Critical Appraisal of Argument. Elements of Critical Thought

Critical Appraisal of Critical Appraisal of ArgumentArgument

Elements of Critical ThoughtElements of Critical Thought

People are not Always People are not Always ReasonableReasonable

►Beliefs are not always reasonableBeliefs are not always reasonable►Thinking is not always reasonableThinking is not always reasonable►The mind is not always reasonableThe mind is not always reasonable►Social influence is not always Social influence is not always

reasonablereasonable

SyllogismSyllogism

►Major Premise: All men are mortal.Major Premise: All men are mortal.►Minor Premise: Socrates is a man.Minor Premise: Socrates is a man.►Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is

mortal.mortal.

InferenceInference

►Quasi-logical argumentsQuasi-logical arguments►Arguments by analogyArguments by analogy►Arguments from generalizationArguments from generalization►Arguments from causeArguments from cause►Co-existential argumentsCo-existential arguments

Quasi-logical ArgumentsQuasi-logical Arguments

►Resemble formal logicResemble formal logic► If the Seattle Mariners can beat the If the Seattle Mariners can beat the

Texas Rangers, and the Rangers can Texas Rangers, and the Rangers can beat to Oakland Athletics, then Seattle beat to Oakland Athletics, then Seattle should be able to beat Oakland.should be able to beat Oakland.

►Come in three kindsCome in three kinds


►Transitivity:Transitivity:►Bill’s friends are my friends, and Bill’s friends are my friends, and

you’re a fried of Bill, so you are a you’re a fried of Bill, so you are a friend of mine.friend of mine.

►As syllogism:As syllogism: All of Bill’s friends are my friends.All of Bill’s friends are my friends. You are Bill’s friend.You are Bill’s friend. Therefore, you are my friend.Therefore, you are my friend.


► IncompatibilityIncompatibility► The candidate says he’s opposed to The candidate says he’s opposed to

nepotism, but he appointed his cousin as nepotism, but he appointed his cousin as director of the White House Travel Office.director of the White House Travel Office.

► As syllogism:As syllogism: No opponents of nepotism appoint their relatives.No opponents of nepotism appoint their relatives. This candidate appointed his relative.This candidate appointed his relative. Therefore, this candidate cannot be an opponent Therefore, this candidate cannot be an opponent

of nepotism.of nepotism.


►ReciprocityReciprocity►Meeting our responsibilities means Meeting our responsibilities means

doing a better job.doing a better job.►As syllogism:As syllogism:

If we do a better job, we will meet our If we do a better job, we will meet our responsibilities.responsibilities.

We are doing a better job.We are doing a better job. Therefore, we are meeting our Therefore, we are meeting our

responsibilities.responsibilities.

Argument by AnalogyArgument by Analogy

►Assume two object, events, or Assume two object, events, or situations are similarsituations are similar

►One is well-known, the other is less One is well-known, the other is less well-knownwell-known

►Help us make an attribution to the less Help us make an attribution to the less well-known object, event or situationwell-known object, event or situation

Argument by AnalogyArgument by Analogy► The state of Oregon has moderate beverage The state of Oregon has moderate beverage

consumption, limited revenues for collecting consumption, limited revenues for collecting and disposing of waste, demographic and disposing of waste, demographic characteristics similar to Washington state, characteristics similar to Washington state, and a ban on nonreturnable bottle and cans and a ban on nonreturnable bottle and cans that effectively reduced container waste.that effectively reduced container waste.

► The state of Washington also has moderate The state of Washington also has moderate beverage consumption, limited revenues for beverage consumption, limited revenues for collecting and disposing of waste, and collecting and disposing of waste, and demographics similar to Oregon.demographics similar to Oregon.

► Therefore, Washington state’s proposed ban Therefore, Washington state’s proposed ban on nonreturnable beverage containers will on nonreturnable beverage containers will reduce container waste.reduce container waste.

Argument by AnalogyArgument by Analogy

►““In this fiftieth anniversary year of the In this fiftieth anniversary year of the end of World War II, Germans remain end of World War II, Germans remain understandably nervous about the understandably nervous about the staying power of fascism, which was staying power of fascism, which was largely a product of the inter-war years. largely a product of the inter-war years. How much more cautious, then, should How much more cautious, then, should Americans be about assuming that Americans be about assuming that racism and sexism – much older and racism and sexism – much older and more pervasive problems – have been more pervasive problems – have been defeated by a mere 30 years of legal and defeated by a mere 30 years of legal and social initiatives?”social initiatives?”

Arguments from Arguments from GeneralizationGeneralization

►Assume what is true of one or some Assume what is true of one or some members of a class will be true of members of a class will be true of other members of that classother members of that class

►The evidence is the presentation of The evidence is the presentation of specific instancesspecific instances

►The inference is that these instances The inference is that these instances are representativeare representative


► ““Along with reducing tax rates, we must also Along with reducing tax rates, we must also aggressively reduce tax rules and aggressively reduce tax rules and regulations. It’s estimated that last year regulations. It’s estimated that last year alone, American taxpayers spent 1.8 billion alone, American taxpayers spent 1.8 billion hours filling out their tax forms. Businesses hours filling out their tax forms. Businesses spent twice as much time sending the IRS spent twice as much time sending the IRS over 1 million reports.”over 1 million reports.”

► Evidence: 1.8 b hours, 1 m+ formsEvidence: 1.8 b hours, 1 m+ forms► Inference: these represent complicated tax Inference: these represent complicated tax

rules and regsrules and regs


► ““When one teaches about Marco Polo, or When one teaches about Marco Polo, or William of Normandy, or Goethe, or Joan of William of Normandy, or Goethe, or Joan of Arc, one is essentially engaging in the process Arc, one is essentially engaging in the process of transmitting information about a cultural of transmitting information about a cultural heritage and legacy. The names of the heritage and legacy. The names of the Africans, Ibn Battuta, or King Sundiata of Mali, Africans, Ibn Battuta, or King Sundiata of Mali, or Ahmed Baba, or Yenenga, are never spoken or Ahmed Baba, or Yenenga, are never spoken in high school classes, and under the current in high school classes, and under the current curricular structure, is they were heard, would curricular structure, is they were heard, would lack credibility even though they are by world lack credibility even though they are by world standards certainly the equal of the Europeans standards certainly the equal of the Europeans I have mentioned in contrast.”I have mentioned in contrast.”

Causal ArgumentsCausal Arguments

►Assert that one condition brings about Assert that one condition brings about another conditionanother condition

►Evidence is the physical presence of Evidence is the physical presence of causes and effectscauses and effects

► Inference is that one condition or Inference is that one condition or event brings about the otherevent brings about the other


► ““The new beltways and interstates offered The new beltways and interstates offered cheap access to farmland on the fringe, and the cheap access to farmland on the fringe, and the result was suburban sprawl and disinvestment result was suburban sprawl and disinvestment in existing business districts. People are waking in existing business districts. People are waking up to the fact that low density, auto dependent up to the fact that low density, auto dependent sprawl has profound consequences on our sprawl has profound consequences on our quality of life and our individual and collective quality of life and our individual and collective pocketbooks.”pocketbooks.”

► Cause: beltways and interstatesCause: beltways and interstates► Effect: urban sprawl, harm to existing Effect: urban sprawl, harm to existing

businessesbusinesses► Cause: urban sprawlCause: urban sprawl► Effects: harm to quality of life, pocketbooksEffects: harm to quality of life, pocketbooks


►““A great deal of effort has gone into A great deal of effort has gone into discovering and analyzing the ways in discovering and analyzing the ways in which humans could be exposed to which humans could be exposed to radioactive materials… Waste canisters radioactive materials… Waste canisters corrode, and water leaches radioactive corrode, and water leaches radioactive elements … out of the spent fuel or elements … out of the spent fuel or vitrified high-level waste, then carries vitrified high-level waste, then carries them into groundwater. People would be them into groundwater. People would be exposed if they used the water for any of exposed if they used the water for any of the usual purposes: drinking, washing, or the usual purposes: drinking, washing, or irrigation.”irrigation.”

Co-existential ArgumentsCo-existential Arguments

►Claim that two things co-existClaim that two things co-exist►Reason from something that can be Reason from something that can be

observed (a sign), to a condition that observed (a sign), to a condition that cannot be observed.cannot be observed.


► Jill: You need to put oil in your car Jill: You need to put oil in your car before you rive it today.before you rive it today.

► John: Why? Is the oil low?John: Why? Is the oil low?► Jill: Well the oil light was on when I Jill: Well the oil light was on when I

came home last night.came home last night.

►Sign: oil light onSign: oil light on►Condition: oil in car is lowCondition: oil in car is low


►““John turned in his last two papers John turned in his last two papers late, hasn’t washed his dishes in a late, hasn’t washed his dishes in a week, and has a month’s worth of dirty week, and has a month’s worth of dirty laundry piled up. He must be a laundry piled up. He must be a procrastinator.”procrastinator.”

Sphere-Dependent Sphere-Dependent ArgumentsArguments

Public Sphere

Personal SphereTechnical Sphere

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Critical Appraisal of Argument. Elements of Critical Thought