CS 1699: Intro to Computer Vision Support Vector Machines Prof. Adriana Kovashka University of Pittsburgh October 29, 2015

CS 1699: Intro to Computer Vision

Support Vector Machines

Prof. Adriana KovashkaUniversity of Pittsburgh

October 29, 2015

Homework

• HW3: due Nov. 3– Note: You need to perform k-means on features

from multiple frames joined together, not one k-means per frame!

• HW4: due Nov. 24• HW5: half-length, still 10% of grade, out Nov.

24, due Dec. 10

Plan for today

• Support vector machines• Bias-variance tradeoff• Scene recognition: Spatial pyramid matching

The machine learning framework

y = f(x)

• Training: given a training set of labeled examples {(x1,y1), …, (xN,yN)}, estimate the prediction function f by minimizing the prediction error on the training set

• Testing: apply f to a never before seen test example x and output the predicted value y = f(x)

output prediction function

image feature

Slide credit: L. Lazebnik

Nearest neighbor classifier

f(x) = label of the training example nearest to x

• All we need is a distance function for our inputs• No training required!

Test example

Training examples

from class 1

Training examples

from class 2

Slide credit: L. Lazebnik

K-Nearest Neighbors classification

k = 5

Slide credit: D. Lowe

• For a new point, find the k closest points from training data• Labels of the k points “vote” to classify

If query lands here, the 5 NN consist of 3 negatives and 2 positives, so we classify it as negative.

Black = negativeRed = positive

Scene Matches

[Hays and Efros. im2gps: Estimating Geographic Information from a Single Image. CVPR 2008.] Slides: James Hays

Nearest Neighbors: Pros and Cons

• NN pros:+Simple to implement+Decision boundaries not necessarily linear+Works for any number of classes+Nonparametric method

• NN cons:– Need good distance function– Slow at test time (large search problem to find

neighbors)– Storage of data

Adapted from L. Lazebnik

Discriminative classifiers

Learn a simple function of the input features that correctly predicts the true labels on the training set

Training Goals1. Accurate classification of training data2. Correct classifications are confident3. Classification function is simple

𝑦= 𝑓 (𝑥 )

Slide credit: D. Hoiem

Linear classifier

• Find a linear function to separate the classes

f(x) = sgn(w1x1 + w2x2 + … + wDxD) = sgn(w x)

Svetlana Lazebnik

Lines in R2

0 bcyax

c

aw

y

xxLet

Kristen Grauman

Lines in R2

0 bxw

c

aw

y

xx

0 bcyax

Let

w

Kristen Grauman

Lines in R2

0 bxw

c

aw

y

xx

0 bcyax

Let

w

00 , yx

Kristen Grauman

Lines in R2

0 bxw

c

aw

y

xx

0 bcyax

Let

w

00 , yx

D

w

xw b

ca

bcyaxD

22

00 distance from point to line

Kristen Grauman

Lines in R2

0 bxw

c

aw

y

xx

0 bcyax

Let

w

00 , yx

D

w

xw ||22

00 b

ca

bcyaxD

distance from point to line

Kristen Grauman

Linear classifiers• Find linear function to separate positive and

negative examples

0:negative

0:positive

b

b

ii

ii

wxx

wxx

Which lineis best?

C. Burges, A Tutorial on Support Vector Machines for Pattern Recognition, Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 1998

http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/~joseph/support-vector-machines4.pdf

Support vector machines

• Discriminative classifier based on optimal separating line (for 2d case)

• Maximize the margin between the positive and negative training examples



Support vector machines• Want line that maximizes the margin.

1:1)(negative

1:1)( positive

by

by

iii

iii

wxx

wxx

MarginSupport vectors


For support, vectors, 1 bi wx

wx+

b=-1

wx+

b=0

wx+

b=1



1:1)(negative

1:1)( positive

by

by

iii

iii

wxx

wxx

Support vectors


wx+

b=-1

wx+

b=0

wx+

b=1

Distance between point and line: ||||

||

w

wx bi

www

211

M

ww

xw 1

bΤ

For support vectors:


Margin



1:1)(negative

1:1)( positive

by

by

iii

iii

wxx

wxx

MarginSupport vectors


wx+

b=-1

wx+

b=0

wx+

b=1

Distance between point and line: ||||

||

w

wx bi

Therefore, the margin is 2 / ||w||



Finding the maximum margin line

1. Maximize margin 2/||w||

2. Correctly classify all training data points:

Quadratic optimization problem:

Minimize

Subject to yi(w·xi+b) ≥ 1

wwT

2

1

1:1)(negative

1:1)( positive

by

by

iii

iii

wxx

wxx

One constraint for each training point.

Note sign trick.



Finding the maximum margin line• Solution:

i iii y xw

Support vector

Learnedweight



Finding the maximum margin line• Solution:

b = yi – w·xi (for any support vector)

• Classification function:

• Notice that it relies on an inner product between the test point x and the support vectors xi

• (Solving the optimization problem also involves computing the inner products xi · xj between all pairs of training points)

i iii y xw

by

xf

ii

xx

xw

i isign

b)(sign )(

If f(x) < 0, classify as negative, otherwise classify as positive.



• Datasets that are linearly separable work out great:

• But what if the dataset is just too hard?

• We can map it to a higher-dimensional space:

0 x

0 x

0 x

x2

Nonlinear SVMs

Andrew Moore

Φ: x → φ(x)

• General idea: the original input space can always be mapped to some higher-dimensional feature space where the training set is separable:

Andrew Moore

Nonlinear SVMs

Nonlinear kernel: Example

• Consider the mapping ),()( 2xxx

22

2222

),(

),(),()()(

yxxyyxK

yxxyyyxxyx

x2

Svetlana Lazebnik

The “Kernel Trick”• The linear classifier relies on dot product between

vectors K(xi , xj) = xi · xj

• If every data point is mapped into high-dimensional space via some transformation Φ: xi → φ(xi ), the dot product becomes: K(xi , xj) = φ(xi ) · φ(xj)

• A kernel function is similarity function that corresponds to an inner product in some expanded feature space

• The kernel trick: instead of explicitly computing the lifting transformation φ(x), define a kernel function K such that: K(xi , xj) = φ(xi ) · φ(xj)

Andrew Moore

Examples of kernel functions

Linear:

Gaussian RBF:

Histogram intersection:

)2

exp()(2

2

ji

ji

xx,xxK

k

jiji kxkxxxK ))(),(min(),(

jT

iji xxxxK ),(

Andrew Moore

Allowing misclassifications

Maximize margin Minimize misclassification

Slack variable

The w that minimizes…

Misclassification cost

# data samples

What about multi-class SVMs?• Unfortunately, there is no “definitive” multi-class SVM

formulation• In practice, we have to obtain a multi-class SVM by combining

multiple two-class SVMs • One vs. others

– Training: learn an SVM for each class vs. the others– Testing: apply each SVM to the test example, and assign it to the

class of the SVM that returns the highest decision value• One vs. one

– Training: learn an SVM for each pair of classes– Testing: each learned SVM “votes” for a class to assign to the test

example

Svetlana Lazebnik

SVMs for recognition1. Define your representation for each

example.

2. Select a kernel function.

3. Compute pairwise kernel values between labeled examples

4. Use this “kernel matrix” to solve for SVM support vectors & weights.

5. To classify a new example: compute kernel values between new input and support vectors, apply weights, check sign of output.

Kristen Grauman

Example: learning gender with SVMs

Moghaddam and Yang, Learning Gender with Support Faces, TPAMI 2002.

Moghaddam and Yang, Face & Gesture 2000.

Kristen Grauman

• Training examples:– 1044 males– 713 females

• Experiment with various kernels, select Gaussian RBF

Learning gender with SVMs

)2

exp(),(2

2

ji

ji

xxxx

K

Kristen Grauman

Support Faces



Gender perception experiment:How well can humans do?

• Subjects: – 30 people (22 male, 8 female)– Ages mid-20’s to mid-40’s

• Test data:– 254 face images (6 males, 4 females)– Low res and high res versions

• Task:– Classify as male or female, forced choice– No time limit



Gender perception experiment:How well can humans do?

Error Error

Human vs. Machine

• SVMs performed better than any single human test subject, at either resolution

Kristen Grauman

Hardest examples for humans


SVMs: Pros and cons• Pros

• Many publicly available SVM packages: http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/libsvm/

or use built-in Matlab version (but slower)• Kernel-based framework is very powerful, flexible• Often a sparse set of support vectors – compact at test time• Work very well in practice, even with very small training

sample sizes

• Cons• No “direct” multi-class SVM, must combine two-class SVMs• Can be tricky to select best kernel function for a problem• Computation, memory

– During training time, must compute matrix of kernel values for every pair of examples

– Learning can take a very long time for large-scale problems

Adapted from Lana Lazebnik

http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/libsvm/

Documents

CS 1699: Intro to Computer Vision Support Vector Machines Prof. Adriana Kovashka University of Pittsburgh October 29, 2015