigeria. The Minnesota

Satisfaction Questionnaire had three sections A, B, and C for personal information of

respondents, motivational items, and job satisfaction variables respectively. Principals’

Motivational Factors Questionnaire incorporated only sections A and B of the original

instrument to suit the study. Principals’ motivational factors consisted of the following clusters:

Nature of work itself which relates to the ability to stay busy on the job; recognition which

relates to commendations from work done; responsibility which relates to freedom of exercising

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job roles; achievement which relates to feeling of accomplishments; and advancement which

relates to opportunities for growth and personal development. It was a 27-item instrument with a

4-point rating scale attached where respondents were requested to check the applicable responses

categorized into Strongly Agree (SA); Agree (A); Disagree (D); and Strongly Disagree (SD).

The principals responded to the questionnaire.

The Principals’ Leadership Styles Questionnaire (PLSQ) had two sections A and B (see

Appendix F on p.291-292). Section A seek for personal information of the respondents, while

section B seek responses on Principals leadership styles. The items are based on openness,

concerns for teachers, students and the schools. The 15-item instrument was developed by the

researcher and has 4-point rating scale categorized into Strongly Agree (SA); Agree (A);

Disagree (D); and Strongly Disagree (SD). Teachers who responded to the questionnaire were

required to indicate the extent of agreement on their principals’ demonstration of the listed

behaviours.

The Principals’ Performance Scale (PPS) was a 45-item scale on measures of principals’

performance in the management of secondary schools (see Appendix G on p.293-295). It was

used by teachers to rate the principals on nine managerial clusters of items arranged in relation to

the administrative task areas of principals to elicit the required information on their performance.

These clusters include: instructional supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of

incentives to teachers and students, human resources development, public relations, financial

management, adherence to statutory provisions, and conflict management and resolution. It was

an adapted form of the Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale (PIMRS) developed by

Dr. Philip Hallinger in 1984 at Stanford University, United State of America. It was designed

to provide a profile of principals’ performance in specific job practices

and behaviours. It has 10 clusters and 50 items. It used a 5-point type of rating scale of

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Almost Always, Frequently, Sometimes, Seldom, and Almost Never. Instead of the 5-point

scale, Principals’ Performance Scale had a 4-point rating scale of Very Frequently; Frequently;

Occasionally; and Never. The response pattern was modified to give a clearer of meaning for

performance as how frequently principals carry out their duties in the task areas. Besides, the 5-

point scale was reduced to 4-point scale as (Sometimes and Seldom) in the original

instrument were considered to mean occasionally as used in principals performance scale. The

tenth cluster in the original instrument (framing the school goals) was expunged since it was not

a task area of the principals in the study area but of the federal government. Some items were

recast to make Principals’ Performance Scale more meaningful to the raters, and relevant to

principalship in Nigeria. For instance, the cluster (supervise and evaluate instruction) was recast

and used as instructional supervision. Item 13 in the original instrument which reads (conduct

informal observations in classroom on a regular basis) was recast as-conducts unscheduled

informal visits to classrooms, and used as item 3 in principals performance scale. Item 14 in the

original instrument that reads (point out specific strengths in teacher’s instructional practices in

post-observation feedback in conference or written evaluations) was recast as-points out specific

strengths and weaknesses in teachers instructional practices, and used as item 4 in principals

performance scale. Also, item 7 in the original instrument which reads (discuss the school’s

academic goals with teachers at faculty meetings) was recast as- discusses the school’s goals and

mission with teachers at meetings, and used as item 6 in principals performance scale. Item 36 in

the original instrument which reads (Reinforce superior performance in staff meeting,

newsletters, and/or memos) was recast as-rewards teachers who perform well, and used as item

16 in principals performance scale. Item 40 in the original instrument which reads (create

professional growth opportunities for teachers) was recast as- encourages teachers to attend

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available professional development programmes like seminars or workshops, and used as item

23 in principals performance scale.

The Plant Observation Rating Scale (PORS) was a researcher developed instrument (see

Appendix H on p.296-300). It had 12 clusters of items of school plant and the raters were

expected to indicate the availability or non-availability of the items, and the adequacy of the

facilities using the following scale: Very High, High, Low, Very Low, and not-available. The

adequacy of facilities is relative to their functionality at the time of observation. A bench mark

that guided the raters to avoid biases and variance in their observation was also developed and

attached as part of the Plant Observation rating Scale. The bench mark give conditions for

classifying plants items as Very High, High, Low, and Very Low as used in the plant observation

scale. For instance using ventilation as criteria, classrooms are rated Very High or High if there

is cross ventilation, otherwise, classrooms are rated Low or Very Low. Plant items like fans and

air conditioners for providing ventilation in classrooms are rated Very or High if they

functional. Otherwise, they are rated Low of very low. Furthermore, classrooms, offices,

libraries, and workshops are rated Very High or High if they are painted, neat and properly

arranged. These items are rated Low or Very Low when they are not painted, dirty and poorly

arranged.

Validation of the Instruments

To ascertain the validity of the instruments, the initial drafts were given to three experts,

two from the department of Educational Administration and Planning, and the other from

Measurement and Evaluation all from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The experts were

requested to review and critique the various items on the instruments in terms of relevance,

clarity, and appropriateness of language and response patterns as they relate to the study. Their

criticisms, suggestions and modifications were incorporated into the relevant items to give the

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instruments their present structure and content. The suggestions made on the validated

instruments were attached as Appendix I on page 301.

Reliability of the Instruments

To determine the reliability of the instruments, the Principal Motivational Factors

Questionnaire, Principals Leadership Styles Questionnaire, Principals Performance Scale, and

Plant Observation Rating Scale were trial-tested in 14 government owned secondary schools in

Igbo-Eze South and Nsukka Local Government Areas of Enugu State, South-East, Nigeria.

Fourteen (14) principals responded to the Principal Motivational Factors Questionnaire while

forty-two (42) teachers rated the principals, three teachers for each principal using the Principals

Leadership Styles Questionnaire and Principals Performance Scale. Two raters used the Plant

Observation Rating Scale to rate the plant items in the 14 schools. The list of schools used for

trial-testing of the instruments was attached as Appendix J in page 302. Data collected using

these instruments during the trial test were analyzed using Cronbach Alpha method to determine

the internal consistency reliability. This method was considered appropriate because the items in

the instruments were not dichotomously scored. The internal consistency coefficient obtained

for Principal Motivational Factors Questionnaire are 0.88 for work-itself, 0.89 for recognition,

0.94 for responsibility, 0.89 for achievement; and 0.91 for advancement with 0.97 as the overall

(see Appendix K on page 303 to 319). Principal’s Leadership Style Questionnaire yielded an

internal consistency reliability of 0.60 (See Appendix L on page 320 to 322). The internal

consistency estimates for Principal’s Performance Scale are 0.67 for supervision, 0.72 for

communication, 0.71 for decision making, 0.72 for incentives, 0.67 for human resource

development, 0.61 for public relations, 0.71 for financial management, 0.72 for legal status, and

0.73 for conflict management and resolution with 0.93 as the overall (see Appendix M on page

323 to 351). An earlier trial testing of the Principal Performance Scale which incorporated some

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negative items that were not in the original instrument gave low reliability indices ranging from

0.2 to 0.3. These reliability coefficients were considered not high enough for the study. An

investigation into the causes revealed that the respondents were confused with the negative items

that were introduced. They were subsequently reversed to the original positive items and a

second trial testing carried which gave the reliability coefficients considered high enough and

used for the study. A Scorer reliability of 0.95 was obtained for Plant Observation Rating Scale

(See Appendix N on page 352-353). These results indicated that the instruments were reliable

and adequate for the study. This is because according to Akuezuilo (1993), if an instrument

yields a reliability coefficient of 0.60 and above, the instrument is considered reliable for the

study.

Method of Data Collection

The instruments were administered on the respondents directly with the help of seven

research assistants who were trained on the modes of observing the plant items and how the

instruments were to be filled. The personal contact ensured a high rate of participation of the

subjects and optimal return of the instruments. The research assistants were trained on rating the

plant items with respect to availability and adequacy. Every available item that is ticked has an

equivalent adequacy rating of Very High or High; and Low or Very Low using the bench mark

on p. 299 as part of appendix H. All non-available items are not assigned adequacy rating.

The completed copies of the instrument were retrieved on the spot from the respondents

on each day of visit except so requested by the respondents then retrieval was deferred to a

suitable date. The researcher and his assistants guided the respondents on how to fill the

instrument as the need arose. The plant observation rating scale was used to rate the availability

and adequacy of items of school plants by the researcher and the assistants.

Method of data Analysis

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Percentage was used to answer research question one. Means and standard deviations

were used to answer research question two and three. Pearson Product Moment Correlation

Coefficient was used to answer research questions four to thirteen. The null hypotheses were

tested using multiple regression, and the associated ANOVA and t-tests at 0.05 level of

probability.

The four points response scale used in Principal Motivational Factors Questionnaire,

Principals Leadership Styles Questionnaire, and Principal performance are scored and interpreted

as follows: For Principal Motivational Factors Questionnaire, Strongly Agree (SA) was scored

four points; Agree (A) three points; Disagree (D) two points, and Strongly Disagree (SD) one

point. For Principals Leadership Styles Questionnaire, Strongly Agree (SA) was scored four

points; Agree (A) was scored three points; Disagree (D) two points, and Strongly Disagree (SD)

one point. The negative items (6, 8, 10, 13 and 14) in the Principals Leadership Styles

Questionnaire are scored in the reverse order of Strongly Disagree for four points, Disagree three

points, Agree two points and Strongly Agree one point; For Principal performance Scale, Very

Frequently (VF) was scored four points, Frequently (F) three points, Occasionally (O) scored

two points, and Never (N) scored one point; The five point response scale used in the Plant

Observation Rating Scale were scored and interpreted as follows: Very High (VH) scored five

points; High (H) scored four points. Low (L) scored three points; Very Low (VL) scored two

points and Non-Availability (NA) scored one point.

Using real limits of numbers, 0.5 - 1.49 correspond to Strongly Disagree, 1.50 - 2.49

correspond to Disagree, 2.50 - 3.49 correspond to Agree, and 3.50 - 4.49 correspond to Strongly

Agree for Principal Motivational factors Questionnaire. 0.5 - 1.49 correspond to Strongly

Disagree, 1.50 - 2.49 correspond to Disagree, 2.50 - 3.49 correspond to Agree, and 3.50 - 4.49

correspond to Strongly Agree for Principal Leadership Style Questionnaire. A limit of

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0.5 - 1.49, and 1.50 - 2.49 for PLSQ indicates Close leadership style while a limit of 2.50 - 3.49,

and 3.50 - 4.49 indicates an Open leadership style. For Principal Performance Scale, 0.5 - 1.49

correspond to Never, 1.50 - 2.49 correspond to Occasionally, 2.50 - 3.49 correspond to

Frequently, and 3.50 - 4.49 correspond to Very Frequently. While 0.5 - 1.49 correspond to Non-

Availability, 1.50 - 2.49 correspond to Very Low, 2.50 - 3.49 correspond to Low, 3.50 - 4.49

correspond to High, and 4.50 - 5.49 correspond to Very High for Plant Observation Rating Scale.

The demographic data of the principals were coded as follows: Gender: male = 1,

female = 2; Educational qualification: Ph.D = 4, M.Ed/M.Sc =3, B.Ed/B.A/B.Sc =2;

Dip/N.C.E=1; Area of specialty: Educational Admin/Planning =3; All Aspects of Education =2;

No Educational Qualification =1; Marital status: Married =4. Single=3, Separated=2, Divorce=1;

Years of working experience as principal, Vice principal, and age were entered directly; Schools

location: Urban = 1, Rural = 2; States were coded in alphabetical order: Akwa Ibom state = 1,

Bayelsa state = 2, Cross River State = 3, Delta State = 4, Edo State = 5, and Rivers State = 6.

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CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

This chapter presents the results of data analysis based on the thirteen research questions

and ten null hypotheses that guided the study.

Research Question 1

What is the demographic (age, gender, educational qualification, working experience and marital

status) profile of principals of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria?

The frequencies and percentage of demographic variables of principals of secondary schools in

South-South Nigeria are presented in table 1-6 below.

Table 1: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ age in South-South, Nigeria.

Category (years) Frequencies Percentage

36-40

41-45

46-50

51-55

56-60

Total

2

7

41

184

76

310

0.60

2.20

13.20

59.30

24.60

100.00

Table 1 revealed that 184 (59.3%) principals were within the age bracket of 51-55years,

76(24.6%,) were within the age bracket of 56-60 years, 41(13.2%) were within the age bracket

of 46-50 years, 7(2.2%) were within the age bracket of 41-45 years, while 2 (.6%) were within

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the age bracket of 36-40 years. A summary of this table revealed that most principals in South-

South, Nigeria were within the age bracket of 51-55 years.

Table 2: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ gender in secondary schools in South-

South Nigeria.

Category Frequencies Percentage

Male

Female

Total

201

109

310

64.80

35.20

100.00

Table 2 revealed that 201 principals (64.8%) were males while 109(35.2%) were females. Most

principals in South-South, Nigeria were Males.

Table 3: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ years of working experience in South-

South Nigeria.

Table 3 showed that 116 (37.4% ) principals have served for a period 6-10 years; 92(29.7% )

principals have served for 11-15 years; 74(23.8% ) principals have served for 1-5 years;

18(5.9%) principals have served for 16-20 years; 4(1.2% ) principals who have served for 21-

25 years; and 3(.9%) principals have served for 26-30 and 31-35 years respectively. In addition,

Category Frequencies Percentage Principal VP Principal (%) VP (%) < 1 - 11 - 3.50

1-5 74 106 23.00 34.20 6-10 116 157 37.40 50.60 11-15 92 27 29.70 7.40 16-20 18 4 5.90 1.20 21-25 4 2 1.20 0.60 26-30 3 7 0.90 2.30 31-35 3 - 0.90 - Total 310 310 100.00 100.00

160

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the table showed that before becoming principals, 157 (50.7%) of them have been Vice

principals for 6-10years; 106(34.2%) have served as Vice principals for 1-5 years; 27(7.4%)

have been Vice principals for 11-15 years, 7(2.3%) have been Vice Principals for 20-30 years,

4(1.2%) have served as Vice Principals for 16-20 years; 2(.6%) of them have served for 21-

25years as Vice Principals, and 11(3.5%) of them have served as Vice principals for less than a

year before being principal. In summary, this table showed that most principals 282 (90.2%) in

South-South Nigeria have a working experience of less than 15 years with only 3 who have

served for 31-35 years. Majority of them 274 (88.3%) were vice Principals for less that 11 years

before becoming Principals

Table 4: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ educational qualifications in South-South Nigeria.


Ph.D

M.Sc/ M.A/M.Ed

B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed/B.Sc(Ed)

Dip/NCE

Total

3

93

213

1

310

1

30

68.70

0.30

100.00

Table 4 showed that only 3(1%) of the principals had Ph.D; 93(30%) had second degree such as

M.Sc/M.A/M.Ed; 213(68.7%) have first degree like B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed/B.Sc(Ed.); and only 1(3%)

principal had Diploma or NCE. Most of the principals in South-South, Nigeria had first degree.

Table 5: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ area of specialty in secondary schools in

South-South Nigeria.


Educational Administration /Planning 32 10.30%

Other Aspects of Education 258 83.20%

No Education Qualification 20 6.50%

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Total 310 100.00%

Table 5 showed that 32(10.3%) principals specialized in educational administration and

planning; 258(83.2%) specialized in other aspects of education, while 20(6.5%) specialized in

other areas without any education qualification. This table revealed that most principals in

South-South, Nigeria had a qualification in education, and that 6.5% of them were not

professionally qualified to be principals.

Table 6: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ marital status in South-South, Nigeria. Category Frequencies Percentage

Married

302 97.40%

Single

4 1.30%

Divorce

3 1%

Separated

1 0.30%

Total

310 100.00%

Table 6 showed that 302(97.4%) principals were married; 4(1.3%) were single; 3(1%) were

divorced, while only 1(.3%) was separated. This table showed that most principals in South-

South, Nigeria were married.

Research Question 2

What is the personality (leadership styles and motivation) profile of principals of secondary


The leadership behaviour of secondary schools principals in South-South Nigeria is presented in

table 7.

164

Table 7: Means ratings of principals’ leadership styles in the management of Secondary

Schools in South-South Nigeria.

S/N

Questionnaire items

X

SD

DEC 1 communicates openly to staff about school activities 3.44 .68 A 2 encourages self expression, creativity and interaction in the school 3.31 .68 A 3 showed feeling of concern and respect for staff 3.26 .74 A 4 delegates duties to staff 3.37 .66 A 5 involve teachers in decision making 3.00 .82 A

*6 nags at teachers openly 3.00 1.33 A 7 makes appeal rather than commands staff 3.00 .77 A

*8 imposes task and duties on teachers 2.87 .83 A 9 concedes to high level of staff independence in school activities 2.48 .81 D

*10 wants things done in his/her own way 2.77 .95 A 11 is concerned about staff feelings 3.03 .79 A

12 apportions blames to staff when things go wrong 2.47 .94 D *13 is resistant to change 2.86 .89 A *14 is indifferent about activities in the school 2.95 .89 A 15 showed concern for school goals and staff welfare 3.27 .38 A Grand 3.01 .38 A

*Negative items scored in reverse order - A=Agree, D=Disagree, DEC= Decision

Table 7 showed that items 1-8, 10, 11 and 13 – 15 had high means scores above the bench mark

of 2.50. Item 1 has a mean score of There mean 3.44 and standard deviation of .68. This means

that respondents agree that principals communicate openly to staff about school activities. Item 2

has a mean score of 3.31 and standard deviation of .68. This shows that respondents agree that

principals encourage self expression, creativity and interaction in the schools. Item 3 has a mean

score of 3.26 and standard deviation of 74. This shows that respondents agree that principals

showed feeling of concern and respect for staff. Item 4 has a mean score of 3.37 and standard

deviation of .66. This shows that respondents agree that principals delegates duties to staff. Item

5 has a mean score of 3.00 and standard deviation of .82. This shows that respondents agree that

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principals involve teachers in decision making. Item 6 has a mean score of 3.00 and standard

deviation of 1.33. This shows that respondents agree that principals do not nag at teachers

openly. Item 7 has a mean score of 3.00 and standard deviation of .77. This shows that

respondents agree that principals makes appeal rather than commands staff. Item 8 has a mean

score of 2.87 and standard deviation of .83. This shows that respondents agree that principals do

not impose task and duties on teachers. Item 10 has a mean score of 2.77 and standard deviation

of .95. This shows that respondents agree that principals do not want things done their own way.

Item 11 has a mean score of 3.03 and standard deviation of .79. This shows that respondents

agree that principals are concerned about staff feelings. Item 13 has a mean score of 2.86 and

standard deviation of .89. This shows that respondents agree that principals are not indifferent

about activities in the school. Item 14 has a mean score of 2.95 and standard deviation of .89.

This shows that respondents agree that principals are not indifferent about activities in the

school. Item 15 has a mean score of 3.27 and standard deviation of .38. This shows that

respondents agree that principals show concern for school goals and staff welfares. Item 9 and

12 had low mean scores below the bench mark of 2.50. Item 9 has a mean score of 2.48 and

standard deviation of .81. This shows that respondents disagree that principals concede to high

level of staff independence in school activities. Item 12 has a mean score of 2.47 and standard

deviation of .94. This shows that respondents disagree that principals apportion blames to staff

when things go wrong in the school system. The grand mean score and standard deviation were

3.01 and .38 respectively. This indicates openness and democratic tendencies of principals in the

management of secondary in South-South, Nigeria.

The motivation profile of secondary schools principals’ in South-South Nigeria was

presented in tables 8-12.

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Table 8: Means ratings on ‘nature of work itself’ as Motivating factor for Principals’

performance in the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria.

S/N Questionnaire items (work itself) X SD DEC As a School principal, 1 The work I am doing is meaningful 3.81 .40 SA 2 The work I am doing is interesting 3.57 .51 SA 3 The job I am doing require my initiatives 3.59 .50 SA 4 My job is not threatened 2.77 .94 A 5 I derive pleasure in my job 3.48 .56 A 6 The job I am doing is challenging 3.42 .57 A

Cluster 3.44 .31 A SA= Strongly Agreed, A=Agree, DEC= Decision

Table 8 showed that all the items from 1 to 6 had high mean scores. Item 1 has a mean score of

3.81 and standard deviation of .40. This means that the work of the principal is meaningful. Item

2 has a mean score of 3.57 and standard deviation of .51. This means that the work of the

principal is doing is interesting. Item 3 has a mean score of 3.59 and standard deviation of .50.

This means that the job principal is doing requires their initiatives. Item 4 has a mean score of

2.77 and standard deviation of .94. This shows that the job of the principal is not threatened. Item

5 has a mean score of 3.48 and standard deviation of .56. This shows that the principals derive

pleasure in their job. Item 6 has a mean score of 3.42 and standard deviation of .57. This shows

that the job principals are doing is challenging. The cluster mean and standard deviation were

3.44 and .31 respectively. This indicates that all the items under nature of work motivated

principals in their job. The cluster mean and standard deviation indicated that nature of work

itself is seen as a motivating factor for principals’ performance in the management of secondary

education in South-South Nigeria.

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Table 9: Means ratings on ‘recognition’ as a motivating factor for Principals’ performance in

the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria S/N Questionnaire items (recognition) X

SD DEC

As a School principal,

7 My opinion is highly valued at PTA meetings 3.25 .58 A

8 There is meaningful recognition of successfully accomplished tasks by PTA and Schools Board

2.97 .71 A

9 I am always commended by PTA and Schools Board when I do my job well 2.84 .75 A

10 My views are sought for in decision making 2.73 .82 A

11 I am often used as a point of reference for successful accomplishment of task

2.72 .83 A

Cluster 2.90 .51 A

Table 9 revealed that items 7 to 11 had high mean scores. Item 7 has a mean score of 3.25 and

standard deviation of .58. This shows that principals’ opinion are highly valued at PTA meetings.

Item 8 has a mean score of 2.97 and standard deviation of .71. This shows that there is

meaningful recognition of successfully accomplished tasks by PTA and Schools Board. Item 9

has a mean score of 2.84 and standard deviation of .75. This shows that principals are always

commended by PTA and Schools Board when they do their job well. Item 10 has a mean score

of 2.73 and standard deviation of .82. This shows that when principals’ views are sought for in

decision making. Item 11 has a mean score of 2.72 and standard deviation of .83. This shows

that principals are often used as a point of reference for successful accomplishment of task. The

cluster mean and standard deviation were 2.90 and .51 respectively. This indicates that all the

items under recognition motivated principals in the discharge of their duties. The cluster mean

and standard deviation indicated that recognition was seen as a motivation factor for principals’

performance in the management of secondary education in South-South Nigeria.

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Table 10: Means ratings on ‘responsibility’ as a motivating factor for Principals’ performance

in the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria

S/N Questionnaire items (responsibility) X SA DEC As a School principal,

12 I am not redundant on the job 3.55 .54 SA 13 I preside over Staff meetings 3.73 .47 SA 14 I participate in the supervision of instruction in my school 3.57 .52 SA 15 I supervise various sections of the school 3.57 .53 SA 16 I nominate my staff to participate in available conferences/workshops 3.35 .59 A 17 I am the custodian of all important records of my school 3.47 .58 A 18 I am an officer of the PTA 3.43 .65 A

Cluster 3.52 .32 SA SA= Strongly Agreed, A=Agree, DEC= Decision

Table 10 showed all the items from 12 to 18 had high mean scores. Item 12 has a mean score of

3.55 and standard deviation of .54. This means that principals are not redundant on the job and

makes them perform well. Item 13 has a mean score of 3.73and standard deviation of .47. This

means that principals preside over Staff meetings. Item 14 has a mean score of 3.57and standard

deviation of .52. This means that principals participate in the supervision of instruction in their

school. Item 15 has a mean score of 3.57and standard deviation of .53. This means that

principals supervise various sections of their schools. Item 16 has a mean score of 3.35 and

standard deviation of .59. This shows that principals nominate their staff to participate in

available conferences/workshops. Item 17 has a mean score of 3.47and standard deviation of .58.

This shows that principals are custodian of all important records of their schools. Item 18 has a

mean score of 3.47and standard deviation of .65. This shows that principals are officers of the

PTA. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 3.52 and .32 respectively. This indicates

that all the items under responsibility motivated principals in their jobs. The cluster mean and

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standard deviation indicated that ‘responsibility’ was strongly seen as a motivating factor for

principals’ performance in the management of secondary education in South-South, Nigeria.

Table 11: Means ratings on ‘achievement’ as Motivational factor for Principals’ performance

in the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria S/N Questionnaire items (achievement) X SD DEC


19 My students are doing well 3.27 .50 A

20 My staff are making some socio-economic progress 3.17 .50 A

21 There is improvement in infrastructure in my school 2.55 .96 A

22 School-Community relationship is cordial 3.14 .60 A

Cluster 3.03 .42 A

A=Agree, DEC= Decision

The table revealed that items 19 to 22 had high mean scores. Item 19 has a mean score of

3.27and standard deviation of .50. This shows that in the principals’ opinion, their students are

doing well. Item 20 has a mean score of 3.17and standard deviation of .50. This shows that staff

were making some socio-economic progress. Item 21 has a mean score of 2.55 and standard

deviation of .96. This shows that in the opinion of the principals there is improvement in

infrastructure in their schools. Item 22 has a mean score of 3.14 and standard deviation of .60.

This shows that in the principals’ opinion, school-community relationship is cordial. The cluster

mean and standard deviation were 3.03 and .42 respectively. Therefore, all the items under

achievement were seen as motivators. The cluster mean and standard deviation indicated that

‘achievement’ was a motivating factor for principals’ performance in the management of

secondary education in South-South Nigeria.

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Table 12: Means ratings on ‘advancement’ as a Motivating factor for Principals’ performance

in the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria

S/N Questionnaire items (advancement) X SD DEC


23 I have acquired further education and training since becoming principal 2.62 .94 A

24 I have acquired management experience on the job 3.45 2.32 A

25 There is support for professional growth 2.42 .88 D

26 There is possibility of self actualization 3.21 .52 A

27 There is opportunity for promotion 3.26 .56 A

Cluster 2.99 .62 A

A=Agree, D=Disagree, DEC= Decision

Table 12 showed all the items from 23 to 26, and 27 had high mean scores. Item 23 has a mean

score of 2.62 and standard deviation of .94. This shows that in the principals’ opinion, they have

acquired further education and training since becoming principal. Item 24 has a mean score of

3.45 and standard deviation of 2.32. This shows that principals have acquired management

experience on the job. Item 26 has a mean score of 3.21 and standard deviation of .52. This

shows that there is possibility of self actualization. Item 27 has a mean score of 3.26 and

standard deviation of .56. This shows that there is opportunity for promotion. Item 25 has a low

mean score of 2.42 and standard deviation of .88. This shows that there was no support for

professional growth. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 2.99 and .62 respectively.

All the items under advancement were motivational factors except item 25 which was not a

motivator. The cluster mean and standard deviation indicated that ‘advancement’ was seen as a

motivator for principals’ performance in the management of secondary education in South-South

Nigeria.

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Research Question 3

What are the principals’ mean performance scores in the task areas of management (instructional

supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of incentives, financial management,

public relations, human resource development, adherence to statutory provisions, conflict

management and resolution, and plant management,) of secondary schools in the South-South,

Nigeria?

The results of data analysis relating to the research question were presented in tables 13 to 33.

Table 13: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in

instructional supervision

S/N Questionnaire items (instructional supervision) X SD DEC My Principal 1 inspects teachers’ notes of lesson to see if they are properly

written 2.77 .97 F

2 examines students note books during class visits 2.43 .93 O 3 conducts unscheduled informal visits to classrooms 2.71 .89 F 4 points out specific strengths and weaknesses in teacher's

instructional practices 2.57 .88 F

5 assigns teachers to classes according to their qualifications 3.00 .95 F Cluster 2.69 .63 F F= Frequently, O=Occasionally, DEC= Decision

From the data on table 13, the mean responses on principals’ performance in instructional

supervision in secondary schools in South- South Nigeria, ranged from 2.43 to 3.00. Items 1, 3,

4, and 5 had high mean scores. Item 1 has a mean score of 2.71 and standard deviation of .97.

This shows that in the opinion of the respondents, principals frequently inspect teachers’ notes

of lesson to see if they are properly written. Item 3 has a mean score of 2.77 and standard

deviation of .89. This shows that principals frequently conduct unscheduled informal visits to

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classrooms. Item 4 has a mean score of 2.57 and standard deviation of .88. This shows that in

the opinion of the respondents, principals’ frequently points out specific strengths and

weaknesses in teacher's instructional practices. Item 5 has a mean score of 3.00 and standard

deviation of .95. This shows that principals’ frequently assign teachers to classes according to

their qualifications. Item 2 has low mean score of 2.43 and a standard deviation of .93. This

shows that principals’ occasionally examine students note books during class visits. The cluster

mean of 2.69 and standard deviation of .63 shows that Principals frequently supervised

instruction in schools. This indicated that principals’ performance in instructional supervision in

secondary schools in South-South Nigeria was to a high extent.


communication

S/N Questionnaire items (communication) X SD DEC My Principal 6 discusses the school's goals and mission with teachers at

meetings 3.01 .85 F

7 informs staff and students about School rules and guidelines to enable them adjust properly

3.08 .82 F

8 encourages teachers to discuss their problems with him/her 2.55 .96 F 9 mentions the school's goals or mission in fora with students

(e.g., in assemblies) 2.78 .87 F

10 sends out information about students to parents and guardians. 2.69 .89 F Cluster 2.82 .61 F F= Frequently, DEC= Decision

Data in table 14 revealed that all the items from 6 – 10 had high mean scores. Item 6 has a mean

score of 3.01 and standard deviation of .85. This shows that respondents were of the opinion

that, principals frequently discusses the school's goals and mission with teachers at meetings.

Item 7 has a mean score of 3.08 and standard deviation of .82. It shows that the respondents were

of the opinion that principals frequently inform staff and students about School rules and

guidelines to enable them adjust properly. Item 8 has a mean score of 2.55 and standard

deviation of .96. It shows that respondents are of the view that principals frequently encourage

173

teachers to discuss their problems with them. Item 9 has a mean score of 2.78 and standard

deviation of .87. It shows that the respondents were of the opinion that, principals frequently

mentions the school's goals or mission in fora with students like morning assemblies. Item 10 has

a mean score of 2.69 and standard deviation of .89. It shows that the respondents were of the

opinion that, principals frequently send out information about students to parents and guardians.

The cluster mean of 2.82 and standard deviation of .61 shows that Principals frequently

communicate school matters to students, and teachers for their guidance. This indicated that

principals’ performance in communication in the management of secondary schools in South-

South Nigeria was to a high extent.


decision making

S/N Questionnaire items (decision making) X SD DEC My Principal

11 involves teachers in decision making process in the school 2.70 .94 F 12 ensures that PTA meetings are held to discuss salient issues of

school improvement 2.48 1.00 O

13 takes decision based on available resources 2.75 .85 F 14 considers school programmes in taking decisions 2.97 .82 F 15 involve students representatives in taking decisions concerning

them 2.25 .95 O

Cluster 2.63 .62 F F= Frequently, O= Occasionally, DEC= Decision

Data in table 15 revealed that items 11, 13, and 14 had high mean ratings. Item 11 has a mean

score of 2.70 and standard deviation of .94. It shows that respondents were of the view that in the

management of secondary schools, principals frequently involved teachers in decision making

process. Item 13 has a mean score of 2.75 and standard deviation of .85. It showed that the

respondents were of the opinion that, principals frequently took decision based on available

resources. Item 14 has a mean score of 2.97 and standard deviation of .82. It shows that the

respondents were of the opinion that, principals frequently considered school programmes in

taking decisions. Items 12 and 15 had low mean score. Item 12 has a mean score of 2.48 and

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standard deviation of 1.00. It showed that the respondents were of the opinion that, principals

occasionally ensured that PTA meetings were held to discuss salient issues of school

improvement. Item 15 has a mean score of 2.25 and standard deviation of .95. It showed that the

respondents were of the view that, principals occasionally involved students’ representatives in

taking decisions concerning them. The cluster mean of 2.63 and standard deviation of .62

showed that principals frequently make decisions in the management of secondary schools. This

indicated that principals’ performance in decision making in the management of secondary

schools in South-South Nigeria was to a high extent.

Table 16: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in the

provision of incentives to teachers and students

S/N Questionnaire items (provision of incentives) X SD DEC My Principal

16 rewards teachers who perform well 2.40 1.01 O 17 rewards students with outstanding performance 2.27 .95 O 18 showed love and care to staff and students 2.82 .94 F 19 recognizes teacher’s personal value 2.77 .89 F 20 ensures that the learning environment is safe from hazards 3.00 .90 F


The data in table 16 showed that the mean responses of the principals’ performance in the

provision of incentives to teachers and students in secondary schools in South- South Nigeria

ranged from 2.27 to 3.00. Items 18, 19, and 20 had high mean scores. Item 18 has a mean score

of 2.82 and standard deviation of .94. It shows that the respondents shared the view that

principals frequently showed love and care to staff and students. Item 19 has a mean score of

2.77 and standard deviation of .89. It shows that the respondents were of the opinion that,

principals frequently recognized teacher’s personal value. Item 20 has a mean score of 3.00 and

standard deviation of .90. It showed that the respondents shared the view that principals

frequently ensured that the learning environment was safe from hazards. Items 16 and 17 had

low mean scores. Item 16 has a mean score of 2.40 and standard deviation of 1.01. It showed that

175

the respondents were of the opinion that, principals occasionally rewarded teachers who perform

well. Item 17 has a mean score of 2.27 and standard deviation of .95. It shows that the

respondents were of the opinion that, principals occasionally rewarded students with outstanding

performance. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 2.65 and .68 respectively. The

cluster mean and standard deviation indicated that principals frequently provided incentives to

teachers and students in the secondary schools. This showed that principals’ performance in the

provision of incentives to teachers and students in secondary schools in South-South Nigeria was

to a high extent.


human resource development

S/N Questionnaire items (human resource development) X SD DEC My Principal

21 organizes programmes for staff improvement 2.08 .99 O 22 showed interest in teachers in-service training 2.30 1.00 O 23 encourages teachers to attend available professional

development programmes like seminars or workshops

2.60

.96

F 24 builds a sense of teamwork to nurture an earnest effort to help

each staff member achieve his or her potential 2.49 .96 O

25 sets aside time at staff meetings for teachers to share ideas or information from in-service activities

2.64

1.00

F

Cluster 2.42 .74 O F= Frequently, O= Occasionally, DEC= Decision

Data in table 17 showed that items 23 and 25 had high mean scores. Item 23 has a mean score of

2.60 and standard deviation of .96. It shows that the respondents were of the opinion that,

principals frequently encouraged teachers to attend available professional development

programmes like seminars or workshops. Item 25 has a mean score of 2.64 and standard

deviation of .1.00. It shows that the respondents shared the view that, principals frequently set

aside time at staff meetings for teachers to share ideas or information from in-service activities.

Items 21, 22, and 24 had low mean scores. Item 21 has a mean score of 2.08 and standard

deviation of .99. It shows that the respondents were of the opinion that, principals occasionally

176

organized programmes for staff improvement. Item 22 has a mean score of 2.30 and standard

deviation of 1.00. It shows that the respondents were of the opinion that, principals occasionally

showed interest in teachers in-service training. Item 24 has a mean score of 2.49 and standard

deviation of .96. It shows that the respondents shared the view that, principals occasionally built

a sense of teamwork to nurture earnest effort to help staff member achieve their potentials. The

cluster mean of 2.42 and standard deviations.74 indicated that principals occasionally

encouraged human resource development. This showed that principals’ performance in human

resource development in secondary schools in South-South Nigeria was to a low extent.


public relations

S/N Questionnaire items (public relations) X SD DEC My Principal

26 organizes extra-curricular activities with parents of students and other stake holders in attendance

1.95 .93 O

27 keeps the community adequately informed of the specific needs of the school for possible assistance

2.44 .96 O

28 helps in the establishment of PTA groups and working co-operatively with them

2.44 .98 O

29 liaise with the schools board in finding solution to school problems 2.81 .96 F 30 allows the public to use school facilities 1.92 .97 O

Cluster 2.31 .64 O F= Frequently, O= Occasionally, DEC= Decision

Data in table 18 revealed that only item 29 had a high mean score of 2.81 with standard deviation

of .96. The data revealed that respondents were of the view that in the management of secondary

education, principals’ frequently liaised with the schools board in finding solutions to school

problems. The rest items from 26 to 30 had low mean scores. Item 26 has a mean score of 1.95

and standard deviation of .93. It showed that the respondents shared the view that, principals

occasionally organized extra-curricular activities with parents of students and other stake holders

in attendance. Item 27 has a mean score of 2.44 and standard deviation of .96. It shows that the

respondents were of the opinion that, principals occasionally kept the community adequately

177

informed of the specific needs of the school for possible assistance. Item 28 has a mean score of

2.44 and standard deviation of .98. It shows that the respondents shared the view that, principals

occasionally helped in the establishment of PTA groups to work co-operatively with them. Item

30 has a mean score of 1.92 and standard deviation of .97. It shows that the respondents shared

the view that, principals occasionally and allowed the public to use school facilities. The cluster

mean of 2.31 and standard deviation of.64 showed that principals occasionally related with the

public in managing secondary schools. This showed that principals performance in public

relations in secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria was to a low extent.

Table 19: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in the financial management

S/N Questionnaire items (financial management) X SD DEC My Principal

31 prepares realistic budget 2.32 .98 O 32 explores sources of revenue generation to provide some

essential needs of the school 2.29 .98 O

33 Keeps proper accounts of disbursement of school funds 2.75 1.03 F 34 prioritizes financial allocation according to needs 2.64 .96 F 35 works within the confines of school budget 2.74 .94 F


The data in table 19 showed that the mean responses on the principals’ performance in financial

management ranged from 2.29 to 2.75. Items 33, 34, and 35 had high mean scores. Item 33 has a

mean score of 2.75 and standard deviation of 1.03. It showed that the respondents shared the

view that principals frequently kept proper accounts of disbursement of school funds. Item 34

has a mean score of 2.64 and standard deviation of .96. It showed that the respondents shared the

view that principals frequently prioritized financial allocation according to needs in the

management of secondary schools. Item 35 has a mean score of 2.74 and standard deviation of

.94. It showed that the respondents shared the view that, principals worked within the confines of

school budget. Items 31 and 32 had low mean scores. Item 31 has a mean score of 2.32 and

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standard deviation of .98. The data revealed that principals occasionally prepared realistic

budget. Item 32 has a mean score of 2.29 and standard deviation of .98. It shows that the

respondents shared the view that, principals occasionally explored sources of revenue generation

to provide some essential needs of the school. The cluster mean and standard deviation were

2.55 and .77 respectively. The cluster mean and standard deviation indicated that principals’

frequently managed financial resources. This showed that principals’ performance in financial

management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria was to a high extent.


adhering to legal status

S/N Questionnaire items (adhering to legal status) X SD D My Principal

36 emphasizes proper understanding of the rights, limitations and legal implications of teachers actions in dealing with students and parents in educational matters

2.91 .86 F

37 maintains the confidentiality of official matters 3.15 .87 F 38 ensures mutual understanding through obedience and preservation of

school rules and regulations 3.14 .77 F

39 ensures strict control over teachers and prefects whose powers and limitations are clearly defined

2.96 .86 F

40 makes school rules and regulations available to teacher and students to regulate their conduct

2.98 .92 F

Cluster 3.03 .61 F F= Frequently, DEC= Decision

Data in table 20 showed that all the items from 36-40 had high mean scores. Item 36 has a mean

score of 2.91 and standard deviation of .86. The respondents were of the opinion that in the

management of secondary schools, principals frequently emphasized the proper understanding of

the rights, limitations and legal implications of teachers’ actions in dealing with students and

parents in educational matters. Item 37 has a mean score of 3.15 and standard deviation of .87. It

showed that the respondents shared the view that, principals frequently maintained

confidentiality of official matters. Item 38 has a mean score of 3.14 and standard deviation of

.77. It showed that the respondents shared the view that principals frequently ensured mutual

179

understanding through obedience and preservation of school rules and regulations. Item 39 has a

mean score of 2.96 and standard deviation of .86. It showed that the respondents shared the view

that, principals frequently ensured strict control over teachers and prefects whose powers and

limitations were clearly defined. Item 40 has a mean score of 2.98 and standard deviation of .92.

It showed that the respondents shared the view that principals frequently made school rules and

regulations available to teachers and students to regulate their conduct. The cluster mean of 3.03

and standard deviations of.61 indicated that principals’ performance in adhering to legal status in

the management of secondary education in South-South Nigeria was to a high extent.

Table 21: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals performance in

conflict management and resolution

S/N Questionnaire items (Conflict mgt. & Resolution) X

SD

DEC

My Principal 41 does not take side with any party in a dispute in the school 2.71 1.06 F 42 creates cordial relationship with and among teachers 3.13 .84 F 43 ensures proper school organization to define staff roles to avoid a

clash 3.05 .82 F

44 treats everybody equally 2.85 1.00 F 45 fosters strict disciplinary measures to defaulting staff and students to

serve as a deterrent to others 2.82 .88 F

Cluster 2.91 .65 F F= Frequently, DEC= Decision

Data in table 21 showed that all the items from 41 to 45 had high mean scores. Item 41 has a

mean score of 2.71 and standard deviation of .1.00. These indicated that respondents were of the

view that principals did not frequently take side with any party in a dispute in the school. Item 42

has a mean score of 3.13 and standard deviation of .84. It showed that the respondents shared the

view that, principals frequently created cordial relationships with and among teachers. Item 43

has a mean score of 3.05 and standard deviation of .82. It showed that the respondents were of

the opinion that principals frequently ensured proper school organization to define staff roles to

avoid a clash. Item 44 has a mean score of 2.85 and standard deviation of 1.00. It showed that the

respondents shared the view that, principals frequently treated everybody equally. Item 45 has a

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mean score of 2.82 and standard deviation of .88. It showed that the respondents shared the view

that, principals frequently fostered strict disciplinary measures to defaulting staff and students to

serve as a deterrent to others. The cluster mean of 2.91 and standard deviations.65 indicated that

principals frequently manage and resolved conflict situations. This showed that principals’

performance in conflict management and resolution in secondary education in South-South

Nigeria was to a high extent.

Table 22: Mean ratings of plant management (classrooms) of principals

S/N Classroom items X SD DEC

1 Students locker & Seats

3.64 .83 H

2 Teacher Seat & table 1.75 1.0 VL 3 Windows/doors

4.21 .60 H

4 Fan

1.82 1.29 VL

5 Air Conditioner

1.00 .06 NA

6 Wall Chalkboard

2.23 1.40 NA

7 Wood Chalkboard

2.37 1.50 L

8 White Chalkboard

1.34 1.02 NA

9 Natural Lighting

4.16 .67 H

10 Electricity

2.11 1.34 VL

11 Solar Lighting

1.00 .06 NA

12 Aesthetics 3.48 .72 L Cluster 2.43 .33 VL

H= High, L- Low, VL- Very Low, NA- Not Available

Data in table 22 showed the mean ratings of the state of classroom items in secondary schools.

Of the 12 classroom items observed, only items 1, 3 and 9, that is students’ locker and seats

(3.64), windows/doors (4.21), and natural ventilation (4.16) had high mean scores above the

bench mark of 3.50. These items were available and highly adequate. Wooden chalkboard and

aesthetics had low means of 2.37, and 3.48 respectively. These items were available but less

adequate. Teachers seat and table, fans, and electricity had mean scores of 1.75, 1.82 and 2.11

respectively. They were available but were very less adequate. Air conditioners, wall and white

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chalkboard, and solar lighting had mean ratings of 1.00, 2.23, 1.34, and 1.00 respectively. These

items were not available. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 2.43 and 0.33

respectively. These indicated that classrooms items in the schools were available but were very

less adequate.

Table 23: Mean ratings of plant management (staffrooms) of principals

S/N Staffrooms items X SD DEC 13 Teachers seat & table 4.20 .771 H

14 Windows/doors

4.25 .58 H

15 Fan

2.51 1.48 L

16 Air Conditioner

1.06 .42 NA

17 Natural

4.24 .61 H

18 Electricity

2.67 1.45 L

19 Solar

1.03 .27 NA

20 Space 3.82 .75 H 21 Filling cabinets 1.90 1.09 VL 22 Aesthetics 3.57 .68 H Cluster 2.92 .45 L

H= High, L- Low, VL- Very Low, NA- Not Available, Dec= Decision

Data in table 23 showed the mean ratings of the state of staffrooms items in secondary schools.

Of the 10 staffroom items observed, only items 13, 14, 17, 20 and 22, that is teachers’ seat &

table (4.20), windows/doors (4.25), natural lighting (4.24), office space (3.82), and aesthetics

(3.57) had high mean scores above the bench mark of (3.50). These items were available and

highly adequate. It was also revealed that fans and office electricity had low means of 2.51, and

2.67 respectively. These items were available but were less adequate. Filling cabinets had very

low mean score of 1.90. They were available but very less adequate; while office air conditioner

and solar light were not available with mean ratings of 1.06 and 1.03 respectively. The cluster

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mean and standard deviation were 2.92 and 0.45respectively. These indicated that Staffrooms

items were less adequate.

Table 24: Mean ratings of plant management (laboratories) of principals

S/N Laboratory items X SD DEC 23 Equipment 3.25 .96 L

24 Benches/Tables 3.28 .99 L 25 Stools 3.13 1.02 L 26 Windows/doors

3.90 1.05 H

27 Fan

1.67 1.19 VL

28 Air Conditioner

1.03 .27 NA

29 Natural lighting

3.80 1.05 H

30 Electricity

2.26 1.34 VL

31 Solar

1.01 .13 NA

32 Space 3.37 1.00 L 33 Aesthetics 3.22 .93 L Cluster mean & Cluster SD 2.72 .67 L

H= High, L=Low, VL= Very Low, NA=Not Available, Dec= Decision

Table 24 revealed that of the 11 laboratory items observed, only items 26 and 29, that is,

windows/doors (3.90), and natural lighting (3.80) had high mean scores above the bench mark of

(3.50). They were available and highly adequate. Laboratory equipment, Benches/tables, stools,

laboratory space, and aesthetics had low means scores of 3.25, 3.28, 3.13, 3.37 and 3.22

respectively. These items were available but less adequate. Laboratory fans, and electricity had

very low mean scores of 1.67, and 2.26 respectively. They were available but were very less

adequate. Air conditioner and solar light had mean scores of 1.03, and 1.01 respectively. They

were not available. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 2.72 and .67 respectively.

These indicated that laboratories items available but were less adequate.

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Table 25: Mean ratings of plant management (workshop) of principals

S/N Workshop items X SD DEC 34 Equipment 1.34 .90 NA 35 Benches/Tables 1.36 .95 NA 36 Stools 1.35 .91 NA 37 Windows/doors

1.41 1.06 NA 38 Fan

1.23 .79 NA 39 Air Conditioner 1.01 .17 NA 40 Natural lighting

1.42 1.08 NA 41 Electricity 1.31 .88 NA 42 Solar 1.01 .24 NA 43 Space 1.37 .98 NA 44 Aesthetics 1.34 .92 NA Cluster 1.29 .79 NA

NA= Not Available, DEC= Decision

Table 25 revealed that all the workshop items observed had means and standard deviation

ranging from 1.01 to 1.42 and .17 to 1.08 respectively. The cluster mean and standard deviation

were 1.29 and .79 respectively. These indicated that workshops items were not available in


Table 26: Mean ratings of plant management (toilets facilities) of principals

S/N Toilets items X SD DEC 45 Water System

Pit hole Bucket Bush

2.32 1.56 VL 46 1.63 1.16 VL 47 1.00 .17 NA 48 1.72 .87 VL Cluster 1.67 .27 VL

VL= Very Low, Not Available, DEC= Decision

Table 26 showed 4 observed toilet items. Item 45 (Water system) has a mean score of 2.32 and

standard deviation of 1.56. This item was available but was very less adequate. Item 46 (Pit

hole) has a mean score of 1.63 and standard deviation of 1.16. This item also available but was

very less adequate. Item 48 (bush) has a mean score of 1.67 and standard deviation of .27. The

item was also available but very less adequate. Item 47 (Bucket toilet system) with mean of 1.00

184

and standard deviation of 0.87 was not available. The cluster mean and standard deviation were

1.67 and .27 respectively. These indicated that the toilets items in schools were very less

adequate.

Table 27: Mean ratings of plant management (water supply facilities) of principals

S/N Water supply items X SD DEC 49 Pipe borne 1.38 1.04 NA 50 Borehole 2.41 1.58 VL 51 Mono Pump 1.68 1.29 VL 52 Well 1.25 .77 NA 53 Spring 1.00 .00 NA 54 Tanker Supply 1.05 .34 NA 55 Lake/River 1.10 .42 NA 56 Student supply 1.29 .71 NA 57 Buying 2.12 .92 VL Cluster 1.51 .31 VL

VL= Very Low, Not Available, DEC= Decision

Table 27 showed 9 observed water supply facility items in secondary schools. Item 49 (Pipe

borne) has a mean score of 1.38 and standard deviation of 1.04. This item was not available. Item

50 (Bore hole) has a mean score of 2.41 and standard deviation of 1.58. This item was available

but very less adequate. Item 51 (Mono Pump) has a mean score of 1.68 and standard deviation of

1.29. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 52 (Well) has a mean score of 1.25

and standard deviation of .77. This item was not available. Item 53 (Spring) has a mean score of

1.00 and standard deviation of .00. This item was not available. Item 54 (Tank Supply) has a

mean score of 1.05 and standard deviation of .34. This item was not available. Item 55

(Lake/River) has a mean score of 1.10 and standard deviation of .42. This item was not available.

Item 56 (Students supply) has a mean score of 1.29 and standard deviation of .71. This item was

also not available. Item 57 (Buying) has a mean score of 2.12 and standard deviation of .92. This

item was available but very less adequate. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 1.51

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and .31. These indicated that water supply facilities as observed were available but very less

adequate.

Table 28: Mean ratings of plant management (playground) of principals

S/N playground items X SD DEC

58

59

60

61

Foot ball pitch

Other field events pitch

Track events pitch

Aesthetics

3.70

2.45

2.51

3.21

.84

1.19

1.21

.88

H

VL

L

L

Cluster 3.00 .79 L

H= High, L- Low, VL- Very Low, Dec= Decision

Table 28 showed four observed playground items. Item 58 ( Foot ball pitch) had a high mean

score and standard deviation of 3.70 and 0.84 respectively. This item was available and highly

adequate. Item 59 (Other field events pitch) has a mean score of 2.45 and standard deviation

1.19. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 60 (Track events pitch) has a mean

score of 2.51 and standard deviation of 1.21. This item was available but less adequate. Item 61

(Aesthetics) has a mean score of 3.21 and standard deviation of .88. This item was available but

less adequate. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 3.00 and 0.79 respectively. These

indicated that playgrounds items as observed were available but less adequate.

Table 29: Mean ratings of plant management (electricity) of principals

S/N Electricity items X SD DEC

62

63

64

Solar

Public Power Supply

Generator

1.00

2.76

1.43

.11

1.50

.84

NA

L

NA

Cluster 1.74 .52 VL

L=Low, VL=Very Low, NA= Not Available, Dec= Decision

Table 29 showed that of the three modes of electricity supply items observed, Only Public Power

Supply with mean score of 2.96 and standard deviation of 1.50 was available but less adequate.

186

Solar lighting and Generator with means score of 1.00 and 1.43, and standard deviations of 0.11

and 0.84 respectively were not available. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 1.74 and

0.52. These indicated that electricity in secondary schools as observed was very less adequate.

Table 30: Mean ratings of plant management (compound) of principals

S/N Compound items X SD DEC 65 66 67 68

Trees Flowers Grasses Aesthetics

3.64 3.25 3.62 3.51

.94

.98

.83

.71

H L H H

Cluster 3.50 .66 H H=High, L=Low, DEC= Decision

Table 30 showed that of the 4 observed compound items. Item 65 (trees) has a mean score of

3.64 and standard deviation of .94. This item was available and highly adequate. Item 66

(Flowers) has a mean score of 3.25 and standard deviation of .98. This item was available and

but less adequate. Item 67 (Grasses) has a mean score of 3.62 and standard deviation of .71. This

item was available and highly adequate. Item 68 (Aesthetics) has a mean score of 3.51 and

standard deviation of .71. This item was available and highly adequate. The cluster mean and

standard deviation were 3.50 and 0.66 respectively. These indicated that the compounds in

schools as observed were available and highly adequate.

Table 31: Mean ratings of plant management (fire extinguisher) of principals

S/N Fire extinguisher items X SD DEC

69

70

Industrial

Bucket of sand

1.22

1.04

.79

.25

NA

NA

Cluster 1.13 .43 NA

NA- Not Available, Dec= Decision

Table 31 revealed that none of the fire extinguisher, that is, Industrial and Bucket of sand with

mean scores of 1.22 and 1.04, and standard deviations of 0.79 and 0.43 respectively was

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available. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 1.13 and .43. These indicated that fire

extinguishers were not available in secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.

Table 32: Mean ratings of plant management (medical facilities) of principals

S/N Medical Facilities items X SD DEC 71 72 73 74

First Aid Box Attendants Drugs Others (Beds)

1.68 1.57 1.52 1.13

1.17 1.03 .95 .59

VL VL VL NA

Cluster 1.73 .81 VL VL=Very Low, NA=Not Available, Dec= Decision

Table 32 showed four observed medical facility items. Item 71 (First Aid Box) has a mean score

of 1.68 and standard deviation of 1.17. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 72

(Attendants) has a mean score of 1.57 and standard deviation of 1.03. This item was available

but very less adequate. Item 73 (Drugs) has a mean score of 1.68 and standard deviation of

1.17. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 74 (Beds) has a mean score of 1.13

and standard deviation of .59. This item was not available. The cluster mean and standard

deviation of 1.73 and 0.81 respectively indicated that medical facilities in secondary schools in

South-South, Nigeria were very less adequate.

Table 33: Mean ratings of plant management (library) of principals S/N Library items X SD DEC

75 Books 2.68 1.25 L 76 Shelves 2.63 1.24 L 77 Chairs 2.61 1.24 L 78 Tables 3.22 1.55 L 79 Windows/doors

1.67 1.20 VL

80 Fan 1.00 .00 NA 81 Air Conditioners 3.21 1.52 L 82 Natural Lighting

2.06 1.32 VL

83 Electricity

1.02 .28 NA

84 Solar Lighting 2.79 1.33 L 85 Space 2.78 1.28 L 86 Aesthetics 2.43 .33 VL Cluster 2.33 .94 VL

L=Low, VL= Very Low, NA= Not Available, DEC= Decision

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Data in table 33 showed 12 observed library items. Item 75 (Books) has a mean score of 2.68

and standard deviation of 1.25. This item was available but less adequate. Item 76 (Shelves) has

a mean score of 2.63 and standard deviation of 1.24. This item was available but less adequate.

Item 77 (Chairs) has a mean score of 2.61 and standard deviation of 1.24. This item was

available but less adequate. Item 78 (Tables) has a mean score of 3.22 and standard deviation of

1.55. This item was available but less adequate. Item 79 (Windows/doors) has a mean score of

1.67 and standard deviation of 1.20. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 80

(Fans) has a mean score of 1.00 and standard deviation of .00. This item was not available. Item

81 (Air conditioners) has a mean score of 3.21 and standard deviation of 1.52. This item was

available but less adequate. Item 82 (Natural Lighting) has a mean score of 2.06 and standard

deviation of 1.32. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 83 (Electricity) has a

mean score of 1.02 and standard deviation of .28. This item was not available. Item 84 (Solar

lighting) has a mean score of 2.79 and standard deviation of 1.33. This item was available but

less adequate. Item 85 (Space) has a mean score of 2.78 and standard deviation of 1.28. This

item was available but less adequate. Item 86 (Aesthetics) has a mean score of 2.43 and standard

deviation of .33. This item was available but very less adequate. The cluster mean and standard

deviation were 2.33 and 0.94 respectively. This indicated that library items in secondary schools

in South-South Nigeria were very less adequate.

Research Question 4

What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and

principals’ performance in instructional supervision in the management of secondary schools in


189

Table 34: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables

and performance in instructional supervision.(N = 310)

Variables

r2 Percentage

Age Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

-.009 .876

0.000081 0.01

Gender Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

-.022 .705

0.000484 0.05

Educational Qualification

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

-.019 .737

0.000361 0.04

Area of Specialty Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

-.019 .746

0.000361 0.04

Experience as Principal Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

-.016 .781

0.000256 0.03

Experience as VP Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

-.073 .202

0.005329 0.53

Marital Status Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

-.024 .679

0.000576 0.06

State Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

.039

.489 0.001521 0.15

Location Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

-.143* .012

0.0204 2.04

Leadership Style Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

.342** .000

0.1169 11.6

Motivation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

.096

.091 0.009216 0.92

The correlation coefficients between location, leadership styles of principals and performance in

supervision (-.143, and .342 respectively) were substantial, though that of location is negative.

Therefore, principals whose schools were located in the urban areas were more effective in

instructional supervision than principals in the rural areas. Location explained 2.04% of the

variance in principals’ performance in instructional supervision. Principals that exhibited a more

open leadership style were more effective in instructional supervision than those that exhibit less

open leadership style. Leadership style accounts for 11.70% of the variance in principals’

performance in instructional supervision. There was no substantial relationship between age (-

.009), gender (-.022), educational qualification (-.019), area of specialty (.737), experience as

Principal (-.016), experience as Vice Principal (-.073), marital status (-.024), state of origin

(.039), motivation (.096) and principals performance in instructional supervision.

190

Research Question 5


principals’ performance in communication in the management of secondary schools in South-

South, Nigeria?


and performance in communication. (N = 310)

Variables r2 Percentage Age Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) -.065 .257

0.004225 0.42


.024

.668 0.000576 0.06

Educational Qualification Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

-.071 .213

0.005041 0.5


-.086 .129

0.007396 0.74


-.055 .337

0.003025 0.3


.017

.770 0.000289 0.03


-.079 .163

0.006241 0.62


.054

.344 0.002916 0.29


-.130* .022

0.0169 1.69


.451** .000

0.2034 20.34


.043

.452 0.001849 0.19

The correlation coefficients between location and leadership styles of principals and performance

(-.130, and .451 respectively) were substantial. However that of location was negative.

Therefore, principals whose schools were located in the urban areas were more effective in

communication than principals in the rural areas. Location explained 1.69% of the variance in

principals’ performance in communication. Principals that exhibited an open leadership style

communicate more effectively than principals that exhibited close leadership style. Leadership

style explained 20.34% of the variance in principals’ performance in communication. There was

no substantial relationship between age (-.065), gender (.024), educational qualification (-.017),

191

area of specialty (-.086), experience as Principal (-.055), experience as Vice Principal (.017),

marital status (-.079), state of origin (.054), motivation (.043), and principals performance in

communication.

Research Question 6


principals’ performance in decision making in the management of secondary schools in South-

South, Nigeria?


and performance in decision-making.(N = 310)

Variables r2 Percentage Age Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) .030 .599

0.0009 0.09


-.024 .674

0.00056 0.06


-.134* .018

0.0180 1.80


-.075 .186

0.005625 0.56


-.070 .221

0.0049 0.49


-.064 .258

0.004096 0.4


-.067 .236

0.004489 0.45


-.084 .140

0.007056 0.71


-.045 .429

0.002025 0.2


.495** .000

0.2450 24.50


.011

.850 0.000121 0.01

The correlation coefficients between educational qualification and leadership styles of principals

and performance in decision making (-.134, and .495 respectively) were substantial though that

of educational qualification was negative. Therefore, the lower the educational qualification of

principals the more effective they were in decision-making. Educational qualification explains

192

1.80% of the variance in principals’ performance in decision making. Principals that exhibited a

more open leadership style are more effective in decision-making than those that exhibited less

open leadership style. Leadership style accounted for 24.50% of the variance in principals

performance in decision making. There was no substantial relationship between age (.030),

gender (-.024), area of specialty (-.075), experience as Principal (-.070), experience as Vice

Principal (-.064), marital status (-.067), state of origin (-.084), location (-.045), motivation

(.850) and principals’ performance in decision-making.

Research Question 7


principals’ performance in provision of incentives in the management of secondary schools in



and performance in provision of incentives to teachers and students. (N = 310)

Variables

r2 Percentage


-.030 .602

0.0009 0.09


-.010 .864

0.0001 0.01


-.094 .099

0.008836 0.88


-.133* .019

0.0177 1.77


-.106 .061

0.011236 1.12


-.034 .557

0.001156 0.12


.030

.602 0.0009 0.09


-.006 .920

0.000036 0.004


.015

.787 0.000225 0.02


.602** .000

0.3624 36.24


-.066 .244

0.004356 0.44

193

The correlation coefficients between area of specialty and leadership styles of principals and

performance in provision of incentives (-.133, and .609 respectively) were substantial. However

that of area of specialty is negative. Principals who did not specialize in educational

administration and planning were more effective in providing incentives to teachers and students

than principals that had background in educational administration and planning. Area of

specialty explained 1.77% of the variance in principals’ performance in provision of incentives.

Principals that exhibited a more open leadership style were more effective in providing

incentives to teachers and students than those that exhibited less open leadership style.

Leadership style accounted for 36.24% of the variance in principals’ performance in provision of

incentives. There was no substantial relationship between age (-.030), gender (-.010),

educational qualification (-.094), experience as Principal (-.106), experience as Vice Principal

(-.304), marital status (.030), state of origin (-.006), location (.015), motivation (-.066) and

principals’ performance in providing incentives to teachers and students.

Research Question 8


principals’ performance in human resource development in the management of secondary


194


and performance in human resource development. (N = 310)

Variables

r2 Percentage


-.032 .572

0.001024 0.1


-.027 .637

0.000729 0.07


-.061 .284

0.00372 0.37


-.076 .183

0.005776 0.58


-.042 .464

0.001764 0.18


-.036 .525

0.001296 0.13


-.004 .951

0.000016 0.002


-.072 .205

0.005184 0.52


.000

.996 0 0


.562** .000

0.3158 31.58


.046

.422 0.002116 0.21

The correlation coefficient between leadership styles of principals (.562) and performance in

human resources development was substantial. Principals that exhibited a more open leadership

style are more effective in human resource development than principals that exhibited close

leadership style. Leadership style explained 31.58% of the variance in principals’ performance in

human resources development. There was no substantial relationship between age (-.032),

gender (-.027), educational qualification (-.061), area of specialty (-.076), experience as Principal

(-.042), experience as Vice Principal (-.036), marital status (-.004), state of origin (-.072),

location (.000), motivation (.422), and principals’ performance in human resource development.

195

Research Question 9


principals’ performance in public relations in the management of secondary schools in South-

South, Nigeria?


and performance in public relations. (N = 310)

Variables

r2 Percentage


-.088 .124

0.007744 0.77


-.001 .991

0.0001 0.01


-.027 .641

0.000729 0.07


-.028 .620

0.000784 0.08


-.032 .573

0.001024 0.1


-.113* .048

0.0128 1.28


-.073 .202

0.005329 0.53


-.126* .027

0.0159 1.59


-.003 .963

0.000009 0.001


.410** .000

0.1681 16.81


.079

.163 0.006241 0.62

The correlation coefficients between experience as vice principal, state of origin and leadership

styles of principals, and performance of principals in public relations (-.113, -.126 .410

respectively),are substantial, though that of experience as vice principal and state of origin were

negative. The fewer the years served as vice principal, the more effective the principals were in

public relations. Experience as Vice Principal explained 1.28% of the variance in principal

performance in public relations. State of origin was also related to principals’ performance in

public relations. State of origin explained 1.60% of the variance in principals’ performance in

public relations. Principals that exhibited a more open leadership style are more effective in

196

public relations than those that exhibited close leadership style. Leadership style accounted for

16.81% of the variance in principals’ performance in public relations. There was no substantial

relationship between age (-.088), gender (-.001), educational qualification (-.027), area of

specialty (-.028), experience as principal (-.032), marital status (-.073), location (-.003),

motivation (.079), and principals’ performance in public relations.

Research Question 10


principals’ performance in financial management in the management of secondary schools in


Table 40: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality

variables and performance in financial management. (N = 310)

Variables

r2 Percentage


.021

.716 0.000441 0.04


.030

.593 0.0009 0.09


-.085 .136

0.007225 0.72


-.105 .066

0.011025 1.1


-.168** .003

0.0282 2.82


-.068 .233

0.004624 0.46


-.011 .844

0.000121 0.01


-.136** .017

0.0185 1.85


.089

.118 0.007921 0.79


.303** .000

0.0918 9.18


.022

.695 0.000484 0.05

The correlation coefficients between experience as principal, state of origin and leadership styles

of principals, and performance in financial management (-.168, -.136 and .303 respectively) were

substantial. However, that of experience as principal and state of origin were negative. The

197

fewer the years of service, the more effective the principal were in financial management.

Experience as principal accounted for 2.82% of the variance in principals’ performance in

financial management. State of origin was also related to principals’ performance in financial

management. It explained 1.85% of the variance in principals’ performance in financial

management. Principals that exhibited a more open leadership style were more effective in

financial management than those that exhibited less open leadership style. Leadership style

accounted for 9.18% of the variance in principals’ performance in financial management. There

was no substantial relationship between age (.021), gender (.030), educational qualification (-

.085), area of specialty (-.105), experience as vice principal (-.068), marital status (-.011),

location (.089), motivation (.022), and principals’ performance in financial management.



principals’ performance in adherence to legal status in the management of secondary schools in


198


and performance in adherence to legal status. (N = 310)

Variables

r2 Percentage


-.003 .959

0.000009 0.001


-.007 .900

0.000049 0.01


-.018 .750

0.000324 0.03


-.063 .271

0.003969 0.4


-.054 .345

0.002916 0.3


.040

.483 0.0016 0.16


-.035 .535

0.001225 0.12


-.033 .560

0.001089 0.11


-.023 .684

0.000529 0.05

3Leadership Style Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

.401** .000

0.1608 16.08


.036

.527 0.001296 0.13

The correlation coefficient between leadership styles of principals and their adherence to legal

status (.401) was substantial. Principals that exhibited open leadership style were more effective

in adherence to legal status than principals that exhibited close leadership style. Leadership style

accounted for 16.08% of the variance in principals’ performance in adherence to legal status.

There was no substantial relationship between age (-.003), gender (-.007), educational

qualification (-.018), area of specialty (-.063), experience as principal (-.054), experience as vice

principal (.040), marital status -.035), state of origin (-.033), location (-.023), motivation (.036),

and principals performance in adherence to legal status.

199



principals’ performance in conflict management and resolution in the management of secondary


Table 42: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in Conflict Management and Resolution. (N = 310)

Variables

r2 Percentage


-.087 128

0.007569 0.76


.021

.716 0.000441 0.04


.001

.986 0.000001 0.0001


-.077 .175

0.005929 0.59


-.137** .016

0.0188 1.88


.046

.423 0.002116 0.21


-.016 .777

0.000256 0.03


-.031 .583

0.000961 0.1


.005

.927 0.000025 0.003

Leadership Style

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

.567** .000

0.3215 32.15


-.007 .906

0.0000 0

The correlation coefficients between experience and leadership styles and principals performance

in conflict management and resolution (-.137 and .567 respectively) were substantial. However,

that of experience as principal was negative. Therefore, the fewer the years of experience the

more effective the principal were in conflict management and resolution. Experience explains

1.88% of the variance in principals’ performance in conflict management and resolution.

Principals that exhibited a more open leadership style are more effective in school conflict

management and resolution than those that exhibited less open leadership style. Leadership style

200

accounted for 32.15% of the variance in principals’ performance in conflict management and

resolution. There was no substantial relationship between age (-.087), gender (.021), educational

qualification (.001), area of specialty (-.077), experience as vice principal (.046), marital status

(-.016), state of origin (-.031), location (.005), motivation (-.007), and principals’ performance in

conflict management and resolution.



principals’ performance in plant management in the management of secondary schools in South-

South, Nigeria?

Table 43: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in plant management. (N = 310)

Variables

r2 Percentage


.007

.896 0.000047 0.01


.027

.637 0.000729 0.07


.167** .003

0.0279 2.79


.100

.079 0.01 1


-.028 .620

0.000784 0.08


.034

.548 0.001156 0.12


-.060 .289

0.0036 0.36


.056

.322 0.003136 0.31


-.163** .004

0.0266 2.66


-.063 .272

0.003969 0.4


.001

.990 0.000001 0.0001

The correlation coefficients between educational qualification and location, and principals

performance in plant management (.167 and -.163 respectively) were substantial, though that of

location was negative. Therefore, the higher the educational qualification of the principals the

201

more effective they were in school plant management. Educational qualification explained

2.79% of the variance in principals’ performance in plant management. Principals in the rural

areas were less effective in school plant management than principals in the urban areas.

Location accounted for 2.66% of the variance in principals’ performance in plant management.

There is no substantial relationship between age (.007), gender (.027), area of specialty (.100),

experience as principal (-.028), experience as vice principal (.034), marital status (-.060), state of

origin (.056), leadership styles (-.063), motivation (.001), and principals’ performance in school

plant management. The summary of correlations between demographic and personality factors

and principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools is shown in

fig. 4.

.

P

E

R

F

O

R

M

A

N

C

E

Experience of principal

Educational qualification

Leadership style

Area of specialty

Experience as Vice principal

LocationInstructional supervision

Communication

Plant mgt.

Fin. mgt

Decision making

Public relations

Human Resource Dev.

Conflict mgt. & Resolution

Adherence to legal statusState

Provision of incentives

Fig. 4: summarized findings of (tables 34-43) on correlations between demographic and personality factors and principals performance in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.

202

Hypothesis (Ho1)

Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals’ performance

in instructional supervision in the management of secondary schools in the South-South, Nigeria.

Table 44: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Instructional Supervision

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 120.996 11 11.00 5.277 .000

Residual 621.120 298 2.084

Total 742.116 309

Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Years of experience as Principal, Years of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.

Table 44 showed that F-value of 5.277 is significant at 0.000. This indicated that the

demographic and personality variables of principals were significantly related to principals’

performance in instructional supervision. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear

relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance in

instructional supervision was rejected.

Table 45: Model Summary for Instructional Supervision

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square

Std. Error of the Estimate

.404a .163 .132 1.44371

The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.163. This indicates that 16.3% of the variance in

instructional supervision is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 16.3% of

the variance in instructional supervision is predicted by demographic and personality variables.

203

Table 46: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on instructional supervision

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

t

Sig.

B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 6.176 2.333 2.647 .009 Age -.002 .027 -.005 -.086 .932 Gender -.215 .182 -.065 -1.178 .240 Educational Qualification .001 .180 .000 .003 .997 Area of Specialty -.058 .215 -.015 -.269 .788 Experience as Principal -.007 .261 -.024 -.414 .679 Experience as VP -.028 .017 -.084 .-.481 .140 Marital Status -.058 .261 -.057 -.1.016 .310 State -.002 .050 .059 1.066 .287 Location -.507 .173 -.164 -2.924 .004** Leadership Style .173 .027 .347 6.441 .000** Motivation .019 .011 .093 1.699 .090*

. (** Sig. at P < 0.05; * Sig. at P < 0.1)

To determine which of the variables were significantly related to or predicted principals’

performance in instructional supervision, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 46.

The t-values were age (-.086, P < 0.932), Gender (-1.178, P < 0.240), Academic qualification

(0.003, P < 0.997), Area of specialty (-.269, P < 0.788), Experience as principal

(-.414, P < 0.679), Experience as Vice-principal (-1.481, P <0.140), Marital status

(-1.016, P < 0.310), State of origin (1.066, P < 0.287), Location (-2.924, P < 0.004), leadership

style (6.441, P < 0.000) and motivation (1.699, P < 0.090). Out of the variables, only location

and leadership style had significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’

performance in instructional supervision. Principals whose schools were located in the rural

areas were less effective in instructional supervision than their counterparts in the urban areas.

Principals who exhibited open leadership style were more effective in instructional supervision

than those who exhibited close leadership style. The relationship between motivation of

principals and their performance in instructional supervision tended towards significance

(P < 0.09).

204

Hypothesis (Ho2)

There are no significant linear relationships between demographic and personality variables, and

principals’ performance in communication in the managesment of secondary schools in the


Table 47: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Communication.

Model

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 177.568 11 16.143 9.025 .000

Residual 533.000 298 1.789

Total 710.568 309


Table 47 showed that F-value of 9.025 was significant at 0.000. It indicated that the demographic

and personality variables of principals were significantly related to principals’ performance in

communication. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship between

demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance in communication was

rejected.

Table 48: Model Summary for Communication

Model

R R Square Adjusted R Square


.500a .250 .222 1.33738

The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.250. This indicates that 25% of the variance in

communication is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 25% of the variance

in communication is predicted by demographic and personality variables.

205

Table 49: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Communication

Model



t

Sig. B Std. Error Beta

(Constant) 7.161 2.162 3.313 .001 Age -.021 .025 -.045 -.826 .409 Gender -.057 .169 -.018 -.338 .735 Educational Qualification -.072 .167 -.023 -.431 .667 Area of Specialty -.278 .199 -.075 - 1.393 .165 Experience as Principal -.002 .016 -.006 -.105 .916 Experience as VP .003 .017 -.011 .205 .839 Marital Status -.472 .242 -.104 -1.950 .052* State .066 .046 .075 1. 425 .155 Location -.406 .161 -.134 -2.527 .012** Leadership Style .223 .025 .457 8.966 .000** Motivation .013 .010 .067 1.293 .197

(** Sig. at P < 0.05; * Sig. at P < 0.1)


performance in communication, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 49. The

t-values were age (-.826,P< 0. 409), Gender (-.338, P < 0.735), Educational qualification

(-.431, P < 0.667), Area of specialty (-.1.393, P < 0.165), Experience as principal

(-.105, P < 0.916), Experience as Vice-principal (0.205, P<0.839), Marital status

(-1.950, P < 0.052), State of origin (1.425, P < 0.155), Location (-2.527, P < 0.012), leadership

style (8.966, P < 0.000) and motivation (1.293, P < 0.197). Out of the demographic and

personality variables, only location and leadership style had significant relationship (P < 0.05)

with and predicted principals’ performance in communication. Principals whose schools were

located in the rural areas were less effective in communication than those in the urban areas.

Principals who exhibited open leadership style were more effective in communication than those

who exhibited close leadership style. The relationship between marital status of principals and

their performance in communication tended towards significance (P < 0.052).

206

Hypothesis (Ho3)

Demographic and personality variables do not significantly predict principals’ performance in

decision making in the management of secondary schools in the South-South, Nigeria.

Table 50: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Decision-Making.


Regression 216.100 11 19.645 10.879 .000

Residual 538.107 298 1.806

Total 754.207 309


Table 50 showed that F-value of 10.879 was significant at 0.000. It showed that the demographic


decision-making. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship between

demographic and personality factors and principals’ performance in decision-making was

rejected.

Table 51: Model Summary for Decision making

Model R R Square Adjusted R

Square Std. Error of the

Estimate .535a .287 .260 1.34377


decision making is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 28.7% of the

variance in decision making is predicted by demographic and personality variables.

207

Table 52: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Decision Making

Model



t


(Constant) 4.107 2.172 1.891 .060 Age .038 .025 .080 1.511 .132 Gender -.125 .170 -.038 -.736 .463 Educational Qualification -.266 .167 -.084 -1.592 .112 Area of Specialty -.053 .200 -.014 -.263 .793 Experience as Principal -.010 .016 -.034 -.643 .521 Experience as VP -.027 .017 -.084 -1.589 .113 Marital Status -.618 .243 -132 -2.543 .012** State -.057 .047 -.063 -1.227 .221 Location -.203 .161 -.065 -1.258 .209 Leadership Style .250 .025 .497 9.993 .000** Motivation 5.65E-

005 .010 .000 .005 .996

(** Sig. at P < 0.05 )


performance in decision making, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 52. The

t-values were age (1.511, P< 0. 132), Gender (-.736, P < 0.463), Educational qualification

(-1.592, P < 0.112), Area of specialty (-.263, P < 0.793), Experience as principal

(-.643, P < 0.521), Experience as Vice-principal (-1.589, P < 0.113), Marital status

(-2.543, P < 0.12), State of origin (-1.227, P < 0.221), Location (-1.258, P < 0.209), leadership

style (9.993, P < 0.000) and motivation (.005, P < 0.996). Out of the demographic and

personality variables, only marital status and leadership style had significant relationship

(P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’ performance in decision-making. Principals who are not

married were more effective in decision-making than the principals who were married. Principals

that exhibited open leadership style were more effective in decision-making than those that

exhibited close leadership style.

208

Hypothesis (Ho4)


principals’ performance in provision of incentives in the management of secondary schools in

the South-South, Nigeria.

Table 53: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Provision of Incentives to Teachers and

students.

Model

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Regression 385.519 11 35.047 16.816 .000

Residual 621.094 298 2.084

Total 1006.613 309




provision of incentives to teachers and students. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant

linear relationship between demographic and personality factors and principals’ performance in

provision of incentives to teachers and students was rejected.

Table 54: Model Summary for provision of incentives

Model



.619a .383 .360 1.44368


provision of incentives to teachers and students is caused by variations in the predictor variables.

Therefore, 38.3% of the variance in provision of incentives is predicted by demographic and

personality variables.

209

Table 55: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Provision of Incentives

Model



t


(Constant) -.261 2.333 -.112 .911 Age .016 .027 .029 .591 .555 Gender -.001 .182 .000 -.007 .994 Educational Qualification -.056 .180 -.015 -.309 .757 Area of Specialty -.378 .215 -.086 -1.758 .080* Experience as Principal -.021 .017 -.062 -1.247 .213 Experience as VP -.023 .019 -.060 -1.220 .223 Marital Status -.134 .261 -.025 -.512 .609 State .059 .050 .056 1.171 .243 Location .038 .173 .011 .219 .826 Leadership Style .347 .027 .596 12.900 .000** Motivation -.015 .011 -.064 -1.361 .175

(** Sig. at P < 0.05; * Sig. at P < 0.1)


performance in provision of incentives to teachers and students, the t-values of each variable

were presented in table 55. The t-values were age (.591, P< 0. 555), Gender (-.7007, P < 0.994),

Educational qualification (-.309, P < 0.757), Area of specialty (-1.758, P < 0.080), Experience as

principal (-1.247, P < 0.213), Experience as Vice-principal (-1.220, P < 0.223), Marital status

(-.512 P, < 0.609), State of origin (1.171, P < 0.243), Location (.219, P < 0.826), leadership style

(12.900, P < 0.000) and motivation (-1.361, P < 0.175). Out of the demographic and personality

variables, leadership style had significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’

performance in provision of incentives to teachers and students. Principals that exhibited open

leadership style were more effective in provision of incentives to teachers and students than

those that exhibited close leadership style. The relationship between area of specialty of

principals’ and their performance in the provision of incentives to teachers and students tended

towards significance (P < 0.080).

210

Hypothesis (Ho5)


human resource development in the management of secondary schools in the South-South,

Nigeria.

Table 56: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Human Resource Development.

Model

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Regression 363.195 11 33.018 13.103 .000 Residual 750.943 298 2.520 Total 1114.138 309

Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Year of experience as Principal, Year of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.


and personality variables of principals are significantly related to principals’ performance in

human resources development. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship

between demographic and personality factors and principals performance in human resources

development was rejected.

Table 57: Model Summary for human resource development

Model



.571a .326 .301 1.58743


human resource development is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 32.6%

of the variance in human resource development is predicted by demographic and personality

variables.

211

Table 58: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Human Resources

Development

Model



t

Sig.

B Std. Error Beta (Constant) -2.057 2.566 -.802 .423 Age .001 .030 .002 .044 .965 Gender -.119 .200 -.030 -.592 .554 Educational Qualification -.069 .198 -.018 -.348 .728 Area of Specialty -.151 .237 -.032 -.637 .524 Experience as Principal .005 .018 .015 .289 .773 Experience as VP -.008 .020 -.020 -.395 .693 Marital Status -.389 .287 -.068 -1.354 .177 State -.036 .056 -.032 -.652 .515 Location -.055 .191 -.014 -.288 .773 Leadership Style .345 .030 .564 11.667 .000** Motivation .011 .012 .043 .871 .384

(** Sig. at P < 0.05)


performance in human resources development, the t-values of each variable were presented in

table 58. The t-values were age (.044,P<0. 965), Gender (-.592, P < 0.554), Educational

qualification (-.348, P < 0.728), Area of specialty (-.637, P < 0.524), Experience as principal

(.289,P < 0.773), Experience as Vice-principal (-.395, P < 0.693), Marital status

(-1.354, P < 0.177), State of origin (-.652, P < 0.515), Location (-.288, P < 0.773), leadership


personality variables, only leadership style had significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and

predicted principals’ performance in human resources development. Principals that exhibited

open leadership style were more effective in human resources development than those that


212

Hypothesis (Ho6)

Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals performance in

public relations in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.

Table 59: Analysis of Variance of Regression in Public Relations.

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Regression 190.799 11 17.345 7.135 .000

Residual 724.434 298 2.431

Total 915.233 309

Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Year of experience as Principal, Year of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.



public relations. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship between

demographic and personality factors and principals performance in public relations was rejected.

Table 60: Model Summary for public relations

Model



.457a .208 .179 1.55916


public relations is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 20.8% of the

variance in public relations is predicted by demographic and personality variables.

213

Table 61: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Public Relations

Model



t


(Constant) 4.748 2.520 1.884 .061 Age -.023 .029 -.044 -.792 .429 Gender -.110 .197 -.031 -.558 .577 Educational Qualification -.027 .194 -.008 -.137 .891 Area of Specialty .043 .232 .010 .186 .853 Experience as Principal .001 .018 .004 .076 .939 Experience as VP -.033 .020 -.091 -1.641 .102 Marital Status -.635 .282 -.123 -2.251 .025** State -.100 .054 -.100 -1.854 .065* Location -.113 .187 -.033 -.605 .545 Leadership Style .228 .029 .410 7.838 .000** Motivation .014 .012 .062 1.171 .243

(** Sig. at P < 0.05; * Sig. at P < 0.1)


performance in Public relations, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 61. The

t-values were age (-.792, P< 0. 429), Gender (-.558, P < 0.577), Educational qualification

(-.137, P < 0.891), Area of specialty (.186, P < 0.853), Experience as principal (.076, P < 0.939),

Experience as Vice-principal (-1.641, P < 0.102), Marital status (-2.251,P < 0.025), Location

(-.605, P < 0.545), leadership style (7.838, P < 0.000) and motivation (1.171, P < 0.243). Out of

the demographic and personality variables, only marital status and leadership style had

significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’ performance in public relations.

Principals who were not married were more effective in public relations than principals who

were married. Principals that exhibited open leadership style were more effective in public

relations than those that exhibited close leadership style. The relationship between state of origin

and principals’ performance in public relations tended towards significance (P < 0.065).

214

Hypothesis (Ho7)


principals’ performance in financial management in the management of secondary schools in


Table 62: Analysis of Variance of Regression in Financial Management.


Regression 191.927 11 17.448 4.860 .000

Residual 1069.751 298 3.590

Total 1261.678 309




financial management. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship

between demographic and personality factors, and principals performance in financial

management was rejected.

Table 63: Model Summary for financial management

Model



.390a .152 .121 1.89467


financial management is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 15.2% of the

variance in financial management is predicted by demographic and personality variables.

215

Table 64: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Financial Management

Model



t


(Constant) 2.291 3.062 .748 .455 Age .068 .035 .111 1.917 .056* Gender .279 .239 .066 1.168 .244 Educational Qualification -.070 .236 -.017 -.299 .765 Area of Specialty -.327 .282 -.066 -1.160 .247 Experience as Principal -.061 .022 -.162 -2.773 .006** Experience as VP -.041 .024 -.096 -1.680 .094* Marital Status -.321 .343 -.053 -.937 .349 State -.100 .066 -.085 -1.520 .130 Location .317 .227 .079 1.394 .164 Leadership Style .186 .035 .285 5.264 .000** Motivation .003 .015 .013 .231 .817

(** Sig. at P < 0.05; * Sig. at P < 0.1)


performance in Financial Management, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 64.

The t-values were age (1.917, P< 0. 056), Gender (1.168, P < 0.244), Educational qualification

(-.299, P < 0.765), Area of specialty (-1.160, P < 0.247), Experience as principal

(-2.773. P < 0.006), Experience as Vice-principal (-1.680, P < 0.094), Marital status

(-.937, P < 0.349), State of origin (-1.520, P < 0.130), Location (1.394, P < 0.164), leadership


personality variables, only experience as principals and leadership style had significant

relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’ performance in financial management. The

fewer the years of working experience, the more effective the principals managed, their financial

resources. Principals that exhibited open leadership style were more effective in financial

management than those that exhibited close leadership style. The relationship between age of

principals (P < 0.056), and experience as vice principals (P < 0.094), and their performance in

financial management tended towards significance.

216

Hypothesis (Ho8)


adherence to legal status in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.

Table 65: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Adherence to Legal Status


Regression 114.482 11 10.407 5.707 .000

Residual 543.467 298 1.824

Total 657.948 309


Table 65 showed that F-value of 5.707 was significant at 0.000. It showed that there was a

significant relationship between demographic and personality variables of principals and their

performance in adherence to legal status. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear

relationship between demographic and personality factors and principals performance in

adherence to legal status was rejected.

Table 66: Model Summary for adherence to legal status

Model



.417a .174 .144 1.35045


adherence to legal status is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 17.4% of

the variance in adherence to legal status is predicted by demographic and personality variables.

217

Table 67: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Adherence to Legal

Status

Model



t


(Constant) 6.828 2.183 3.128 .002 Age .013 .025 .030 .528 .598 Gender -.032 .171 -.010 -.187 .852 Educational Qualification .090 .168 .030 .537 .592 Area of Specialty -.182 .201 -.051 -.903 .367 Experience as Principal -.002 .016 -.008 -146 .884 Experience as VP .014 .017 .045 .798 .426 Marital Status -.374 .244 -.085 -1.532 .127 State -.008 .047 -.010 -.176 .860 Location -.058 .162 -.020 -.360 .719 Leadership Style .192 .025 .408 7.626 .000** Motivation .009 .010 .045 .837 .403

(** Sig. at P < 0.05)

To determine which of the variables were significantly related to principals’ performance in

adherence to legal status, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 67. The t-values

were age (.528, P < 0.598), Gender (-.187, P < 0.852), Educational qualification

(.537,P < 0.592), Area of specialty (-.903, P < 0.367), Experience as principal (-.146, P < 0.884),

Experience as Vice-principal (.798, P < 0.426), Marital status (-1.532, P < 0.127), State of origin

(-.176, P < 0.860), Location (-.360, P < 0.719), leadership style (7.626, P < 0.000) and

motivation (.837, P < 0.403). Out of the demographic and personality variables, only leadership

style had significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’ performance in

adherence to legal status. Principals that exhibited a more open leadership style were more

effective in adherence to legal status than those that exhibited less open leadership style.

218

Hypothesis (Ho9)

Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals performance in

conflict management and resolution in the management of secondary schools in the South-South,

Nigeria.

Table 68: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Conflict Management and Resolution

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square

F Sig.

Regression 273.695 11 24.881 13.982 .000

Residual 530.285 298 1.779

Total 803.980 309


Table 68 showed that F-value of 13.982 was significant at 0.000. It showed that there was a

significant relationship between demographic and personality variables of principals and their

performance in conflict management and resolution. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no

significant linear relationship between demographic and personality factors and principals

performance in conflict management and resolution was rejected.

Table 69: Model Summary for conflict management and resolution

Model



.583a .340 .316 1.33397

The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.340. This indicates that 34% of the variance in conflict

management and resolution is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 34% of

the variance in conflict management and resolution is predicted by demographic and personality

variables.

219

Table 70: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Conflict Management

and Resolution.

Model



t


(Constant) 2.960 2.156 1.373 .171 Age -.012 .025 -.025 -.496 .620 Gender .052 .168 .015 .309 .758 Educational Qualification .232 .166 .071 1.394 .164 Area of Specialty -.228 .199 -.058 -1.146 .253 Experience as Principal -.022 .015 -.075 -1.448 .149 Experience as VP .013 .017 .039 .761 .447 Marital Status -.302 .241 -.062 -1.253 .211 State .016 .046 .017 .348 .728 Location .018 .160 .006 .113 .910 Leadership Style .294 .025 .566 11.847 .000** Motivation .001 .010 .006 .122 .903

(** Sig. at P < 0.05)


performance in Conflict management and resolution, the t-values of each variable were presented

in table 70. The t-values were age (-.496, P < 0. 620), Gender (.309, P < 0.758), Educational

qualification (1.394, P < 0.164), Area of specialty (-1.146, P < 0.253), Experience as principal

(-1.448, P < 0.149), Experience as Vice-principal (.761, P < 0.447), Marital status

(-1.253 P < 0.211), State of origin (.348, P < 0.728), Location (.113, P < 0.910), leadership style

(11.847, P < 0.000) and motivation (.122, P < 0.903). Out of the demographic and personality

variables, only leadership style had significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted

principals’ performance in conflict management and resolution. Principals that exhibited open

leadership style were more effective in conflict management and resolution than those who


220

Hypothesis (Ho10)


principals’ performance in plant management in the management of secondary schools in South-

South, Nigeria.

Table 71: Analysis of Variance of Regression on School Plant Management.


Regression 19803.691 11 1800.336 1.961 .032

Residual 273533.01 298 917.896

Total 293336.70 309




school plant management. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship

between demographic and personality factors and principals’ performance in school plant

management was rejected.

Table 72: Model Summary for plant management

Model



.260a .068 .033 30.29680

The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.068. This indicates that 6.8% of the variance in plant

management is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 6.8% of the variance in

plant management is predicted by demographic and personality variables.

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Table 73: t-Values of the Demographic and personality Variables School Plant Management

Model



t

Sig.

B Std. Error

Beta

(Constant) 213.101 48.968 4.352 .000 Age .145 .567 .015 .256 .798 Gender -1.999 3.826 -.031 -.522 .602 Educational Qualification 10.421 3.773 .167 2.762 .006** Area of Specialty 3.443 4.516 .046 .762 .446 Experience as Principal -.462 .352 -.080 -1.312 .190 Experience as VP -.016 .390 -.003 -.042 .966 Marital Status -5.742 5.481 -.061 -1.035 .302 State .594 1.053 .033 .564 .573 Location -9.505 3.637 -.154 -2.613 .009** Leadership Style -.467 .564 -.047 -.827 .409 Motivation -.020 .233 -.005 -.088 .930

(** Sig. at P < 0.05)


performance in school plant management, the t-values of each variable were presented in

table 73. The t-values were age (.256, P < 0. 798), Gender (-.522, P < 0.602), Educational

qualification (2.762, P < 0.006), Area of specialty (.762, P < 0.446), Experience as principal

(-1.312, P < 0.190), Experience as Vice-principal (-.042, P < 0.966), Marital status

(-1.035, P < 0.302), State of origin (.564, P < 0.573), Location (-2.613, P < 0.009), leadership

style (-.827, P < 0.409) and motivation (-.088, P < 0.930). Out of the demographic and

personality variables, only educational qualification of principals and location of the schools had

significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’ performance in school plant

management. The higher the educational qualification the more effective the principals were in

school plant management. Principals whose schools are located in the rural areas were less

effective in school plant management than their counterparts in the urban areas. The summary of

demographic and personality variables that predicted principals’ performance in the task areas of

management of secondary schools is shown in fig. 5.

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Experience of principal

Educational qualification

Leadership style

Location

Marital status

Instructional supervision

Communication

Plant mgt.

Fin. mgt

Decision making

Public relations

Conflict mgt. & Resolution

Adherence to legal status

.

P

E

R

F

O

R

M

A

N

C

E

Provision of incentives

Human Resource Dev.

Fig. 5: Summary of (table 44-73), demographic and personality variables that predicted

principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools in


Summary of findings

Based on the analysis, the major findings were summarized below.

1. Most principals in South-South, Nigeria were males, married, with first degrees, are

within the age limit of 51-55 years, have served as principals for a period of 10 years or

2. less, and served for 6-10 years as vice principals before becoming principals. They

specialized in different areas of education.

3. Intrinsic factors like nature of work, recognition, responsibility, achievement and

advancement were motivators to principals’ performance in the task area of management

of secondary schools.

4. The principals in South-South, Nigeria, exhibited a more open leadership style.

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5. Principals’ performance was high in task areas like instructional management,

communication, decision making, provision of incentives to teachers and students,

financial management, adherence to legal status, and conflict management and resolution.

Their performance was low in human resources development, public relations. The state

of observed school plant items like classrooms, staffrooms, laboratories, and playgrounds

were less adequate. Toilets, water, electricity, medical facilities and libraries were very

less adequate. Workshops and fire extinguishers were not available. Only compound

items were highly adequate.

6. Leadership styles had relationship with principals’ performance in instructional

supervision, communication, decision making, provision of incentives to teachers and

students, human resources development, public relations, financial management,

adherence to legal status, and conflict management and resolution in the management of


7. Leadership style explained 11.70%, 20.34%, 24.50%, 36.24%, 31.58%, 16.81%, 9.18%,

16.08%, and 32.15%, of the total variance in principals’ performance in instructional

supervision, communication, decision making, provision of incentives, human resources

development, public relations, financial management, adherence to legal status, and

conflict management and resolution respectively.

8. Location explained 2.04%, 1.69%, and 2.66%, of the total variance in principals’

performance in instructional supervision, communication and school plant management

respectively.

9. Educational qualification explained 1.80%, and 2.79% of the total variance in principals

performance in decision making, and school plant management respectively.

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10. Experience as principal explained 2.82%, and 1.88% of the total variance in principals

performance in financial management, and conflict management and resolution

respectively.

11. Area of specialty explained 1.77% of the total variance in principals’ performance in

provision of incentives.

12. Experience as vice principal explained 1.28% of the total variance in principals’

performance in public relations.

13. State explained 1.59%, 1.85%, of the total variance in principals’ performance in public

relations and financial management respectively.

14. Demographic and personality factors had joint significant relationship (P<0.05) with

principals’ performance in all the task areas of management of secondary schools.

15. Demographic and personality factors predicted 16.3%, 25%, 28.7%, 38.3%, 32.6%,

20.8%, 15.2%, 17.4%, 34%, and 6.8% of the variance in instructional supervision,

communication, decision making, provision of incentives, human resource development,

public relations, financial management, adherence to legal status, conflict management

and resolution, and plant management respectively.

16. Leadership style predicted principals’ performance in all task areas except plant

management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.

17. Location predicted principals’ performance in Instructional Supervision, communication

and plant management.

18. Marital status predicted principals’ performance in decision making and public relations.

19. Educational qualification predicted principals’ performance in plant management.

20. Experience predicted principals’ performance in financial management.

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CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMEDATIO NS,

LIMITATIONS, SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES AND SU MMARY

In this chapter, the findings of the study based on the purpose that guided the study were

discussed. The conclusions, educational implications, recommendations, limitations of the

study, suggestions for further research and summary of the whole study were also presented.

Discussion of Findings

Discussions were presented in accordance with the research questions posed and

hypotheses formulated for the study.

1. Demographic variables of principals of secondary schools.

2. Personality (Leadership styles and Motivation) variables of principals of secondary

schools.

3. Performance of principals in the task areas of management of secondary schools.

4. Demographic and personality variables as correlates of performance of principals in the

task areas of management of secondary schools.

5. Demographic and personality variables as predictors of principals performance in the task

areas of management of secondary schools.

Demographic variables of principals of secondary schools

The results on demographic variables (age, gender, educational qualification, area of

specialty, experience as principal, experience as Vice principal, marital status, state, and

location) of principals in secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria, showed that most of the

principals are within the age bracket of 51-55 years. This means that most of the principals were

young. The government of South-South, would have been guided by the proposition of Reyes

225

226

(1990), and Feldman (1996) that young principals in their fifties exhibited better management

capabilities than older principals since individuals tend to gradually disengage from active work

with age.

Most principals in the secondary schools were males. Saduwa (2011) pointed out that

although gender has its own advantages and disadvantages for management effectiveness, the

capability of the principal was more important. Most of the principals had served for a period of

not more than 11 years in that capacity. Besides, before most of the principals were appointed

they have served as Vice principals for between six and ten years. The findings of the study

showed that most of the principals were appointed from those who had served as vice principals.

The situation where teachers who served as vice principals were appointed as principals would

enable the principals to be effective having understudied a principal in course of their

professional growth. This was in line with the assertion of Lazear (2000), who noted that the

Peter principle in management theory recommended the selection of persons for superior

positions based on their abilities relevant to the intended position.

Most of the principals in the secondary schools had first degrees rather than higher

degrees. Besides, most of the principals had their qualifications in education related areas other

than specializing in educational administration and planning or non educational areas. This is in

line with different policy presumptions that teachers and principals should be professionally

qualified. Eyike (2001) asserted that specialized training empowers and motivates principals for

better performance. Ellah (2004) noted that professionally qualified principals have the tendency

to succeed more than their non-qualified counterparts in a situation where many things have to

be managed. Therefore, professionally trained principals would perform their roles better than

non-professionals in the management of schools.

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It was also found that most of the principals were married. Anyanwu (2009) noted that

the traditional virtue of marriage such as love, fidelity and mutual fulfillment imbibed by married

men and women are presumed to transcend to the work place where they exhibit love, mutual

respect, and maturity that enable them handle some complex problems. Thompson (2000) also

noted that the performance of the principals would be influenced by their marital status since

emotional stability that comes with marriage is important in instructional leadership.

Personality (Leadership styles and Motivation) profile of principals of secondary schools

The results showed that principals in South-South, Nigeria exhibited open leadership

style in the management of their schools. This is based on the fact that the principals

communicated openly to staff about school activities, encouraged self expression, creativity and

interaction in the school, showed feeling of concern and respect for staff and delegated duties to

staff. The principals also involved teachers in decision-making, made appeal rather than

command staff, were concerned about staff feeling, as well as showed concern for school goals

and staff welfare. Therefore, it was evidently clear that the principals exhibited more of open

leadership style rather than close leadership style of imposing task and duties on teachers,

wanting things done their own way, being resistant to change and being indifference about

activities in the school.

These findings agreed with the views of Udeh (2000) that people-oriented style or open

leadership style has democratic tendencies and demonstrates respect for every person in the

group. It is characterized by adequate welfare attention, shared responsibilities, and group

member’s involvement in decision making, which encourages individual and group initiatives

and creativity. Adeyemi (2010) noted that the democratic leadership of principals of secondary

schools include open communication, shared decision-making, delegation of duties, support and

trust, working with teams, and empathy, improved human relations, corporation, and teaching

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and learning. Okorie (2010) also observed that principals leadership behaviors which serve as

antidotes of motivation of teachers to higher performance are: empathy, delegation of duties, oral

commendation, recognition through presentation of gift items and involvement in decision

making.

The findings of this study showed that factors such as nature of work itself, recognition,

responsibility, achievement and advancement are sources of motivation for principals in the

management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria. The results showed that the nature of

the work principals do serve as motivator. This is based on the fact that what they did is

meaningful, interesting, and required their initiatives in carrying their duties effectively.

Besides, the principals’ job was challenging and not threatened and they derived pleasure from

their job. It is pertinent to state that the nature of the principals’ job being challenging and which

required their initiatives made it interesting and a source of pleasure thus, serving as a motivator

to them to carry out their duties effectively. These findings were in line with the assertion of

Osthuizen (2001), that the nature of the job as challenging and interesting was an influential

factor in predicting overall performance.

The findings also showed that the principals opinions were highly valued at PTA

meetings, and successfully accomplished work were also recognized by the appropriate agencies.

When one is recognized ordinarily and used as a reference point for a job well done, it boosts

morale for higher performance. This finding agreed with that of Jones (2004) that the amount of

recognition one gets as a manager increases a sense of identity and respect for those who deserve

it. He concluded that recognition is a fundamental source of self conforming belongingness

identity. When the views of the Principals were not sought in certain issues related to the school

by the school’s Board or PTA, it would undermine confidence thereby diminishing the

possibility of hard work.

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The responsibilities attached to the principals as the administrative head of the secondary

schools served as a motivator that spurred them to effective performance of their duties. This

was based on the findings that they were not redundant on the job, but were engaged in presiding

over staff meetings, supervising instruction and various sections of the school. The principals

were officers of the Parent Teachers Association who regularly hold meeting to take decisions on

salient issues about the progress of the schools. The principals were also custodians of all

important records of the school who took reasonable care and precaution in handling them. The

principals were also engaged in nominating staff to participate in available conference to

enhance their productivity. Therefore, these responsibilities of the principals were in no small

measure a source of motivation to them. This was in line with the assertion of Tella, Ayeni and

Popoola (2007) that Librarians were motivated for more productivity because of the

responsibilities given them to represent university Librarians at either faculty board meeting or

departmental committee meetings.

It was also found that achievement served as a motivator to principals in the performance

of their duties. This was on the basis that their students were doing well, staff were making some

socio-economic progress, there was improvement in infrastructure and school-community

relationship was cordial. These circumstances made the principals happy and spurred them to

frequently carry out their functions. This agreed with the findings of Ekere (2010) that

achievement ranked very high as a factor which motivated Librarians to higher performance.

The findings of this study also showed that advancement motivated school principals in

the effective performance of their duties. This stemmed from the fact that they had acquired

further education and training since becoming principals, had acquired management committee

experience on the job, with possibility for self actualization, and opportunity for promotion. The

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results showed that principals in South-South, Nigeria were motivated by their academic

achievement and possibility for professional growth.

Therefore, the factors that motivated principals in the management of secondary schools

were nature of work, recognition, responsibility, achievement and advancement. Okolo, Haruna,

and Oguche (2013) observed that motivation plays a vital role in job satisfaction of teachers and

they perform better when given challenging work, opportunity for growth, recognized, and

provided with their basic needs. The authors explained that motivated staff exhibits more

commitment at their work place. According to Ejike (2011), intrinsic motivating factors like

nature of work, recognition, responsibility, achievement and advancement would spur workers to

high performance. These motivational factors are important to principals’ performance and need

to be sustained in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria since the main

aim of motivating staff is to get the best out of them. It is assumed that motivated staff will

exhibit commitment at work place. There is the need to encourage principals by adequately

motivating them, so as to get from them the highest level of commitment desired as the

administrative heads of secondary schools. Sinden and Hoy (2008) noted that the principal who

is the chief executive officer of a secondary school needs to be well motivated towards

achievement of educational goals. This is because intrinsically motivated employees will

perform better and therefore be more productive while remaining loyal to their employers and

feel no pressure or need to move to a different firm. Kolawale and Fashina (2004) found that the

motivation variables such as responsibility, a need for personal growth, recognition, achievement

and work itself were significant in the job performance of the principals.

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The extent of principals’ Performance in the task areas of management of secondary

schools

The findings of the study showed that principals’ performance in instructional

supervision in the management of secondary schools was high. This was on the basis that the

principals frequently assigned teachers to classes according to their qualifications, inspected

teachers notes of lessons to see if they were properly written in line with the content of scheme

of work, conducted unscheduled informal visits to classrooms, pointed out specific strengths and

weaknesses in teacher's instructional practices, and occasionally examined students note books

during class visits. These findings agreed with that of Agbo (2013) that principals perform

different instructional supervision roles. Chika and Ebeke (2007) observed that, among many

factors that influence learning and achievement in secondary schools, principals’ instructional

management seem to be the most intervening factor. Haruna (2008) also noted that instructional

supervision is the most important responsibility of a school principal in the management of

secondary schools since all effort in all educational settings are geared towards promoting

effective teaching and learning. The school administrators’ ability to effectively see that aspects

of instructional delivery in the school system are properly carried out is a responsibility that must

be given high premium. Students’ inability to excel in external examinations could be attributed

to uncovered scope of work in the syllabus during the teaching and learning process. Okwor

(2001) observed that a situation where the principal devotes little or no time to instructional

responsibilities, the quality of education offered to the students cannot be effectively and

adequately ascertained and guaranteed. Enyi (2012) underscored the need for principals to ensure

effective supervision of teachers’ lesson plan before delivery to see if they are properly prepared

to enhance teaching and learning.

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Therefore, Supervision of instruction is one of the indispensable task of an effective

administrator in the operation of a good school system. It is the duty of the Principal to see that

meaningful learning is taking place in all the classes and that the teachers are teaching what they

are supposed to teach, and in a manner that the students understand and enjoy their lessons.

The results also showed that principals’ performance in communication in the

management of secondary schools was high. They frequently discussed schools’ goals and

mission with teachers at meetings, informed staff and students about School rules and guidelines

to enable them adjust properly, encouraged teachers to discuss their problems with them,

mentioned the schools’ goals or mission in forum with students like morning assemblies, and

sent out information about students to parents and guardians. These findings agree with that of

Okwor (2012) that principals regularly meet with teachers and students to discuss school

activities, and disseminate information regularly to staff and students. Buttressing these findings,

Hallinger and Heck (2009) noted that principals must foster an environment of open

communication between teachers and principals, teachers and teachers, and teachers and students

for the overall interest of all in the school system. If the principal’s communication style is

unfavorable to teachers working with him, there is the tendency that the teachers would not co-

operate with the principal and performance would be affected.

The findings of the study also showed that the principals’ performance in decision

making in the management of secondary schools was high. This was based on the fact that

principals’ frequently involved teachers in decision making process, took decision based on

available resources, and considered school programmes in taking decisions. Divivedi (1998)

observed that involving subordinates in decision making improves the quality of decision and the

effectiveness of the organisation, which leads to achievement of the organizational goals.

Involving teachers in decisions may lead to job satisfaction. Udoh and Akpa (2007) also

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asserted that where teachers are adequately involved in decision making process, there would be

commitment and adequate support with the principal and the realization of school goals will be

easy. In this regard, apathy and opposition within the school will be minimized. As a

fundamental process in an organisation, Peretomode (2001) observed that decision-making in the

school system which involves subordinates like teachers, is central in the responsibilities of

educational administrators as a way to reduce tension, conflict and misgiving in schools.

The findings also showed that principals rarely involved students’ representatives in

taking decisions concerning them. It is important to note that involvement of students in

decisions relating to them will help reduce the level of indiscipline exhibited by students since

the student representatives will stand to curtail the exuberance of their fellow students. The

results also showed that principals occasionally ensured that PTA meetings were held to discuss

salient issues of school improvement. It is important that principals frequently hold meeting with

parents to partner on some critical issues about the school. Buttressing the importance of

participatory decision making, Oboegbulem and Onwurah (2011) noted that collaborative

decisions with stake holders in schools, like parents, usually improve the quality of decisions

since diverse organizational experience is drawn and this increases the understanding of the

group as well as their commitment to the decisions. Lack of such meetings to share ideas with

stakeholders is detrimental to the health of the school and the performance of the principal will

be affected to some extent. The findings are in agreement with that of Agbo (2013) that

measures of promoting collaborative decision making in the management of schools include:

participation of teachers in decision making, clear channels of communication, and welcoming

and encouraging teachers initiatives and originality.

The findings of the study showed that principals’ performance in provision of incentives

to staff and students was high. The principals frequently showed love and care to staff and

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students, recognized teachers’ personal value, and ensure that the learning environment was safe

from hazards. These findings were in line with the assertion of Mgbodile (2004), who noted that

a basic incentive to staff and students in the school system is a feeling of concern to their welfare

by providing a learning environment that is free from hazards. Although the results showed that

principals occasionally reward staff and students, it is the view of Mgbodile that showing

recognition of efforts for job well done is a basic incentive that is often forgotten but which

matters in motivating individuals to higher performance. Duze (2012) also noted that principals

can encourage effective performance of their teachers and students by identifying their needs and

ensuring their satisfaction. School administrators who reward hard work for staff and students

not only create an atmosphere for competition but also encourage discipline, because honour

goes with discipline and orderliness which is an instrument for maintaining high standards.

The findings also showed that principals’ performance in human resource development

was not impressive. This stemmed from the fact that principals occasionally organized

progammes for staff development, showed interest in teachers’ in-service training, and built a

sense of team work to nurture earnest effort to help each staff member achieve their potentials.

However, the principals frequently encouraged teachers to attend available professional

development programmes like seminars or workshops. They also set aside time at staff meetings

for teachers to share ideas or information from in-service activities. The findings are not

surprising since it could not have been within the purview of principals to organize programmes

for re-training teachers but rather the responsibility of the government through the ministry of

education. This might have made them indifference about the professional development of

teachers, but only frequently encouraging teachers to attend available ones like seminars and

workshops. The finding that principals frequently set aside time at staff meetings for teachers to

share ideas or information from in-service activities was in line with the assertion of Ikpeba

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(2012) that sharing of information from training with other fellows in staff meetings makes them

have an impact of the training in the same direction for value re-orientation and attitudinal

change in service delivery. Consequently, joint problem solving attitude and spirit is cultivated

for team work which has a direct bearing on instructional improvement.

Any effort made by the principals for the re-training of teachers make their work easier

since they perform some of their duties through the teachers and take responsibility for such

delegated functions. Kabiru (2000) noted that for teachers to be fully equipped for their

professional duties, continuous training in instructional development, teaching skills, and

managerial ethics are needed in order to meet the objectives of education with the advancement

in technology. The National Policy on Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004)

recommended in-service training as an integrated part of continuing teachers’ education. These

findings disagree with that of Ndako (2012) who found that principals in an effort to improve

their staff encourage them to register for sandwich programmes to update their knowledge in the

teaching profession, periodically recommended to the Schools Management Board some staff for

in-service training, monitored and evaluated professional development of staff among others.

The findings also showed that principals’ performance in public relations is low. This

was based on the fact the principals’ only frequently liaised with the schools board in finding

solutions to school problems. They occasionally organize extra-curricular activities with parents

of students and other stake holders in attendance, kept the community adequately informed of the

specific needs of the school for possible assistance, established PTA groups to work co-

operatively with them as well as allowed the public to use school facilities. These findings were

contrary to the assertion of Worlu (2007) that the public relations function of the principal

demands operating an open door policy for easy accessibility, regularly meeting with stake

holders like Parent Teachers Association (PTA) to discuss salient issues of school improvement

236

and inviting the community to important school functions like price giving day, annual sports

competition and end-of-year events. Bander (2008) noted that regularly liaising with the stake

holders will endear the school to the public and attract support and assistance in various ways as

well as promoting public-private partnership in school management. Buttressing this fact,

Idemili (1990) also noted that school principals who are considerate in allowing members of the

public to use some school facilities such as halls and play grounds indirectly establish rapport

and invariably strengthen school public relations. The inherent significance of such positive

school public relations practices is immense to the existence of the school in maintaining cordial

relations between the community and the school.

The findings of the study also indicated that principals’ performance in financial

management was high. This was based on the fact that principals frequently kept proper accounts

of disbursement of school funds, prioritized financial allocation according to needs, and worked

within the confines of school budget. They occasionally prepared realistic budgets, and explored

sources of revenue generation to provide some essential needs of the school. Ndayelechi (2011)

identified means of internally generated funds for secondary schools as PTA development levies,

appeal funds, donations from philanthropic organizations, tuition fees, and proceeds from

agricultural products, concert, and local crafts. These findings confirmed Mgbodile’s (2004)

claim that school administrators are not constrained in financial management, but the inability of

various levels of government to provide funds for the development of the schools. The findings

of this study seemed to be in agreement with Ogbonnaya (2009) who noted that since various

governments cannot adequately fund the educational institutions, the institutions should look for

possible sources of revenue for financing their programmes. They also agreed with Ndayelechi

(2011) who noted that prudent management of funds entails keeping close check on financial

matters; prioritizing financial allocation according to needs; ensuring budgets agree with goals

237

and objectives; working within the confines of budget; knowledge of appropriate financial

system and regular reports of progress against budgets figures. However, the findings did not

agree with the views of Ogbonnaya cited in Mgbodile (2004) that financial management is one

of the areas where many practicing school administrators have neither knowledge nor skills and

which has contributed to the failure of many schools programmes.

The findings of this study also indicated that principals’ performance in adhering to

legal status in the management of secondary schools was high. This was based on the

respondents opinion that the principals frequently emphasized on the proper understanding of the

rights, limitations and legal implications of teachers actions in dealing with students and parents’

in educational matters, maintained confidentiality of official matters and ensured mutual

understanding through obedience and preservation of school rules and regulations. The

principals also ensured strict control over teachers and prefects whose powers and limitations are

clearly defined, and frequently made rules and regulations available to teachers and students to

regulate their conduct in the school against any violation. The adherence to legal provision of

the law as it relates to school management by the principals agreed with the assertions of Ellah

(2004), that knowledge of the legal provisions of principals rights and privileges, roles and codes

of conduct as they relate especially to the rights and obligations of teachers and students is of

great concern not only to the school administrator but to all members of the society who are

directly or indirectly involved in the educational system. Adhering to legal status in the school

system not only enhances good conduct but also promotes discipline and avert all forms of

litigations for breach of rights of persons directly or indirectly related to the school system.

The findings of this study indicated that principals’ performance in conflict management

and resolution was high. This was based on the fact that most of the respondents agreed that the

principals did not frequently take side with any party in a dispute in the school, and frequently

238

created cordial relationships with and among teachers, ensured proper school organization to

define staff roles to avoid a clash, treated everybody equally, and fostered strict disciplinary

measures to defaulting staff and students to serve as a deterrent to others. These findings agreed

with that of Nkado (2012) and Idoko (2010) that principals fostered harmony in their schools.

These findings were in agreement with that of Okwor (2012) that principals applied the

rules without minding who were involved and using disciplinary measures to create an

atmosphere of commitment and dedication to duty. The findings also agreed with the assertion of

Ikoya and Akinsende (2009), that school administrators should employ strategies like being

neutral, hearing from feuding parties, knowing the rules and applying them confidently, and

looking at suggested solutions to get to a consensus. The findings disagreed with the contention

of Okontoni and Okontoni (2008) that most school administrators are not knowledgeable in

conflict management.

The performance of principals in school plant management was low. This was based on

the fact that the state of most of the observed plant items was poor. The poor state was due to

wears and tears and lack of maintenance culture in the use of such facilities. These findings were

in agreement with that of Allen (2007) who noted that the state of deplorable facilities in

secondary schools, the unhygienic water system in most schools, called for urgent attention to

ameliorate the conditions. Enyi (2012) noted that for effective performance in the management

of schools, administrators are expected to have a good maintenance programme in the school to

protect the initial capital investment made by government. Bryce (2006) also observed that the

actual role of school administrators in the area of plant management is maintenance. Therefore,

resources available to them should be used to maintain the facilities to enhance their facelift

through repairs or replacements. The poor state of school plant as depicted from the findings

agreed with the assertion of Amadike (2002) on the state of school plant.

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Demographic and personality variables as correlates of principals’ performance in the task

areas of management of secondary schools

The findings showed that there was substantial relationship between some demographic

and personality variables and principals performance in some task areas of management of

secondary schools. Educational qualification related with principals performance in decision

making, and school plant management; Experience as principal related with principals

performance in financial management, and conflict management and resolution; Experience as

vice principal related with principals performance in public relations; Area of specialty related

with principals performance in provision of incentives; State related with principals performance

in public relations and financial management; Location related with principals performance in

instructional supervision, communication and school plant management. Leadership styles

related with principals performance in all task areas except school plant management.

Educational qualification related with principals performance in decision making, and

school plant management. Kalagbor (2004) noted that the professional qualification of the

principal from training exposes him to rational thinking for proper analysis of situations before

taking decisions. The author stated further that qualification is a symbol of one’s intellectual

maturity and experience in decision-making for the best course of action. Principals would have

been exposed to courses during training in school plant management and such knowledge would

have enhanced the status of plant facilities in the schools.

Experience also related with principals performance in financial management and

conflict management and resolution. Okoh (2003) noted that principals experience gained in the

course of their work life enable them source for funds for school improvement as government

alone rarely provide funds for management of schools. In essence, experience enables principals

make reasonable effort to ensure that the schools raise internal funds and not to over rely on

240

government for certain administrative matters. Experience also enables principals to handle

complex issues capable of causing rift between staff in the school in order not to escalate.

Experience as vice principal related with principals performance in public relations.

Peretomode (2001) asserted that experience acquired as vice principals while climbing the

seniority ladder enable the principals to develop leadership skills to effectively relate with people

directly or indirectly associated with the school to attract development to the school. Such

experience gives principals extensive repertories to effectively relate with parents, community

and the government in handling the affairs of the schools. Adeboyeje (1997) in a study found

that performance in public relations improved with experience of the principals. According to the

author, as the years pass by, each principal gain greater awareness of the important link between

public relations and the organizational effectiveness.

Location also related with principals performance in instructional supervision,

communication and school plant management. Principals whose schools were located in urban

areas were more effective in instructional supervision, communication and school plant

management. This could be attributed to principals sensitivity of their schools proximity to

government agencies that supervise schools. Ikediugwu (1999) in a study found that location

was a strong factor in secondary school administration.

Area of specialty also related with principals performance in provision of incentives.

Principals who did not specialize in educational administration and planning were more effective

in providing incentives to teachers and students. This could be that the courses in educational

administration and planning did not make the principals more sensitive to the plight of teachers

and students than courses in other areas of specialty of the principals.

There was correlation between leadership style of the principals and performance in the

task areas except school plant management. Okorie (2010) noted that leadership is an essential

241

factor that propels the management of all internal and external aspects of an organisation and

attributes largely to the achievement of goals. The leader exerts much influence on how people

interact, communicate and conduct the activities of the organisation through motivation and

delegation of duties. The authors were of the view that principals’ effective leadership enhances

free communication which removes rift among members in the school and promote cooperation

for the achievement of intended goals. Hallinger and Heck (2009) asserted that effective

leadership enables staff to be part of the planning and problem solving process, helps in staff

development, motivates staff who are part of the decision making process, and gives them

personal interest in seeing that the plan succeed. Gurgan (2010) identified leadership

effectiveness as essential to motivate teams and inspire personnel to higher performance.

Thompson (2007) explained that effective leadership correlates with financial management.

Linjuan (2011) found that leadership effectiveness builds a favorable internal reputation, which

in turn generates external intangible assets for the organization. The findings of a positive

correlation between leadership and human resource development agreed with that of Hallinger

and Heck (2009).

The findings of the study also agreed with that of Nwaeze (2003) that democratic

leadership behaviour and initiating structure have positive correlation with organizational

climate. Similarly, the findings of the study corroborated with that of Shaman (2006) on a study

on the attributes of school principals leadership style and capacities for secondary schools. The

results showed a strong positive correlation between perception of teachers on principals’

leadership styles and effectiveness in their duties.

242

Demographic and personality variables as predictors of principals’ performance in the

management of secondary schools

The findings of this study showed that the demographic and personality variables (age,

gender, educational qualification, experience, marital status, location, state motivation and

leadership style) jointly had significant relationship with principals’ performance in all the task

areas (instructional supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of incentives,

human resource management, financial management, public relations, adherence to legal status,

conflict management and resolution, and school plant). The findings further showed significant

relationship between some demographic and personality variables with principals performance in

specific tasks areas. For instance, Location of school had significant relationship with principals’

performance in instructional supervision, communication and school plant management;

principals whose schools were located in the rural areas are less effective in instructional

supervision, communication and school plant management than their counterparts in the urban

areas. Marital status had significant relationship with principals’ performance in decision

making and public relations, and tended towards significance with communication; Principals

who were not married are more effective in decision-making and public relations than the

principals who were married. Experience as principal had significant relationship with

performance in financial management. The fewer the years of working experience, the more

effective the principals were in the management of financial resources. Educational qualification

had significant relationship with principals’ performance in plant management. The higher the

educational qualification the more effective the principals are in school plant management.

Principals’ area of specialty tended towards significance with performance in provision of

incentives. State as a factor tended towards significance with performance in public relations.

There was no significant relationship between age, gender and motivation with principals’

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performance in any of the task areas. Age and Motivation tended towards significance in with

principals’ performance in financial management and instructional supervision respectively.

There was significant relationship between leadership style and principals’ performance in all

but one task areas.

These finding agreed with that of Okpe (2010), on the influence of demographic

variables and school climate on principals’ job performance in public secondary schools in

South-East, Nigeria. The results showed that educational qualification, experience, and gender

jointly and significantly influence principals’ job performance. They also agreed with that of

Okwor (2012), on the relationship between principals’ demographic characteristics and

organizational effectiveness in secondary schools. The results indicated substantial relationship

between some principals’ demographic characteristics and organizational effectiveness in terms

of communication, decision-making, motivation, and disciplinary measures. The results further

revealed that of all the demographic variables (Age, Qualification and experience as vice

principal), only experience as a vice principal had significant relationship with principals’ overall

organizational effectiveness. The results of this study also agreed with some aspects of the

findings of Okpalugo (2008) that there was a significant relationship principals’ age, gender,

experience, qualification, marital status and students’ achievement. Specifically, schools

administered by married principals with higher qualifications had the best results. The results of

the study did not agree with that of Ibukun (2011) and Ogunsanya (2001) that there was a

significant difference between principals’ age and their administrative effectiveness. The results

disagreed with that of Njoku (2004), age and years of administrative experience had a significant

positive relationship with administrative effectiveness. They disagreed also with the findings of

Anderson and Druva (2003) and Ibian (2005) that work experience of the principals had

significant positive relationship with their job performance. However, the findings also

244

disagreed with the findings of earlier studies such as Aguh (2003), Emeh (2004), and Okpe

(2010) that experience did not significantly influence principals’ job performance.

The findings of the study of a significant positive relationship between qualification and

plant management agreed with that of Chike and Ebeke (2007), Okendu (2009) and Okpe

(2010) that significant relationship existed between principals’ educational qualification and

administrative effectiveness in certain areas of management of schools. It can be logically

posited that the superiority attributed to professionally qualified principals over less qualified

ones is that professional training pre-exposes principals to knowledge, skills, attitudes and

sophistications needed for effective and efficient job performance. However, this finding

contradicted the findings of earlier studies. For instance, Akpan (2007), Aguh (2003), and

Ogbaji and Oti (2006) reported that professional qualifications of principals have no significant

influence on their job performance.

The findings of this study also agreed with that of Domina (2005) and with some of the

results of Adenuga (2008), that of the predictor variables (age, gender, experience and

qualification) only age and gender had no substantial relationship with principals’ effectiveness.

Age and gender had negligible influence on principals’ performance effectiveness because

advancement in technology has so exposed individuals in different direction that the influence of

age and gender may not have been substantial. The results were not in agreement with that of

Oredien (2004) and Njoku (2004) which showed a positive relationship between principals’

productivity and age. These findings disagreed with that of Onyiri (2007) on principals’ personal

attributes and administrative effectiveness of public and private secondary schools. The results

show that there was no significant difference in the influence of principals’ age, experience,

qualification, and forthrightness on the administrative effectiveness of private and public

245

schools. Their performance only differ due to close supervision of instruction which was higher

in private schools.

The findings of the study showed that married principals were less effective in decision

making and public relations than singles. This might be so as Aguh (2003) observed that

marriage subjects couples to more responsibilities which gives them little time to follow up

official matters or attend to their official work very regularly. These result disagreed with that of

Okpalogu (2008) on the relationship between principals’ demographic variables and academic

achievement. The results showed that schools administered by married principals had the best

results. The results also disagreed with that of Oentoro (2009) that showed a significant

relationship between marital status and principals’ effectiveness in the management of human

and material resources.

The findings of the study also showed that Location had significant relationship with

principals’ performance in instructional supervision, communication and school plant

management. Principals whose schools were located in the urban areas were more effective in

supervision, communication and school plant management. These findings agreed with that of

Akiri and Ugborugbo (2008) that performance of teachers was significantly influenced by

location. Teachers in urban areas performed better than those in semi-urban and rural areas. The

results of their study further revealed that the performance of female teachers was significantly

influenced by location. Female teachers performed best in urban schools and worst in rural

schools.

The findings of this study also revealed that area of specialty had significant relationship

with principals’ performance in provision of incentives to teachers and students. Principals who

did not specialize in educational administration and planning were more effective in providing

incentives to teachers and students.

246

The findings of this study revealed that leadership style had significant relationship with

principals’ performance in all the task areas except school plant management. Principals that

exhibited a more open leadership style were more effective than those that exhibited close

leadership styles in instructional supervision, communication, decision making, provision of

incentives, human resources development, public relations, financial management, adherence to

legal status, and conflict management and resolution. The findings of the study agreed with that

of Ateh-Abang (1997), that the most effective administrators were those that exhibited openness

by communicating more information to their subordinates, being more helpful and sympathetic.

These are features of democratic behaviour which support all social activities and give strength

to the feelings of personal dignity and self-expression, creativity, group interaction and effective

performance.

It further revealed that of all the demographic and personality variables only leadership

style had a significant relationship with all the task areas of principals performance except school

plant management. These findings are not surprising because principals whose relationships with

others are characterized with mutual respect and warmth, with open channels of communication,

articulated goals, and optimizing the use of resources for the achievement of school goals should

perform well. However, the policies of various state governments on the provision of

infrastructural facilities differ and do not fall squarely within the roles of the principal. This

might explain the lack of substantial relationship with plant management. The implication is that

government have failed to provide the needed facilities like classrooms, seats, tables,

laboratories, libraries, and water which the study revealed not available and refurbish the ones in

deplorable condition for effective utilization to meet the competing educational needs of teachers

and learners.

247

These findings agreed with those of earlier studies. Nwaeze (2003) reported that

leadership styles had significant relationship with organizational climate. Effective leadership

exerts positive relationships, and the ability to deal with complex issues and manage change.

Kolawole and Fashina (2009) also reported that there was a significant relationship between

principals leadership style and job performance. Studies by Jack (2012), Omeke and Onah

(2012), and Duze (2012) reported that there was significant relationship between principals

leadership style and secondary school teachers job satisfaction. Secondary school teachers

agreed that only democratic leadership exerts a positive influence on their job satisfaction. The

teachers were satisfied with democratic leadership because their opinions, comments and

suggestions were needed for decision-making. It was also observed that the democratic

leadership style was up ahead of laissez-faire, and autocratic as having a more significant

positive relationship with teachers’ job performance. A study by Nwankwo, Loyce and Obiorah

(2011) showed that leadership styles significantly related with principals administrative

effectiveness. Their findings further showed that democratic leadership style is the most

effective of all types of leadership as principals uses case studies and collaborative approach in

finding solutions to discipline problems. The findings further agreed with that of Napodia

(2010) who observed that leadership style significantly influenced principals’ administrative

effectiveness of secondary schools.

However, these findings were contrary to earlier studies. For instance, Truman (2007)

reported that there was no significant difference in influence of head teachers style of

administration on the various categories of school activities. Adegbesan (2013) showed that there

was no significant relationship between the principal’s leadership style and teaching/learning

atmosphere. Sawati, Anwar,and Majoka (2011) also reported that there is no significant

248

influence of any particular management style of high school administrators and schools’

academic results.

The findings of this study revealed that motivation had no significant relationship with

principals’ performance in any of the task areas. Motivation only tended towards significance

with principals performance in instructional supervision. The findings agreed with that of

Akanbi (2003) that the relationship existing between intrinsic motivation and employee’

performance were insignificant. The findings also agreed with that of Okolo, Haruna, and

Oguche (2013) that there was no significant difference between the mean responses of male and

female secondary school teachers on the extent to which motivation influences teachers’ job

performance. However, these findings were contrary to earlier studies. For instance, Abdulahi

(2010) and Ekere (2010) reported that motivation had significant relationship with employees

performance. Kolawole and Fashina (2009) showed that motivational variables significantly

influenced the performance effectiveness of principals of secondary schools. Nakabiri (2011)

also reported that there was a significant relationship between employee motivation and

performance.

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Conclusion

The following conclusions were drawn based on the research findings.

The principals in South-South, Nigeria are mostly males, young, married who have first

degrees, and have served as vice principals before their appointment. Therefore, principals are

appointed from the stock of vice principals.

Leadership style impacted positively with principals’ performance in all but one of the

task areas of management of secondary schools. Principals exhibited open leadership styles

which was handy in improving their performance.

Principals were motivated by some intrinsic factors such as nature of work, recognition,

responsibility, achievement and advancement. However, motivation had no significant

substantial relationship with principals performance in any of the task areas, probably because

only intrinsic factors were considered.

Principals’ performance was high in instructional supervision, communication, decision

making, provision of incentives to teachers and students, financial management, adherence to

legal status, conflict management and resolution. These task areas are the usual concern of the

principals in their day to day management of their schools. However, they performed poorly in

human resources development, public relations, and school plant management. These are task

areas that traditionally are not regarded by some principals as their responsibilities, but that of

government.

Whereas demographic variables such as experience, educational qualification, location,

experience as vice principal, area of specialty, marital status and state related with principals

performance in some of the task areas of management of secondary schools, only principals

experience, educational qualification, marital status, and school location predicted performance

250

in some task areas. Principals age and gender neither related nor predicted performance in any

of the task areas.

Educational implications

The findings of this study have far reaching educational implications to the principals and

the government. The results have provided empirical evidence in respect of demographic and

personality variables and principals performance in the management of secondary schools.

The study revealed that most principals were in the age bracket of 51 to 55 years. The

implication of this is that most of the principals were still young to carry out their duties of

managing the affairs of secondary schools before their retirement.

The findings of the study also revealed that most of the principals were males. Gender

had no substantial relationship with any of the task areas. The implication is that the performance

of principals will not depend on whether the person is a male or female.

Most of the principals were married as revealed by the study. Marital status had

substantial relations with some aspect of management of schools. The implication is that marital

status impacted positively in the performance of principal in the management of schools.

Married principals would perform better than those who were not married. It is an enablement to

extend the responsibility and maturity that comes with marriage to give attention to school

activities and handle complex issues.

This study also found that years of working experience of principals related significantly

with principals’ performance. Experience impacted positively on principals performance in the

discharge of their duties. Principals with more years of working experience would perform better

than those with fewer years of working experience in the management of secondary schools.

This study also found that educational qualification of principals related significantly

with principals’ performance. Educational qualification of the principals is also essential in the

251

consideration of teachers for appointment to principalship position. This is an enablement for the

application of skills acquired during training to specific areas like leadership, instructional

supervision, conflict management, financial management, public relations, and decision making

to enhance their functions. Principals with higher educational qualifications would perform

better than those with lower educational qualifications in the management of secondary schools.

The study found that all the motivational factors namely work itself, recognition,

responsibility, achievement, and advancement were perceived by the principals as factors that

motivated them to higher performance. The presence of these factors in the job situation leads to

feelings of satisfaction and there absence result to decreased effort in carrying job duties.

Motivated principals would perform better than those who are not motivated. If the principals are

well motivated, they become happy and put more efforts on their jobs, and better results are

achieved.

The findings of the study revealed that leadership style had significant and positive

relationship with principals’ performance in all the tasks areas except school plant management.

The leadership behaviours exhibited by the principals from the findings of the study such as

accessibility; communicating openly to staff about school activities; encouraging teachers self

expression, creativity and interaction; showed concern and respect for staff; involving teachers in

decision-making and delegating duties to them enhanced teachers’ co-corporation, and

commitment to duty impacted positively on performance. Leadership styles could greatly

improve performance of principals in the task areas of management of secondary schools.

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Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study and the various implications which have been

highlighted, the following recommendations were made:

1. In the promotion of teachers to principalship cadre, age and gender should not be given

much premium since they had no significant relationship with principals’ performance in

any of the task areas of management of secondary schools.

2. Academic qualification, years of working experience, and marital status of teachers should

be considered during the appointment of principals since these variables had significant

relationship with principals’ performance in different task areas of management.

3. Training and re-training programmes should be given to principals with a view to helping

them adopt more open leadership styles for effectiveness.

4. Professional development and capacity building programmes in public relations, human

resources development, and school plant management should be constantly organized by

the government in collaboration with All Nigerian Conference of Principals of Secondary

Schools (ANCOPSS) for the re-training of principals since principals’ performance was

low in these task areas.

5. Although motivated, effort to improve the level of motivation of principals should be made

by the government through the Ministry of Education on the provision and maintenance of

school facilities and involve them in decision making to enhance their performance since

they represent government and implement the programmes in the schools.

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Limitations of the Study

The generalizations made with respect to this study are subject to the following

limitations:

1. The questionnaire was prone to faking by teachers and principals and this might have

introduced error in the study.

2. The use of research assistants in the distribution of some of the questionnaire might have

affected the study negatively.

Suggestions for further Study

Based on the findings of the study, the researcher suggests the following for the further

research.

1. This study could be replicated in other zones of Nigeria for the purpose of generalization.

2. This study could be replicated using private secondary school to give room for the

generalization of the results to principals in both private and public schools.

3. This study could be done using head teachers in primary schools.

4. Experimental study could be done on the effect of leadership styles and principals

performance.

Summary of the study

Principals have the responsibility for the management of secondary schools. This

includes the different task areas such as instructional supervision, communication, decision

making, provision of incentives to teachers and students, human resources development, public

relations, financial management, adherence to legal status, conflict management and resolution,

and school plant management. Effective Management of these affairs will enhance the

achievement of the aims of secondary education of preparing the individuals for useful living

within the society and for higher education. However, principals’ performance in the

254

management of secondary schools has remained questionable in South-South, Nigeria. This is

due to the deplorable state of the schools evidenced in students’ poor performance and unrest,

dilapidated facilities, teachers’ poor attitude to work, embezzlement of funds, and other illegal

activities perpetrated in the schools which has led to a public outcry. It has been observed that

demographic and personality factors such as leadership style and motivation may influence

principals in their management of secondary schools. The extent to which these variables relate

with principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools in South-

South Nigeria has not been determined, in spite of their presumed connection with performance.

This study attempted to determine the relationship between demographic and personality

variables and the performance of principals in some task areas of management of secondary

schools in South-South, Nigeria. The review of literature was carried out using three broad

headings, namely, conceptual framework, theoretical framework, and empirical studies. The

conceptual and theoretical framework brought to the fore the presumed connection between

demographic and personality variables and performance which is limited by empirical evidence.

In pursuance of the objectives, the correlational survey design was adopted while thirteen

research questions were posed and ten hypotheses postulated and tested at 0.05 level of

probability. All principals of public secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria, comprised the

population of the study. The sample for the study consisted of 310 principals obtained using Taro

Yamen’s formula. In arriving at this sample, a proportionate stratified random sampling

technique was used to select the number of principals for each state by dividing the population of

principals in each state by the population of the study and multiplying the result by the sample of

the study. To ensure a fair representation, a disproportionate stratified random sampling

technique was used to determine the number of principals per senatorial district by dividing the

255

sample for each state by three since there are three senatorial zones in each state. One thousand

eight-hundred and sixty teachers, six each for the sampled schools rated their principals.

Four instruments were used for data collection namely: the principals’ motivational

factors questionnaire, principals’ leadership style questionnaire, the principals’ performance

scale and the plant observation rating scale. Face validity of the instruments was determined by

experts in educational administration and planning, and Measurement and Evaluation all from

the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. They were expected to give their comments and suggestions

on the construction and content of the instrument bearing in mind the problems being

investigated in the study. Internal consistency reliability of the instruments was determined using

cronbach alpha from data collected from a trail test conducted using 14 government owned

secondary schools in Igbo-Eze South and Nsukka Local Government Areas of Enugu State,

South-East, Nigeria. The respective correlation coefficients obtained were considered high

enough for the study.

Research questions one was analyzed using frequencies and percentages. Means and

standard deviations were used to answer research question two and three, while Pearson Product

Moment Correlation coefficient was used to answer research question four to thirteen. The

hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using multiple regression analysis and

associated ANOVA and t-tests.

The findings showed that most principals in South-South Nigeria were males, married,

with first degrees, specialized in various aspect of education, are within the age bracket of 51-

55 years. They have served as principals and Vice principals for a period of not more than

11years. The factors that motivated principals in the performance of their duties were nature of

work, recognition, responsibility, achievement and prospects for advancement. The principals

exhibited open leadership styles. Principals’ performance was high in instructional supervision,

256

communication, decision-making, provision of incentives to staff and students, financial

management, adherence to legal status, and conflict management and resolution. Their

performance was low in human resources development, public relations and school plant

management.

The findings showed that there was substantial relationship between some demographic

and personality variables with principals performance in some task areas of management of

secondary schools. Leadership styles had relationship with principals’ performance in

instructional supervision, communication, decision making, provision of incentives to teachers

and students, human resources management, public relations, financial management, adherence

to legal status, and conflict management and resolution; educational qualification related with

principals performance in decision making and school plant management; experience related

with principals performance in financial management and conflict management and resolution;

experience as vice principal related with principals performance in public relations; area of

specialty related with principals performance in provision of incentives; Location related with

principals performance in instructional supervision, communication, and school plant

management; state related with principals performance in financial management and public

relations.

The study further showed that demographic and personality factors had joint significant

relationship with principals’ performance in all the task areas of management of secondary

schools. These variables predicted 16.3%, 25%, 28.7%, 38.3%, 32.6%, 20.8%, 15.2%, 17.4%,

34%, and 6.8% of the variance in instructional supervision, communication, decision making,

provision of incentives, human resource development, public relations, financial management,

adherence to legal status, conflict management and resolution, and plant management

respectively. The following variables predicted performance in different task areas. Leadership

257

style predicted in all the task areas except plant management; location in instructional

supervision, communication and plant management; marital status in decision making and public

relations; experience as principals in financial management; and academic qualification in plant

management. Age and gender did not predict principals’ performance in any of the task areas.

Major implications of the findings are: leadership style, experience as principal,

educational qualification, and marital status of the principals imparted positively on

performance; performance of principals would not depend on whether the person is a male or

female; the principals are still young to carry out their duties before retirement.

On account of these findings and implications, it was recommended that: the appointment

of teachers to principalship cadre should not be based on age or gender, because these variables

had no substantial relationship nor predicted principal’ performance in any of the task areas of

management of secondary schools. Educational qualification, years of working experience, and

marital status of teachers should be given premium for appointment of principals since these

variables had significant and substantial relationship with principals’ performance. Training and

re-training programmes should be given to principals with a view to helping them adopt more

open leadership styles for effectiveness. The government through the Post Primary Schools

Management Board and the Association of Principals of Secondary Schools should collaborate

to organize professional development programmes to re-train principals on human resources

development, public relations and school plant management since their performance was low in

these areas. Finally, the government through their agency should continually motivate principals

by providing and maintaining school facilities and involving them in decision-making in major

issues relating to secondary schools since they represent government and implement the

programmes in the schools.

258

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278

Appendix A

SUMMARY OF POPULATION FOR THE STUDY

Data Survey, 2012: Ministries of Education, South-South of States of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

S/No.

NAME OF STATE

(A)

NO. OF

TEACHERS (B)

NO. OF SEC. SCHOOLS or NO. OF PRINCIPALS

(C)

TOTAL NO. OF TEACHERS &

PRINCIPALS PER STATE (D)

(B + C)

1 Akwa-Ibom 5,489 234 5,723

2 Bayelsa 2,893 148 3,041

3 Cross Rivers 5,430 248 5,678

4 Delta 5,388 244 5,632

5 Edo 4,081 237 4,318

6 Rivers 6,539 245 6,784

TOTAL 29,820* 1,356* 31,176

279

Appendix B

TARO YAMEN’S FORMULAR FOR SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

Formula: n = N__ 1 + N(e)2

Where: n = Desired Sample Size - (?) N = Population of the study- (1,356) e = Level of significance - 0.05 1 = Theoretical constant - 1 Substituting the values in the formula gives us;

n = N__

1 + N(e)2

n = 1,356_ 1 + 1,356 (0.05) 2 = 309

PROPORTION OF SAMPLE FOR EACH STATE

1. Akwa Ibom - 234 x 309 = 53.323 = 53 1356

2. Bayelsa - 148 x 309 = 34.725 = 35 1356

3. Cross Rivers - 248 x 309 = 55.513 = 56 1356

4. Delta - 244 x 309 = 55.601 = 56 1356

5. Edo - 237 x 309 = 54.006 = 54 1356

5. Rivers - 245 x 309 = 55.829 = 56 1356 310*

280

SUMMARY OF SAMPLE FOR THE STUDY

S/No.

NAME OF STATE

(A)

SAMPLED SCHOOLS REPRESENTING PRINCIPALS

(PROPORTIONALLY STRATIFIED) (B)

SAMPLED TEACHERS 6 EACH PER SAMPLED

SCHLS IN EACH STATE (C)

(B x 6) 1 Akwa-Ibom 53 318

2 Bayelsa 35 210

3 Cross Rivers 56 336

4 Delta 56 336

5 Edo 54 324

6 Rivers 56 336

TOTAL 310* 1,860*

281

Appendix C

List of Sampled Secondary Schools used for the Study per Senatorial Zone

AKWA IBOM STATE

Akwa Ibom North-East - SD/007/AK

1. CSS, Nsit Ubium 2. CSS, Ndu Kpoise Nsit Ubium 3. CCSS, Ikot Ekpene 4. CSS, Eka Obong Abak 5. CSCS, Ikot Ukobo Uyo 6. CCSS, Four Town, Uyo 7. Etoi Sec. School, Uyo 8. Uyo High School, Uyo 9. Ikono Ibom Comp. Sec. Schl, Uyo 10. CSCS, Ikot Oku Ikono, Uyo 11. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Asuna 12. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Ikot Nte 13. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Itukhu 14. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Idoro 15. CCSS, Ikot Uneke 16. Ubium CSS, Ikot Okwot 17. CCSS, Ikot-Eyo 18. CSS, Ikot Usen

Akwa Ibom North-West - SD/008/AK

1. State College Ikot Ekpene 2. CSS, Eka Obong Abak 3. Holy Family College, Abak 4. CSS, Ediene, Abak 5. Gov’t. Tech. College, Abak 6. CSS, Nket 7. Comp. High School, Ntak Afagha 8. CSS, Afagha Obo 9. Comp. Sec. School, Odobo Okobo 10. Offort Ukwa Sec. School Obio Offort 11. CSS, Ukana 12. CCSS, Etinan 13. National High School, Etebi 14. CSS, Ikot Abia Idem 15. Comp. Sec. School Nkana 16. CSS, Uso Ekonh 17. CHS, Ekparakara 18. Eastern Middim Sec. School, Ikot Town

Akwa Ibom South - SD/009/AK

1. GSS, Afagha Eket 2. St. Francis Sec, School, Ikot Ataku Eket 3. Girls High School, Ikot Ibiok Eket 4. Nduo Eduo High School Eket 5. Eket Modern High School Ekpene Obo Esit Eket

6. Oniong West Sec.School, Ikot-Edor 7. Community Sec. Commercial School, Odio 8. Qua Iboe Church Senior Science School Odou Eyo 9. Community Sec. Commercial School, Ikot Akpan

Ishiet 10. CDA,Sec.School Ikot Eket 11. Oniong East Community Sec. School, Ikwe 12. CSS, Idiong Iniang 13. Onna Peoples High School, Abat 14. Senior Science College, Uron 15. CSS, Eyo Kam, Uron 16. CSS, Ikot Town 17. CCSS, Okorete 18. CSCS, Ikot Ebere

BAYELSA STATE

Bayelsa East - SD/016/BY

1. CSS, Otuasega 2. CSS, Idema 3. OCCSS, Otakeme 4. CSS, Elebele 5. GSS, Ayama Ogbia 6. CSS, Opume-Ogbia 7. CSS, Emeyal 8. CSS, Minibie Akassa 9. Odinade CSS, Emakalakala-Ogbia 10. CSS, Otuoke/Otuaba 11. CSS, Oruma 12. Mater Dei High School Imiringi

Bayelsa Central - SD/017/BY

1. CSS, Agudama Epie 2. Central Epie CSS, Opolo-Epie 3. CSS, Biogbolo 4. Epie National High School Kpansia 5. CSS, Igbogene 6. St. Jude’s College, Amarata 7. BDGS, Yenagoa 8. CSS, Ikolo 9. CSS, Femgbe 10. Ugo Grammer School, Yenegoa 11. CSS, Okiki 12. CSS, Ayamassa

Bayelsa West - SD/019/BY

1. CSS, Sagbama 2. CSS, Ogbotobo 3. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Afoni 4. GSS, Amassoma 5. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Aleibiri 6. GGSS, Kiama 7. GSS, Udi 8. Kiama Grammer School, Kiama 9. CSS, Norgbene

282

10. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Agoro 11. CSS, Okoroba 12. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Okumbiri

CROSS RIVER STATE

Cross River North - SD/025/CR

1. Basang Sec.Com. School Bayelsa 2. Banliku Com.Sec. School, Sankwala 3. CSS, Bendi 4. CSS, Ketting 5. Bessenge Comp. High School, utanga 6. Utanga Community Sec School, Bagga 7. Comp. High School, Bishiri 8. CSS, Busi 9. GSS, Kukare 10. Bisu Com. Sec. School Bayayam 11. Royal Com. Sec. School Lishikwel 12. Girls Sec. School, Obudu 13. Govt. Sec. School, Obudu 14. CSS, Ubang 15. CSS, Ukpe-Obudu 16. CSS, Ukwel-Obudu 17. CSS, Betukwel 18. CSS, Bebuatsan 19. CSS, Utugwang

Cross River Central - SD/026/CR

1. CSS, Okangha 2. GSS, Akparabong 3. GSS, Yala-Ikom 4. CSS, Yala 5. Army Day Sec School, Afi Barack 6. Enoghi Sec. School Ikom 7. CSS, Okuni 8. CSS, Nde-Ikom 9. Ofu top Comp. Sec. Ikom 10. Velos Sec. Community School, Ikom 11. CSS, Ogurude 12. CSS, Onyenokpon 13. CSS, Adun 14. CSS, Yala-Nkum 15. CSS, Apiapum 16. CSS, Ofodua 17. Abanyom Com. Sec. School, Edor 18. Comp. Sec School, Balep 19. Comp. Sec School, NTA

Cross River South - SD/027/CR

1. NYSC Model High School, Calabar 2. Army Day Sec. School, Calabar 3. West African People’s Institute Calabar 4. St. Patrick’s College, Ikot Ansa 5. Estate Sec. School, Ikot Ansa 6. GSS, Adiabo Calabar

7. GSS, Atu, Calabar 8. Duke Town Sec. School, Calabar 9. NECO Comp. Sec. School, Calabar 10. Govt. Sec School, Henshew Town, Calabar 11. Zenith High School Oti Uzon Ozon Okobo, Calabar 12. Margret Ekpo Sec. School, Calabar 13. CSS, Owai, Calabar 14. GSS, Atuk, Calabar 15. GSS, Nyahasang 16. GSS, Idang 17. GSS, Uwanse 18. GSS, Anaitigha 19. GSS, Atuk

DELTA STATE

Delta Central - SD/028/DT

1. Chude Girls Model School 2. Ukarbe Sec. School Otete, Oghara 3. Ihwighwu Sec. School, Ijonu-Oghara 4. OrodeGrammer School Sapele 5. IdjieGrammer School, Jessey 6. Orefe Sec. School, Ogharafe-Oghara 7. Ethiope Mixed Sec. Schl, Sapele 8. Ziks Sec. School Sapele 9. Mosogar Sec. School 10. Ezefia Grammer School, Amuikpe 11. Okotie-Ebor Grammer School, Ogharafe 12. Ogharafe Sec. School 13. Oreki Sec. School, Ogharafe 14. Boboroku Sec.School, Jessey 15. Uriapele Mixed Sec. School, Sapele 16. Elume Grammer School, Elume, Sapele 17. Ogini Grammer School School Ogharafe 18. Gana Mixed Sec. School, Sapele 19. Uforma Mixed Sec. School, Sapele

Delta North - SD/029/DT 1. Oko Sec. School, Oko 2. Niger Mixed Sec.Schl ,Asaba 3. Abavo Mixed Sec. Schl, Abavo 4. Asaba Mixed Sec. Schl, Asaba 5. Gbenoba Sec Schl., Agbor 6. Osadenis Sec. School, Asaba 7. Emumu Mied Sec. School, Agbor 8. Abavo Girls Sec. School, Abavo 9. Asaba Girls School, Asaba 10. Omumu Mixed Sec Schl, Omumu-Agbor 11. Ihu-Iyase Sec. Schl., Agbor 12. Alidima Sec. Schl., Alidima 13. Ibusa Girls Schl., Ibusa 14. Okpalani Sec. Schl. Okpanam 15. Ugbolu Sec. Schl. Ugbolu 16. Ogbe Sec.School Agbor 17. Agbor Girls High School, Agbor 18. Illah Grammer School, Illah 19. Asaba Grammer Schools, Asaba

283

Delta South - SD/030/DT

1. Army Day Sec. School, Efurun 2. Comp. Sec. School, Ugheli 3. Ogbe Sec. School, Efurum 4. Eradajage Sec. School, Ugolo-Efurum 5. GSS, Kaa 6. CSS, Kpean 7. Opoji Grammer School 8. CSS, Ogbogoro 9. Burutu Grammar Schl., Burutu. 10. Egodor Sec., Schl., Egodor 11. Egura Opoji 12. Bane Comp. Colege 13. Obotebe Sec. Schl., Obotebe 14. Otibio Grammar Schl., Otibio 15. Emo-Eni Grammar Schl.,Ellu 16. Oketa Grammar Schl., Ofagbe 17. Iyede Sec. Comm. Schl, Iyede 18. Odimodi Sec. School, Odimodi 19. Okpalani Sec. Schl. Okpanam

EDO STATE

Edo Central - SD/035/ED

1. Comp. High School, Auchi 2. Army Day Sec. School, Auchi 3. Auchi College 4. Iyekhei Girls Sec. School, Auchi 5. Edo Boys High School 6. Idia College 7. Evabareke Sec. School 8. Uselu Sec. School 9. Ohaze Sec. School Iguaben 10. Baptist High School, Iguaben 11. Ihogbe College, Irua 12. Igekehi Girls School Iguaben 13. Irua Ikpe Grammer School 14. Jatta Grammer School, Iguaben 15. Ewatto Grammer School Iguaben 16. Anglican Girls Grammer School 17. Imaguero College 18. Army Day Sec. School

Edo North - SD/036/ED

1. Uhi Grammer School Uromi 2. Akpekpe Sec. School Uromi 3. Ikasco Sec. School, Uromi 4. Udo High School Uromi 5. Uji Grammer School Uromi 6. Ibillor Boys Sec. School, Ibillor 7. CSS, Ogori Mangogo 8. Ekpedo Comp. Sec. School 9. Boys Model College, Ebovoanka 10. Ikpesi Grammer School 11. Ubiaji Comp. School, Ubiaji

12. Akoko Edo Grammer School, Uneme-Nekhua. 13. Ososo Grammer School, Ososo 14. Ososo Comp. Sec. School, Ososo 15. Ekpese College Egor 16. Ehor Grammer School, Egor 17. Oka Sec. School 18. Aduwa Sec. School

Edo South - SD/037/ED

1. Edokpolor Grammer School Benin City 2. Western Boys High School Benin City 3. Ihogbe College Benin City 4. Osaniwende Sec. School, Benin City 5. Akenzuwa Sec. School, Benin City 6. Baptist High School Benin City 7. Emotan College 8. Egosa Ang. Grammer School, Benin City 9. Aduwawa Sec. School, Benin City 10. Oba Ewanbe Sec. School 11. Evibotubo Sec. School, Benin City 12. Niger College, Benin City 13. Ugioma Sec. School, Benin City 14. Oredo Sec. School, Benin City 15. Itohan Girls Grammer School, Benin City 16. Ogbe Sec. School, Benin City 17. St. Maria Gorrette College, Benin City 18. Asoso Grammer School, Benin City

RIVERS STATE

Rivers East - SD/094/RV 1. CSS, Rumuoji 2. Army Day Sec. Schl, Bori Camp 3. Model Sec. School, Port Harcourt 4. CSS, Pabod, Port Harcourt 5. CSS, Nkpogwu Port Harcourt 6. Model Girls Sec. School Rumueme 7. CSS, Rumuolumeni 8. GGSS, Rumuokuta 9. Enithonia High School, Borokiri 10. CSS, Rumuokini 11. CSS, Amadi-Ama 12. CSS, Rumuoprikom 13. CSS, Rumuodamaya 14. CSS, Nkpolu-Oruwuorokor 15. GSS, Orominike 16. CSS, Aluu 17. CSS, Elele-Alimini 18. CSS, Igwuruta 19. CSS, Okoro nu-Odu

284

Rivers South East - SD/094/RV

1. CSS, Bori 2. CSS, Alode 3. GSS, Lua-wii 4. CSS, Mogho 5. CSS, Yeghe 6. GSS, Kpor 7. CSS, B-Dere 8. BNGS, Bori 9. CSS, Wiyakara 10. CSS, Koroma Tai 11. ICSS, Kono 12. Bane Comp. College Bane 13. GCHS, Taabaa 14. Comp. High School Nowa 15. CSS, Kpean 16. GSS, Kaa 17. BNCSS, Gwarra 18. Comm. Sec. Schlool, K-Dere 19. GSS, Onne

Rivers West - SD/095/RV

1. CSS, Emago-Kugbo 2. CSS, Emelego 3. GGSS, Ahoada 4. CSS, Okporomini Ahoada 5. County High School, Ahoada 6. CSS, Ogbogu 7. CSS, Obuburu 8. CSS, Obagi 9. GSS, Akabuka 10. Model Boys Sec. School, Omoku 11. CGSS, Omoku 12. CSS, Ido 13. KNC, Buguma 14. CSS, Abalama 15. CSS, Tombia 16. Degema National High School 17. GSS, Mibiama 18. CSS, Ifoko 19. GSS, Okarki

285

DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL POPULATION PER SENATORIAL ZONES IN SOUTH-SOUTH,

NIGERIA

AKWA IBOM STATE = 234 Secondary Schools

• Akwa Ibom North-East: (8 LGAs), and 79 schools. 1. Etinan - 11 2. Ibesikpo Asultan - 7 3. Ibiono Ibom - 11 4. Itu - 8 ) Sampled schls = 18 5. Nsitibom - 7 6. Nsit Ubim - 12 7. Uruan - 8 8. Uyo - 15

79 • Akwa Ibom North-West: (10 LGAs), and 82 schools. 1. Abak - 11 2. Essien Udium - 10 3. Etim Ekpo - 7 4. Ika - 4 5. Ikono - 12 ) Sampled Schls.= 18 6. Ikot Ekpene - 7 7. Ini - 7 8. Obot Akara - 5 9. Oruk Anam - 14 10. Ukanafun - 5_

82 • Akwa Ibom South: (12 LGAs), and 73 Sec. schools 1. Eastern Obolo - 3 2. Eket - 8 3. Esit Eket - 5 4. Ibeno - 1 5. Ikot Abasi - 11 6. Mbo - 3 7. Mkpat Enin - 16 ) Sampled Schls.= 18

8. Okobo - 8 9. Onna - 9 10. Oron - 4 11. Udung Uko - 1 12. Orue Offong/Oruku - 4_

73 BAYELSA STATE = 148 Secondary Schools • Bayelsa East: (3 LGAs), and 45 Sec. schools 1. Brass - 8 2. Nembe - 11 Sampled Schls.= 12

3. Ogbia - 26_ 45_

• Bayelsa Central: (3 LGAs), and 66 Sec. schools 1. Okolokuma/Opukuma - 12 2. Southern Ijaw - 32) Sampled Schls.= 12

3. Yenagoa - 22 66

• Bayelsa West: (2 LGAs), and 37 Sec. schools 1. Ekeremor - 17 2. Sagbama - 20 Sampled Schls.= 12

37 CROSS RIVER STATE = 248 Secondary Schools • Cross River North: (6 LGAs), and 87 Sec. schools 1. Bekwarra - 6 2. Obanliku - 13 3. Obudu - 24 4. 4. Ogoja - 16 ) Sampled Schls.= 19

5. Yala - 20 6. Biase - 8_ 87 • Cross River Central: (6 LGAs), and 95 Sec. schools 1. Abi - 11 2. Boki - 28 3. Etung - 9 4. Ikom - 15 )Sampled Schls.= 19 5. Oburra - 16 6. Yakurr - 14

95 • Cross River South: (6 LGAs), and 66 Sec. schools 1. Calabar Municipality - 16 2. Calabar South - 7 3. Akampka - 19 4. Akpabuyo - 7) Sampled Schls.= 19

5. Bakasi - 3 6. Odunkpani - 14

66 DELTA STATE = 248 Secondary Schools • Delta Central: (7 LGAs), and 96 Sec. schools 1. Ethiope East - 19 2. Ethiope West - 6 3. Okpe - 8 4. Sapele - 8 )Sampled Schls.= 18

5. Ugheli North - 22 6. Ugheli South - 14 7. Uvwie - 11

96 • Delta North: (8 LGAs), and 94 Sec. schools 1. Aniocha North - 15 2. Aniocha South - 13 3. Ika North-East - 15 4. Ika South - 12) Sampled Schls.= 18

5. Ndokwa East - 13

286

6. Ndokwa West - 12 7. Oshimilli North - 8 8. Oshimilli South - 7_

94 • Delta South: (8 LGAs), and 54 Sec. schools 1. Bomadi - 8 2. Burutu - 11 3. IsokoNorth - 10 4. Isoko South - 3) Sampled Schls.= 18

5. Pathani - 5 6. Warri North - 4 7. Warri South - 9 8. Warri North West - 4_

54 EDO STATE = 234 Secondary Schools • Edo Central: (5 LGAs), and 63 Sec. schools 1. Essan Central - 11 2. Essan North-East - 9 3. Essan South-West - 13) Sampled Schls.= 18

4. Essan West - 16 5. Igueben - 14

63 • Edo North: (6 LGAs), and 75 Sec. schools 1. Akoko Edo - 12 2. Esako East - 10 3. Esako Central - 13) Sampled Schls.= 18

4. Esako West - 13 5. Owan East - 15 6. Owan West - 14

75 • Edo South: (7 LGAs), and 96 Sec. schools 1. Oredo - 12 2. Orhrionmwon - 10 3. Ovia North-East - 14) Sampled Schls.= 18

4. Ovia South-West - 11 5. Egor - 15 6. Uhunwode - 14 7. Ikpoba Okha - 20

96

RIVERS STATE = 245 Secondary Schools • Rivers East: (8 LGAs), and 94 Sec. schools 1. Etche - 19 2. Omuma - 3 3. Ikwerre - 13 4. Obio/Akpor - 16 5. Port Harcourt - 15) Sampled Schls.= 18

6. Okrika - 6 7. Ogu/Bolo - 3 8. Emuoha - 19

94 • Rivers South-East: (7 LGAs), and 67 Sec. schools 1. Opobo/Nkoro - 3 2. Andoni - 10 3. Oyigbo - 4 4. Tai - 10 5. Eleme - 6 ) Sampled Schls.= 18

6. Gokana - 12 7. Khana - 22

67 • Rivers West: (8 LGAs), and 84 Sec. schools 1. Abua/Odual - 11 2. Ahoada East - 12 3. Ahoada West - 13 4. Asari-Toru - 11) Sampled Schls.= 18

5. Akuku-Toru - 6 6. Degema - 12 7. Bonny - 4 8. Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni- 15

84

287

Appendix D

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION

Department of Education Foundation University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

25th May, 2013. Dear Sir/Madam,

Demographic and Personality correlates of Principals’ Performance in the Management of Secondary Schools in South-South, Nigeria

I am a doctoral student of the department of Educational Foundation, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, I am carrying out a study on the topic stated above. The purpose of the study is to determine the relationship between demographic and personality factors, and the performance of principals in the management of secondary schools in South-South Nigeria. Your co-operation is, therefore, highly needed in order to make this work successful. In the questionnaire, you are provided with opinions and you are requested to tick (√) in the column against the item you feel is applicable. I wish to assure you that all information given by you will be treated in strict confidence and used purely for the research purpose. Thank you for your anticipated co-operation

Yours Sincerely,

Walson, Ominini Brother Asako PG/Ph.D/09/52080 (Researcher)

288

Appendix E PRINCIPALS MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS QUESTIONNAIRE (PMFQ )

(Principals only)

(SECTION A) DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

Tick in the box provided where appropriate and give the necessary information in the space provided.

1 . Name of School: ________________________________________________________ 2. Sex: Male Female 3. a. Academic Qualification: List all-----------------------------------------------------------

b. Area of specialization:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Job Experience as: Principal -------------------------------------------------

Vice Principal---------------------------------------

5. Marital Status: Married Single Divorced Separated

7. Age: ------------------------------------

289

(SECTION B)

PRINCIPALS’ MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS - (Principals only)

This Section is on Principals’ Motivational Factors. It is aimed at identifying factors

which serve as motivators to principals for effectiveness and efficiency in the management of

their schools. Indicate appropriately by ticking any option that describes the extent you

agree that each item applies to you using the following scale: Strongly Agreed (SA); Agreed

(A); Disagreed (D); and Strongly Disagreed (D).

S/No. QUESTION ITEMS SA

A

D

SD NATURE OF WORK ITSELF

As a School principal, 1 The work I am doing is meaningful 2 The work I am doing is interesting 3 The job I am doing require my initiatives 4 My job is not threatened 5 I derive pleasure in my job 6 The job I am doing is challenging RECOGNITION 7 My opinion is highly valued at PTA meetings. 8 There is meaningful recognition of successfully

accomplished tasks by PTA and Schools Board.

9 I am always commended by PTA and Schools Board when I do well

10 My views are sought for in decision making 11 I am often used as a point of reference for successful

accomplishment of task

RESPONSIBILTY 12 I am not redundant on the job 13 I preside over Staff meetings 14 I participate in the supervision of instruction in my

school.

15 I supervise various sections of the school 16 I nominate my staff to participate in available

conferences/workshops

17 I am the custodian of all important records of my school 18 I am an officer of the PTA

290

SA A D SD ACHIEVEMENT

19 My students are doing well 20 My staff are making some socio-economic progress. 21 There is improvement in infrastructure in my school 22 School-Community relationship is cordial ADVANCEMENT

23 I have acquired further education and training since becoming principal

24 I have acquired management committee experience on the job

25 There is support for professional growth 26 There is possibility of self actualization 27 There is opportunity for promotion

291

Appendix F

PRINCIPALS’ LEADERSHIP STYLES QUESTIONNAIRE (PLSQ), (To be completed by teachers)

(SECTION A)

DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES

Tick in the box provided where appropriate and give the necessary information in the space provided.

1 . Name of School: ________________________________________________________ 2. Sex of teacher: Male Female

3. Academic Qualification of teacher: List all------------------------------------------------------

4. Job Experience of teacher:----------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Marital Status of teacher: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

292

(SECTION B)

LEADERSHIP STYLES

In this section you are provided with statements that describe the leadership styles of the

principal of your secondary school. You are kindly, requested to indicate the extent you agree

that the statements apply to your principal by ticking in one of the four columns provided

using the following scale: Strongly Agreed (SA); Agreed (A); Disagreed (D) and Strongly

Disagreed (SD).

S/No.

Question Items SA A D SD My principal

1 communicates openly to staff about school activities

2 encourages self expression, creativity and interaction in the school

3 shows feeling of concern and respect for staff

4 delegates duties to staff

5 involve teachers in decision making

6 nags at teachers openly

7 makes appeal rather than commands staff

8 imposes task and duties on teachers

9 concedes to high level of staff independence in school activities

10 wants things done in his/her own way

11 is concerned about staff feelings

12 apportions blames to staff when things go wrong

13 is resistant to change

14 is indifferent about activities in the school

15 shows concern for school goals and staff welfare

293

Appendix G (To be completed by teachers )

PRINCIPALS PERFORMANCE SCALE (PPS)

This scale provides a cluster of measures to assess principal’s performance on nine

administrative Task areas with 45 associated items. Read each statement carefully and tick the

response that best fits the specific job behavior or practice of your principal. The response

options are: Very Frequently (VF), Frequently (F) Occasionally (O), and Never (N).

S/No. Question items VF F O N

(A) INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION

My principal

1 inspects teachers’ notes of lesson to see if they are properly written.

2 examines students note books during class visits

3 conducts unscheduled informal visits to classrooms

4 points out specific strengths and weaknesses in teacher's instructional practices

5 assigns teachers to classes according to their qualifications

(B) COMMUNICATION

My principal

6 discusses the school's goals and mission with teachers at meetings

7 informs staff and students about School rules and guidelines to enable them adjust properly.

8 encourages teachers to discuss their problems with him/her.

9 mention the school's goals or mission in fora with students (e.g., in assemblies)

10 sends out information about students to parents and guardians.

( C ) DECISION-MAKING My principal

11 involves teachers in decision making process in the school

12 ensures that PTA meetings are held to discuss salient issues of school improvement.

13 takes decision based on available resources.

14 considers school programmes in taking decisions

294

15 involve students representatives in taking decisions concerning them

(D) PROVISION OF INCENTIVES TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS

My principal

16 rewards teachers who perform well

17 rewards students with outstanding performance

18 shows love and care to staff and students

19 recognizes teacher’s personal value.

20 ensures that the learning environment is safe from hazards.

(E) HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

My principal

21 organizes programmes for staff improvement

22 shows interest in teachers in-service training

23 encourages teachers to attend available professional development programmes like seminars or workshops.

24 builds a sense of teamwork to nurture an earnest effort to help each staff member achieve his or her potential

25 sets aside time at staff meetings for teachers to share ideas or information from in-service activities

(F) PUBLIC RELATIONS

My principal

26 organizes extra-curricular activities with parents of students and other stake holders in attendance

27 keeps the community adequately informed of the specific needs of the school for possible assistance

28 helps in the establishment of PTA groups and working co-operatively with them.

29 liaise with the schools board in finding solution to school problems

30 allows the public to use school facilities

(G) FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

My principal

31 prepares realistic budget

32 explores sources of revenue generation to provide some essential needs of the school

33 Keeps proper accounts of disbursement of school funds

34 prioritizes financial allocation according to needs

35 works within the confines of school budget

295

(H) ADHERANCE TO LEGAL STATUS

My principal

36 emphasizes proper understanding of the rights, limitations and legal implications of teachers actions in dealing with students and parents’ in educational matters

37 maintains the confidentiality of official matters

38 ensures mutual understanding through obedience and preservation of school rules and regulations

39 ensures strict control over teachers and prefects whose powers and limitations are clearly defined

40 makes school rules and regulations available to teacher and students to regulate their conduct.

(I) CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND RESOLUTION

My principal

41 does not take side with any party in a dispute in the school

42 creates cordial relationship with and among teachers

43 ensure proper school organization to define staff roles to avoid a clash

44 Treats everybody equally

45 foster strict disciplinary measures to defaulting staff and students to serve as a deterrent to others

296

Appendix H

PLANT OBSERVATION RATING SCALE(PORS)

Name of School: ________________________________________________________________________________________ Class------------------------------------------------------

Availability : Adequacy Population of Class------------------------------------- Key: Available Very High = VH High = H Not Available Low = L

Very Low = VL

S/No. PLANT ITEMS Availability Adequacy Items No.

1.

CLASSROOMS

VH H L VL Students locker & Seats 1 Teacher table & Seat 2

Ventilation

Windows/doors 3 Fan 4 Air Conditioner 5

Chalkboard

Wall 6 Wood 7 White 8

Lighting

Natural 9 Electricity 10 Solar 11

Esthetics 12

2.

OFFICES

Availability Adequacy VH H L VL

Teacher table & Seat 13 Ventilation


Lighting


Space 20 Filling Cabinet 21 Esthetics 22

Availability Adequacy

3.

LABORATORY

VH H L VL Equipment 23 Benches/Tables 24 Stools 25

Ventilation


Lighting

Natural 29 Electricity 30

297

Solar 31

Space 32

Esthetics 33

4.

WORKSHOPS

Availability Adequacy VH H L VL Equipment 34 Benches/Tables 35 Stools 36

Ventilation


Lighting


Space 43 Esthetics 44

5.

TOILETS


Water System 45 Pit Hole 46 Bucket 47 Bush 48

6.

WATER


Pipe borne 49 Borehole 50 Mono Pump 51 Well 52 Spring 53 Tanker Supply 54 Lake/River 55 Student Supply 56 Others( 57

Availability Adequacy

7.

PLAYGROUND

VH H L VL Foot ball pitch 58 Other field events pitch 59 Track events pitch 60 Esthetics 61

8.

ELECTRICITY


Solar 62 Public Power Supply 63 Generator 64

9.

COMPOUND


Trees 65 Flowers 66 Grasses 67 Esthetics 68

298

Name of Observer:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date:---------------------------------------

Time:--------------------------------------------------------------Sign:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

10.

FIRE EXTINGUISHER


Industrial 69 Bucket 70

11.

MEDICAL FACILITIES


First Aid Box 71 Attendants 72 Drugs 73 Others (Specify) 74

12.

LIBRARY


Books 75 Shelves 76 Chairs 77 Tables 78

Ventilation


Lighting


Space 85 Esthetics 86

299

BENCHMARK FOR RATING SCHOOL PLANT ITEMS

Instruction: High & above = VH or H Low & Below = L or VL

S/No.

General Criteria

Items

Benchmark Ratings

High & above

Low & Below

1.

Ventilation

Windows/doors Cross ventilation Yes - No Cross ventilation - Yes

Fan & Air conditioner Functional Yes - Not Functional - Yes

2.

Light Natural, Solar & Generator Public Power Supply

Bright Yes - Dark - Yes

3.

Space

Classrooms, Offices, Lab, Lib. & Workshops

Allowance for movement Yes - Congestion

-

Yes

4.

Esthetics

Classrooms, Offices, Lab, Lib. & Workshops

Painted, neat & proper arrangement Yes

-

Not painted, dirty & Poor arrangement - Yes Playground & compound

Trimmed flowers, trees & clean paths. Yes - Untrimmed flowers, trees & over grown grasses on paths and field.

- Yes

Specific Criteria

Items

Benchmark

5.

Classroom

Table & Seat for teachers In good condition Yes - In bad condition - Yes

Seats & desks for students Equal to Number of Students in class Yes - Less than Number of students in class - Yes

Blackboard Large & smooth surface Yes - Large/Small &Rough surface - Yes

6. Offices Filing cabinet Useable by teachers Yes - Not Useable by teachers - Yes

7.

Laboratories & Workshops

Equipments

Equivalent to number of students Yes - Less than Number of students - Yes

Benches, Tables & Stools Equivalent to number of students Yes - Less than Number of students - Yes

8.

Library

Chairs & Table Equivalent to number of students Yes - Less than Number of students - Yes

Shelves Useable Yes - Un useable - Yes

Books Good quantity Yes - Scanty - Yes

9.

Playground

Football pitch, other field events pitch, track events pitch

Marked &useable Yes - Un marked or Fairly marked & useable

- Yes

Trees & flowers

Planted in good number & well trimmed

Yes -

Sparse - Yes

300

10.

Compound

Grasses Well cut & clean paths Yes - Bushy & dirty paths - Yes

Water

Pipe borne, Bore hole, Mono pump, & Spring.

Yes -

Tanker supply, lake/river/stream, student supply, well

- Yes

Toilets Water system, clean pit Yes - dirty Pit, bucket, & bush - Yes

11. Fire extinguisher

Compound/Offices Industrial Yes - Bucket of sand - Yes

12.

Medical facilities

First Aid Box

Functional apparatus Yes - Non-Functional apparatus - Yes

Attendants 2personnel & above Yes - Less than 2 personnel - Yes

Drugs Good quantity Yes - Low quantity - Yes

301

Appendix I

SUGGESTIONS DURING VALIDATION

The experts who validated the instrument made the following suggestions:

1. Dr. J.J. Ezeugwu suggested that effectiveness and efficiency be expunged from the

topic. He noted that the research questions and hypotheses be restructured while some

items in the demographic section of the instruments which are not relevant be

expunged. He equally moderated some of the items in the instruments and specifically

pointed out that the response pattern of the Principal Motivational Factors

Questionnaire be re-visited to tally with the questions raised. He also suggested that the

question items in the instruments be concise for simplicity while more plant items be

included in the plant observation scale. These suggestions were taken into

consideration and reflected in the final copy.

2. Prof. N.O. Ogbonnaya also suggested changes in the purpose of the study while some

items not relevant in the demographic section of the instrument be expunged. He

equally moderated some of the items in the instruments suggesting that some of the

clusters in the Principals’ Performance scale (POS) be possibly obliterated on due

consultation with the supervisor as the clusters seem to be much. These suggestions

were taken into consideration and corrections reflected.

3. Dr. (Mrs.) G.T.U. Chiaha suggested changes in the purpose of the study, research

questions and hypotheses. She moderated some of the items in the instruments noting

that more items be included especially in the Principal Motivational Factors

Questionnaire and Plant Observation scale. She also suggested that some items in the

demographic section of the instruments be expunged. These suggestions were taken into

consideration.

302

Appendix J

LIST OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS USED FOR THE TRIAL TESTIN G OF

INSTRUMENT IN ENUGU STATE

1. Urban Boys Secondary School, Nsukka

2. Model Secondary School, Nsukka

3. G.T.C. Nsukka

4. Community Secondary School, Nru-Nsukka

5. Urban Girls Secondary School, Nsukka

6. Community Secondary School, Obukpa

7. Community Secondary School, Alor-Uno

8. Community Secondary School, Ihkpa-Awka

9. Government Secondary School, Ibagwa-Aka

10. Community Secondary School, Uhuowerre

11. Ibagwa-Ani Secondary School

12. Igbo-Eze Secondary School

13. Boys Secondary School, Ibagwa-Aka

14. Edem Community Secondary School

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