FIRESTONE TIRES RECALLS 1

Firestone Tires Recall:A Crisis Communication In-Depth Case Study

Helen MasUniversity of North Florida

PUR 4400 Crisis CommunicationsProfessor Doggett

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Background

Firestone Tire and Rubber Co. was founded on Aug. 3, 1900 in Akron, Ohio, the would-

be “Rubber Capital of the World,” by American businessman Harvey Samuel Firestone (1868-

1938). Totaling more than $100,000 in profits in its first year1, the company began progressing

quickly from its single service of fastening rubber onto the steel wheels of carriages. Within the

next couple of years, Firestone began manufacturing its own rubber and developed inflatable

tires for automobiles. Firestone’s friendship with Henry Ford, founder of the Ford Motor Co., led

to a successful business relationship that would last almost 100 years, and Firestone became

Ford’s original tire supplier. The company grew in popularity when the winner of the first

Indianapolis 500 race in 1911 drove a racecar that used Firestone tires.

The decrease in demand for war-related products during the Post–World War I Recession

(1920-1921), including tires and rubber, caused Firestone to fall into a multi-million dollar debt

leading the company to lower both its products’ sales prices and workers’ wages. However, it

was able to bounce back just in time for the economically prosperous period of the Roaring ’20s.

“By 1926, Firestone was manufacturing more than 10 million tires each year, which represented

approximately 25 percent of America’s total tire output.”2

In 1988, Japanese tire manufacturer Bridgestone Corporation, formerly Bridgestone Tire

Co., Ltd., made a $2.6 billion takeover of Firestone, creating “the world’s largest tire and rubber

company.”3 In 1992, Bridgestone/Firestone, Inc. (Bridgestone’s North, Central, and South

American operations and largest subsidiary) relocated its headquarters from Akron, Ohio to

Nashville, Tennessee.

1 Firestone Tire and Rubber Company. (n.d.). Retrieved November 5, 2015, from http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Firestone_Tire_and_Rubber_Company?rec=8912 Tire king Firestone dies. (n.d.). Retrieved November 30, 2015, from http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/tire-king-firestone-dies3 Who We Are. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2015, from http://www.firestonetire.com/about/history

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Despite Firestone’s increasing success, the company faced a multitude of problems

throughout its years of operation following the 1920s, including strikes from the United Rubber

Workers union late in the Depression Era,4 several labor controversies arising from Firestone

Natural Rubber Co.’s rubber plantation in Liberia, Africa, and the recall of 14.5 million tires in

1978—the largest in history—which allowed Bridgestone to buy out the almost-bankrupt

Firestone 10 years later.5 More recently, Firestone faced another tire recall—this time the second

largest in history: Several models of Firestone tires were failing at extremely high rates in large,

(ironically) Ford sport-utility vehicles and light trucks, specifically Ford Explorers, and were

originally thought to have caused nearly 50 fatalities and hundreds of accidents, according to an

investigation Ford conducted when prompted by the National Highway Traffic Safety

Administration in 2000. Due to the chilling discovery of the defective product, Firestone

announced the recall of 6.5 million tires shortly after a report by the NHTSA about the findings.

Near the end of the crisis, 271 fatalities and over 3,000 injuries were counted.

Aside from the massive recall, questions and lawsuits arose about whether or not Ford

and Bridgestone/Firestone, Inc. knew more than what the companies were letting on. In a form of

self-defense, Bridgestone/Firestone claimed the problem stemmed from Ford vehicle designs,

and the companies eventually cut ties with each other, ending an almost century-long business

relationship.6

Situation Analysis

4 Firestone Tire and Rubber Company. (n.d.). Retrieved November 5, 2015, from http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Firestone_Tire_and_Rubber_Company?rec=8915 Firestone recalls 6.5 million SUV tires. (2000, August 9). Retrieved December 6, 2015, from http://money.cnn.com/2000/08/09/news/firestone_recall/6 Bridgestone/Firestone announces massive tire recall. (n.d.). Retrieved November 30, 2015, from http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bridgestonefirestone-announces-massive-tire-recall

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This particular crisis situation with Bridgestone/Firestone began long before any of the

new-millennium issues with the company’s tires became public. The NHTSA had been receiving

reports from several different sources for years about their findings concerning Firestone tire

tread failure, mostly on Ford Explorer SUVs, dating as far back as the early ’90s. It wasn’t until

May 2000 that the NHTSA finally contacted Firestone and Ford about its (and many others’)

concerns over the high number of incidents, including several deaths, involving Firestone tire

failure on Ford Explorers.

Ford, which had a firm and long-standing business relationship with Firestone, used

Firestone-brand tires as the originals on its Explorer SUVs and other lightweight trucks. When

the NHTSA requested both companies to hand over reports on company product testing, Ford

began its own investigation. The automobile giant found that “the tread on the 15-inch [Radial]

ATX and [Radial] ATX II models and Wilderness AT tires tended to peel off, resulting in very

high failure rates. When the tires failed, the vehicles would roll over, sometimes killing their

occupants.”7

Because the Firestone tire failures seemed to be related to hotter temperatures, the

massive tire recall began with targeted Southern and Western states, including Florida, Texas,

and Southern California, where the majority of the tire tread-failure crashes and deaths occurred.

According to Popular Mechanics’ website, tire blowouts are related to several factors such as too

much heat, underinflating of the tire, and overloading of the vehicle to name a few.8 However,

hot weather from U.S. states closer to the Equator wasn’t the only cause of the high temperate

that lead to tires blowing out. Damaging heat occurred due to another important factor:

underinflation. Underinflation or low air pressure is known to be the number one cause of tire 7 Bridgestone/Firestone announces massive tire recall. (n.d.). Retrieved November 30, 2015, from http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bridgestonefirestone-announces-massive-tire-recall8 Demere, M. (2013, August 21). Why Blowouts Happen-and How to Avoid Them. Retrieved December 6, 2015, from http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/how-to/a9399/why-blowouts-happen-and-how-to-avoid-them-15832078/

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failure in vehicles. Not only does it wear out the outer margins of the tire treads, it also builds up

excessive internal heat caused by making the vehicle work harder (soft tires don’t roll well) and

friction against the pavement. Because they are flatter than well-managed tires, more of the tire’s

surface area touches the road causing an increase in friction between the tire and the road which

generates more heat than usual.

Sure enough, most recalled Firestone tires were found to be underinflated. Even more

shocking was the fact that this was not the first time consumers of Firestone tires had

experienced product failure. Before this Firestone and Ford tire controversy, both companies

recalled and already replaced nearly 50,000 tires—the same models as the ones later recalled in

the U.S.—in the warm-climate countries of Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, Thailand, Malaysia,

and Saudi Arabia.9 The early, foreign recalls began after complaints of Firestone ATX or

Wilderness tire failures while driving at high speeds, in hot weather, and/or with heavy vehicle

loads.10

Another warning sign of the impending crisis was the fact that Ford Motor Co. allowed

the tires on their Explorer SUVs to be less inflated than the Firestone-recommended level.

During a hearing on the Firestone tire recall before the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce,

Science, and Transportation, former Georgia U.S. Senator Max Cleland stated: “For over 10

years Ford had been advocating inflating tires to a less than maximum level to decrease chances

of roll-over, rather than making structural changes to the automobile.”11 Firestone tires on the

Ford Explorers were designed to have 35 pounds per square inch (psi) of air pressure, however,

Ford simulation tests showed that at that level, Explorers had a higher roll-over rate, leading

9 Stark, L. (n.d.). Firestone Recalls Millions of Tires. Retrieved November 28, 2015, from http://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=96216&page=110 Simison, R., Lundegaard, K., Shirouzu, N., & Heller, J. (2000, August 10). How a Tire Problem Became A Crisis for Firestone, Ford. Retrieved December 1, 2015, from http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB96587021289102810811 Firestone Tire Recall Hearing before the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. (2000, September 12). Retrieved December 1, 2015, from http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-106shrg85219/html/CHRG-106shrg85219.htm

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Ford to send notices out to its consumers since 1990 about lowering their tires’ air pressure to 26

psi.12

Target Audience

In any communication situation, one must consider one’s audience—both internal and

external—when communicating with the public. When it comes to crisis communications, it is

extremely important to break these two audiences down even further and subcategorize them into

four different groups of stakeholders or key publics: those with the power to make decisions

(enabling publics), those who are part of the every-day function of an organization (functional

publics), those who share values with the organization in a crisis (normative publics), and those

who are indirectly linked to the organization in a crisis (diffusive publics). During the Firestone

tire recall crisis situation, Bridgestone/Firestone had various key audiences that fell within each

one of these categories.

Firestone’s primary audience—the enabling public—consisted of several top-level

members including former Bridgestone/Firestone CEO Masatoshi Ono (stepped down), former

Bridgestone/Firestone CEO John T. Lampe (took over after Ono), former Japan-based

Bridgestone Corp. CEO Yoichiro Kaizaki (stepped down), and former Ford CEO Jacques

Nasser.

Ono remained out of the U.S. media during much of the crisis. On the other hand, Nasser

was seen on commercials often. Furthermore, as Lampe began the succession of Ono as CEO, he

was very much involved and was “at the forefront in [the] efforts” to restore Firestone’s

reputation.13

12 Sciutto, J. (n.d.). Tire Pressure Could Have Led to Problems. Retrieved December 1, 2015, from http://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=96087&page=113 Ackman, D. (2000, October 10). Top Of The News: Bridgestone's Ono Out Of The Fire. Retrieved December 2, 2015, from http://www.forbes.com/2000/10/10/1010topnews.html

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As previously mentioned, consideration of the audience is key for effective

communication of any kind, especially crisis communication, and it begins with knowing who

the audience is and what they want/expect. The same holds true for crisis management. Effective

crisis management depends on a company’s “corporate culture” (organizational ideology) and its

attitudes towards the way an audience is dealt and communicated with (communications

ideology).14 However, proper crisis management can only be achieved after proper crisis

communication, and the manner in which an organization goes about conducting that

communication varies from culture to culture, more so between Eastern and Western ones.

According to Takashi Inoue, president and CEO of Inoue Public Relations and winner of

the first PhD in public relations awarded in Japan, Japanese corporate culture has never been

very conducive to proper PR communication during a crisis situation to other cultures,

particularly Western ones. Inoue explained that most Japanese companies have poorly-trained,

in-house corporate communications employees and rarely seek guidance from familiar yet

external PR professionals or agencies that could provide the company with better advice and

more objective guidance, especially during crises. The lack of experience and expertise from the

corporate communication staff and the culture’s reluctance to reach out to members of upper

hierarchical positions cause slow or delayed response rates from the company during a crisis, a

trait that top-level, Japanese executives seem to be notorious for.15

Another factor dealing with Japanese culture that prevent proper company crisis

communication to non-Japanese audiences is their poor media relations due to their tendency to

avoid or privately deal with issues and leave questions unanswered. Both Firestone and Ford

14 Fearn-Banks, K. (2011). Crisis Communications Theory. In Crisis Communications: A Casebook Approach (4th ed., p. 25). New York, N.Y., U.S.A., New York: Routledge.15 Inoue, T. (2010, May 24). A culture of apologies: Communicating crises in Japan. Retrieved December 1, 2015, from https://www.prsa.org/Intelligence/TheStrategist/Articles/view/8644/102/A_culture_of_apologies_Communicating_crises_in_Jap#bio

FIRESTONE TIRES RECALLS 8

agreed that a product recall had to be put in effect, however, they disagreed on how to go about

announcing the recall. Japanese-based Bridgestone/Firestone felt that reading a statement

alongside Ford without answering questions from the media would be enough, but “Ford

strongly disagreed with this strategy and warned of disaster if they refused questions.”16

The final factor that causes difficulty in company crisis communication between

Japanese companies and non-Japanese publics is the Japanese people’s custom of apologizing

even if they don’t have to or are not culpable (In Western cultures, apologizing is often seen as

an admittance of guilt.) Inoue recalls his thoughts on Ono when the then-CEO began by

apologizing in front of a congressional hearing about the Firestone tire recall crisis. “When I

heard it, I thought, ‘That is not something that is done in a public hearing in the United States.’”17

Firestone’s secondary, functional audience included consumers of both Firestone and

Ford products (with a focus on those affected by the recalls), victims who were injured during

incidents of tire failure and their families, families of victims who were killed due to tire failure,

and employees from both Firestone and Ford—especially the 1,500 Firestone employees left

without jobs after the Decatur, Illinois Firestone tire factory was shut down because of the high

number of defective products produced.

Firestone’s normative public included businesses and automotive product distributors that

sold Firestone tires as well as other competing automotive and tire companies such as Goodyear

and Michelin, both of which generated a significant increase in profits and production in the

years following the Firestone tire recall.

16 Overview of The Crisis: Firestone Tire Recall-Ford Explorer. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3, 2015, from http://www.firestone-tire-recall.com/pages/overview.html17 Inoue, T. (2010, May 24). A culture of apologies: Communicating crises in Japan. Retrieved December 1, 2015, from https://www.prsa.org/Intelligence/TheStrategist/Articles/view/8644/102/A_culture_of_apologies_Communicating_crises_in_Jap#bio

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Finally, Firestone’s diffused public included first and foremost the media. Other diffused

publics might have included unrelated businesses and companies who were interested in seeing

how Firestone handled the crisis and surrounding businesses and neighborhoods close to

Firestone’s headquarters in Nashville, Tennessee or to the Firestone tire factory that was shut

down in Decatur, Illinois.

Crisis Communication Theories

I believe that the Firestone-Ford crisis serves as an example of one of the worst-handled

company crises ever, in terms of both communication and management. The crisis

communication theories Firestone incorporated into their mostly-unsuccessful crisis

communication and management plan included William Benoit’s theory of image restoration and

Keith Hearit’s Apologia Theory, both of which serve to restore one’s image.

Image Restoration Theory by Benoit (2004)

Firestone’s image was already tainted by its previous 1978 recall of 14.5 million

Firestone-500 brand steel-belted radial tires—the largest product recall in history.18 Firestone

was aware of the tire’s alarming tendency to fail, particularly at high speeds, and yet kept this

information hidden from the public. It was an appalling decision that almost left the company

bankrupt. Twenty years later, Firestone repeated its own history. Not only did

Bridgestone/Firestone, Inc. initially deny that there were any problems associated with the three

tire models that were later found to be faulty, it denied having early knowledge of the product’s

defect and then made use of the scape-goat strategy19 by shifting the blame onto their long-time

business partner, Ford Motor Co. on the basis that the Ford Explorer SUV’s mechanics and

design were to blame for the thousands of injuries and hundreds of deaths. Although Firestone 18 Firestone 500 Steel Belted Radials. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3, 2015, from http://www.autosafety.org/firestone-500-steel-belted-radials19 Coombs, W. (2007, October 30). Crisis Management and Communications: Reputation Repair and Behavioral Intentions. Retrieved December 3, 2015, from http://www.instituteforpr.org/crisis-management-and-communications

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used the denial and scapegoat strategies in an attempt to save their image, their dark history with

product recalls made them guilty in the majority of the publics’ eyes, thus rendering the use of

those strategies unsuccessful.20 All in all, Firestone’s communication strategies failed because

they were defensive despite their history; the company denied the crisis, and when it no longer

could, it pointed the finger at another.

Apologia Theory by Hearit (1994)

The second crisis communications theory Firestone incorporated within its crisis

communication and management plan is Keith Hearit’s Apologia Theory—the theory William

Benoit built his on.21 Although similar, the word ‘apology’ and its act has very little to do with

the theory. Hearit argued that “although an apologia may ultimately consist of an apology [as

well as denial or an explanation]…an apologia is first and foremost ‘a defense that seeks to

present a compelling counter description…to situate alleged organizational wrongdoing in a

more favorable context.’”22 In other words, it is a form of self-defense or counteraction to protect

one’s image and reputation from a harmful accusation. In the case of the Firestone tire recall, the

company issued the use of the dissociate strategy of corporate apologia when it cut ties of almost

a century with Ford Motor Co.

According to an article in Communication Theory, a peer-reviewed academic journal,

“An organization may be constrained by the presence of a crucial associate or business partner

who would have to be sacrificed if certain strategies of self-defense were chosen. At that point,

the organization may have to choose between the ongoing relations and [an] effective [apologia]

20 Rowland, R., & Jerome, A. (2004). On Organizational Apologia: A Reconceptualization. Communication Theory, 14(3), 205. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00311.x21 Fearn-Banks, K. (2011). Crisis Communications Theory. In Crisis Communications: A Casebook Approach (4th ed., p. 18, 25). New York, N.Y., U.S.A., New York: Routledge.22 Towner, E. (2009, September 3). What is Apologia? A Description and History of the Term. Retrieved December 6, 2015, from http://emiltowner.com/2009/09/03/what-is-apologia/

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response.”23 In the end, that is exactly what Firestone did. On May 21, 2001,

Bridgestone/Firestone announced it was ending its 95-year-old business relationship with Ford,

definitively dissociating itself from the accusatory party.24

Key Messages

Although one of the only communicative actions Firestone first took consisted of sending

out tire recall statements to its customers, Firestone eventually got to working with the media

through the use of communication strategies such as spokespersons, proper tire-maintenance

education efforts, quality assurance programs and their “Making It Right” campaign.25 However,

their initial, closed approach towards trying to communicate with its various publics made the

company a continued target for negative media attention, despite the company’s eventual

increase in media relations.

In every crisis situation, the first 24 hours after an incident are the most important in

terms of communication and reaching out to the various audiences and media. The longer a

company waits before addressing these publics, the more time it gives them to form their own

ideas and opinions about what has occurred, however unsubstantiated or speculative these ideas

and opinions may be. Communication and public relations professionals agree that Firestone’s

initial handling of the recall situation via the use of media and other communication-related

activities was extremely poor and left consumers feeling uncared for.26

Immediately after the crisis began, Firestone’s former business partner, Ford Motor Co.,

was able to react quickly to the situation using several different communication strategies that

23 Rowland, R., & Jerome, A. (2004). On Organizational Apologia: A Reconceptualization. Communication Theory, 14(3), 206. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00311.x24 Swoboda, F., & Mayer, C. (2001, May 22). Firestone Cuts Ties To Ford in Recall Fight. Retrieved December 4, 2015, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/05/22/firestone-cuts-ties-to-ford-in-recall-fight/4a02eeb5-975a-47e0-a054-5bf71b778a28/25 Barboza, D. (2001, May 24). Firestone's Revival Strategy: Be Contrite and Attack Ford. Retrieved December 4, 2015, from http://www.nytimes.com/2001/05/25/business/firestone-s-revival-strategy-be-contrite-and-attack-ford.html26 Arney, J. (2000, September 17). Ford, Firestone in a PR freefall. Retrieved December 5, 2015, from http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2000-09-17/business/0009160001_1_firestone-bridgestone-crisis

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included creating a national advertising campaign, making sure their top-level executives were

available for media questioning and interaction, and even setting up a hotline for their consumers

to call in case of any questions or emergencies related to the crisis.27

It’s obvious that efficient communication was not utilized before the occurrence of the

Firestone tire recall crisis. This made communication throughout and after the crisis that much

more important. Elements required for effective communication include: credibility, compassion,

control, and consistency—none of which Firestone seemed to have throughout most of the crisis.

The company displayed very little credibility in the initial stages of the situation, and even less

so as the situation progressed. Firestone made minimal attempts at getting in contact with the

media, even after it was revealed that the company had prior knowledge of the defective tires

despite their denials.

Firestone also showed little compassion when dealing with the negative and fatal effects

of their faulty product. Not only did the company keep early warning signs of tire failures in

other countries hidden from the American public, but for a long time, its only contact with

American consumers were the recall statements and letters explaining the situation to them and

what they could do to replace their tires free of charge. Although this was a positive first step

towards saving the company’s relationship with its customers, it remained the only step for a

long time, causing the company to be seen as having no compassion for the people using their

dangerous products.

Firestone also showed poor control of the situation from the start. Key figures in the

company, including former CEO Masatoshi Ono, remained relatively quiet in comparison to the

extreme size and seriousness of the crisis. According to W. Timothy Coombs, author, crisis

27 Ford makes good PR move by being open about tire recall. (2000, August 20). Retrieved December 6, 2015, from http://lubbockonline.com/stories/082000/bus_082000017.shtml#.VmSkBnarRD8

FIRESTONE TIRES RECALLS 13

communications expert, and professor in the Nicholson School of Communication at the

University of Central Florida, “Hearit’s (1994) research illustrates how silence is too passive. It

lets others control the story and suggests the organization has yet to gain control of the

situation.”28

Recovery

After the crisis was over, Firestone was sure to be a lost cause. Its reputation continued to

suffer and its holding company lost $1.7 billion by the end of 2001.29 However, just a few years

later, the company slowly stabilized and started to flourish once again. John Lampe replaced Ono

as CEO of Bridgestone/Firestone immediately after the crisis began, and for the next couple of

years, worked hard to turn the company around via various communication methods such as

reaching out to families of the victims and appearing on national television commercials

promoting the company’s “Make It Right” campaign.

On Jan. 1, 2009, parent company Bridgestone Corp. decided to “drop the Firestone name

from most of its operating units” including the Bridgestone/Firestone subsidiary’s name, now

known as Bridgestone Americas, Inc. (BSAM).30 The company is now directed by Gary Garfield,

president and CEO of BSAM, who assumed the role in the Spring of 2010 and oversees all of the

subsidiary’s operations across the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Australia.31 According to

Garfield at the late-July 2014 quarterly Nashville Business Breakfast, BSAM has undergone a lot

of changes since its days as the former Bridgestone/Firestone, Inc. including changes in its

corporate culture and the way the company treats people, both internal (employees) and external

28 Coombs, W. (2007, October 30). Crisis Management and Communications: Initial Response. Retrieved December 3, 2015, from http://www.instituteforpr.org/crisis-management-and-communications/29 Popely, R. (2004, February 6). Firestone rolls back from SUV tire crisis. Retrieved December 7, 2015, from http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2004-02-06/business/0402060375_1_firestone-tires-john-lampe-bridgestone-americas-holding30 Schertz, W. (2012, November 15). Bridgestone Americas to drop Firestone name from most of its operating units - Rubber & Plastics News. Retrieved December 5, 2015, from http://www.rubbernews.com/article/20081117/NEWS/311179961/bridgestone-americas-to-drop-firestone-name-from-most-of-its-operating-units31 Executive Bios. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2015, from https://www.bridgestoneamericas.com/en/corporation/executive-bios

FIRESTONE TIRES RECALLS 14

(consumers). The company has formed a closer team-member mentality and Garfield said its

“profitability has grown four-and-a-half times in the past four years.”32

Suggestions

I believe that the Firestone tire recall of 2000 and 2001 was one of the worst-handled

crisis communications cases of all time. Despite the fact that, just decades before, Firestone

underwent an awfully similar situation, the company acted as if though it had no experience in

handling a recall crisis at all. Its initial approach to media relations was almost futile in garnering

positive media attention and in rescuing its reputation from being tarnished any further. The

company allowed the deaths of over 200 people on U.S. roads because its primary shareholders

either ignored or refused to recognize defects in several models of its tires. By the time the

company took action and began making proactive changes, negative public opinion had already

taken root and it was too late for Firestone.

If I were a crisis communication manager confronted with the same situation, I would do

many things differently, beginning with the way the media was handled. As previously

mentioned, rapid outreach to a company’s various internal and external publics as well as the

media within 24 hours after a crisis occurs is essential for that company to be able to overcome

the drastic situation. The more time one lets pass by without addressing media or the audience,

the more time you give them to form incorrect or negative opinions about the situation and your

company. Just as Ford Motor Co. did, I would make key figures within my client’s company,

such as the CEO, be easily accessible and readily available to reporters and other media

personnel to prevent casting any shadow of doubt or avoidance within the public or the media.

32 Harrison, S. (2014, July 23). How Bridgestone Americas' CEO measures performance (and jokes with Tiger Woods). Retrieved December 6, 2015, from http://www.bizjournals.com/nashville/blog/2014/07/how-bridgestone-americas-ceo-measures-performance.html

FIRESTONE TIRES RECALLS 15

Openness and honesty are key traits of any strong, successful leader—a principle that applies to

corporations and businesses just the same.

References

Ackman, D. (2000, October 10). Top Of The News: Bridgestone's Ono Out Of The Fire.

Retrieved December 2, 2015, from http://www.forbes.com/2000/10/10/1010topnews.html

Arney, J. (2000, September 17). Ford, Firestone in a PR freefall. Retrieved December 5,

2015, from http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2000-09-17/business/0009160001_1_firestone-

bridgestone-crisis

Barboza, D. (2001, May 24). Firestone's Revival Strategy: Be Contrite and Attack Ford.

Retrieved December 4, 2015, from http://www.nytimes.com/2001/05/25/business/firestone-s-

revival-strategy-be-contrite-and-attack-ford.html

Bridgestone History. (n.d.). Retrieved December 30, 2015, from

http://www.bridgestonetire.com/about/who-we-are

Bridgestone/Firestone announces massive tire recall. (n.d.). Retrieved November 30,

2015, from http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bridgestonefirestone-announces-massive-

tire-recall

FIRESTONE TIRES RECALLS 16

Coombs, W. (2007, October 30). Crisis Management and Communications: Reputation

Repair and Behavioral Intentions. Retrieved December 3, 2015, from

http://www.instituteforpr.org/crisis-management-and-communications/

Demere, M. (2013, August 21). Why Blowouts Happen-and How to Avoid Them.

Retrieved December 6, 2015, from http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/how-to/a9399/why-

blowouts-happen-and-how-to-avoid-them-15832078/

Fearn-Banks, K. (2011). Crisis Communications Theory. In Crisis Communications: A

Casebook Approach (4th ed., p. 18, 25). New York, N.Y., U.S.A., New York: Routledge.

Firestone 500 Steel Belted Radials. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3, 2015, from

http://www.autosafety.org/firestone-500-steel-belted-radials

Firestone Tire Recall Hearing before the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science,

and Transportation. (2000, September 12). Retrieved December 1, 2015, from

http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-106shrg85219/html/CHRG-106shrg85219.htm

Firestone Tire and Rubber Company. (n.d.). Retrieved November 5, 2015, from

http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Firestone_Tire_and_Rubber_Company?rec=891

Firestone recalls 6.5 million SUV tires. (2000, August 9). Retrieved December 6, 2015,

from http://money.cnn.com/2000/08/09/news/firestone_recall/

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