Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying

QSD 132 – Construction Technologies I

Assignment 1 – Site Stimulation

Brickwork

Name: Dahlia Binti Ab Aziz

Student ID: 2012611132

Class: AP1141FC

Date Of Submission: 10 September 2012

Lecturer’s Name: Miss Lina INTRODUCTION

The video shows a single specified residential house in a suburban area. The situation can be

referred and similarise with a long Belgium block of 2008, custom built home sit on an oversized lot in

Riverbank, California. Generally describe the house with simple specification such as the gardens have

been professionally landscaped. The lovely home offers such amenities as covered front and rear porches

even when flagstone. An outdoor front porch and grill also included as with an elegant pool house with full

bath. The house consists of six bedrooms with 8 and half bathroom. The house itself is 7,203 squarefeet

while the area of the residence is about 39,639 squarefeet and that means 0.91 acres in total. It is suitable

for a single family with an attached garage and a lovely traditional fireplace.

The video showed how the brick of the house was layered and all the procedures required for it.

The technique for the brickwork was explained and visualized. The process of a wall was gradually shown

from a brick into a wall along with the use of mortar, flashing and weep mole. From the video, it is obviously

state on what is the technique is used for the wall and the way it is layered. It is shown on the use of wall

ties.

Brickwork is large field that when it is combined together with various selections could create

magnificent monument although it is only a wall. What more is it is when a combination was create right it

could stand tall with no earthquake could make it crumble and fall. It is proven with the standing of The

Great Wall of China and The Pyramid of Giza. The Ancient Egyptians also used sun dried mud bricks as

building materials, evidence of which can still be seen today at ruins such as Harappa Buhen and Mohenjo-

daro. Paintings on the tomb walls of Thebes portray slaves mixing, tempering and carrying clay for the sun

dried bricks. These bricks also consisted of a 4:2:1 ratio which enabled them to be laid more easily.

Although great thing could achieve, a wrong combination could crumble and crack with only wind or water

as its enemy. Through the decade humanities search and tried new technologies to perfected and create

the indestructible wall.

Bricklaying work generally begins with the corners of the structure-to-be. These corners are built up

on an appropriate foundation to a height of several bricks, using a gauge-rod to determine the exact height

at which each course is to be laid. The remainder of the course is laid using a line strung between the

corners to maintain the correct height for the newly laid bricks. After the bricks have been laid but before

the mortar has set, the mortar bed is tidied and finished, a process known as pointing.

Ordinarily, parts of bricks — within a course, are arranged such that perpends do not vertically align

in any two successive courses. If this rule is observed, then the weight acting on any brick is distributed

across an area that widens with each downwardly successive course. There is a large variety of

arrangements for the cutting and orienting of bricks guaranteeing that perpends never directly align from

one course to the next. Any such arrangement is called a Bond.

There are a lot of methods on construct a wall, let alone a building. Brickwork is large field of

technology. Types of bricks and brick layering is stated. Also its functions included.

Brickwork is masonry produced by a bricklayer, using bricks and mortar. A brick is a small block of

burned clay of such size that it can be conveniently held in one hand and is slightly longer than twice its

width. Typically, rows of bricks are laid one on top of another to build up a structure such as a wall. The

standard size of a common brick are 215mm x 102.5mm x 65mm. In other cases, brickwork may be used in

a more localised way, to finish parts of buildings such as corners of walls, or door or window openings.

Brickwork is often built as a load-bearing structure. A modern load bearing brick wall often

comprises two or more separate walls tied together with wall ties. In some cases, such brickwork may have

little or no structural significance, and its primary function may even be purely decorative.

ENGINEERING BRICKS

Engineering Bricks Engineering bricks are called so due to their overall strength and water

absorption. The Class A brick has strength of 125N/mm² and water absorption of less than 4.5%. Class B

engineering bricks have a strength greater than 75N/mm² and water absorption of less than 7%.

Traditionally used in civil engineering, these bricks are also useful for damp courses and structural design.

FANCING BRICK

These bricks are designed to have a neat, even appearance. They also tend to be made from

materials high quality clay with which are interesting to look at, there is no need for plastering since they will

comprise the literal face of a building and will be the first thing people encounter when approaching. It is

designed to be seen on outside wall. While two sides of the bricks have been specially coated with

colour /decorate with pattern before the brick is fired.

Facing bricks can come in classic red, it's also possible to find cream, yellow, and other colors.

Some bricks may have inclusions which add visual texture, and facing bricks can also be stamped with

motifs or designs which are designed to make them more attractive. Facing bricks can be extruded or

molded, and in some cases may be made by hand, although handmade brick can be quite expensive

SPECIAL BRICK

They are made from fine clay with a high quality that is proposed for high durability. Finished bricks

are dense, to resist damage by exposure to weather (in which they are most used). They are usually use

for decorative purposes such at the head of a brick pier or at the feet of a gargoyle. Also, at times it is used

at the corner of an arch and specially design keystone. It comes in different unique shapes and sizes for

various purposes.

BONDING

ENGLISH BOND

This bond has alternating courses of stretchers and headers. The bricks in one course or layer

show their header faces, and alternately the other layer show their stretcher. Queen’s closers appear as the

second brick, and the penultimate brick in header courses .One of the strongest bond amongst other

bonds. The wall is 1 brick thick (89nos. of bricks/m2)

FLEMISH BOND

This is one of the most attractive bonds and was particularly popular in Georgian buildings. Flemish

bond, a course which alternates headers and stretchers is laid. Then, a course is laid on top, with the

headers in the previous course being centered under the stretchers in the new course. The course laid over

this one is oriented like the first course, and so on, creating a complex alternating pattern with the long and

short sides of the brick. The wall will be 79 nos. of bricks/m2In

STRECHER BOND

In the bricklaying field, the term stretcher bond is a reference to the format and standard to which

certain types of brick walls are built in order to be stable. Stretcher bond is the term given to the repeating

pattern the bricks are laid in. This pattern includes vertical supports tied in to the foundation of the structure

the wall is being built on. Bricks are laid with every brick showing a stretcher on each sides of wall – header

is used at angles, jambs of openings

This type of brick format is used mostly in interior settings because it is only applicable in thin-walled

settings. As a matter of fact, the stretcher bond wall is only usable in the thinnest of brick wall settings. This

is because it is only as thick as one half of a brick .A wall of 102.5mm thick or ½ brick (single brick wall)

LOAD BEARING WALL

A load bearing wall gives a building structural integrity means it supports the weight of the structure

above. It carries and distributes weight from the roof and top floors down to the foundation. Damage to a

load bearing wall can cause floors to sag, finishes to crack and the entire structure to collapse. A load-

bearing wall it. Exterior walls of a house normally bear the load, but sometimes an interior wall will also be

load-bearing to support extra weight above, such as an attic furnace or air conditioner.

Any opening in a load-bearing wall, such as a door or window, requires extra support that will shift

the load or downward pressure in the open space to extra vertical supports on both sides of the opening.

Any change in a load-bearing wall, such as adding a window or putting more weight on a roof, requires

extra support

Know that the outside walls of your home are always considered to be load bearing because these

walls support the roof. Additional support has to be given to these walls when any modifications are

performed. Load bearing wall has a support beam or there is a wall below, it's probable that it is a.

Characteristics

o It’s sometimes difficult to identify load-bearing walls, since they’re mostly concealed behind drywall. If

your home has a basement, examine the basement ceiling to find a beam or wall that follows the same

lines as a wall above it. In such cases, the upstairs wall is probably a load-bearing wall. Walls that support

ceiling joists and rafters in an attic are usually load-bearing as well. A load-bearing wall often has floor and

ceiling framing running perpendicular to it. Your home’s original blueprints can help you identify load-

bearing walls, but don’t rely solely on original blueprints if your home has been remodeled previously.

Modifications

o Consult with an architect or structural engineer before altering load-bearing walls. The walls generally

are configured to transfer equal amounts of weight to the ground through wall studs. Cutting an opening

into a load-bearing wall disturbs how the weight is distributed. An architect or structural engineer will

determine the size of the beams needed to shift the weight above an opening to each side of it to prevent

the wall from collapsing. You will probably need that type of information to get a building permit, which is

usually required to make structural changes to a home.

Wall Removal

o You may want to remove a load-bearing wall to free up floor space in your home. In such cases, the

wall must be replaced with a beam strong enough to carry the same weight as the wall. The beam may be

installed below the ceiling or inside of it so that the beam isn’t visible. Temporary support columns must be

installed to prevent the ceiling from collapsing during construction.

Materials

o The grade and type of wood or other materials used to build a load-bearing wall affect how the wall is

constructed. For example, the span capacity of the lumber used to build a home’s upper level floor joists

indicates where load-bearing walls need to be located. The span capacity is the distance that floor joists

can safely run without added support beneath them. Lumber suppliers usually have floor joist tables

available to help determine span capacity for various types of wood.

NON LOAD BEARING WALL

Building a load-bearing wall during new construction takes some engineering knowledge. Installing

a non-load-bearing wall into an existing home just requires that it be put in straight and level. Still, it's

important to follow standard procedures regarding the placement of studs and other issues so it doesn't

look cockeyed or start falling down in a year. This plan assumes you're constructing a floor-to-ceiling wall

that attaches to an adjacent wall on one side, stands alone on the other side, and doesn't need a doorway

cut into it

Instructions

1. Snap a line on the ceiling where you want your wall to go. With your stud finder, locate and mark

each ceiling joist along the span. Use your miter saw to cut a 2x4 to the length of the new wall and

screw it to the ceiling alongside the snapped line, sinking two screws at each joist. This is your

ceiling plate.

2. Hang a plumb line from each end of the ceiling plate, on one side of it, to the floor, and mark the

two points on the floor. Connect the marks with your snap line.

3. Cut two more 2x4s of the same length as the ceiling plate. One will be a top plate to screw against

the ceiling plate, and the other will be a floor plate.

4. On each of the two new boards, measure 1 1/2 inches out from the side that will touch the existing

wall, and mark a line there with your tri-square for your corner. Measure 16 inches over from that

line and mark another line for the start of the next stud. Then mark another line 1 1/2 inches over

from that one, to account for the thickness of the stud. Continue measuring across each of the

boards, marking lines for studs every 16 inches. At the open end of the wall, mark for three studs in

a row, pressed together.

5. Measure from the bottom of the ceiling plate to the floor, then subtract three inches from that

number. That's the length you need for your studs. Cut enough 2x4s at that length to stand

between each of the paired marks you've made on the floor plate and top plate.

6. Lay the top plate and floor plate on their edges, their marked sides facing each other, the boards far

enough apart to fit the studs between them. Attach each stud to the floor and top plates by sinking

two screws through the far side of the plate and into the ends of the stud. Frame out the whole wall.

7. Stand the wall up, with the floor plate along your floor line and the top plate butting up under the

ceiling plate and even with it on all sides. Screw the top plate into the ceiling plate, sinking several

screws upward on the flat spans of the top plate between each pair of studs.

8. Put a level on the outer edge of the new wall and move the bottom part of it out or back if necessary

to get it level. Then screw the bottom plate onto the floor, sinking screws on the flat spans between

the studs. Your wall is now ready for electricity installation if necessary, and drywalling.

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BRICKWALLS

i. Strength

Resist compressive & tensile stress.

Stability

Resist overturning by lateral force & buckling caused by excessive slenderness.

May be affected by foundation movement, eccentric loads, lateral forces (wind) and expansion due

to temperature and moisture changes.

ii. Weather & Ground Moisture Resistance

Primary concern is penetration of moisture, vapour & dampness.

iii. Durability & Maintenance Free

Cost of maintenance of wall over a number of years depend on its durability.

The common material used as walling for permanent building is the well-burned brick which durable,

fire resistance and had good appearance of the material.

iv. Fire Safety

Fires in buildings – the outbreak of fire or spread of fire

Fire safety regulations are concerned to assure a reasonable standard of safety in case of fire eg:

provide adequate means of escape, limit internal fire spread, limit external fire spread.

v. Thermal/ Heat Resistance

To maintain satisfactory internl condition of room/space.

Factors affecting thermal properties of wall are: density,type of base material, type of construction,

openings & heat transmission properties.

vi. Sound Insulation

Noise generated in a room may be reflected from the walls and ceilings and build up to an

uncomfortable intensity inside the room.

To prevent the build-up of reflected sound some absorbent material should be applied to walls and

ceilings, such as acoustic tiles or curtains, to absorb the energy of the sound waves.

Characteristics of wall that can provide sound insulation are thickness of wall, continuity of room

design & material used.

Apart from the type of brick, and the type of bonding is concern. There is also the technology of the

type of the wall need to be considered. In the concern for the environment and weather, the type of wall is

also used. In this case the cavity wall was used to solve the problem created by the three main elements,

which is water, wind and sun. Water would create such problem as mold and brick expansion which is

known to be absorbent and causing cracks. The wind causes erosion to the bricks. Lastly, the heat from the

sun would over evaporate the moisture from the bricks and consequently alternating from expansion to

shrinkage would eventually cause it to crack. Thus, the using of cavity wall expand the life span of a wall.

CAVITY WALL

Cavity walls consist of two 'skins' separated by a hollow space (cavity). The skins are commonly

masonry such as brick or concrete block. Masonry is an absorbent material, and therefore will slowly draw

rainwater or even humidity into the wall. The cavity serves as a way to drain this water back out through

weep holes at the base of the wall system or above windows. A cavity wall with masonry as both inner and

outer skins is more commonly referred to as a double wythe masonry wall

Function

An added benefit of cavity wall construction is that it provides the ability to more adequately insulate

the building. A continuous layer of rigid insulation is easily fitted between the cavity and the inner skin of the

wall. The insulation does not fill the cavity but rather slip in behind it. The cavity itself also helps in

insulating the building by acting as a thermal break between the two skins of the wall.

The reason cavity insulation keeps heat in is that the polymer and air in the cavity are good

insulators. This is because the distance between the particles in the air is greater than in a solid. Other

benefits of cavity walls are their resistance to moisture from the outer side to the inner wall and the increase

of sound proofing.

MORTAR

Mortar is a workable paste used to bind construction blocks together and fill the gaps between

them. The blocks may be stone, brick, cinder blocks, etc. Mortar becomes hard when it sets, resulting in a

rigid aggregate structure. Modern mortars are typically made from a mixture of sand, a binder such as

cement or lime, and water. Mortar can also be used to fix, or point, masonry when the original mortar has

washed away

Mortar nomenclature has developed over many years to its current form. Designations for mortar

are found in ASTM C 270, Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry. In the United States, the

three common types of mortar specified for new construction today are N, S, and M. These arbitrary

designations were assigned by taking every other letter from the term “mason work.” Astute observers will

notice that an “O” and a “K” also appear in that term. While these are recognized mortar types, they are

typically used for non-load bearing walls and for tuckpointing or other repair work.

Mortars are differentiated primarily by their strength: M is the highest strength, S is next, and N is a

moderate strength mortar. (O and K are lower strengths yet, which is important in repair work so as not to

create a mortar that is stronger than the wall/units where it is being placed.)

If you think the strongest mortar is the best solution, think again. True, strong mortars do generally

have increased durability and greater structural capacity. But, since much masonry is constructed as

reinforced masonry today—there are steel bars added to the cavity then grouted solid to create a

“concrete” wall—the reinforcement and grout become the more dominant structural elements. The mortar

itself is less important for its load carrying capacity than for its other aspects, such as facilitating placement

of units.

Rule of Thumb: Use a Type N mortar for all masonry work unless there is a compelling reason to

choose another mortar. C 270 provides recommendations for mortars choices in a concise tabular format

as shown here. Note that alternative mortar types are also suggested, whether for availability

considerations or for minimizing the number of different mortar types on the job site. Consult the appendix

of C 270 for tuckpointing mortar guidance.

Location Building SegmentRecommended

Mortar

Alternati

ve Mortar

Exterior, above

grade

Load-bearing walls

Non-load bearing walls

Parapet walls

N

O

N

Sor M

N or S

S

Exterior,

at or below grade

Foundation walls,

retaining walls, manholes,

sewers, pavements, walks and

pations

S M or N

Interior Load-bearing walls N S or M

Non-load bearing walls O N

From ASTM C 270

Portland cement mortar (is very often known simply as cement mortar) and is created by mixing

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), hydrated lime, and clean river sand) with water.

Function

Bind construction blocks together and fill the gaps between them.

To arrange the bricks in such a way as to prevent long lines of cleavage

Basic requirements

Will harden to such extent that it can carry the weight carried by bricks without crushing

Must not deteriorate due to weather effect

LIME MORTAR

Slaked lime is used to make lime mortar. The mortar is made by mixing sand with slaked lime at the

proportion of 1 part lime to 5 parts sand. There are two types of lime used in lime mortars, one that sets

and hardens by the reaction with the air (non-hydraulic) and one which sets by reaction to the water

(hydraulic).

Non-hydraulic lime is made from pure calcium carbonate, or chalk or limestone.

This is burned in a kiln to create calcium oxide or quicklime. When this is slaked with water it takes

on another form as calcium hydroxide. Calcium hydroxide reacts with the air to set. This is what sets the

brickwork together and creates the strength.

Hydraulic Limes. Calcium carbonates naturally occur but can include some impurities. It is these

impurities which when burned in a kiln create the calcium silicates or aluminates that react with water to

set. Enough water is added to the mixture to create calcium hydroxide powder form. The hydraulic lime is

then graded depending on their overall set strength.

JOINTING

In masonry, mortar joints are

the spaces between bricks, concrete

blocks, or glass blocks, that are filled

with mortar or grout. Mortar joints in

brickwork take up a considerable large

amount of a wall’s surface area and

have a significant influence on the

wall’s overall appearance. Some joint

profiles accentuate their individual

designs, while others merge the bricks

and mortar to form a flush,

homogeneous surface. Mortar joints

vary not only by their appearance, but

also by their water-resistance properties.

The finish of mortar joints between bricks to provide a neat joint in brickwork that is finished fairface.

Fairface -finished face of brickworks that will not/need not to be covered by plaster, rendering etc. Joint is

made when mortar is hardened sufficiently Joints are expensive - laborious

Brick masons use cementitious mortar to create strong, stable joints between rows of clay bricks.

While the look of these joints may seem like an afterthought for those focused on the beauty of brick,

mortar joints actually make up as much as 17 percent of a brick structure according to the Brick

Development Association. To maximize the appearance and function of your brick surfaces, take the time

to choose from different types of brick joints based on the needs of each project

TYPES OF JOINTS

Concave brick joints represent one of the most popular mortar profiles used in modern brick

construction. Bricklayers use a curved tool, known as a bucket handle, to compact the mortar between

each brick. The compacted mortar takes the rounded shape of this tool and curves in away from the face of

the wall.

Flush mortar joints allow brick workers to create a smooth wall surface. They use a trowel

to wipe away excess mortar so that the mortar sits flush with the face of the brick. This type of installation

does little to compact the mortar, leaving it vulnerable to moisture penetration over time. Because they lack

natural moisture-resistance, these joints are often used on walls that will be covered with paint or plaster,

rather than on walls where the brick will be left exposed.

V-joint mortar profiles feature a sharply angled design that can be created using a V-shaped

tool or simple wooden block. These tools help to effectively compact the mortar within the joint, which offers

some protection against moisture damage. A V-shaped joint is often used to conceal irregularities between

different courses of brick and give it a more structured appearance.

Squeezed joints serve as one of the simplest mortar joints that bricklayers can create. To utilize a

squeezed joint, workers apply mortar to each brick without wiping off excess mortar. This allows some

mortar to squeeze out from between the bricks and cascade down the face of the wall, giving the structure

a rustic, classical design.

Raked joints consist of rectangular profiles recessed into the mortar between each brick. Bricklayers

achieve this design using a raking tools, which removes a small amount of wet mortar from each joint. The

squared edges of a raked joint may allow water to collect around the mortar, which could lead to

maintenance problems over time.

Struck joints feature an angled top edge and a squared bottom edge. They are achieved using a

trowel that's pointed down to remove excess mortar from the bottom half of the joint. This squared edge

poses some of the same maintenance issues as with raked joints..

Weathered joints represent the opposite of a struck joint. Workers create these joints by angling the

trowel up to remove excess mortar from the top half of the joint. This design helps to emphasize the clean,

straight lines of the brick and poses none of the moisture issues of raked or struck joints.

Beaded brick joints give a structure a formal, old-fashioned look. Bricklayers create this look using a

special mold that creates a convex joint with a second thin curve along the center. This thinner curve

creates a unique shadow pattern. The inverse of this profile is a grapevine joint, which is created using a

grapevine tool. Grapevine joints are often associated with Colonial architecture according to the

International Association of Certified Home Inspectors

POINTING

Mortar joints in brickwork take up a considerable large amount of a wall’s surface area and have a

significant influence on the wall’s overall appearance. Some joint profiles accentuate their individual

designs, while others merge the bricks and mortar to form a flush, homogeneous surface. Mortar joints vary

not only by their appearance, but also by their water-resistance properties. Operation of filling mortar joints

with a mortar selected for colour & texture. Special mix of lime, cement & sand or stone dust chosen to

produce particular colour & texture. Also for protection for mortar to enhance weather resistance.

The type of joint between bricks affects not only a wall's appearance, but also the mortar's

resistance to weather and, in turn, the longevity of the entire wall. Masons employ a variety of trowels, or

pointers, to retool, or "point," mortar joints for repair purposes or following initial installation. The types of

brick pointing used range from minimal and fast swipes across the joint's surface to detailed, sloping or

concave angles within the joint.

TYPE OF POINTING

A flush mortar joint is neither recessed nor protruding from the wall--the mortar is flat relative to the

surrounding surface of the bricks. Flush pointing is typically performed during the installation of the brick

wall; after laying a course of brick, the excess mortar is cut, or swiped, away from the brick's surface,

leaving a flat mortar joint.

The concave joint, also called "bucket handle," is a rounded mortar joint. This type of pointing

forces the mortar to curve toward the wall's interior in a half circle shape. Builders use special pointing

trowels and, sometimes, pieces of pipe to create this joint. Because of its sloping curve, a concave joint

carries water away from the wall, improving the mortar's resistance to weather.

A weatherstruck joint increases resistance to weather by angling the entire mortar joint outward. A

trowel is used to shape the mortar into a slope angle away from the interior of the wall, downward from top

to bottom. This method of pointing requires a steady hand to create a uniform, smooth mortar joint.

A raked joint, also called recessed, is flat like the flush joint. A raked joint's unique characteristic is

that its surface is recessed in relation to the surrounding bricks. Although the raked joint lends the wall an

attractive sense of depth, it allows moisture to accumulate around a mortar joint. Raked joints are

considered the least weather-tight of joints.

Tuck pointing is a special masonry technique that uses colour in an attempt to create a seamless

connection between brick and mortar. To create a tuck pointed joint, masons recess mortar as courses of

brick are laid, returning later to fill the joints with mortar of the same colour as the brick. Tuck pointed joints

are typically fashioned in a flush style.

The video is about brick installation and drainage wall. These facts and function is either stated

above or below. It is shown that the method and technologies use in the video are by using common mortar

and stretcher bond for the cavity wall. Here, it is shown on how the brick is layered, on how mortar is

prepared. Installation of brick on foundation wall too is shown. On how the drainage cavity was used and

how further apart is the cavity will the walls. Installation of flashing at wall interface is also shown as to

emphasize the need of the flashing to prevent moisture in the wall. Then, they install felt building paper as

to support the function of the flashing to the wall.

Both these ‘papers’ is nail in to the inner leaves of the wall. While the brick is layered weep holes is

installed for the moisture in the cavity to weep out and evaporate, the concept is to give a way out for

moisture in the cavity. After several layers of bricks they install wall ties to keep the wall closed and

correctly placed. When they reach the window level, they gave the window flashing at least two inches tall

damp to prevent water from entering the cavity and let it trickle down the sill. The same concept was done

to the roof and door with slightly different technique.

I learn of each meaning of the term and the function of it. Furthermore i have got to known on how it

is installed respectively. These is what I have learn from video. I have benefited a lot from this video as to

have learn about precious knowledge that would be gold in my field of studies.

FLASHING

Flashing refers to thin continuous pieces of sheet metal or other impervious material installed to

prevent the passage of water into a structure from an angle or joint. Flashing generally operates on the

principle that, for water to penetrate a joint, it must work itself upward against the force of gravity or in the

case of wind-driven rain, it would have to follow a tortuous path during which the driving force will be

dissipated. Exterior building materials can be configured with a non-continuous profile to defeat water

surface tension.

Flashing may be exposed or concealed. Exposed flashing is usually of a sheet metal, such as

aluminium, copper, painted galvanized steel, stainless steel, zinc alloy, terne metal, lead or lead-coated

copper. Metal flashing should be provided with expansion joints on long runs to prevent deformation of the

metal sheets. The selected metal should not stain or be stained by adjacent materials or react chemically

with them.

Flashing concealed within a construction assembly may be of sheet metal or a water proofing

membrane such as bituminous fabric or plastic sheet material, depending on the climate and structural

requirements. Aluminium and lead react chemically with cement mortar. Some flashing materials can

deteriorate with exposure to sunlight.

One of the biggest indicators of how long a home will last is its ability to shed water. This is because

moisture that penetrates into the building will quickly rot the wood building structure and/or lead to the

growth of mold and fungus. Preventing this water penetration is done with the correct installation of

flashing. Through-wall flashing needs to be installed prior to application of the brick or siding. Its job is to

move water that has accumulated behind the brick or siding to the exterior of the building

1. Measure the length of the bottom of the wall with a measuring tape. Transfer this measurement to

the through-wall flashing and cut to length using tin snips.

2. Hold the through-wall flashing so its bottom runs along the foundation and its side is flush with the

wall. The bottom of the flashing needs to extend past the foundation by about 1/2 inch and bend

downwards.

3. Secure the flashing to the wall with one nail at every wall framing member. The nails need to be as

high up the wall as possible. Never install a nail near the bottom. This provides a path for the

moisture to enter the wall.

4. Install The exterior wall membrane over the entire wall by stapling it to the wood sheathing. The

membrane should overlap the flashing and extend to the inside of its corner.

5. Install the bricks or siding on the wall system. If the wall is brick, a weeping hole should be provided

every five feet along the bottom course. This is done by removing the mortar from the vertical joint

at the desired locations.

WEEP HOLES

Weep holes or "weeper holes" are small openings left in the outer wall of masonry construction as

an outlet for water inside a building to move outside the wall and evaporate.Weep holes are located near

the base of masonry structures, particularly brick buildings. Raising the grade above weepholes may allow

moisture, snakes, insects, and small animals to enter the building. Modern weep holes employ screens,

constructed of flexible nylon or plastics. Typically, drain tiles have weep holes, which allow water to enter

the tile.

They serve two important purposes. Ventilation of the internal wall cavity - Without ventilation,

mildew, dry rot and damp reduce the life of the internal wall studs and other building materials within the

cavity. Inadequate ventilation is the main cause of "Leaky House Syndrome".Drainage - Water that enters

the cavity due to capillary action, condensation, damage, or accidental flooding needs to escape

somewhere. In tropical and sub-tropical areas of Australia it is not unusual to see water flowing from the

weep holes on the prevailing side of well constructed houses after a 'gully raker' or monsoonal storm.

 a highly porous absorbent paper used in the manufacture of some building and roofing papers

Weep holes may seem a small part of masonry wall construction, but they are critical to the

durability and performance of cavity walls. Weep holes should be installed in the masonry head joints

above all flashing courses. This includes the base of the wall, above all window and door lintels, and above

shelf angles. Anywhere the cavity is interrupted, you must install flashing and weeps. There are several

ways to form weep holes.

Each type has a different appearance as well as advantages and disadvantages. Open head joints

are most common type is the open head joint. Open head joints are easy to form. Mortar is left out of the

joint, leaving an open channel that is 3/8 inch wide by course height by veneer depth. Plastic tubes is

hollow plastic tubes also are used to form weep holes. The most common ones are 1/4 or 3/8 inch in

diameter by 3 1/2 to 4 inches long. Manufacturers recommend installing them at an angle in the mortar of

the head joints, spaced 16 inches apart.

Cotton wicks are used to form another type of weep system. A 1/4 to 3/8 inch diameter rope is

installed in joints at 16 inches on center. The rope should be 10 to 12 inches long and extend through the

veneer face and up into the cavity wall above the height of any possible mortar droppings. Moisture in the

cavity is absorbed by the cotton material and wicked to the outside face of the wall where it evaporates. Oil

rods or ropes as another alternative for cavity wall drainage are oiled rods or ropes mortared into bed joints

16 inches apart and then removed when the mortar has set. The rods function much the same as plastic

tube weep holes.

For a cavity wall to function properly, water that collects on flashing must be able to drain through

weep holes to the exterior of the building. If weep holes do not function properly, water collecting in the

cavity can infiltrate to the building's interior. For proper drainage cavity walls must be detailed correctly and

constructed to keep the cavity clear of mortar droppings and prevent weep hole blockage. The most

common types of weep holes are open head joints, louvered vents, rope wicks, tubes, cellular vents, or a

combination of these.

TYPES OF WEEP HOLES

Open head joints

Unmortared head joints

Spaced at regular intervals at the base of the cavity, are highly effective and are the easiest type of

weep hole to construct. Louvered vents: Louvered aluminum or plastic vents sometimes are used in

conjunction with open head joints to keep insects out of the cavity. Rope wicks: Cotton sash cord also is

commonly used for weeps. The cotton fibers have a wicking effect that draws moisture from the cavity to

the exterior of the building. Tubes: One-quarter-inch-diameter plastic or metal tubing, cut slightly longer that

the thickness of the wythe, is mortared in place as the course immediately above the flashing is laid.

Cellular vents: Plastic cellular vents consist of many small, adjacent passageways bonded together in one

unit. The cross section is similar to that of a honeycomb. Prevent mortar build up is the best way to assure

proper drainage of water is to maintain a cavity that is free of mortar droppings. This requires good

workmanship and construction.

FELT BUILDING PAPER

Tar paper also known as felt building paper is a heavy-duty paper used in construction. Tar paper

is made by impregnating paper with tar, producing a waterproof material useful for roof construction. It can

be distinguished from Roofing felt:Asphalt-saturated felt. Roofing felt has been in use for over a hundred

years. Originally felt was made from recycled rag but today felts are made of recycled paper products

(typically cardboard) and sawdust.

The most common felt product is the so-called #15 felt.Wall ties are used in cavity walls to connect

the outer and inner walls, or to connect a new masonry wall to an existing one. Designs vary according to

whether a tie is for use with masonry or timber. Some common examples are shown below. Small metal

strip or steel wire used to bind courses of masonry to wood frame in veneer construction.

Installing felt paper is an important part of installing new shingles on a roof, as it helps to protect the

roof from moisture and may be required by state and local law as well. Felt paper should be applied directly

to the roof itself, meaning that it is intended for installation on new roofs or on roofs where all shingles have

been stripped off before new asphalt shingles are installed. It isn't difficult to install felt paper, especially if

you have someone to help you with it. After the felt paper has been installed, your shingles can be installed

directly over the paper

Factors affecting nature of the brickwork ;

Force of Nature

Most of us live in climates influenced by rain and wind. During a storm, a thin film of water clings to

windward surfaces. Porous materials, like unfinished shingles, stained wood clapboards, and masonry

veneers soak up water. Non-porous materials like freshly painted wood, aluminum and vinyl do not. But the

film of water sticks to all siding products. As the wind’s speed and direction shifts, water moves up, down

and sideways under the influence of air pressure. It moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low

pressure. The area directly behind a wind-blown wall surface is at a lower pressure than its exterior face.

This pressure difference works to suck the water inward through any hole it finds. Stripped problem walls

immediately after heavy rain to monitor rain intrusion and establish moisture profiles. It is perfectly clear

that butt-joints, seams, holes, and siding overlaps are siphon points driven by air pressure, gravity and

capillary suction. If there is no building paper, water will get wicked up into the wood sheathing where is

often causes structural problems.

Many carpenters make the mistake of thinking that siding – wood, brick, vinyl, stucco – is an

impenetrable barrier against the elements. The truth is, whether water is propelled by wind, capillary

attraction, gravity, or some combination of these forces, sooner or later it finds its way behind, around or

through the siding. Local code may not require you to use felt or housewraps, but unless you live in an

extremely arid climate — you need to use it. Typically, building paper is installed as soon as the sheathing

is installed. But to be effective, it must be integrated with the flashing that follows in later stages of the job.

This means, for example, having to slit the housewrap above windows to tuck under the upper leg of a

metal cap flashing, then taping the wrap to the flashing. And the wrap itself must be properly layered,

overlapped and taped where necessary to provide a clear drainage path (see Watertight Walls article.)

Barrier Design

There are basically 3 types of weather-barrier systems: the sealed-face method; the vented rain-

screen approach; and the redundant-barrier system. The sealed-face method is straight out – non-effective.

The vented rain-screen approach is clearly the Mother of all weather-barrier systems. However, the

redundant-barrier approach works well and is the most cost effective option.

The vented rain-screen is a system where lengths of strapping are fastened to housewrap-protected

wall sheathing. Siding is attached to the strapping leaving an air space between the back of the siding and

the face of the sheathing. This design does 2 very important things: The air pressure between the air on the

outside of the siding and the air space created behind the siding is similar (if the siding is leaky to air).

Therefore, rainwater is not sucked through the penetrations in the siding. No driving force! The second

strength of this system is that the air space behind the siding promotes rapid drying if any water does get

past the siding.

Constructing a rain screen is somewhat costly and labor intensive. Installation is unconventional, so

it requires rethinking of some details. Window and door trim must be padded out. Flashing should be

extended back to the sheathing beyond the air space and under the housewrap. Door hinges may need to

be extended, so doors can be fully opened. Roof overhangs at gable ends must be extended to cover

thicker wall sections. The bottom of the air space must be covered with screening to prevent critters from

entering the vent chamber. These and other accommodations are certainly doable, but involve more labor

and materials than typical construction. In my opinion, rain screens are required fare for wet, wind-blown

areas like the Pacific Northwest, exposed coastal environments and hilltop exposures. But, this approach is

not required or cost-effective for most climates and construction budgets.

The redundant-barrier works well for the vast majority of homes built today. And this system has the

advantage of being familiar to builders. Basically, putting tar paper or approved housewrap on the exterior

walls before siding is installed is the first step to build an effective redundant-barrier system. Proper

installation is required to make this system work. You must design a drainage plane that keeps water out!

When water penetrates the siding, it must have a clear path to follow downward. Water must remain

outside of the protective wrap. Be sure that tops of windows, doors and penetrations are flashed properly

(see Making Walls Watertight). All water must be directed outward. Also, we must choose materials that are

capable of providing the protection we expect and need. The barrier should be resistant to liquid water and

air infiltration, while being permeable to water vapor.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that brickwork is a very interesting field to get involve with. Is is very important

for a quantity surveyor to know its brickwork very carefully and detail because it can affect the cost of the

subject when using certain technologies in doing even a simple construction project. Brick is a virtually

maintenance free material that resist the elements, as well as moisture compare to other material, fire or

heat, and much general wear and tear. It is also fairly soundproof, and does not lose its colouring with age.

Before the mortar is mixed, lay the first set of bricks or try a full dry run to ensure that the design

works on the selected earth slot. On any brickwork, the vertical joints are staggered and do not line up

making the wall more stable. It is prominent to allow space for the mortar in between each brick (about

10mm). Use the spirit level to practice adjusting the vertical and horizontal planes.

Highly important to the creation of a solid and lasting wall is the laying of good foundations. The

foundations must be strong enough and deep enough to bear the weight of the brick wall. This much of

knowledge should be the basic of a construction involve personal.

Good quality bricks have a major advantage over stone as they are reliable, weather resistant and

can tolerate acids, pollution and fire. Bricks can be made to any specification in colour, size and shape

which makes bricks easier to build with than stone. Brickwork is also much cheaper than cut stone work.

However there are some bricks which are more porous and therefore more susceptible to dampness when

exposed to water. For best results in any construction work, the correct brick must be chosen in

accordance with the job specifications. You are as good as your weakest link. Thank you.

The shell of a house serves as the first line of defense between the occupants and the outdoor

environment. Walls function as a weather barrier, nail base for finish materials and an energy conserving

boundary. A sensible wall system is durable. And this requires all components in a wall assembly to be

compatible for the long haul. Siding, siding finishes, housewraps, insulation and wall frames must work

together while achieving distinctive goals. So it is in this light that we should view a primary, but often

overlooked, component in residential wall systems: weather-resisting wall wraps.

Wood, brick, masonry, vinyl, and other sidings do not function as barriers to driving rain. Siding is porous.

There are a multitude of joints, laps, and connections making it discontinuous. Water and air are driven

through these leakage points by wind, gravity and capillary forces. Also, we generally use water-sensitive

materials for siding and structural elements. Leaking water rots wood, grows mold, corrodes steel and

lowers insulating R-values. Another concern is that leaking air strips heat from homes and dollars from

energy budgets. So air-tight construction is desirable.

ADVANTAGE OF USING CAVITY WALL

Wall. Wall insulation systems help to keep homes more energy-efficient and comfortable. According to

Energy Saving Trust, "If your home was built from 1920 onwards, the chances are that its external walls are

made of two layers with a small gap or 'cavity' between them." This empty cavity is what led to the need for

insulating material. There are many advantages, as well as disadvantages, that accompany wall insulation

Advantage—Energy Efficiency

Unlike conductors, insulators are poor transmitters of heat. This characteristic explains why wall

insulators are energy-efficient. They slow down the rate of heat transfer and restrain heat within the

house as long as possible; hence, there is less of a need to use energy to achieve and maintain a

comfortable room temperature, especially during winter. Since wall insulators prevent heat loss,

they save on energy costs. Wall insulators also prevent the penetration of too much heat from the

external environment, which is especially useful during summer.

Advantage—Friendly to the Environment

Wall insulation is normally made up of air barriers, vapor retarders and thermal bridges--all of which

contribute to preventing heat from escaping through the walls of homes. By reducing heat loss, as

well as cool air that is lost during the summer, wall insulation reduces emissions to the environment

by reducing the use of heaters and air conditioners, which helps to reduce electricity consumption.

As the majority of power plants that produce electricity also produce carbon dioxide, lowering

energy consumption can reduce pollution. According to Green Street, "Wall insulation can reduce

heat loss by up to 40% through cavity walls and up to 60% through solid walls. It is therefore one of

the most important energy-saving measures to consider."

Advantage—Noise Reduction

Insulating walls also reduce noise. Insulators between walls act as absorbers and barriers to

decrease noise being carried to adjoining rooms.

Disadvantage—Rain Penetration

According to the Building Research Establishment, cavity wall insulation does not totally prevent

rainwater from penetrating the “outer leaf of masonry.” The rainwater creates moisture which then

causes “dampness on internal finishes.”

Disadvantage—Health Risks

Some materials used for wall insulation pose health risks. Asbestos, for example, has been known

to cause mesothelioma, a form of lung cancer, and gastrointestinal tract cancers. Fiberglass, a

commonly used material for insulation, can cause skin allergies due to the chemicals used to bind

the fibers together.

In addition, styrene, a foam insulator, can cause health risks—ranging from eye and respiratory irritation to

possible effects on the liver and the reproductive system.

REFERENCE

http://www.interstatebrick.com/faqs/Whatarethecorrectproceduresforrepointingbrickwork.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weep_hole

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/felt%20paper

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashing_(weatherproofing)

http://www.diynetwork.com/diy/windows_walls_and_doors/article/0,1000642,DIY6047522_04,00.html

http://bct.eco.umass.edu/publications/by-title/housewraps-felt-paper-and-weather-penetration-barriers/

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-stretcher-bond.htm

http://www.builderregister.com/brickwork.php

http://www.brickdirectory.co.uk/html/brick_history.html