Cultural Aspectsof Translation

María del Mar Rivas CarmonaMaría del Carmen Balbuena Torezano(Eds.)

TRANSLATION, TEXT AND INTERFERENCES 2

Cultural Aspects of Translation

edited byEva Parra-Membrives,

Miguel Ángel García Peinado,and Albrecht Classen

volume 2

TRANSLATION, TEXT AND INTERFERENCES

María del Mar Rivas CarmonaMaría del Carmen Balbuena Torezano (Eds.)

Cultural Aspectsof Translation

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Index

Introduction............................................................................................... ix

Translation and lexicography:

Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna (1832-51). A propos the article diccionario Ignacio Ahumada Lara......................................................................................... 1 Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Diego de Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms (1593) María Águeda Moreno Moreno........................................................................... 13 Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen Eduardo José Jacinto García................................................................................. 29 Word-formation and translation in A. de Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805) Marta Torres Martínez........................................................................................ 45 Literature in ancient times:

An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides through an analysis of the narrative settings that introduce the battle-speeches David Carmona Centeno..................................................................................... 69 Haggadic episodes in Aljamiado stories. A case from the ‘Poem of Yúçuf‘ Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala................................................................................. 89 The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and their digitization Carlos Santos Carretero....................................................................................... 99

vi

Literature of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries:

The Elegy written in a country churchyard de Thomas Gray traduite en français par Marie-Joseph Chénier Soledad Díaz Alarcón......................................................................................... 113 Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception and Translation into Spanish Ángeles García Calderón................................................................................... 129 The Spreading of Scientific Knowledge from Epistolary Literature: Gilbert White’s Letters translated into Spanish Cristina Huertas Abril...................................................................................... 155 Einige Bemerkungen zur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings durch Hartzenbusch Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez.................................................................... 169 La Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère, de Claude-Joseph Dorat, une héroïde basée sur l´œuvre de Mme de Tencin Beatriz Martínez Ojeda.................................................................................... 185 Charles Dickens’s Hard Times: a pragmatic-cognitive approach to its translation into Spanish María del Mar Rivas Carmona........................................................................ 197 The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry: the literary career of Alexander Pope Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero...................................................................... 209 D. Juan de Escóiquiz’s Spanish version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado.............................................. 237 20th century literature: Was ist DDR-Deutsch und wie übersetzt man es? Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm und seiner Übersetzung ins Spanische Sabine Geck...................................................................................................... 257

vii

Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth “between cultures” in the translation of the biography of Frida Kahlo Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz............................................................................... 279 The Hybrid New South African Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk and Zakes Mda Compared: Man Bitch (2001/2006) versus The Madonna of Excelsior (2002) Juan Miguel Zarandona..................................................................................... 297 Non-literary translation: Corruption crimes and their translation: A contrastive study English-Spanish within the framework of European Union law Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente.......................... 313 Lost or found in translation? To what extent are the translations of scientific, medical and technical texts the key to their dissemination and impact? Bryan J. Robinson.............................................................................................. 333 Intercultural dialogue at hospitals for training interpreters Aurora Ruiz Mezcua......................................................................................... 345 Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle for the teaching and learning of Scientific and Technical Translation Miriam Seghiri Domínguez.............................................................................. 357 Analytic Translation Assessment: Experiment with a Template implemented in Markin María Cristina Toledo Báez.............................................................................. 373 The translation of grammatical metaphor in Europarliamentary opinions Mª Azahara Veroz González............................................................................. 389

Introduction

Cultural aspects of translation is the second volume of the series ‘Translation, text and interference‘ devoted to the projection of new insights into the area of translation and interpretation. The first volume of the series tackled the variety of problems faced within literary translation and consisted of a selection of papers originally presented at the eighth Conference on Translation, Text and Interference held in Cracow, Poland, in June 2011. This second volume deals with a wider range of cultural issues affecting the process of translation in different languages, English, Spanish, German, French and Arabic, and contains a selection of papers from the ninth Conference on Translation, Text and Interference held in Trujillo, Spain, in June 2012.

This collection of essays provides different approaches to the relations between socio-cultural issues and the process of translation, most especially how these issues are linguistically reflected in the translated texts. In order to grasp the full meaning of the linguistic expressions of the texts involved, translators need to have a well-grounded command not only of the languages in question, but also of the cultural ‘background knowledge‘ (Sperber and Hirschfeld, 2004), common to the users of these languages. In reality, translators should not simply share a single cultural background, but rather a multiple cultural background that allows them to properly transmit contents.

The present volume contains three major sections. The first one is devoted to the relation between linguistic and cultural issues as seen from the perspective of lexicography. The second section deals with the linguistic-cultural components in the translation of literary texts and is, in turn, divided up into three main headings: literature in ancient times, literature from the 17th to 19th centuries, and literature in the 20th century. Finally, a third section is dedicated to a variety of other settings, types of text and approaches to translation.

The lexicography section contains four articles dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues affecting the lexical choices in original and translated versions. Ignacio Ahumada Lara’s paper entitled “Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna (1832-51). A propos the article ‘diccionario‘“ focuses on the fact that, although the Spanish contribution to the nineteenth century encyclopedic movement in Europe was scarce, it happened nevertheless through the translation and adaptation of foreign works. The author reviews those elements ideologically related to

x Rivas Carmona & Balbuena Torezano

the so called neighborhood policy which appear in the Spanish version of the entry ‘dictionario‘ both in Mellado’s Enciclopedia moderna (1832-51) and in Pellissier’s Dictionnaire de la Conversation et de la lecture (1835).

In “Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Diego de Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms (1593)“, María Águeda Moreno Moreno argues that in his dictionary Diego de Guadix ‘rationalizes‘ the Arabic component of the Spanish language by means of a ‘perfected‘ language, with the clear intention of prosecuting everything Islamic. To achieve this end and based on the homophonous character of casual similarities, the lexicographer’s translation contains numerous instances of denotative equivalence, with a false etymology, and even establishes supposed relations between Arabic and Hebrew linguistic structures by means of invented concepts.

Eduardo José Jacinto García tackles the so-called “principle of authority“ and the relationship among translation, grammar and lexis in the compiling of Spanish dictionaries, in “Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen“. He focuses on the existence of translated texts in these dictionaries and on the role of the translator, as creator of neologisms or introducer of terms in the Spanish language, since translation involves a mediation between languages and cultures.

In “Word-formation and translation in A. de Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805)“ Marta Torres Martínez reviews the treatment given to word-formation in the bilingual dictionary by Antonio de Capmany, published in the early 19th century. Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805) meant a major change in the orientation of lexicography, since it offered relevant notions on French-to-Spanish and Spanish-to-French translation. Torres Martínez refutes Campmany’s ‘patriotic’ reference to the “endless richness” or “superabundance” of Spanish, if compared to French, for the dictionary includes a not inconsiderable number of words documented for French, in this case generated by processes of lexical creation.

The second block, devoted to literary texts, begins with a section

dedicated to literature in ancient times. In the first article, “An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides through an analysis of the narrative settings that introduce the battle-speeches“, David Carmona Centeno debates the controversy arousing out of the first Spanish translation of Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War by Diego Gracián de Aldarete (1564). The contributor compares passages of “narrative settings” (opening or closing phrases by the characters inserted into the narrative line) from Gracián’s, Valla’s (1452) and Seyssel’s (1512) versions and concludes that the text is certainly not a replica of the French one, but that Gracián’s translational norms seem to depend on the specific kind of battle exhortation.

Introduction xi

In “Haggadic episodes in Aljamiado stories. A case from the �Poem of Yúçuf‘“ Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala traces the sources back to the potential textual origin of a topos preserved in the ‘Poem of Y�suf’. Since the analysis of the Aljamiado fragment does not lead to the identification of a closer Arabic text as the direct source, Monferrer Sala tries to locate the possible Jewish original which served as the primary source for the Arabic text. He concludes that the Aljamiado fragment shows every sign of being the recasting of an earlier Arabic text which, in turn, draws on an earlier Midrashic account from the Haggad�h that eventually found its way into the Sefer ha-Yašar.

Carlos Santos Carretero’s essay, “The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and their digitization“, discusses the digitization process suffered by the most ancient existing biblical texts, the Dead Sea Scrolls. The author sets out debunking sensationalist theories and debating the texts antiquity, content and authorship. He finally assesses the digitization process which has permitted the accessing to the most important archaeological discovery dealing with “religious manuscripts” of the twentieth century.

The next section within the literary block is concerned with 17th to 19th century literary texts. In “‘The Elegy written in a country churchyard‘ de Thomas Gray traduite en français par Marie-Joseph Chénier“ Soledad Díaz Alarcón analyses ‘Cimetière de champagne‘, the French version of Thomas Gray’s poem, translated by Marie-Joseph Chénier. According to Díaz Alarcón, Chénier maintains the linguistic and rethorical macrocosm of the original text, preserving the semantic and poetic criteria but not the same verse structure. She considers it a ‘successful’ translation for it achieves: sonority, cadence and musicality by means of the phonetic resources employed, the lexical and rethorical precision and the precise transmission not only of messages but also of emotions and sensations.

In “Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception and Translation into Spanish“ Ángeles García Calderón presents a wide display of opinions on Thomson’s work, as well as on Gómez Romero’s 1801 translation, the source text for this version being not Thomson’s work but Mme Bontems’s prose translation of it. In fact, there was a closer relationship between Spain and France than between Spain and England in that period, partly due to the closeness of language; hence the understandable fact that many English works entered Spain through French translations.

The paper contributed by Cristina Huertas Abril, “The Spreading of Scientific Knowledge from Epistolary Literature: Gilbert White’s Letters translated into Spanish“, analyses the three translated letters into Spanish from Gilbert White’s Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne. This collection is the only classic work on natural history and is a clear example of the wide thematic diversity covered by eighteenth-century letter-writers.

xii Rivas Carmona & Balbuena Torezano

Moreover, the texts analysed, with inherently literary and scientific characteristics, were not easy to tackle by the translator because of the specialized terminology and the cultural elements implied.

In “Einige Bemerkungenzur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings durch Hartzenbusch“, Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez studies the reception of G.E. Lessing’s prose fables, from the translation by the Spanish Romantic writer Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch (1806-1880). The contributor carries out a structural and semantic analysis of Lessing’s work and con-cludes that the translation faithfully respects the German source text.

The next paper, offered by Beatriz Martínez Ojeda, is entitled “‘La Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère‘, de Claude-Joseph Dorat, une héroïde basée sur l´œuvre de Mme de Tencin“. Mme de Tencin’s ‘Mémoires du Comte de Comminge‘ became a literary phenomenon and was profusely adapted. This is the case of ‘Dorat’s Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère‘, whose first free translation into Spanish was done by D. M. A. de C. in 1803. The author of the paper considers it a paraphrasis because of the recurrent ampifications, omissions and modifications, but admits its merits as a “belle infidèle“.

The paper by María del Mar Rivas Carmona entitled “Charles Dickens’s Hard Times: a pragmatic-cognitive approach to its translation into Spanish“ examines a selection of extracts from Charles Dickens’s work and their translation into Spanish by A. Lázaro Ros. The analysis leads to the conclusion that ‘register variation‘ (in terms of idiolectal, dialectal and substandard features), which proves utterly ‘relevant’ in the original extracts under focus, is not preserved in the target version; hence, readers of the translated text may inevitably suffer an impoverishment of contextual effects and, consequently, obtain a flat and simplified impression of the characters.

Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero’s “The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry: the literary career of Alexander Pope“ reviews Pope‘s literary career and states that the two great figures that consolidated the professionalization of writing in England were Dryden and Pope, with a line of chronological contiguity between one and the other with common elements. Pope was concerned about the boom that mediocre literature was experiencing, and the false knowledge that it contained.

Rosalía Villa Jiménez and Vicente López Folgado’s contribution, “D. Juan de Escóiquiz’s Spanish version of Gray’s “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”“, discusses Escóiquiz’s translation and presents it as a refracted, adapted version, which widely fits into the translation procedures characteristic of the so-called oblique translation. The analysis reveals that the translator attempts to reflect, both through the morphosyntactic level, with the nominal mode prevailing over the verbal mode, and the lexical-semantic level, with discursive creations, generalisations, misinterpretations and additions, the pensive and melancholy mood of the poem, thus

Introduction xiii providing the effect in the reader’s mind of an action slowly flowing from the present to the past and to the future (meditations upon life-death-afterlife).

Three papers deal with literature of the 20th century. The first one is Sabine Geck’s “Was ist DDR-Deutsch und wie übersetzt man es? Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm und seiner Übersetzung ins Spanische“. Geck deals with German expressions character-istic of the GDR and their translation into Spanish, bearing in mind both the change of paradigm in literary texts and the Ostalgie of the East Germans who, after German reunification, do not feel fully integrated in the new po-litical and social scenery. Geck analyses the novel Der Turm, by Uwe Tellkamps as a referent.

Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz’s contribution entitled “Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth “between cultures” in the translation of the biography of Frida Kahlo“ studies the linguistic reflections of the complex cultural contingencies surrounding author, translator and biographied personality. The culture of the original text differs from that of the object of the story and this causes disparities depending on the place of publication of the biography. Rodríguez Muñoz’s analysis shows the threads to be pulled in order to undo the myth from a critical system which detects the subjective and cultural bias of the first American version of the famous biography.

In “The Hybrid New South African Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk (1956- ) and Zakes Mda (1948- ) Compared: Man Bitch (2001/2006) versus The Madonna of Excelsior (2002)“ Juan Miguel Zarandona compares visions, perspectives, outlooks and interpretations of two works dealing with the same traumatic past, that of post-apartheid South Africa. Whereas Mda’s The Madonna means future and collective healing, van Wyk’s Man Bitch offers the return of a past of suffering; hence the fact the The Madonna of Excelsior has been so popular, as opposed to van Wyk’s work.

The third section of the volume deals with non-literary translation. In the

paper contributed by Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis and Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente entitled “Corruption crimes and their translation: A contrastive study English-Spanish within the framework of European Union law“ the authors present a selection of terms, in accordance to the terminology on corrupt practices provided by the Spanish Penal Code, contrasting them with their different English counterparts, as provided by the international and EU documents. To attain this goal, they scrutinize the way in which these terms are stored by the lexical databases WordNet and EuroWordnet. The analysis reveals important problems in the lexical structuring of these databases regarding corruption incriminations, such as the disparate description of semantic relationships or the asymmetries between the

xiv Rivas Carmona & Balbuena Torezano

meaning of terms in either language that the databases cannot describe or interpret.

Bryan J. Robinson’s contribution, “Lost or found in translation? To what extent are the translations of scientific, medical and technical texts the key to their dissemination and impact?“, focuses on an issue that has recently caused concern among Information Science specialists, namely, the ethical question arising from so-called duplicate publications. His main aim is to determine how much language of publication influences any given journal’s impact. For instance, 20% of duplicate publications are translations into another language, which suggests the market for professional translators is growing apace with the publishing boom. Comparisons of publication volume suggest the countries that publish the most, produce the most duplicate publications too.

Aurora Ruiz Mezcua analyses the type of work interpreters must carry out in health contexts and the type of training they should receive in “Intercultural dialogue at hospitals for training interpreters“. The author describes the specific formation in interpreters training as related to language, culture and psychology, since it is critical to make students and trainee interpreters aware of all the difficulties which community interpreters might face.

Miriam Seghiri’s article “Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle for the teaching and learning of Scientific and Technical Translation“ describes the training of students of the subject “Specialized Translation English/Spanish, Spanish/English (Scientific-Technical Texts)” of Translation and Interpreting Studies at the University of Málaga, based on the use of the Moodle Platform, to create their own glossaries through this platform. Terminology management is one of the most important stages in a translation project and, according to Seghiri, online glossaries will not only save time for the students but ensure a consistent style and voice, an accurate rendering of the original text and a level of translation quality that is even throughout.

The aim of María Cristina Toledo Báez’s paper, “Analytic Translation Assessment: Experiment wih a Template implemented in Markin“ is to present a template for analytic error assessment, for which the notion of error is basic. This template focuses on negative aspects such as source text related errors (wrong sense, unnecessary addition or inadequate linguistic variation), target text related errors (orthography, grammar, terminology or textual type) and also on positive aspects such as correct terms and appropriate renderings. The main features of the template are: 1) its implementation in the training software Markin, whose main advantage for lecturers is facilitating the tasks of assessing and marking electronic assignments and 2) its adaptation from previous templates. She describes the advantages and proposes lines for future work.

Introduction xv

Lastly, the paper contributed by Mª Azahara Veroz González, “The translation of grammatical metaphor in Europarliamentary opinions“ tackles the study of ‘grammatical metaphor’ in its ideational variant in the genre of Europarlamentary opinions. The analysis follows the Systemic Functional Grammar perspective (Halliday, 2004), and it is based on a trilingual parallel corpus review (English, French and Spanish). It proves that there is a preference for metaphorical expressions in the three languages under focus which results in an increase of lexical density and grammatical simplification. Curiously enough, the decrease in the use of personal pronouns and modal verbs also endows the ‘opinions’ with impersonality and objectivity.

The second issue of the series ‘Translation, Text and Interferences‘

gathers a collection of papers dealing with a variety of topics focused on aspects of translation which are concerned with cultural issues that spans from ancient times until today. The contributors discuss mostly literary, but also a wide range of technical translations originated in the past and the present, and bring into interactive focus the widely varied areas of literary history and criticism, linguistics and methodology. The papers deal with authors and corpora of texts in English, Spanish, German, French and Arabic. Without doubt, the present collection of articles should serve as a useful platform for current work within the framework of multicultural topics and their application to teaching both undergraduate and graduate University students.

The Editors María del Mar Rivas Carmona

María del Carmen Balbuena Torezano

Ignacio Ahumada Lara

Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna (1832–51). A propos the article diccionario*

1 Introduction

The Spanish contribution to the nineteenth century encyclopedic movement in Europe was scarce as far as originality is concerned, as the really original works of our national bibliography were too few.

We regret that none of the projects carried out in this century was brought to fruition1. Quite another thing would happen with the translation and adaptation of foreign works. In this line there stand out, above the other, the Enciclopedia moderna, otherwise known as Mellado’s encyclopedia (1851–1855), the Diccionario universal de la lengua castellana, ciencias y artes: enciclopedia de los conocimientos humanos, otherwise Serrano’s dictionary (1875–1881) and the Diccionario enciclopédico hispano–americano de literatura, ciencias y artes, otherwise Montaner and Simon’s dictionary (1887–1898), all of them projects published in the second half of the century.

With respect to the three works above cited and best known in the nineteenth century, we must consider that only Mellado’s Enciclopedia can be ascribed to the encyclopedic genre properly speaking, although the arrangement is alphabetical. The other two correspond to that sort of repertoire we call hybrid encyclopedic dictionary. The length and the encyclopedic treatment of much of its nomenclature have been the cause that led critics to traditionally include Serrano's Diccionario and Montaner and Simon’s Diccionario within the genre of encyclopedias. By adding the world of words to the world of things, of objects, of historical events, geography, etc…, with the purpose of offering the user a more complete lexicographic product, we were persuaded to make a very different classification, strictly speaking, of encyclopedic cataloging. The linking * This article fits well within the frame of those carried out for the project Diccionario

bibliográfico de la metalexicografía del español, 2006–2010, a project that has been funded by the Ministry of Science and Innovation. National I + D + i (2008–2011). Call 2010. Project no. FF2010–19702. I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. Vicente López Folgado, of the University of Córdoba, for the translation of this article into English.

1 Take for example, the Enciclopedia española del siglo diez y nueve (1842–1847) (published last volume no. XII: art–arm).

2 Ignacio Ahumada Lara

nexus of these three repertoires puportedly lies in the translation and adaptation of other Spanish culture encyclopedias originally written in French, English or German.

I attempt here to review, within the study field of translation, those elements ideologically related to the so called neighborhood policy which appear in the Spanish version of the entry dictionario both in Mellado’s Enciclopedia moderna and in the Dictionnaire de la Conversation et de la lecture (1835); the latter was a reference for the Spanish translators whereas the Encyclopédie moderne (1847–1862) � a model for the publisher Francisco de Paula Mellado� apparently did not have a monograph on lexicographic repertoires. The conclusions of this last work, it seems evident, could be extrapolated to the Encyclopédie moderne, as our focus on the ideological aspects of policy of neighborhood is laid on two works brewed in France and written originally in French.

2 Encyclopédie moderne (1824–1832) and Dictionnaire de la Conversation (1832–1851)

The Encyclopédie moderne, ou dictionnaire abrégé of sciences, des lettres et des arts was first published in Paris between 1824 and 1832 under the direction of Eustache Courtin. The project, of an undoubted success for nearly half a century, sought, from the scientific point of view, to update the data of the two major French encyclopedias of the eighteenth century2; and, in addition, from the commercial point of view, “mettre l’encyclopédie à la portée de toutes les fortunes”.3 Re–edited in 1843, it was subject to review supplements under the supervision of Léon Renier between 1847 and 1862.4 It was precisely this second edition the one handled by F. P. Mellado in order to translate it and adapt it to the Spanish culture.

As far as the methodology of the work is concerned, I must also mention, in this respect, the external collaboration the Encyclopédie moderne received as a complement to the list of editors appointed for the task. This was quite

2 “Un autre motif non moins puissant a déterminé la publication de cet ouvrage. La

marche continuelle et progressive des lumières a rendu plusieurs parties de nos deux grandes Encyclopédies imparfaites, insuffisantes, et presque surannées…“ (Encyclopédie, 1824: I, v–vi), that is, the Encyclopédie (1751–1777) of Jean LeRond D’Alambert and Denis Diderot, on one hand, and the Encyclopédie méthodique (1788–1832) of the publisher Charles Joseph Panckoucke, on the other.

3 Encyclopédie moderne, vol. I, v. 4 The second edition was published between the years 1847 and 1862 under the

direction, as I said, of Léon Renier. When his director moved to Argelia to enter the service of the Ministry of Public Education, he was substituted by Nöel des Vergers at the beginning and later on by Édouard Carteron.

Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna 3 apparent because of the explicit mention of Spanish lexicographer Vicente González Arnao made in the preface of the 1824 edition:

“Il doit témoigner [E. Courtin] sa gratitude pour les renseignements que, par amour pour les lettres et la philosophie, lui ont été transmis par MM. Arnao, avocat au barreau de Madrid et membre de l’Académie de la histoire de la langue espagnole (sic); Barbier, ancien bibliothécaire du roi de France, Liagno, ancien bibliothécaire…“5

V. Gonzalez Arnao lived in Paris as an exile, due to his status as afrancesado (allied to the French), between 1814 and 1831. In all probability he had lexicographical experience, both of linguistic and encyclopedic kind, which would have led him to collaborate externally in the Encyclopédie moderne. To the best of my knowledge, within the scope of encyclopedic lexicography, V. Gonzalez Arnao had played a part in the failed project of the Royal Academy of History, the Diccionario geográfico–histórico de España, of which only the first few volumes were published. On that occasion, he wrote the corresponding part of the Señorío de Vizcaya in the volume Sección I. Comprehende el Reyno de Navarra, Señorío de Vizcaya, y las provincias de Álava and Guipúzcoa (1802). As regards linguistic lexicography, it is worth noting that his abridged edition of the academic Diccionario (1817) was published in Paris in 1826.6 Gonzalez Arnao’s connections with the Encyclopédie moderne may have had an influence on the choice and adaptation of this encyclopedic work to the Spanish culture and not to any other, at any rate, in spite of the fact that F. P. Mellado‘s had already a printing establishment in Paris; however, he could have chosen the Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture instead, for instance. Both French encyclopedias seem to have acknowledged similar acceptance among the educated Spanish readers, if we take into account the number of copies kept in Spanish public libraries.

The Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture had, the same as the Encyclopédie moderne, a deeply revised second edition in only two decades. In this second installment, published between 1853 and 1858, the responsibility of the work was explicitly taken on by the former director in both editions, the Parisian journalist William Duckett, whose purposes were firmly based, as stated in the "Avis" to the first edition, in impartiality, bearing in mind the clear ideological differences that kept apart that type of works in the last two centuries:

“Quand nous avons annoncé un livre de bonne foi et d’impartialité, nous n’ignorions pas les obstacles d’exécution que nous rencontrerions, et combien par

5 Encyclopédie moderne, vol. I, xii. 6 V. Gonzaléz Arnao became a member of the Royal Academy of History (1794) and the

Spanish Royal Academy (1804).

4 Ignacio Ahumada Lara

là nous restreignions nous–mêmes notre cercle d’action. Nous n’en avons pas moins persisté à suivre la voie que seule nous avait paru sage et bonne.“7

Both the title and the nomenclature of the encyclopedia are taken from the German tradition, where such type of works (conversations–lexicon) can be seen as a variant of the overall genre of encyclopedias, if they are not a proper encyclopedia in the full extent of the word.8

3 Enciclopedia moderna (1851–1855)

The Enciclopedia moderna is the first encyclopedic project adapted to the Spanish culture that an editor, F. P. Mellado, brought ever to fruition. It should be recognized that there were some examples already in previous decades, but the readers were hardly given but the first few volumes of the work. F. P. Mellado’s strong personality, as often happens when a great project is eventually fulfilled, must have been, no doubt, one of the key factors for its success. F. P. Mellado counted not only with the workshops of his 'printing establishment' to undertake his duties, but he also had founded the newspaper La Estafeta; he had published some occasional narrative or other, and had translated from the French some stories and novels, etc. In sum, he was much more than just the owner of a publishing house:

“Desde que concebí el pensamiento de esta publicación, mi primer cuidado fue reunir todas las obras análogas que han salido a la luz en otros países; la última edición de la enciclopedia inglesa, el Diccionario de la conversación del alemán Brockhaus, el Diccionario francés de la conversación y la lectura, el Diccionario enciclopédico universal de Meyer, publicado en alemán, la Enciclopedia moderna de Didot en fin, y cuantas obras pueden tener analogía con la presente, otras tantas he consultado.9 Una vez examinadas, desde luego me decidí a tomar por base la Enciclopedia de Didot, no solo por ser la mejor sino porque es la más moderna, como que aún no se ha concluido de publicar en París, y porque en esta edición, que es la segunda, se ha aumentado considerablemente y enriquecido con los adelantos de la ciencia hechos hasta el día en todos los ramos“ (Mellado, 1851: vii)

7 See [W. Duckett]: “ [Avis]”, in Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture. Paris 1832, p.

3. 8 There is an express statement by the director of the project, while the adoption of the

title speaks strongly in favor of the German thesis: “Nous avons, par l'adoption de ce plan, singulièrement agrandi ouvrages celui des Allemands et anglais that nous servent of modèles“ (in [W. Duckett]: “ [Avis]”, in Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture. Paris 1832, p. 4).

9 It refers to The Encyclopaedia Britannica (7. ª ed., 1830–1842), a Conversations–Lexicon oder kurz gefaßtes Handwörterbuch (4. ª ed., 1814–1819) by F. A. Bockhaus, to the Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture (1832–1851) by W. Duckett, to Grosse Conversations–Lexikon für die gebildeten Stande (1839–1855) by J. Meyer and to Encyclopédie moderne (2. ª ed., 1847–1862) by F. Didot.

Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna 5

The resources of his mentor do not end up with the translation and adaptation of the French model, as we shall see, but the group of writers resorts to other repertoires of the time to overcome any possible shortcomings presented by the original work. To this point of departure that steers the course of modern Encyclopedia, we have to count on the additions to the general nomenclatures of those entries that were specifically Spanish, contributed by the most prestigious men of the day: Rafael María Baralt was concerned with everything dealing with philology; Eugenio de Ochoa with literature, Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch with theatre, Tomás Rodríguez Rubí with criticism, Ventura de la Vega with Spanish poetry and poets; Ramón Mesonero Romanos with Madrid; Modesto Lafuente (F. P. Mellado’s brother in law) with History, etc... While the participation of a broad group of scholars is acknowledged in the preface, signed by the editor, the new articles written by this large group of collaborators lacked the signature�as was the case with the French version�, which makes it impossible for us to identify and assess properly their individual work. Does the translation and adaptation of the article under scrutiny, for example, belong to the Venezuelan scholar based in Spain Rafael María Baralt, whom we know well as a lexicographer: Diccionario matriz de la lengua castellana (Prospecto) (1850), Diccionario de galicismos (1855)…

3.1 The entry diccionario

The omission of the entry dictionnaire in the nomenclature of the Encyclopedie moderne can be a cause of surprise, whether in its first edition or Courtin’s (1824–1832) or in the second edition or Renier’s one (1847–1862), when the voice in question (dictionnaire) does form part of the subtitle of the work itself: Dictionnaire abrégé. The decision to include the entry in the Spanish work could have been made either because the responsible for the Philology section or the group of editors or the F. P. Mellado himself believed it necessary to overcome what for them was a major defect of the original French. To improve their work they made use of the repertoire that disputed then the editorial primacy in France, the Dictionnaire de conversation et de la lecture.

The entry diccionario transferred with omissions and amplifications to the Enciclopedia moderna had been published in French under the signature of Jean Baptiste Pellissier in 1835 in the Volume 20: “Mr. Pellicier (sic), de cuyo escelente artículo sobre diccionarios inserto en el de la Conversación, que hemos refundido y adicionado, tomamos todas estas noticias, dice que…”.10

10 See EM, 1852: s. v., col. 1015. It should be borne in mind that J. B. Pellissier, as well as

being a playwright, he worked with the team of the sixth edition of the Dictionnaire de la Académie Française (1835) (cf. Querard, 1835, sv). I must also note that for modern

6 Ignacio Ahumada Lara

I cannot bring to a close this presentation without noting that having structured J. B. Pellissier his work under two broad headings (a) «Notions historiques» (pp. 469–477) and (b) «Principales conditions d’un bon dictionnaire» (pp. 477–485) far exceeded the benchmark of the time, that is, the Encyclopédie of J. L. d'Alembert and D. Diderot.11 In the encyclopedia par excelence of the time, the entry dictionary scorns the historical part in order to focus exclusively on the description of the so called dictionary of languages (or words).12 J. B. Pellissier himself highlights it in the long introduction to the two main sections which I just mentioned:

“Et qu’aucun libre jusqu’ici, à ma connaissance, n’a présenté l’historique des vocabulaires. Je vais donc essayer de remplir, sous ce rapport, une partie de la lacune que nous a laissée la science bibliographique“.13

It seems apparent that the process of adaptation of the original French text is much more appropriate from the historical point of view than from a theoretical point of view, as the collaborator of the Enciclopedia moderna shows. It actually poses for him fewer problems to incorporate news about the history of our dictionaries than to do it about the theoretical principles governing a general dictionary. For J. B. Pellissier one of the blemishes of the Dictionnaire de la langue française lies in the absence of authorities in contrast with the French academicians‘ choice to supply their own examples which illustrate each of the word meanings. Our general lexicography, save notable exceptions, is characterised both by the absence of the authorities and by the examples provided in it. No further comments can be made on one of the most crucial issues of lexicographical theory.

3.2 Neighborhood policy

Not always can neighborly relations between nations be considered to be the best, at any rate. Sometimes the concrete historical or political circumstances are not even relevant in order to understand certain attitudes; simple neighborhood relations are valid enough with regards to positions contrary to the principle of objectivity; and the code of good practices that must

quotations of the Enciclopedia moderna we employ the acronym EM, and since this is ac-tually a long article (12 pages in 22 columns) I also indicate the number of the column for the sake of an easier location.

11 I am concerned with the strictly meta–lexicographical aspects between the original French and the Spanish translation–adaptation of my work: “Traducción lingüística y traducción cultural: meta–lexicografía del español en la Enciclopedia moderna (1852)” (in press).

12 “On peut distinguer trois sortes de dictionnaires: dictionnaires de langues [de mots], dictionnaires historiques [de faits] et dictionnaires de sciences & d’arts [de choses] ” (Ency-clopédie, 1755, s. v.).

13 Cf. J.B. Pellissier: Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture, xx, Paris, 1835, p. 469a.

Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna 7 govern all scientific procedures should be generated by a feeling of identity, be it either individual or collective. In the present case, I refer to the translator’s atavistic silence in the face of the supposedly subjective assessment of a particular text dealing with the excellence of a project, an author or a country.

Going from the particular to the general, it not surprising that the translator, in order to achieve a fluid, universal discourse, should omit or generalize references to the French language: “Des langues en général, et en particulier de la nôtre” (480a) > “Esencial de todas las lenguas” (col. 998), “Les bases sur lesquelles doit reposer aujourd’hui un bon dictionnaire français” (478a) > “Sin embargo debemos confesar que las bases sobre que hoy debe descansar un buen diccionario son muy amplias” (col. 1012), “Ce n’est pas la généalogie du mot français, c’est son origine immédiate qu’il est essentiel de donner dans un dictionnaire français” (480a) > “No es la genealogía de las palabras, sino su origen inmediato lo que conviene dar en un diccionario (col. 1014); o bien la especificación: “Il n’existe pas dans notre langage deux mots qui puissent en toute occasion être substitués indifféremment l’un a l’autre (482b) > “En la lengua francesa” (col. 1018).

In the case of omissions such phenomenon can be produced either by the sheer lack of cultural reality to which the text makes reference or by what we call neighborhood policy.

In the first case: “On en composa [dictionnaires] de tout genre, non seulement pour toutes les langues, et même pour des idiomes populaires, mais encore sur toutes les matières les plus graves et les plus futiles. La fable y l’histoire, les mœurs y le théâtre, les voyages et le romans, la morale et les quolibets, les précieuses et les halles“14

“Se han compuesto diccionarios no sola para las lenguas y aun los idiomas populares, sino también sobre las materias así graves como frívolas: la fábula y la historia, las costumbres y el teatro, los viages y las novelas, la moral, etc.“15

The numerical and typological wealth of contemporary French dictionaries are comparately superior, in my opinion, to other lexicographical work in the neighboring countries, and not just to Spanish lexicography16, which, though abundant in dictionaries of proverbs and sayings since the dawn of Renaissance humanism, repertoires of jokes, ironic phrases, etc. (quolibets) are practically unknown; for instance, the repertoire published by Antoine Oudin in 1660: Curiosités françaises pour supplément aux dictionnaires, ou recueil de plusieurs belles propriétés, avec une infinité de proverbes 14 Cf. J.B. Pellissier: Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture, xx, Paris, 1835, p. 469a. 15 Cf. EM, 1852, s. v. col. 998. 16 In the re–elaboration of this article that J. B. Pellissier himself one year later in the

Bulletin du Bibliophile we can notice a sample of the diversity of lexicons to which he re-fers in that work (cf. Pellissier, 1836, 121, n. 1).

8 Ignacio Ahumada Lara

et de quolibets, pour l'explication de toutes sortes de livres.17 The same could be said about the dictionnaires des précieuses.18

In the case of the dictionary of the markets (halles), the same text J. B. Pellissier would have suffice to maintain it in the enumeration, as he would be referring to it in the next pages:

“Así es que desde su aparición la obra de la Academia llegó a ser el blanco de numerosas críticas, siendo la más ingeniosa y mordaz de todas, la de haber estraído de ella las maneras de hablar populares y proverbiales, y publicarlas en 1696 bajo el título de Diccionario de los mercados. La Academia no respondió, en lo cual hizo bien“.19 Let us look now at some cases of the so–called neighborhood policy: first,

with respect to the French nation, and, in the last instance, with respect to the Portuguese lexicography.

When dealing with the classification and management of meanings, J. B. Pellissier gathers in his article the two ideas which were much debated at the time about the synonymy in languages. On the one hand, the traditional view, according to which the abundance of synonyms was considered the first quality of a language; on the other, the rationalistic position, spread out primarily ever since the publication of the Encyclopédie, i.e. that which supported the linguistic accuracy as the expression of ideas, since the language must be linked to thought: hence the need to promote the identity between the world of ideas and the linguistic expression:

“Sans doute comme l’a judicieusement remarque d’Alembert, il n’existe pas dans notre langage deux mots qui puissent en toute occasion être substitues indifféremment l’un à l’autre: deux mots absolument synonymes seraient un défaut dans une langue“20

Such acknowledgement of rationalistic arguments on the part of J. B. Pellissier does not prevent him from making concessions to a more traditional posture and from showing his satisfaction for the wealth of synonyms and resembling words that ornate the French language:

“Ainsi, toutes les fois que l’on n’a besoin que du sens général, et que par la nature du sujet on n’a pas à exprimer ces nuances, chacun des synonymes peut être

17 Cf. Pellissier, 1836, 121, n. 1. 18 Saumaiserais (sic) (1660): Le dictionnaire des précieuses, ou la clef de la langue des ruelles,

Paris (cf. Pellissier, 1836, 121, n. 1). I could only find a second edition: Baudeau, A., sieur de Somaize, Le grand dictionnaire des prétieuses (sic), ou la clef de la langue des ruelles, 2e, ed. Paris.

19 Cf. EM, 1852, s. v., col. 1007. Artaud (1696): Dictionnaire de halles, Bruxelles (Pellissier, 1836, 133, n. 5). I must note that sometimes A. Furetiere can also be found as the author of this critique of the Dictionnaire de l’Académie Française.

20 Cf. Pellissier, 1835, 482b.

Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna 9

indifféremment employé: compris de la sorte, ils sont très nombreux dans la langue française“21

And it is here where the Spanish translator, paying no attention to the neighborhood policy, silences the virtues of the French language. We might think that the suppression of the paragraph should to owed to a signal of the translator’s adherence to the most original, popular trend, even in Spain, but, in view of other comments made by the author, it seems improbable that his reaction was such. 22 When J. B. Pellissier deals with the gallicisms, he adds his own comments:

“Sobre este punto sería de desear que ya que se han importado en España tantos galicismos, cuyo uso nada justifica, siendo como es el idioma de Cervantes el más rico y abundante de cuantos se hablan en Europa, no hallasen cabida en los diccionarios donde solo deben tenerla los que racionalmente sean admisibles y cuya introducción pueda disculpar una absoluta necesidad“23 As for the neighboring country, Portugal, the attitude of the translator

becomes much stingier, if that be possible. In his work J. B. Pellissier seems to us a staunch supporter of the general dictionaries of the language based on authorities (“a dictionnaire sans citations is a squelette“, according to Voltaire). The Real Academy of Sciences of Lisbon had initiated in 1793 the publication of the Diccionario da lingoa portugueza, a project of excellence of which only the first volume was regrettably to be published (letter A). For the French author the repertoire is exemplary in every respect and not simply for fostering his definitions with authorities (abonaçoes). The extolling of that work reaches such height that for him all nations and all languages should take it as a reference for the writing of their own dictionaries. For the Spanish translator the project did not seem to enjoy such excellence when it actually omits the last remarks by J. B. Pellissier:

“En fin, j’indiquerai, en Portugal, l’admirable dictionnaire si heureusement commencé par l’Académie Royale des Sciences de Lisbonne, et, bien qu’il n’eu ait paru que la lettre A, formant un vol in–fol. de 543 pages à 2 colonnes, publié en 1793, l’éminente supériorité de cet essai doit le faire regarder comme un vrai modèle digne de servir désormais de type à toutes les nations et pour toutes les langues“24

21 Cf. Pellissier, 1835, 482b. 22 The first Spanish authors of dictionaries of synonymous, Manuel Dendo (1757), José

López of Garden (1789) and Santiago Jonama (1806) shared the rationalist position: “la abundancia de sinónimos es contraria a la riqueza de la lengua” (Lázaro, 1985, p. 107); not in vain had they imported the model of dictionary of synonymous from the neigh-boring country, where the tradition commences, according to my information, round the middle of the 16th century.

23 Cf. EM, 1852, s. v., col. 1018 [my italics: IA.]. 24 Cf. Pellissier, 1835 , s. v., 476b.

10 Ignacio Ahumada Lara

“En fin, los portugueses tienen el admirable diccionario tan felizmente comenzado por la Academia Real de Ciencias de Lisboa, y aunque hasta ahora solo han publicado algunos tomos, la eminente superioridad de este ensayo basta para que se le considere como un verdadero modelo digno de ser imitado por otras naciones“25

In no case did the Spanish dictionaries, scarcely mentioned by J. B. Pellissier, receive such an appreciative comment, even if, as is well known, the lexicographical production of Spanish is far more abundant than that of the Portuguese. We might think that the French scholar had only scanty, shallow knowledge of it and that the Portuguese lexicography would no doubt be nearer to him. We lack the necessary information that would lead us to think of it as a bad neighborhood policy. Nevertheless, I cannot help pointing to what the most recent critique has found, which actually seems quite paradoxical, about the sources of which the three editors of the Dictionary da lingoa portugueza had made avail.

“Sabemos que, en Madrid, la Academia Española redujo en 1780 a un volumen los 6 volúmenes del llamado diccionario de autoridades modernizando una parte de las entradas y microestructuras. El concepto de la Academia Portuguesa era por completo diferente: los redactores acumularon citas de forma desmesurada y cuando no encontraron las palabras en textos recurrieron a diccionarios anticuados y tradujeron entradas enteras de la Encyclopédie française sin indicar esta fuente“26 The research carried out by Prof. Messner, of Salzburg University,

Austria, on the metalinguistic sources of the Portuguese work has gone still further when he demonstrated that one of such sources was the Diccionario, as J. B. Pellissier suggested, “de l'Académie de Madrid”, which has been followed so closely that some of its definitions have been translated literally (ala, alcançadura and algo).27

4 Conclusion

As a whole, France (J.B. Pellissier) refuses to give a more ample coverage to the lexicography of Spanish in the context of Europe. Antonio de Nebrija, Sebastián de Covarrubias and "l'Académie de Madrid" with Autoridades appear only as a reference, therefore the author does not devote further commentaries to them, unless Autoridades takes the Crusca as a model. Does this mean a lexicographic ignorance of our past? We cannot discard this possibility, insofar as the Italian lexicography (Vocabolario della Crusca) received severe critiques for disdaining Ariosto and Tasso as authorities, for

25 Cf. EM, 1852, s. v., col. 1010 [my italics: IA]. 26 Cf. D. Messner: “El Dicionário dos dicionários portugueses”, in El diccionario como

puente entre las lenguas y culturas del mundo. Alicante 2008, p. 36. 27 Cf. Messner, 2008, p. 36.

Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna 11 regarding only le tre corone as referents and for completely ignoring etymology. Rather in the same way, it is concerned with some German and Swedish dictionaries.

The excellence is recognized with special emphasis, apart from Greco–Latin and French lexicography, for Samuel Johnson’s English Dictionary of 1755, as well as for Diccionario da lingoa portugueza of 1793. In actual fact, the structuring J. B. Pellissier does of the article “diccionario“ narrowly follows the usual procedure in a European encyclopedia: paying close attention to common lexicography (Greek and Latin) and national one (French).

Spain (the anonymous translator), firmly believing that the first quality of a language is the abundance of synonyms, simply omits J. B. Pellissier’s assessment on the richness of the French language in similar voices. The omission is reinforced, as we have seen, by highlighting the Spanish language as the richest and more abundant of those spoken in Europe.

France (J.B. Pellissier), in addition to mentioning the Diccionario da lingua portugueza of Rafael Bluteau published in Coimbra, exceedingly extols that of the Lisbon Academy of Sciences, when his literary integrity, which, of course, J. B. Pellissier did not know, was held in doubt for failing to mention the Encyclopédie française and the Diccionario of the Royal Spanish Academy, among others.

In sum, author and translator, alongside with Lisbon Academy of Sciences, boast of a good neighbor policy between languages and cultures of common origins, similar in their development and with clearly related literary influences.

References

Anonymous: “Diccionario”, in Enciclopedia moderna , xiii, Madrid 1852, cols, 997–1020. Anonymous: “Enciclopedia”, in Enciclopedia moderna , xvi, Madrid 1852, cols. 333–342. Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture, Paris 1832–1851, 68 vol., dont 16 supl. Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture. Inventaire raisonné des notions générales les

plus indispensables à tous, par une Société de savants et de gens de lettres sous al direction de M. W. Dickett, 2e. éd., Paris 1853–1858, 16 vol.

[William Duckett]: “[Avis]”, in Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture, Paris 1832, pp. 1–4.

William Duckett: “Avis place en tète de la première édition (1832)”, in Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture, Paris 1853, pp. i–iv.

Enciclopedia moderna. Diccionario universal de literatura, ciencias, artes, agricultura, industria y comercio, Madrid [Establecimiento Tipográfico de Mellado] 1851–1865, 34 tomos, 3 de atlas, 3 de complementos.

Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences des arts et des métiers, par une Société des Gens des Lettres. Mis in ordre et publié par M. Diderot de l’Académie Royale des Sciences et des Belles Lettres de Prusse; et quant à la partie Mathématique par M.

12 Ignacio Ahumada Lara

D’Alembert, de la Académie Royale des Sciences de Paris, de celle de Prusse, et de la Société Royale de Londres, à Paris 1751–1777, 33 vols.

Encyclopédie moderne, ou Dictionnaire abrégé des sciences, des lettres, des arts , par M. Courtin et par une Société de gens de lettres, Paris 1824–1832, 26 vol., dont 2 de planches.

Encyclopédie moderne. Dictionnaire abrégé des sciences, des lettres, des arts, de l’industrie, de l’agriculture et du commerce, nouvelle édition, entièrement refondue et augmentée de près du double, publiée par MM. Firmin Didot frères, sous la direction de M. Léon Renier [Nöel des Vergers/Édouard Carteron], Paris 1847–1862, 44 vol., dont 12 de compl. et 5 de atlas.

Vicente González Arnao: Diccionario de la Academia Española, edición abreviada, Paris 1826, 2 vol..

Franz Josef Hausmann: “Pour une histoire de la métalexicographie”, in Hausmann, F.–J./Reichmann, O./ Weigand, H.–E./Zgusta. L (ed.), Wörterbücher. Dictionaries. Dictionnaires. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Lexicographie. An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Encyclopédie internationale de lexicographie , I, Berlin–New York 1989, pp. 216–224.

Fernando Lázaro Carreter: Las ideas lingüísticas en España durante el siglo xviii, Barcelona 1985.

Dirk Messner: “El Dicionário dos dicionários portugueses”, in El diccionario como puente entre las lenguas y culturas del mundo. Actas del II Congreso Internacional de Lexicografía Hispánica, Alicante 2008, pp. 33–38.

Jean Baptiste Pellissier: “Dictionnaire”, in Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture, xx, Paris 1835, pp. 468b–485a.

Jean Baptiste Pellissier: “Recherches sur les anciens lexiques, suivies de considérations sur les principaux moyens d’améliorer les nouveaux dictionnaires. Première partie: Des anciens lexiques et des principaux vocabulaires modernes”, in Bulletin du Bibliophile, 4 (2.ª série), 1836, pp. 119–138.

Josef Marie Quérard: La France littéraire, ou dictionnaire bibliographique des savants, historiens et gens de lettres de la France, vii, Paris 1835.

María Águeda Moreno Moreno

Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Diego de Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms (1593) 1

1 Introduction

The mass baptism without neither instruction nor catechization developed in the city of Granada between the years 1499 and 1500 (Carrasco 2007) not only suggests a decisive and intransigent turn of political determination toward a narrow dogmatism, but also constitutes the end of a political, social, cultural and religious period. The beginning of a new era is settled with the expulsion of the Moorish in 1609.

The vehement wish for the indoctrination and instruction of the first years, will soon lead to the aggressive attitude of Christianism. Thus, what in the first moment is understood as an instructive attitude on the part of the Church, that had become an instrumentum regni2 in favor of the encouragement and strengthening of the emerging national feeling in its attempt to achieve the regional and religious unity, will conduct to opposite attitudes to this method of evangelizing. The political approaches change with the presence of Cardinal Cisneros and the primary wish of this religious state will be conversion. The political instrument to achieve that unity was the Holy Office of the Inquisition.

Therefore, the first method to attract all the tax vassals of the Crown to the Catholic faith favored beyond the evangelizing dominant character of its first years, the pedagogical values. As a consequence, the spread of the Catholic religion brought about a philological activity in the hands of the mendicant orders. The power of the circumstances turned the religious into improvised authors of grammars and dictionaries. The praxis of the 1 This article can be classed among those undertaken for the research project Diccionario

bibliográfico de la metalexicografía del español, 2006–2010; this project has been granted a subsidy by the Ministry of Science and Innovation. Plan Nacional de I+D+I (2008–2011). Convocatoria 2010. Proyecto núm. FFI2010–19702. I have to thank Ana Maria Martínez Sánchez, Universidad de Oriente, Cuba, for her translation of this article into English with the consultancy of Malena Estrada.

2 Since 1493 several papal bulls in charge of Alexander VI, Julius II and León X, specially the Universalis Ecclesiae (1508) had allowed the kings of Castile the authority to establish and organize the Church, present candidates to the seats and collect and spend the ecclesiastical tithes (Vega 2006). Some years later, in 1522 the bull Omnimoda of Adriano VI empowered the monks to assume pastoral and sacramental tasks that were usually in the power of the secular clergy.