30 Steering Clear of Plagarism

poliricians and his[Orians have learned Have more fairh in your abiliry [0

succeed on your own Even if you came inro college as a less-rhan-confidenr

wrirer you srill have rhings ro say You also have language wirh which [0

express yourself People will recognize your voice and come [0 respecr your

earnesr efforrs [0 make i r srronger

Theyll also quickly dereer if youre lip-syncing someone elses rune

Donr fool yourself in[O believing orherwise or pur your college career ar rhe

mercy of a Google search rhar mighr rum up half your paper on a highshy

schoolers home page Borrowing from whar orhers have wrirren because

youre insecure or desperare is n(ver rhe answer- ir can only aggravare a

problem If you wish your senrences were more eloquenr or smoorh spend

some rime in your local wriring cenrer or review Parr 2 Shaping Lanshy

guage If youre confused abour how to incorporare language from sources

in[O your wriring youll find ample guidance in Chaprers 24-25 If you are

unsure abour an assignmenr irself or maybe life go see your insrruc[Or or

an academic counselor

Welc ome

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l wu~nlOIksM II~ (ltt bull J~

1r 7I~tgtk I ~ c_k it l1 tf 1m middotI tDI bullbull H I4t =Lli rn l ( IIJ _4m r

klll ktnn I~ f-m mIlIJnb fIIob~ kIIIaf-d~ Ju I 1cL k U rrc- ~hJt a r 1111 IampKJlh cbt-I I n Q ~811~ _ gt - fuu l t~ e-anw h ~1( ltl~O _ d~

rro1ltli_-d Jl~

(JHDW t GET STAATID fIII~C4 fOl 81 _ 1m Acc 1- Prop_

Figure 41 You can read more abour effons ro promore honesry on college

campuses ar ltllIrpIaIJuem iuntlmiddotgritylltggt Find our your own school s policies

on scholasric inregriry How does ir define pitlgia-isJI1 coflwio17 or scholastic dishonesty Does your school have an honor code ~ I ~J

j

Creating a Structure

mulrimedia projecr youll need ro

Wharever you are crearing wherher irs a simple argumenr or a complex

find a srrucrure---a parrern of organizashy

tion thar makes your marerials cohere Simply pur a successful srrucrure

helps you decide what goes where Rcader~ will depend on your organizarion

ro move rhem from poinr ro point in rheir reading wherher you are leading

rhem along srraighr parhs (as in mosr repons or narrar ives) or suggesring

rh ar rhey blaze trails of rheir own (as in a Web sire or Wiki)

Sa Understanding Structure

You donr have ro invenr rhe organizarion of a paper a resume a repon or

anorher projecr every rime yo u begin a new one Insread you can look ro

models for principles of organizarion and design and rhen modifY rhem ro

fir your wriring siruarion In fact rhe besr way ro undersrand srruerure is

to examine how ir works in differen r si ruarions (See Figure 51)

Look for structures in models Begin a projecr by examining sucshy

cessful examples of rhe kind of wriring you hope ro produce Such models will usually rell you whar elemenrs should be included in a paper or a projecr

and how rhey mighr be arranged Some types of wriring arc rigidly organized

For example look ar rhe model business lerrers resumes and newslel(ers in

Chaprer 16 and rhe model research papers in Chaprers 27 and 28 Alrhough

these forms allow considerable variarion cerrain elemenrs musr be in place

before readers will recognize rhem For example a research paper needs a

ride an absrracr or inrroducrion headings a conclusion and a bibliography

Figure 51 Frank O

G lhrys Guggenheim

M useum Bilbao (Spain)

has been hailed as a

triumph of conremporary

archirec rure Irs unusual

srrucrure borh challenges

and delighrs visirors Bur

would such a strucrure

work well for a bank o r

shopping maW

I

31

________________________ ___

32 33 I Creating a Structure

Other rypes of writing may have fewer specific requirements but they also have strucrures you can imitate For example a news stOry rypically opens with a summary of facts answering the questions who what where when and how The story is arranged so that it can be CUt to fit the available space in the paper (or time on the air) so its final paragraphs will offer less crucial (but more detailed) information than its earlier ones Brochures and

Web sites vary in structure even more than news articles But both forms are designed to present information clearly and compellingly

To uain yourself to SpOt suucrural elements look for the characteristic ways in which any rype of text

D begins and ends

bull arranges its information (see Section 5-3)

o separa tes its information (for example with headlines headings lines spaces boxes)

connects its information (with transitional words and phrases bullets numbered lists) and

bull highlights its information (with special language typefaces pull

shy_- Qoo- __shy-~~------shy--_ _- ------_J _ __shy

~- === - _ ~~==- -~---a_-_

~~~~_ __ --- __

_ co_

S~SbrJmiddot MllIbullmiddot

__shy___ -- ---=shy--_-- ==-=- -- -shy=-_ shy---middotmiddot~-I-_ -

fM- _ 1Io__ __ lt_tolt _ ---- -__ - __ ____ _shy

Figure 52 Here is a template available in the

Project Gallery of Microsoft Word for a

newslerrer Would you be able on your own to

create the structural elements in this

newslerrer tirle head ings body What

wouldnt you be able ro manage so easily

quotes color)

Study the strategies authors use in telling stOries or making arguments Look at how instructions are given in textshybooks and owners manuals Study visual texts and Web sites to appreciate why information is placed where it is Make yourshyself conscious of the design in even the most ordinary forms of writing-in email messagesin memos in movie reviews Then transfer what youve learned to your own projects

2 Use dont abuse temshyplates A template is a graphic model or pattern offered to

writers to suggest what the shape of a project might be Some of these templates are no more than fill-in-the-blank forms others may be complex ready-made designs for reportS

_IIte I

II

II

t rll

~ Understanding Structure

or multimedia presentations You can find such templates right in your word processor or presentation sofrware In Microsoft Word for example a range of templates is available under the File menu in the Project Gallery (See Figures 52 and 53) or right off the ribbon in Office 2007 Ifyou own Office you can download even more templates from Microsoft Office Online

ll Jn middot II Ilt ny

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~u~~s bwgt~ II-Pfleltll Gffuy loloefp~II eastf~~lItoIb~f1tol~PllPef Adltha~me ~IOOrlDoaNlle

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IT CHAP 1fR iAIIIE OR IN IOU 1

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lMlISlltAPII1IJIIP~1S ~ lbr ap tOOl ~ m~htftoModoD

Figure 53 Here are the templates

for a report available in the Project

Gallery of Microsoft Word They

offer enough structure [0 ger you started but provide no details

about arrangi ng the content of the

work Whar e1emenrs of [his

templ ate might not be useful [0

you writing a conventional report

________________________ ___

32 33 I Creating a Structure

Other rypes of writing may have fewer specific requirements but they also have strucrures you can imitate For example a news stOry rypically opens with a summary of facts answering the questions who what where when and how The story is arranged so that it can be CUt to fit the available space in the paper (or time on the air) so its final paragraphs will offer less crucial (but more detailed) information than its earlier ones Brochures and

Web sites vary in structure even more than news articles But both forms are designed to present information clearly and compellingly

To uain yourself to SpOt suucrural elements look for the characteristic ways in which any rype of text

D begins and ends

bull arranges its information (see Section 5-3)

o separa tes its information (for example with headlines headings lines spaces boxes)

connects its information (with transitional words and phrases bullets numbered lists) and

bull highlights its information (with special language typefaces pull

shy_- Qoo- __shy-~~------shy--_ _- ------_J _ __shy

~- === - _ ~~==- -~---a_-_

~~~~_ __ --- __

_ co_

S~SbrJmiddot MllIbullmiddot

__shy___ -- ---=shy--_-- ==-=- -- -shy=-_ shy---middotmiddot~-I-_ -

fM- _ 1Io__ __ lt_tolt _ ---- -__ - __ ____ _shy

Figure 52 Here is a template available in the

Project Gallery of Microsoft Word for a

newslerrer Would you be able on your own to

create the structural elements in this

newslerrer tirle head ings body What

wouldnt you be able ro manage so easily

quotes color)

Study the strategies authors use in telling stOries or making arguments Look at how instructions are given in textshybooks and owners manuals Study visual texts and Web sites to appreciate why information is placed where it is Make yourshyself conscious of the design in even the most ordinary forms of writing-in email messagesin memos in movie reviews Then transfer what youve learned to your own projects

2 Use dont abuse temshyplates A template is a graphic model or pattern offered to

writers to suggest what the shape of a project might be Some of these templates are no more than fill-in-the-blank forms others may be complex ready-made designs for reportS

_IIte I

II

II

t rll

~ Understanding Structure

or multimedia presentations You can find such templates right in your word processor or presentation sofrware In Microsoft Word for example a range of templates is available under the File menu in the Project Gallery (See Figures 52 and 53) or right off the ribbon in Office 2007 Ifyou own Office you can download even more templates from Microsoft Office Online

ll Jn middot II Ilt ny

~e~1wpicnn

fmeOf )lOU Can-gt ~ lh~~

rroI thlt tl(JoS

0gt

~r~~Ja~~n~Itb~~

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atlClltorTIJ IIA~~ok

(lUOl 11lmJ htWf~~d bull

acl tcrn ~ne3J1~

Sir---middot

htvili)JlericK loCuld apptar ~r 1M ~oIofitJUterm piIpf1

Hmiddot l ll iJ~JH

~u~~s bwgt~ II-Pfleltll Gffuy loloefp~II eastf~~lItoIb~f1tol~PllPef Adltha~me ~IOOrlDoaNlle

IQI~_ ~C_ ) a_ai1IogtOCO-~I~WT

~-oAII- _ rlaquofEd tt blOIb -

_ (poooI bull q ~~er

-~ middot~111_ 00- - rJI ~ J ~

U -c (f UUII

I IrlfROOOCTIO H

IT CHAP 1fR iAIIIE OR IN IOU 1

m (HAp re A H~ 09 lAIN rm t

IV ~rllR rlAIlE Oq ~IHII)U J

V CHAPTE R NU~E OR lJIIIN IDE A II

VI CPT R NAe ORIMIH l[Ek )

JIIP PIoU 0

5E LECUO elEl IOCR-fHY

Oltt-fIoT -

IllUSTRA1 1lJ ~

II IlLU STR~TO t

III II -I)51IU T(l N )

I IWJ SlRAU)tl 4 0

V ILLU SlRAH m ~ 0

middot ~ ~rIT middotH~

TABd l 0

II IaE2

III fA8U ~ o

IV fA Bl E

V TIl eUS

Tmiddot ~middotmiddot ~ J- bullbull bullshy

lMlISlltAPII1IJIIP~1S ~ lbr ap tOOl ~ m~htftoModoD

Figure 53 Here are the templates

for a report available in the Project

Gallery of Microsoft Word They

offer enough structure [0 ger you started but provide no details

about arrangi ng the content of the

work Whar e1emenrs of [his

templ ate might not be useful [0

you writing a conventional report

34 bull Creating a Structure

A template shows yo u both what elements a project should include ~lncl how those elements can be arra nged Quite often yo ull be ofre red a range or options for each rype of writing you want to do Ckl11pia tes in rhe Microsoft

Gallery incl ude letters reS ljTll CS brochures newsleuers and mo re) Bec3usl

th ese patterns work electro nica lly they can a lso in cl ud( prokssion aliy

des igned graphics in full color which yo u ca n incorporlte in YOllr own docshy

umcllts So a template provides a rich rype of suucrure one that helps you

see the relatio nsh ip between words an d design in many kinds of documcnls

Even so yo u sti ll must provide th e content an d internal trucru re in

many of these templares Working with a tem plate of a lette r for example

yo u must decide how to organ ize marerial in the body of rhe lener givi ng the

material some logical s[[ucture (Sec Section 5a-3) Yo u also Wltlnt to bt Sllre

that the pattern of a template doesnt determin e what you end lip wri ting

Presentation software for example such as PowerPoint or KYnore has beell

roundly criticized fo r standardizing the routine of oral presentatio ns D iffnshy

ent people using these powerful llmiddotmplates (ld up producing rcporrs th at

seem remarkably p redictable and struourally si milar You can avoid having

yo ur project scm like a s[[uctural clone by thinking deeply abo ut the logic

of organization and then modifying the template to suit your own p urpose

t 3 Arrange information strategically Yo u don t need spccifi( modshy

els or templates to provid e guidelines for organization You can figure our I

structure just by considering in whar order the elemenrs of you r projcCl Ileed

to appear At least six possibilities J1lay compe te for yo ur a[[cnrion

Logical order You ll wa llt lJl llerial to follow a pa ttern that see ms

coheren t to your readers For ins tance you may decide to presenr in fo rshy

m ati on inductively (from particular cases to general concl us io n) o r

deductively (fro m general principles to particular cases) Even rhe simshy

ple division of a top ic into its parts can represent a logical orde r

Hierarchical order In m any cases youlJ need to arrange m are ri al

from most to leas t impo rtant o r vice versa Thar sequence represem5 l

hierarchy or ranking E~pecially impo rtant in electto ni c envi tonm ents

are hierarchi cal structures that break a topic or a concepr down from its

most general form (a Web sire ho me page) to more complex or detailed

subtopics In building a Web si te yo ud want to map out a hierarchi cal

structure to keep track of what information goes where

Chronological order 111 some cases a paper or project will fo ll ow a

sequence A narrative mighr m ove from hegi nnin to end a holv to

essay might move th ro ugh a sequence of stages slep Olle step 1110 step three and so on Order defined by genre In many cases th e strucrure of your writi ng

is decided hy precedent or profession al guidelines Lab reportS rtsearch

35Creating an Outline

reports resumes and scholarship applications have structures dictated

by co nventions that you alter at your own risk Order of importance or significance Yo ull often have to decide what

in format ion gets priority and where such prioriry information is posishy

rioned In some papers especially in arguments you may wanr ro m ake

your best points last so that readers will remember rhern In news sto ries

and on Web sites the m ost imporrant information usually comes ti rst

Order of interest Depending o n you r writing siruati on you m ay

need to consider how ro keep readers inre resred in your work T har

may mean forgoing the most logica l arrangement in o rder to present an

appealing or especially strong open ing section or page

T hese general principles of organ ization a re helpful in many cases but

yo u m ay recall more detailed patterns of organ ization such as process comshy

parison co ntrast cause-and- effect and problemsoluri l11 Fach of these

structu res may provide the organ izatio n for an entire essay or a single parashy

graph We outli ne several of these patterns in Section 1 d and provide modshy

els of them in Seerion 12b on structuting paragraphs

5b Creating an Outline

Many of us need a vis ual aid of some kind to help us imagine th form a

paper or project even a relatively small one m igh t take Some writers usc

diagrams or eve n clustering to give shape to their ideas (Sce Secrion 3a-2 )

But fo r m any others the bes t rool remains the outline wheth er its just a

scratch outline or a formal o ne generated by a wo rd-p rocessing program

~ Create a scratch outline Put yo ur thesis at the top of your page if

you already have one Then list any major points youve btcn considering for

the paper either as phrases or briefsentences H eres whar yo u mighr come up

with initially for a paper about changes in the way people are buying music

Thesis D ownloadi ng m usic over rhe Web will change ou r music-buying

habits fo rever

_ CDs an d tapes wont last long now that pay-by-the-song mJsic sites

have caught on _ College kids pioneered th e shari ng of music elec[[on ica lly of ~I l

illegally _ Musi c companies havent been able to co ntrol dec[[onic distribushy

tion of music fd es _ Electronic files downloaded ftom the Web can be used in many dil~

ferent wys burned o n CDs uploackd on COll1 puters ere

36 37 Creating a Structure

- Devices like Apples iPod make downloading music podcasts and video easy and convenient

- People dont wam Q buy songs in albums packaged by music

compames

- Why buy a whole CD when you juSt wam (Q listen w one or two good songs)

In this hm scratch the headings are just a random list of ideas You

could then modify or rearrange the items w pull out your main ideas and

subordinate other material panicularly any that might serve as illusrrations

and evidence Of course some poims might be dropped emirely Weve

boldfaced the key poims in this revised version of the initial scratch outline

Thesis Downloading music over the Web will change our music-buying

habits forever

- Music companies havent been able to control electronic distrishybution of music files - College kids pioneered the sharing of music electronically often

illegally

- People dont wam w buy music in albums packaged by music

companies - Why buy a whole CD when you JUSt wam w listen w one or tvvo

good songs -CDs and tapes wont last long now that pay-by-the-song music

sites have caught on - Devices like Apples iPod make downloading music easy and

convenient - Elecrronic files downloaded from the Web can be used the way

music lovers wam burned on CDs uploaded on computers etc

2 Make a formal sentence outline Some profess ionals recomshy

mend a formal or full semence outline because it compels a writer w think

a subject thwugh systematically and logically In a formal outline stateshymems are expressed in parallel semences with poims and subpoints careshy

fully arranged indemed and aligned The various numbers and leHers are also formatted-I A 1 a 1) a) (I) (a)-w indicate th e descending levels of

each poim and subpoint At every level (except the statemem of the thesis)

you need at least two poims Most word processors include auwmatic outlining functions that may

help you organize a project Almost any documem can be viewed in outline fo rm just by selecting th at option In outline view you can move items around easily w tryout differem arrangemems and panerns

Following is the general structure of a formal outline followed by a samshyple outline of a paper on artwork in prehiswric caves

Sl Framework of a Formal Outline

Creating an Outline

THESIS STATE THE THESIS FULLY AS A COMPLETE SENTENCE

l State the first major point in a complete semence A Give the first subpoim of l

1 This point develops subpoim A 2 This point develops subpoint A

B Give the second subpoint of I 1 This point develops subpoim B 2 This point develops subpoint B 3 This poim develops subpoim B

C Give the third subpoint (and so on) II State the second major poim in a sentence parallel in structure w the

first major point

Thesis Experts regard recently discovered wall paintings in the Chauvet cave as significant because the paintings challenge the history ofEuropean art and

reveal a surprising natural environment

1 Chauvet cave an challenges the history of early European art

A Chauvet an is older than work at Lascaux 1 Chauvet paimings are 30000 years old or older

2 Paimings at Lascaux are only 14000 years old B The paimings at Chauvet are bolder than those at Lascaux

1 Chauvet paimings show srronger line and more color comrast

than paimings at Lascaux 2 Chauvet drawings show greater depth and perspective

II Chauvet an reveals a surprising natural environment A Chauvet includes more images than later sites B Chauvet shows animals nOt previously seen in anciem art of that

regIOn 1 Art shows rhinos elephants owls 2 An includes an unknown humanbison figure

C Chauvet portrays rypes of animals differem from other sites

1 At Chauvet predawry animals dominate

2 At Lascaux game animals are featured III Chauvet encourages us to see prehiswric life as more artistically and

socially complex than expertS previously imagined

39

6 Drafting

Many monrhs before new auromobiles are inrroduced ro the public handshybuilt prorotypes are run thousands of miles on test tracks and isolated rural highways ro determine how well they work in real-world conditions You might think of a first draft of YOUt written work as the prorotype for your project-a rough item but one ready ro be examined by you your peers

and your editors Will it stand up

6a Gathering Materials

Once youve chosen a subject and a structure for a project youll usually have legwork to do before you can prepare a draft For some projects this work will involve plenty of reading and research-inquiries youll likely pursue in a library and online (See Chapter 22 on finding information) Or you might have ro develop a series of argumenrs to support the position staked out by your thesis (See Part 4 on writing argumenrs)

Dont think of such work as being something you do before you write You are already engaged in the writing process as you gather materials and take notes So the better your notes and summaties are (see Chapter 24) or the more carefully you record your impressions or keep track ofyour sources the sooner you will be able to produce a working prototype for your project

Pacing Yourself

~CO~

6b Getting Started Wltfl ~jt

Even ptofessional writers agree that serring those first words down on paper PODCAST

may be the hardest pan of any writing project and you may have the same problern wh ether youre preparing a term paper a resume or a new Web

page Begin by choosing a place to work and getting it organized find a SpOt away from distractions and near the rools youll need Then gather your materials and equipmenr (legal pad laprop books and so on) and adjust your chair and the light Try ro establish the same place to use every time you work on a project If possible set a regular time to write preferably when you are freshest and most creative

Establish goals and incentives to keep yourself working If youre a proshycrasti na tOr (and who isnt at times ) negot iate terms of engagement Agree thar you wont leave the room unri you get two pages written or promise yourself a movie if you fini sh your first draft by 5 PM To make progress dont agonize over your opening seerion or expect perfecrion at rllC start friting a first paragraph can be excruciating but you can waste a lot of time polishing it instead of JUSt moving ahead If you ncmt like yol[ start-up work lower your standards and go on You can revise everyshything later

As you write dont be shy about using material you generated ar earlier stages in the composing process For exa mple you might pull an entire paragraph from a successful freewriting exercise Copy and paste it inro your draft

Sometimes youll have a flash of insight about your ropic or think of a great image you might use When that happens dont be distracred or spend an hour searching for the perfect picmre on the Inrernet Instead write down your ideas in a journal or lea ve a voice message on your phone or PDA so you dont forget them-and then press on with the main task

Perhaps most importantly dont criticize or edit your work early on by complaining I hate this or This is awful Give yourself credit for having launched the ptoject And dont srop to correct your grammar and polish your senrence strucmre Save editing for later If you bog down in details early in the work you may lose your momentum

6c Pacing Yourself

W hen youre wo rking on a writing projecr draft a plan for managing your time Begin by breaki ng your work into manageable chunks so that you can set goals Instead of wa iting until you hwe time ro tackle the enrire project

Figure 61 Pro[Qtypes of possible future vehicles often appear at aU[Q shows

[Q test consumer reactions-rypically years before they manufacture the

prodLcL If consumer reaction is hostile rhe project may be cancelled or

heavily modified JUSt as you might redo a paper after showing it [Q your

readers In what other areas might you encounter pro[Qtypes and what has

yom reaction [Q them been

38

4

ad agr

apos

art

awk

cap

case

coh

cs

dm (or dang)

Ifrag

lita Ie

mm

num

p

~

no

~

Drafting40

at once look at your schedule and try to complete one or twO segments at a

sitting

As you are making real progress take occasional breaks to allow your

ideas to gel or incubate When youre stuck for a idea or an example get up

and have a snack or run an errand A solution may su rface while youre away

from your desk Take longer breaks between drafts to give you rself time to

mull over what youve written But dont let time off for thinking turn into

procrastination While downtime can be important writing is your real job

especially when deadlines are getting short When yo u are losing concentrashy

tion reread whatever yo uve produced perhaps making a few minor

changes then starr writing again

If youre having major problems at the outset decide whether you

might be writing a discovery draft rather than a true draft A discovery

draft is like an extended freewrite written more for yourself than for an

audience Such a draft can help you generate ideas bu t it will probably

require thorough revision before you can send it around for peer comshy

ments Quite often you may realize that the concluding paragraph of a

discovery draft contains the subject you really wane (or ought) to write

abour See w ha t happens if you make that material the first paragraph of

your second drafr

In the same way you might need to sketch out several rough versions of

a Web page design or a brochure before committing yourself to a fully elabshy

orated version Consider that artists do the same thing when they prepare

pencil sketches or models before beginning a work (See Figure 62)

Figure 62 In 1482 Leonardo da Vinci won a commiss ion to produce rhe largest horse ever cast in bronze He produced a ~~ clay model desrroyed by French~Jr invaders in 1499 Leonardos grand vision was not realized

I - l~ until 1999 This image from Smithsonian magazine~~ I ~ f

) ~ 1 (Seprember 1999) shows d ~ workers in New York creating~II~ I rhe full-sized figure from a ~Y l (

~ smaller master model In what sit uarions have you created a model or protorype before beginning a major project

Evaluating a Draft

6d Evaluating a Draft

If you can answer yes to the following questions youll know you have a satshy

isfactOry draft or version of your project one that reflects a good-faith effort

on your part and one that is ready to be reviewed by a colleague instructOr

or tu tOr

bull Does the draft reflect a substantial investment of time and effort A solid first draft or protorype should show that you have made

a serious attempt to meet an assignment If a draft or protorype is no

more than a hurried effort you cant expect other readers to spend time

responding to ir

bull Is the draft fairly complete A solid first draft should have almost all

its elements in place (For a research paper this would include most of

the references on the Works Cited or References page) Brilliant first

paragraphs with the notation more to follow dont qualify-nor do

Web links that lead nowhere

Is the draft readable Whether youre showing your draft to an

instructor a boss or a group of other writers be sure its finish ed

enough to read or use easily This requires that a paper be neat doubleshy

spaced and printed dark enough co read (You shouldnt ask anyone

outside your family co read a handwritten draft ) A PowerPoint presenshy

tation should work when you project it a resume should be formatted

completely JUSt as if yo u were about to send it our

e-Tips You may want to create separate files for each version of a project that

you are developing Just save each new version of the file as you are writing it numbering the versions so youll always know which file is your latest Argldoc Arg2doc Or use the versions command under File to let Word manage this task for you And remember always to back up your important files in different places if possible

36 37 Creating a Structure

- Devices like Apples iPod make downloading music podcasts and video easy and convenient

- People dont wam Q buy songs in albums packaged by music

compames

- Why buy a whole CD when you juSt wam (Q listen w one or two good songs)

In this hm scratch the headings are just a random list of ideas You

could then modify or rearrange the items w pull out your main ideas and

subordinate other material panicularly any that might serve as illusrrations

and evidence Of course some poims might be dropped emirely Weve

boldfaced the key poims in this revised version of the initial scratch outline

Thesis Downloading music over the Web will change our music-buying

habits forever

- Music companies havent been able to control electronic distrishybution of music files - College kids pioneered the sharing of music electronically often

illegally

- People dont wam w buy music in albums packaged by music

companies - Why buy a whole CD when you JUSt wam w listen w one or tvvo

good songs -CDs and tapes wont last long now that pay-by-the-song music

sites have caught on - Devices like Apples iPod make downloading music easy and

convenient - Elecrronic files downloaded from the Web can be used the way

music lovers wam burned on CDs uploaded on computers etc

2 Make a formal sentence outline Some profess ionals recomshy

mend a formal or full semence outline because it compels a writer w think

a subject thwugh systematically and logically In a formal outline stateshymems are expressed in parallel semences with poims and subpoints careshy

fully arranged indemed and aligned The various numbers and leHers are also formatted-I A 1 a 1) a) (I) (a)-w indicate th e descending levels of

each poim and subpoint At every level (except the statemem of the thesis)

you need at least two poims Most word processors include auwmatic outlining functions that may

help you organize a project Almost any documem can be viewed in outline fo rm just by selecting th at option In outline view you can move items around easily w tryout differem arrangemems and panerns

Following is the general structure of a formal outline followed by a samshyple outline of a paper on artwork in prehiswric caves

Sl Framework of a Formal Outline

Creating an Outline

THESIS STATE THE THESIS FULLY AS A COMPLETE SENTENCE

l State the first major point in a complete semence A Give the first subpoim of l

1 This point develops subpoim A 2 This point develops subpoint A

B Give the second subpoint of I 1 This point develops subpoim B 2 This point develops subpoint B 3 This poim develops subpoim B

C Give the third subpoint (and so on) II State the second major poim in a sentence parallel in structure w the

first major point

Thesis Experts regard recently discovered wall paintings in the Chauvet cave as significant because the paintings challenge the history ofEuropean art and

reveal a surprising natural environment

1 Chauvet cave an challenges the history of early European art

A Chauvet an is older than work at Lascaux 1 Chauvet paimings are 30000 years old or older

2 Paimings at Lascaux are only 14000 years old B The paimings at Chauvet are bolder than those at Lascaux

1 Chauvet paimings show srronger line and more color comrast

than paimings at Lascaux 2 Chauvet drawings show greater depth and perspective

II Chauvet an reveals a surprising natural environment A Chauvet includes more images than later sites B Chauvet shows animals nOt previously seen in anciem art of that

regIOn 1 Art shows rhinos elephants owls 2 An includes an unknown humanbison figure

C Chauvet portrays rypes of animals differem from other sites

1 At Chauvet predawry animals dominate

2 At Lascaux game animals are featured III Chauvet encourages us to see prehiswric life as more artistically and

socially complex than expertS previously imagined

39

6 Drafting

Many monrhs before new auromobiles are inrroduced ro the public handshybuilt prorotypes are run thousands of miles on test tracks and isolated rural highways ro determine how well they work in real-world conditions You might think of a first draft of YOUt written work as the prorotype for your project-a rough item but one ready ro be examined by you your peers

and your editors Will it stand up

6a Gathering Materials

Once youve chosen a subject and a structure for a project youll usually have legwork to do before you can prepare a draft For some projects this work will involve plenty of reading and research-inquiries youll likely pursue in a library and online (See Chapter 22 on finding information) Or you might have ro develop a series of argumenrs to support the position staked out by your thesis (See Part 4 on writing argumenrs)

Dont think of such work as being something you do before you write You are already engaged in the writing process as you gather materials and take notes So the better your notes and summaties are (see Chapter 24) or the more carefully you record your impressions or keep track ofyour sources the sooner you will be able to produce a working prototype for your project

Pacing Yourself

~CO~

6b Getting Started Wltfl ~jt

Even ptofessional writers agree that serring those first words down on paper PODCAST

may be the hardest pan of any writing project and you may have the same problern wh ether youre preparing a term paper a resume or a new Web

page Begin by choosing a place to work and getting it organized find a SpOt away from distractions and near the rools youll need Then gather your materials and equipmenr (legal pad laprop books and so on) and adjust your chair and the light Try ro establish the same place to use every time you work on a project If possible set a regular time to write preferably when you are freshest and most creative

Establish goals and incentives to keep yourself working If youre a proshycrasti na tOr (and who isnt at times ) negot iate terms of engagement Agree thar you wont leave the room unri you get two pages written or promise yourself a movie if you fini sh your first draft by 5 PM To make progress dont agonize over your opening seerion or expect perfecrion at rllC start friting a first paragraph can be excruciating but you can waste a lot of time polishing it instead of JUSt moving ahead If you ncmt like yol[ start-up work lower your standards and go on You can revise everyshything later

As you write dont be shy about using material you generated ar earlier stages in the composing process For exa mple you might pull an entire paragraph from a successful freewriting exercise Copy and paste it inro your draft

Sometimes youll have a flash of insight about your ropic or think of a great image you might use When that happens dont be distracred or spend an hour searching for the perfect picmre on the Inrernet Instead write down your ideas in a journal or lea ve a voice message on your phone or PDA so you dont forget them-and then press on with the main task

Perhaps most importantly dont criticize or edit your work early on by complaining I hate this or This is awful Give yourself credit for having launched the ptoject And dont srop to correct your grammar and polish your senrence strucmre Save editing for later If you bog down in details early in the work you may lose your momentum

6c Pacing Yourself

W hen youre wo rking on a writing projecr draft a plan for managing your time Begin by breaki ng your work into manageable chunks so that you can set goals Instead of wa iting until you hwe time ro tackle the enrire project

Figure 61 Pro[Qtypes of possible future vehicles often appear at aU[Q shows

[Q test consumer reactions-rypically years before they manufacture the

prodLcL If consumer reaction is hostile rhe project may be cancelled or

heavily modified JUSt as you might redo a paper after showing it [Q your

readers In what other areas might you encounter pro[Qtypes and what has

yom reaction [Q them been

38

4

ad agr

apos

art

awk

cap

case

coh

cs

dm (or dang)

Ifrag

lita Ie

mm

num

p

~

no

~

Drafting40

at once look at your schedule and try to complete one or twO segments at a

sitting

As you are making real progress take occasional breaks to allow your

ideas to gel or incubate When youre stuck for a idea or an example get up

and have a snack or run an errand A solution may su rface while youre away

from your desk Take longer breaks between drafts to give you rself time to

mull over what youve written But dont let time off for thinking turn into

procrastination While downtime can be important writing is your real job

especially when deadlines are getting short When yo u are losing concentrashy

tion reread whatever yo uve produced perhaps making a few minor

changes then starr writing again

If youre having major problems at the outset decide whether you

might be writing a discovery draft rather than a true draft A discovery

draft is like an extended freewrite written more for yourself than for an

audience Such a draft can help you generate ideas bu t it will probably

require thorough revision before you can send it around for peer comshy

ments Quite often you may realize that the concluding paragraph of a

discovery draft contains the subject you really wane (or ought) to write

abour See w ha t happens if you make that material the first paragraph of

your second drafr

In the same way you might need to sketch out several rough versions of

a Web page design or a brochure before committing yourself to a fully elabshy

orated version Consider that artists do the same thing when they prepare

pencil sketches or models before beginning a work (See Figure 62)

Figure 62 In 1482 Leonardo da Vinci won a commiss ion to produce rhe largest horse ever cast in bronze He produced a ~~ clay model desrroyed by French~Jr invaders in 1499 Leonardos grand vision was not realized

I - l~ until 1999 This image from Smithsonian magazine~~ I ~ f

) ~ 1 (Seprember 1999) shows d ~ workers in New York creating~II~ I rhe full-sized figure from a ~Y l (

~ smaller master model In what sit uarions have you created a model or protorype before beginning a major project

Evaluating a Draft

6d Evaluating a Draft

If you can answer yes to the following questions youll know you have a satshy

isfactOry draft or version of your project one that reflects a good-faith effort

on your part and one that is ready to be reviewed by a colleague instructOr

or tu tOr

bull Does the draft reflect a substantial investment of time and effort A solid first draft or protorype should show that you have made

a serious attempt to meet an assignment If a draft or protorype is no

more than a hurried effort you cant expect other readers to spend time

responding to ir

bull Is the draft fairly complete A solid first draft should have almost all

its elements in place (For a research paper this would include most of

the references on the Works Cited or References page) Brilliant first

paragraphs with the notation more to follow dont qualify-nor do

Web links that lead nowhere

Is the draft readable Whether youre showing your draft to an

instructor a boss or a group of other writers be sure its finish ed

enough to read or use easily This requires that a paper be neat doubleshy

spaced and printed dark enough co read (You shouldnt ask anyone

outside your family co read a handwritten draft ) A PowerPoint presenshy

tation should work when you project it a resume should be formatted

completely JUSt as if yo u were about to send it our

e-Tips You may want to create separate files for each version of a project that

you are developing Just save each new version of the file as you are writing it numbering the versions so youll always know which file is your latest Argldoc Arg2doc Or use the versions command under File to let Word manage this task for you And remember always to back up your important files in different places if possible

39

6 Drafting

Many monrhs before new auromobiles are inrroduced ro the public handshybuilt prorotypes are run thousands of miles on test tracks and isolated rural highways ro determine how well they work in real-world conditions You might think of a first draft of YOUt written work as the prorotype for your project-a rough item but one ready ro be examined by you your peers

and your editors Will it stand up

6a Gathering Materials

Once youve chosen a subject and a structure for a project youll usually have legwork to do before you can prepare a draft For some projects this work will involve plenty of reading and research-inquiries youll likely pursue in a library and online (See Chapter 22 on finding information) Or you might have ro develop a series of argumenrs to support the position staked out by your thesis (See Part 4 on writing argumenrs)

Dont think of such work as being something you do before you write You are already engaged in the writing process as you gather materials and take notes So the better your notes and summaties are (see Chapter 24) or the more carefully you record your impressions or keep track ofyour sources the sooner you will be able to produce a working prototype for your project

Pacing Yourself

~CO~

6b Getting Started Wltfl ~jt

Even ptofessional writers agree that serring those first words down on paper PODCAST

may be the hardest pan of any writing project and you may have the same problern wh ether youre preparing a term paper a resume or a new Web

page Begin by choosing a place to work and getting it organized find a SpOt away from distractions and near the rools youll need Then gather your materials and equipmenr (legal pad laprop books and so on) and adjust your chair and the light Try ro establish the same place to use every time you work on a project If possible set a regular time to write preferably when you are freshest and most creative

Establish goals and incentives to keep yourself working If youre a proshycrasti na tOr (and who isnt at times ) negot iate terms of engagement Agree thar you wont leave the room unri you get two pages written or promise yourself a movie if you fini sh your first draft by 5 PM To make progress dont agonize over your opening seerion or expect perfecrion at rllC start friting a first paragraph can be excruciating but you can waste a lot of time polishing it instead of JUSt moving ahead If you ncmt like yol[ start-up work lower your standards and go on You can revise everyshything later

As you write dont be shy about using material you generated ar earlier stages in the composing process For exa mple you might pull an entire paragraph from a successful freewriting exercise Copy and paste it inro your draft

Sometimes youll have a flash of insight about your ropic or think of a great image you might use When that happens dont be distracred or spend an hour searching for the perfect picmre on the Inrernet Instead write down your ideas in a journal or lea ve a voice message on your phone or PDA so you dont forget them-and then press on with the main task

Perhaps most importantly dont criticize or edit your work early on by complaining I hate this or This is awful Give yourself credit for having launched the ptoject And dont srop to correct your grammar and polish your senrence strucmre Save editing for later If you bog down in details early in the work you may lose your momentum

6c Pacing Yourself

W hen youre wo rking on a writing projecr draft a plan for managing your time Begin by breaki ng your work into manageable chunks so that you can set goals Instead of wa iting until you hwe time ro tackle the enrire project

Figure 61 Pro[Qtypes of possible future vehicles often appear at aU[Q shows

[Q test consumer reactions-rypically years before they manufacture the

prodLcL If consumer reaction is hostile rhe project may be cancelled or

heavily modified JUSt as you might redo a paper after showing it [Q your

readers In what other areas might you encounter pro[Qtypes and what has

yom reaction [Q them been

38

4

ad agr

apos

art

awk

cap

case

coh

cs

dm (or dang)

Ifrag

lita Ie

mm

num

p

~

no

~

Drafting40

at once look at your schedule and try to complete one or twO segments at a

sitting

As you are making real progress take occasional breaks to allow your

ideas to gel or incubate When youre stuck for a idea or an example get up

and have a snack or run an errand A solution may su rface while youre away

from your desk Take longer breaks between drafts to give you rself time to

mull over what youve written But dont let time off for thinking turn into

procrastination While downtime can be important writing is your real job

especially when deadlines are getting short When yo u are losing concentrashy

tion reread whatever yo uve produced perhaps making a few minor

changes then starr writing again

If youre having major problems at the outset decide whether you

might be writing a discovery draft rather than a true draft A discovery

draft is like an extended freewrite written more for yourself than for an

audience Such a draft can help you generate ideas bu t it will probably

require thorough revision before you can send it around for peer comshy

ments Quite often you may realize that the concluding paragraph of a

discovery draft contains the subject you really wane (or ought) to write

abour See w ha t happens if you make that material the first paragraph of

your second drafr

In the same way you might need to sketch out several rough versions of

a Web page design or a brochure before committing yourself to a fully elabshy

orated version Consider that artists do the same thing when they prepare

pencil sketches or models before beginning a work (See Figure 62)

Figure 62 In 1482 Leonardo da Vinci won a commiss ion to produce rhe largest horse ever cast in bronze He produced a ~~ clay model desrroyed by French~Jr invaders in 1499 Leonardos grand vision was not realized

I - l~ until 1999 This image from Smithsonian magazine~~ I ~ f

) ~ 1 (Seprember 1999) shows d ~ workers in New York creating~II~ I rhe full-sized figure from a ~Y l (

~ smaller master model In what sit uarions have you created a model or protorype before beginning a major project

Evaluating a Draft

6d Evaluating a Draft

If you can answer yes to the following questions youll know you have a satshy

isfactOry draft or version of your project one that reflects a good-faith effort

on your part and one that is ready to be reviewed by a colleague instructOr

or tu tOr

bull Does the draft reflect a substantial investment of time and effort A solid first draft or protorype should show that you have made

a serious attempt to meet an assignment If a draft or protorype is no

more than a hurried effort you cant expect other readers to spend time

responding to ir

bull Is the draft fairly complete A solid first draft should have almost all

its elements in place (For a research paper this would include most of

the references on the Works Cited or References page) Brilliant first

paragraphs with the notation more to follow dont qualify-nor do

Web links that lead nowhere

Is the draft readable Whether youre showing your draft to an

instructor a boss or a group of other writers be sure its finish ed

enough to read or use easily This requires that a paper be neat doubleshy

spaced and printed dark enough co read (You shouldnt ask anyone

outside your family co read a handwritten draft ) A PowerPoint presenshy

tation should work when you project it a resume should be formatted

completely JUSt as if yo u were about to send it our

e-Tips You may want to create separate files for each version of a project that

you are developing Just save each new version of the file as you are writing it numbering the versions so youll always know which file is your latest Argldoc Arg2doc Or use the versions command under File to let Word manage this task for you And remember always to back up your important files in different places if possible

4

ad agr

apos

art

awk

cap

case

coh

cs

dm (or dang)

Ifrag

lita Ie

mm

num

p

~

no

~

Drafting40

at once look at your schedule and try to complete one or twO segments at a

sitting

As you are making real progress take occasional breaks to allow your

ideas to gel or incubate When youre stuck for a idea or an example get up

and have a snack or run an errand A solution may su rface while youre away

from your desk Take longer breaks between drafts to give you rself time to

mull over what youve written But dont let time off for thinking turn into

procrastination While downtime can be important writing is your real job

especially when deadlines are getting short When yo u are losing concentrashy

tion reread whatever yo uve produced perhaps making a few minor

changes then starr writing again

If youre having major problems at the outset decide whether you

might be writing a discovery draft rather than a true draft A discovery

draft is like an extended freewrite written more for yourself than for an

audience Such a draft can help you generate ideas bu t it will probably

require thorough revision before you can send it around for peer comshy

ments Quite often you may realize that the concluding paragraph of a

discovery draft contains the subject you really wane (or ought) to write

abour See w ha t happens if you make that material the first paragraph of

your second drafr

In the same way you might need to sketch out several rough versions of

a Web page design or a brochure before committing yourself to a fully elabshy

orated version Consider that artists do the same thing when they prepare

pencil sketches or models before beginning a work (See Figure 62)

Figure 62 In 1482 Leonardo da Vinci won a commiss ion to produce rhe largest horse ever cast in bronze He produced a ~~ clay model desrroyed by French~Jr invaders in 1499 Leonardos grand vision was not realized

I - l~ until 1999 This image from Smithsonian magazine~~ I ~ f

) ~ 1 (Seprember 1999) shows d ~ workers in New York creating~II~ I rhe full-sized figure from a ~Y l (

~ smaller master model In what sit uarions have you created a model or protorype before beginning a major project

Evaluating a Draft

6d Evaluating a Draft

If you can answer yes to the following questions youll know you have a satshy

isfactOry draft or version of your project one that reflects a good-faith effort

on your part and one that is ready to be reviewed by a colleague instructOr

or tu tOr

bull Does the draft reflect a substantial investment of time and effort A solid first draft or protorype should show that you have made

a serious attempt to meet an assignment If a draft or protorype is no

more than a hurried effort you cant expect other readers to spend time

responding to ir

bull Is the draft fairly complete A solid first draft should have almost all

its elements in place (For a research paper this would include most of

the references on the Works Cited or References page) Brilliant first

paragraphs with the notation more to follow dont qualify-nor do

Web links that lead nowhere

Is the draft readable Whether youre showing your draft to an

instructor a boss or a group of other writers be sure its finish ed

enough to read or use easily This requires that a paper be neat doubleshy

spaced and printed dark enough co read (You shouldnt ask anyone

outside your family co read a handwritten draft ) A PowerPoint presenshy

tation should work when you project it a resume should be formatted

completely JUSt as if yo u were about to send it our

e-Tips You may want to create separate files for each version of a project that

you are developing Just save each new version of the file as you are writing it numbering the versions so youll always know which file is your latest Argldoc Arg2doc Or use the versions command under File to let Word manage this task for you And remember always to back up your important files in different places if possible