DECOLONIZATIONIn the Cold War

POSTWAR PROBLEMS

Activists in colonies used chaos to achieve long-held goal of liberation

Colonial powers brutally repressed nationalist groups & attempted to reimpose control at war’s end

Soldiers faced discrimination while fighting in war, igniting nationalist sentiment Did not receive equal rights promised when they

returned home Led by individuals steeped in Western values &

experienced in war technology

END OF EMPIRE IN ASIA

Mobilized mass discontent to drive out foreign rulers

Biggest loser = Britain Lost India in 1947, after promising independence in 1930

2M soldiers fought in WWIII Industries important suppliers of war goods Business leaders bought out local British entrepreneurs 2 countries emerged from old colony – India (Hindu) & Pakistan (Muslim)

Sole notable colony left was Hong Kong

Mao Zedong set forth communist China no longer plaything of colonial powers in 1949 People’s Republic of China emphasized welfare of peasantry Reforms for women Soviet-style collectivization, industrialization, & repression

US VS. USSR IN ASIA

US interested in region’s economic importance

USSR had shared borders

Victory of Chinese Communists spurred superpowers to increase involvement in Asian politics

First faced off in Korea, 1950 North Korea (backed by USSR) invaded South Korea (US) UN Police Action against North Korea 2 years of stalemate agreed to settlement in 1953 [Korea remains split @ prewar border, the 38 th

parallel] Result – US increased military spending from $10.9B to $60B in 1953

Expansion of Cold War into Asia prompted creation of Asian counterpart to NATO – the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization [SEATO], 1954

Then spread into Indochina (French – Vietnam, Cambodia, & Laos) Led by European-educated Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) and his Viet Minh to fight colonial rule Advocated redistribution of land Peasant guerillas defeated French at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 Geneva Conference [1954] carved out independent Laos & split Vietnam into North & South US supported unpopular regime in the South…

IDENTITY CRISIS IN THE MIDDLE EAST

Independence struggles highlighted world’s need for oil

Showed ability of small countries to maneuver between the superpowers

Middle Eastern peoples resisted attempts at imperial control after 1945

FORMATION OF ISRAEL

Legacy of Holocaust complicated Middle Eastern politics Western commitment to secure Jewish nation stirred

Arab determination not to be pushed from homeland

At start of war, 600,000 Jewish settlers & 2x as many Arabs lived in British-held Palestine

1947 – exhausted, Britain turned area to UN

Voted to partition Palestine into Arab region & Jewish region

Conflicting claims led to a war, which Jewish military forces won

Then took more areas reserved for Arabs

Endemic conflict ever since!

EGYPTIAN INDEPENDENCE

Gained independence from Britain at end of WWII

Britain retained dominance in shipping through control of Suez Canal, owned by a British-run company

Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser became president in 1953 Economic modernization “True national independence” = control of the canal Nationalized Suez Canal in 1956 Hero to Arabs, esp. when Britain, Israel, & France attacked Egypt while

the Hungarian revolt was in full swing [US later made Britain back down, fearing Egypt would turn to the USSR]

Triumph inspired colonized peoples to force imperial powers to surrender political and economic power

NEW NATIONS IN AFRICA

Nationalist leaders rallied against Europe’s increasing demands for resources & labor, which resulted in poverty for most Africans Movements inspired by ideas of Pan-Africanism who advocated for unity of Africans around the world [WEB

Dubois, Marcus Garvey, etc.] Western-educated lawyers & journalists had founded the African National Congress in South Africa in 1912, but

was small & had little influence WWII also increased power/fame of leaders like Haile Selassie of Ethiopia

Less violent where population was mostly black than in mixed-race territories with large settler populations [Eastern & Southern Coasts + Central Areas] Whites wanted to retain privilege

Kwame Nkrumah (1909-1972) led peoples of British-controlled West African Gold Coast in passive resistance Forced British to withdraw Brought state of Ghana into being 1957

Nigeria achieved independence from Britain in 1960 Several constitutions & military coups Latest constitution mimics the US

France granted independence with relatively little bloodshed to Tunisia, Morocco, & West Africa Blaise Diagne agitated for African participation in politics & fair treatment in French army during WWI [Senegal]

Was first African elected to the French National Assembly Postwar – led movement against forced labor in Africa

ALGERIA – A DIFFERENT STORY

Had 1M white settlers of European descent Massacred tens of thousands of Algerian nationalists at end of war

Front for National Liberation, 1954, battled more than 400,000 French troops French tortured Arabs, prompting protests in Paris & around the world Algerian women planted bombs in cafes & carried weapons to assassination

sites Resulted in collapse of France’s Fourth Republic & Charles De Gaulle returned

to power 1958 [Fifth Republic] De Gaulle embarked on de-colonization campaign French military’s prestige dependent on keeping Algeria launched terrorist campaign

in French cities Ultimately, De Gaulle negotiated independence with Algerians by 1962 & let it go

Hundreds of thousands of pieds noirs – “black feet” [Europeans living in Algeria] – returned to France

**Extension – Algeria: From Liberation to Dictatorship

COLONIAL LEGACIES

Unstable new governments Little/no prior experience in government under colonial rule Often characterized by military dictatorships

Human rights violations in Cameroon Military coups endemic in Togo Niger – military coups + droughts

Some more successful Mali – relatively stable & has regular democratic elections Senegal pretty stable

Ethnic conflicts Democratic Republic of the Congo – civil wars & military coups Somalia – clan-based factions, terrorism, warlordism

Mass migrations of peoples

Influx of Christianity

Racism ingrained in society Apartheid in South Africa

Rather than fading, negative effects are persisting or even growing

VIOLENCE COOPERATION

Violence vs. Dutch & Belgian empires

New independent nations emerged in Asia, Africa, & Middle East

Structures arose to promote international security & worldwide deliberations

UN convened for first time in 1945 Hint at success over fmr. League – US & USSR joined Charter outlined collective global authority to resolve conflict Provide military protection for threatened members

Additional example = Bandung Conference of nonaligned nations 1955 Sponsored by Indonesian president Sukarno, who secured independence from NL Set common policy for modernization & facing superpowers

Began raising global issues like human rights & inequalities between countries of the north (colonial powers) and the south (plundered)

NEWCOMERS TO EUROPE

People from former colonies migrated to Europe

First came from British Caribbean possessions

Labor shortages in northern Europe led to negotiations with southern European countries for temporary workers Germany – had 15.5M male workers vs. 18M female workers + ideological climate that wanted women out

of the work force = needed immigrant labor Looked to North African & sub-Saharan countries in 1960s

Soviet bloc took in refugees from war-torn Southeast Asia

Workers from Africa & Asia entered countries like Italy, who had formerly exported labor, by 1970s

By 1980s, 8% of European population was foreign-born, compared to 6% in US Temporary resident status – would return to homeland Often did jobs people in the West avoided Immigrants saw Europe as land of relatively good government, wealth, and opportunity with decent living

conditions Children achieved good positions in government, business, education, & the professions

Increased racial, ethnic, and religious diversity

CHANGES IN LATIN AMERICA

REVOLUTION & CIVIL WAR IN MEXICO

Highly divided rich/poor society

Landowners (less than 1% of population) owned 85% of land, mostly in huge haciendas

Handful of US & GB investors controlled railroads, mines plantations, & other enterprises

General Porfirio Diaz ruled for 34 years under motto “Liberty, Order, Progress” Liberty = freedom for rich hacienda owners Order = rigged elections, bribes, & harsh justice Progress = importing foreign capital & machinery to exploit Mexico’s resources Discriminated against non-white majority Uprisings in 1911 = gov’t collapse & Diaz in exile

Mexican Revolution – haphazard social revolution & leaders represented diff. sects Francisco I Madero – son of wealthy landowning family, educated in the US Emiliano Zapata – peasant leader Venustiano Carranza & Alavaro Obregon – middle class & industrial workers, supported the

Constitutionalists Overthrew new leader Huerta in 1914

REVOLUTION SPREADS

Revolts led by Zapata against haciendas

Francisco “Pancho” Villa rose in Chihuahua in the north Led cowboys against haciendas & divided into family ranches Enjoyed popular support, but couldn’t manage to lead a national revolution

Constitutionalists gradually took control of Mexico Defeated & killed Zapata in 1919 Villa assassinated in 1923 Did adopt agrarian reforms initiated by Zapata & Villa Constitution of 1917 promised universal suffrage & 1-term presidency

State-run education for the poor [Church] End of debt peonage Restrictions on foreign ownership of property Minimum wage & max. hours laws Important symbolic significance – enshrined equality

Subsequent leaders & presidents installed reforms, replacing church-run schools with government ones & nationalized railroads Remained free from chaos & dictatorships through 1940s Enabled more of the population to participate in politics

ARGENTINA’S TRANSFORMATION

Evolved more peacefully than Mexico Prosperity in postwar years Also time of social turmoil

Middle class that demanded share in government, looking to Europe as a model

Military revolt flared in 1943, led by Juan Peron “Civilians will never understand the greatness of our ideal; we shall therefore have to eliminate

them from the government and give them the only mission which corresponds to them: work and obedience”

Officers took highest positions in gov & business Lavish salaries & military equipment Popularity collapsed as Nazis’ did But, Peron used charisma of his wife Eva Duarte Peron to appeal to urban workers

Won presidency in 1946 Created populist dictatorship like Vargas in Brazil Industrialized rapidly Spent $$$ on social welfare projects & the military But, couldn’t create a stable government Military coup overthrew Peron after Eva’s death, 1952