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here is a basic human drive to be comfortable. I once hada rhyme (author unknown) on my college room bulletin boardthat put it whimsically:

�Man is a funny creature.When it�s hot he wants it cold.When it�s cold he wants it hot.Always wanting what is not.Man is a funny creature.�

Funny or not, the quest for comfort probably is as old as thehuman race. We know that fire was used for warmth at least100,000 years ago, and perhaps much longer than that. Thereare charred remains of ancient campfires to prove it. But what ofcomfort cooling? Melting ice or snow leaves no archeologicalrecord. Thus the beginning of the timeline of comfort cooling isburied in obscurity; we have to rely on written records for thehistory of cooling. Since there was no mechanical refrigerationbefore the 19th century, any attempts to artificially cool the airwould have used ice, snow, cold water or evaporative cooling.This article will consider the history of comfort cooling in theUnited States using ice.

The AntecedentsOne of the earliest written records, the Holy Bible1, mentions

�The coolness of snow in the heat of the harvest.� There areother sporadic accounts of ancient peoples using ice or snowfor cooling. For example, the Roman emperor Varius Avitus or-dered that mountain snow be brought and formed in mounds inhis garden so that the natural breezes might be cooled.2

Other examples, most unrecorded, are scattered across thecenturies. However, apparently not much was done in the com-fort cooling field until the 1800s.

By Bernard NagengastMember ASHRAE

This is the third article in our special series to commemoratea century of innovation in the HVAC&R arts and sciences.

Shortly after the turn of the 18th century, Frederic Tudor ofBoston sent a shipload of ice to Martinique in the West Indiesto relieve the Yellow Fever epidemic that raged there. Curiously,the beginnings of the commercial ice industry in the U.S. can betraced to this shipment, Tudor�s first one. That shipment that,technically, was used for comfort cooling was the beginning ofthe ice trade in the U.S. At that time, physicians were alreadyusing ice in their efforts to reduce fever. In 1901 it was reportedthat prior to 1825, physicians in larger American cities alreadykept stores of ice for medical use.3

The Debut of Ice-Powered SystemsThe aforementioned U.S. examples of ice use for cooling are

not those that HVAC engineers envision. The doctors did pro-vide comfort cooling, but it was done by direct application of

A History of Comfort CoolingUsing Ice

Comfort from a Block of Ice

A History of Comfort CoolingUsing Ice

About the AuthorBernard Nagengast is a consulting engineer in Sidney, Ohio,who has been researching the history of HVAC&R for 26 years.He is past chair and present consultant for the ASHRAE Histori-cal Committee and co-author of the ASHRAE Centennial historybook Heat & Cold: Mastering the Great Indoors.

T

The First Century of Air Conditioning

A History of Comfort CoolingUsing Ice

T

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the ice to the body. Engineers think ofcomplete systems, but examples of icecooled ventilating systems and equip-ment didn�t materialize until the mid-18th.century. Their frequency increases as the20th century approaches.

The earliest proposal for comfort cool-ing in the U.S. using ice was possiblythat of George Knight of Cincinnati who,in 1864, proposed a hospital cooling sys-tem in Scientific American. It featured aventilating system with an air washer toclean and cool the air. The water for theair washer was run through a cooling coilimmersed in melting ice. Outside air wasforced by a fan through the cold waterspray to be distributed overhead throughperforated outlets. Knight noted that�The device is intended especially foroptional and discretionary use in the heatof summer...� 4

Nathaniel Shaler of Newport, Ky.(across the Ohio River next to Cincinnati)who was the grantee of U.S. Patent 47,991in 1865 for an �improved air cooling ap-paratus� envisioned another cooling sys-tem. The patent describes a heat ex-changer made with �ice holders� placedin a �tortuous passage� through whichroom air is blown to cool it. Shaler alsosays that a desiccant can be placed in theairstream to dry it (see Figure 1).

After 1870, refrigeration and largebuilding heating and ventilating systemsbegan to be commercialized. For the firsttime, enterprises were organized with theexpress purpose of the engineering,manufacturing and sales of building in-frastructure systems.

A demand was arising for central sys-tems that would provide refrigeration forbreweries, ice making and cold storage.Central heating and ventilating plantswere needed for the various buildingsbeing constructed. However, there waslittle demand for comfort cooling. At thetime, mechanical refrigeration was tooexpensive to be used in this fashion. Butice was too!

In his 1873 article �On the various sys-tems of cooling the air,� A. Jouglet dis-cussed using ice as a means of comfortcooling, but concludes: �In point of fact,this method of refrigeration must be con-sidered as impracticable, while ice is notvery cheap, and cold cannot be producedas inexpensively as heat.�5 It seems that

the few attempts at cooling at that timewere perhaps done by the curious or bythe entrepreneurs. One example was theice cream vendor who was said to havecooled a Staten Island, N.Y., hotel diningroom about 1880. He used a system thatblew air through pipes imbedded in a mix-ture of ice and salt.6 It was an isolatedexample, typical for a cooling era at thepoint of conception.

Engineered SystemsThe Sanitary Engineer reported in 1880

that New York�s Madison Square Theaterwas using about 4 tons (3630 kg) of ice tocool patrons at evening summer perfor-mances. Fresh air was filtered through a40-ft (12 m) long cheesecloth bag, pass-ing over wooden inclined racks, contain-ing 2 tons (1815 kg) of ice, and into an 8-ft (2.5 m) diameter centrifugal fan. The fandischarge was directed over another 2tons (1815 kg) of ice, into ductwork tovarious openings through which the coolair �...poured into the house to reducethe temperature and to furnish a supplyfor respiration.�7

The Madison Square Theater installa-tion was a new type of comfort coolingsystem. It was an engineered system, pro-vided by B. F. Sturtevant Co., an engi-neering and manufacturing firm that soonbecame the foremost purveyor of air sideheating and ventilating systems in theU.S. Engineered building systems wouldfrequent the U.S. landscape in the com-ing decades. Companies like Sturtevantthat offered to engineer, make and installH&V equipment were forming with fre-quency after 1880. The technical staffs atthese companies were the newborn in anew profession, that of the heating andventilating engineer. Their increasingnumbers would soon show the need for a

specialized engineering society, the resultbeing the organization of the AmericanSociety of Heating and Ventilating Engi-neers in 1894.

This new era saw building systemsdesigned to provide specified results. Atfirst such results were often broadly de-fined. This was especially true for the fewcomfort cooling systems that were de-signed between 1880 and the early 1890s.And those few systems were ice typesystems.

Possibly the most famous of them wasthe one that used ice to relieve the suffer-ings of U.S. President James Garfield wholay dying from an assassin�s bullet in thesummer of 1881. The system was de-scribed in a pamphlet �Reports of offic-ers of the Navy on ventilating and cool-ing the executive mansion during the ill-ness of President Garfield,� published in1882. It seems that the Naval engineerspassed air through dozens of thin cottonscreens onto which dripped the coldmeltage from a salt-ice mixture containedin a tank above. The cooled air wasducted into the president�s bedroom, re-sulting in as much as a 20°F (�11°C) tem-perature drop. The desired result�to cooldown the president�s room�was abroadly defined one. Any reasonable dropin temperature was acceptable.

Another cooling system was designedin 1889 for the Carnegie Music Hall byconsulting engineer Alfred Wolff. Wolffwas probably the first really successfulheating and ventilating engineer, and hedesigned some of the most importantcomfort cooling systems around the turnof the nineteenth century. His first attemptused ice. The building�s dedicationrecords described the system:

�Fresh air, at any temperature desired,in large volume but at a low velocity, is

Figure 1: Shaler�s patented cooler for ventilating air, 1865.

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introduced, and the vitiated air is ex-hausted. Generally, the fresh (warmed orcooled) air enters through perforationsin or near the ceilings, and the exhaust iseffected through registers or perforatedrisers in or near the floors and, passingthrough an elaborate system of ducts,worked into the construction of the build-ing, is expelled above the roof.�

�Through [the] heating surface, or atwill through the ice racks, the air is drawnby four powerful blowers, each 12 ft [3.7m] high, and forced through the systemof fresh air ducts into the various parts ofthe building.�

�The heating surface and other appli-ances are so subdivided that atmosphericchanges can be immediately compensatedfor, and the temperature of the air intro-duced suited to the winter weather or theheat of summer.�8

The cooling side of this system was notengineered to maintain a specified tempera-ture and humidity. Wolff was happy with aresult that simply lowered the room tem-perature. The effectiveness of the CarnegieHall system is unknown-confirmations ofits use seem to be absent.

More ice-type cooling systems wereinstalled in the next score of years. TheBroadway Theater in New York used anice cooled ventilating system for at least10 years beginning in the early 1890s. Thesystem forced outside air over ice blocksplaced on wooden troughs, throughducts to registers in the theater. Keith�sTheater in Philadelphia allegedly used aton of ice per performance in 1903. Thatsystem was described as using naturalinduction, with hot air exiting throughwindows at the top of the auditorium. Oneengineer, a Mr. C. M. Stokes, commented:�... I have been in the auditorium in prettywarm weather. In fact I go there on a hotday to get cooled off. You can look downthe floor register and see the ice in there.�9

These systems had been mentionedin a technical session at the January 1903meeting of the American Society of Heat-ing and Ventilating Engineers. This wasthe first time the topic of comfort coolingusing ice was presented to that Society.The subject obviously interested theH&V engineers�the discussion follow-ing the paper took up three times as muchspace as the paper did when it was pub-lished in the ASHVE Transactions.

The system that had fostered such in-terest was an ice type comfort coolingsystem used in Scranton, Pa., at the localhigh school. For at least three years, be-ginning in 1901, the auditorium wascooled at the time of the June graduationexercises. Comfort for as many as 1,400persons was maintained by circulating 3million ft3 (85 million L ) of air per hourover blocks of ice (see Figure 2). The airwas discharged high up on the walls, ex-iting through aisle floor registers. About6.5 tons (5900 kg) of ice were used forsensible cooling on a typical night tomaintain an about 15°F temperature dif-ference between outside and inside. Pansof calcium chloride were also placed inthe airstream when necessary to lower thehumidity. The amount of calcium chlorideused was determined by deciding on ahumidity level, then adding pans of thedesiccant until a check of the air with asling psychrometer indicated the desiredresult.10

Four years later, Theodore Weinshank,ASHVE member, described an Indianapo-lis theater cooling system that used icebefore 1907:

�At the opening of one of their the-aters the engineer undertook to cool thebuilding. The outside temperature was

85°F (29°C). The outside air was takeninto a fan through a large galvanized ironduct. Into this duct they placed a numberof wire baskets... filled with crushed ice.The baskets were so arranged that the airentering the fan had to pass over orthrough the ice. The engineer succeededin reducing the temperature of the audi-torium to 70°F (21°C), but it kept four icemen hauling ice to the building as fast asthey could go.� Weinshank estimated thatabout 20 tons (1800 kg) of ice were usedfor the performance.11

Ice was being used, at least in somecomfort cooling systems. Could it com-pete with mechanical refrigeration?

Ice Effectiveness QuestionedAlthough few in number, some of the

cooling systems using ice did not achieveuniformly good results.

Leicester Allen, writing in Heating andVentilation in 1893, commented:

�But there as yet exists one defect inthis method of cooling. When warm airnot previously dried by artificial means ismade to pass over a cold surface, its hu-midity is made to approach the point ofsaturation as it is cooled; and, if notcooled to below the point of saturationso as to throw down some of its moisture

Figure 2: Ice refrigerator for high school.

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H I S T O R Y

its power to take up moisture is lessened by the cooling pro-cess... the air is not rendered thirsty for moisture until it is againreheated by the warmth of the room into which it flows. Simul-taneous coolness and dryness are never attained by these pro-cesses.�12

Ten years later, Professor William Kent observed:�I know other attempts have been made to cool with ice and

have failed on account of the excessive humidity. It seems thatif you carry air that is normally near saturation into a chamberfilled with ice, the escaping air will be thoroughly saturated.Then, if you bring that cold air into a hall which has warm airwhich is near the saturation point, you will make a fog, a mist,and deposit moisture on the walls.�13

Both Allen and Kent blamed ice-type cooling systems forinadequacy. However, such blame actually was not warranted.

Today�s engineers, studying early cooling systems, wouldnote that many of these did not properly mix or distribute theair, nor did their design properly recognize the relationships ofsensible and latent cooling. Such science and practice was inits infancy in the period between 1890 and 1910.

By the early 1900s, a science of comfort cooling had evolved.The effect of humidity on human comfort was understood, prob-ably because it could be personally experienced. The relation-ship of humidity to temperature, the means of measuring it, andthe control of it were the topics of study and discussion.

The debut of the scientific approach to air conditioningdates to the publication of German Professor Herman Rietschel�s1894 book: Guide to Calculating and Design of Ventilatingand Heating Installations (see Figure 3). This book containeda chapter, �Cooling of Rooms,� that discussed topics like hu-midity control, etc. It was the first time that engineers had ahandbook for comfort cooling practice. Gershon Meckler de-scribed Rietschel�s accomplishment in 1994: �What Rietscheldid, in effect, was to use his scientific understanding to definethe problem in engineering terms, i.e., to identify the variablesand present a step-by-step design process. Because he putscience into an engineering framework, making it more acces-sible to engineers, Rietschel was a pioneer of the engineeringscience of air conditioning.�14

ASHVE charter member Herman Eisert presented Rietschel�sscience of air conditioning to the U.S. engineering professionin 1896.15 Soon, the control of humidity became a primary goal.This was the objective of Alfred Wolff when he designed theHVAC system for the New York Stock Exchange in 1901, and ofWillis Carrier in his design of the system for the Sackett-WilhelmsLithographing Co. in 1902. Both used mechanical refrigerationto accomplish their goals. Why did Wolff abandon the ice ap-proach he had used years earlier at Carnegie Hall? Why didCarrier choose not to consider ice for his systems?

Neither Wolff nor Carrier seem to have explained their prefer-ence for mechanical refrigeration in their cooling systems. Wecan speculate that there were several reasons.

The fact that more precise control of humidity was possiblewith mechanical refrigeration was no doubt one reason. An-other was convenience. Mechanical refrigeration provides cool-ing on demand. Use of ice as a standby cooling medium ispredicated upon the willingness to store it on site, or arrange

for instant delivery when the weather demands comfort cool-ing. Still another reason could have been the growing publicsuspicion about the cleanliness of ice. At the turn of the lastcentury many sources of harvested ice were becoming pol-luted. Contaminated ice might produce foul smells�bad forbusiness in public halls! In some cases the reason was cost.Wolff�s New York Stock Exchange system was a cogenerationsystem and the cooling was in effect free. The NYSE didn�thave to pay for ice.

The period leading up to World War I saw more H&V instal-lations that featured comfort cooling systems. These were largesystems installed in hotels, offices, restaurants, stores, hospi-tals and theaters. As a percentage of the total number of heat-ing systems, the number installed were relatively small. How-ever, most of these systems, as described in contemporary lit-erature, used mechanical refrigeration to provide the cooling. Itwould seem that the ice type cooling systems were losing outto on-site refrigeration plants.

Ice Sees a ResurgenceBy the 1920s, many American homes had refrigerators that

used ice. However these so-called �ice boxes� slowly disap-peared, replaced by electric or gas refrigerators. At first, the iceindustry felt no threat from mechanical refrigeration applied tothe home. Before the 1920s, it had been expensive and unreli-able. This changed after 1925 as mechanical household refrig-erators got better and less expensive. By the late 1920s, themechanical units were seen as a serious threat to the commer-cial well-being of the ice industry, which soon searched for ameans to replace its lost business. One possibility was to use

Figure 3: Hermann Rietschel�s textbook title page.

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ice, once again, for comfort cooling. Theice industry wondered: could its ice salesto homes and small businesses that hadbeen superseded by mechanical refrigera-tion be replaced by sales of ice for com-fort cooling to those same customers?

Beginning about 1929, numerous ar-ticles appeared that promoted comfortcooling using ice. By 1931, dozens hadbeen published.16 Even the U.S. Govern-ment got into the act. For instance, thepossibility of cooling homes was dis-cussed at President Herbert Hoover�sConference on Home Building in 1932.The conclusion: Mechanical equipmentwas still too expensive to make homecomfort cooling feasible, but use of icefor the purpose offered the most likelysolution, provided that the cost of icecould be reduced. For a house costing$10,000, the installation cost should notexceed $500 and its operating cost $100per season.17

The ice industry recognized an oppor-tunity. It was a fact that air cooling instal-lations using ice would be cheaper thanthose using mechanical refrigeration. Theice industry was concluding that homeshad not been cooled to any extent be-cause equipment cost was high and therewas little effort to sell the idea. �Whetheror not ice is used for this purpose de-pends a great deal upon what the ice in-dustry does about it.� commented onewriter.18

Doing something about this potentialfell to the ice industry trade group: TheNational Association of Ice Industries.Fred McCandlish of the technical depart-ment of the NAII outlined the agenda ofthe ice industry:

�First: it is necessary that we interestair-conditioning and equipment manufac-turers in the development of an appara-tus suitable for ice refrigeration. Second:our own members, icemen, must be awak-ened to the possibilities of increased icesales by the development of this market.Third: potential comfort cooling custom-ers as well as the general public shouldbe sold on the idea of comfort cooling sothat they will be receptive to the devel-opment.�19

The ice industry concluded that: �Thepotential market for comfort cooling is sovast that the saturation of a small part ofit will require more than double the

present production capacity of the iceindustry.� �Therefore, our sales programfor the immediate future will have as itsobjective the obtaining of installations inlocations where the advantages of com-fort cooling can be seen, felt, and appre-ciated by the greatest number of poten-tial users.� �... we must sell an idea ratherthan merchandise.�20

The focus of the ice industry was onselling a perishable product. This wasdifferent from the approach used in ear-lier comfort cooling installations. In thosecases, the mechanical refrigeration indus-try and its engineers approached the mar-ket as one that used equipment that wassold once. The ice industry approachedits market as a continuous consumer ofits product, ice. �We are interested inequipment sales only as a means to anend-creating new markets and increasingthe consumption of our product, ice.�21

The National Association of Ice Indus-tries supported its promotional effortswith manuals issued by its technical de-partment. These included an engineeringmanual that prescribed methods of loadcalculation and system design.

The manual pointed out that compari-sons of systems using ice and mechani-

cal refrigeration should not be done us-ing general cases because the calcula-tions could be manipulated to show thatice type systems were more expensive.

Although the capital expense of an ice-type cooling system was much lower, theoperating cost could be shown to bemuch higher when compared to a coolingsystem using mechanical refrigeration.This depended upon the assumptionsused to calculate the seasonal load andthe time allowed to depreciate the equip-ment. The manual included an example ofa system in which the seasonal owningand operating cost varied. Using one setof calculations the cost was $1,000 morefor ice; or it could be $260 less using dif-ferent assumptions. The manual recom-mended that each job should be consid-ered independently for comparison pur-poses.22 No doubt, sales personnel onboth sides of the issue took liberties withtheir assumptions to show that their ownsystem was the least costly.

Typical Installations Using IceIt seems that the efforts of the ice in-

dustry were successful. An article in Iceand Refrigeration reported that �Ice isnow being successfully used to cool and

Figure 4: Diagram of Knickerbocker air cooler.

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condition many theaters throughout thecountry. We have learned of two in NewYork City, one in Philadelphia, one in Bal-timore, two in Indianapolis, one in Cleve-land and six in Chicago. Contracts havebeen made to install equipment in othertheaters in Boston, Philadelphia, St. Louis,Chicago and Kansas City. No doubt thereare many others...� It was reported thatthese installations typically used about 6tons (5440 kg) of ice per day, costing about$250 in 1998 dollars. The article notes thatthe theaters were able to charge extra forthe cooling, with admission prices of $6to as much as $11 (expressed in 1998 dol-lars). �The neighborhood theaters, withtheir admission prices of 25, 35, 50 centadmissions have been unable to absorbsuch expense.� (In 1998 dollars, these ad-missions would cost about $2.50 to $5.00.)

The article went on to report installa-tions in restaurants and stores. �Manydepartment stores are providing equip-ment for conditioning the ladies� alterationand fitting departments. This will elimi-nate their previous losses due to soileddresses and gowns which has been quitean item.�23

Although the ice industry did not di-rectly manufacture or install air coolingequipment, there seemed to be no short-age of manufacturers or installers. Forexample, the Betz Unit Air Cooler Co.manufactured two kinds of coolers for ice.One used an air washer-type arrange-ment; the other melted ice in water, circu-lating it through a fan coil.24

A typical installation was that engi-neered for the offices of theKnickerbocker Ice Co. on the 21st floor ofthe Liggett Building in Detroit about 1937.The system, designed by the TyphoonAir Conditioning Co., was used by theice company as a showcase installationto promote use of ice for air conditioningpurposes. More than 8,000 ft2 (743 m2) ofoffice space was cooled with 2,000 cfm(944 L/s) of outside air and 4,000 cfm (1888L/s) of recirculated air. The air was passedover 1,100 ft2 (102 m2) of cooling surfacecooled with chilled water. The water wascooled by spraying it over cakes of ice inan insulated bunker having a capacity ofholding 6 tons (5443 kg) of ice (see Fig-ures 4 and 5). Constant supply water tem-perature was maintained by use of a ther-mostatically controlled bypass valve at

the bunker that sensed the return watertemperature. A second bypass valve wasused to vary the amount of chilled waterpumped to the cooling coil. The secondvalve was controlled by a variable differ-ential temperature control that sensed thefresh air and the recirculated air tempera-tures (see Figure 6). In effect, the out-side air and the room air temperatureswere sensed, and the thermostat operatedin such a manner that at 75°F (24°C) therewas no difference between inside andoutside. As the outdoor temperature in-creased, the differential increased to amaximum of 12°F (�7°C) at 95°F (35°C).The ice was recharged when 80% to 90%of it had melted.

�With this system of controls, the ice-cooled equipment becomes entirely au-tomatic and it is not necessary to varythe fan speed in order to preventovercooling at low loads. This is advan-tageous, as it is virtually impossible tocontrive a system of distribution that willfunction effectively through any consid-erable range of air volume variations.�25

No doubt there are those who wouldmaintain that this problem still has notbeen solved!

Mechanical Refrigeration TriumphsThe promotional efforts of the ice in-

dustry had the result that many of the

comfort cooling systems installed in the1930s did use ice. Those vigorous effortsby the ice industry did not achieve thepotential originally envisioned, for me-chanical refrigeration proved to be anequally vigorous competitor. In fact, theuse of ice began to decline after WorldWar II. Mechanical cooling equipmentcontinually improved, and like the house-hold refrigerator a couple decades earlier,the evolution of cooling equipment aimedfor better reliability, smaller size and lowercost. Although there were many factors,one of the most important was the intro-duction of sealed refrigeration systems.By the 1950s, mechanical air-coolingequipment was affordable to many smallerbusinesses and homeowners. Ice typesystems were rarely considered an op-tion for comfort cooling.

It seemed that ice was doomed onceagain to be a relic of an earlier age. Butthe 1970s brought the energy crisis, andwith it, a renewed interest in off-peak stor-age for comfort cooling. Some systemswere designed and installed using icebanks. In these systems, ice was manu-factured during the night, and that storedenergy was then used during the day forcooling. In refrigeration systems with air-cooled condensers, evaporative condens-ers or cooling towers, use of cooler night-time air resulted in energy savings.

Although storage systems are stillbeing designed, raw ice is being replacedwith different storage media with a greaterenergy capacity.

Ice�It�s Still Here!The saga of ice seems to have turned

full circle. The article began by showinghow ice was applied for on-the-spot com-fort cooling by direct application in thefirst commercial venture. We saw that theprincipal use of ice in the early 1800s wasin medicine.

Today, much ice is still used for com-fort cooling in medicine. However, thereis a new version of on-the-spot cooling,one not evident 200 years ago. In the U.S.,no informal dine-out meal is complete with-out an iced drink. More ice is used forthis direct application of comfort coolingthan could have been dreamed of by theice industry 70 years ago. Unfortunatelyfor that industry, virtually all of this mod-ern use of ice is satisfied by on site manu-

Figure 5: Ice blocks inside air cooler.

F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 9 A S H R A E J o u r n a l 5 7

H I S T O R Y

facture using icemakers. It seems that theice industry�s nemesis�mechanical re-frigeration�has succeeded in replacingthe ice man in virtually every application.

Thus the ice man and the ice industryhas withered. Cooling systems using iceinstead of mechanical refrigeration haveall but disappeared. But ice itself has sur-vived and even prevailed in its own mod-ern comfort cooling niche.

Every time we use an ice pack on ourfeverish head; every time we take a sipfrom an iced tea on a hot summer day,breathing a sigh of relief as we swallow;we are experiencing the uniqueness of icefor cooling. The art and science of airconditioning has progressed mightily, butwe still take comfort from a block of ice!

References

1. Proverbs 25:13

2. Oldham, B. 1965. �The history of refrig-eration.� The Journal of Refrigeration8(May):147�149.

3. Anonymous. 1901. �The tenth anniver-sary of Ice and Refrigeration.� Ice andRefrigeration 21(July):7,8.

4. Anonymous. 1921. �Cooling of hospi-tals.� Journal of the A.S.H.V.E. 27(Octo-ber):763�764.

5. Jouglet, A. 1873. �On the various sys-tems of cooling the air; and their applica-tion in factories, public buildings, andprivate houses.� The Practical Engineer1(6):450�463.

6. Ohmes, G. and A. Ohmes. 1936. �Earlycomfort cooling plants.� Heating, Pipingand Air Conditioning 8(June):310�312.

7. Billings, J. 1893. Ventilation and Heat-ing 391�392. New York: The EngineeringRecord.

8. Ohmes and Ohmes, 1936.

9. Harris, J. 1903 �Cooling an auditoriumby the use of ice.� ASHVE Transactions9:179�187.

10. ibid.

11. Anonymous. 1907. �Topical Discus-sions� Topic no. 4 �Air washers and aircooling.� ASHVE Transactions 13:287.

12. Allen, L. 1893. �Summer ventilationand cooling.� Heating and Ventilation13(March):6.

13. Harris, 1903, p. 182.

14. Meckler, G. 1994. �The scientific rootsof HVAC&R,� p. xxiii, published in:Donaldson, B. and Nagengast, B. 1994.Heat & Cold: Mastering the Great In-doors. Atlanta: ASHRAE.

15. Eisert, H. �The cooling of closedrooms.� ASHVE Transactions 2: 172�195.

16. McCandlish, F. 1932. �Bibliographyof articles on use of ice for air condition-ing.� Ice and Refrigeration 82(February):120�122.

17. Anonymous. 1932. �Comfort coolingfor the home.� Ice and Refrigeration 82(February):142�143.

18. Bullard, J. 1931. �Automatic housecooling.� Ice and Refrigeration 81(July):1,2.

19. McCandlish, F. 1931. �Recent devel-opments in comfort cooling with ice.� Iceand Refrigeration 81(August):97.

20. Brandt, E. and L. Currey. 1932. Com-fort Cooling Sales Manual, section III: �In-creasing ice sales with comfort cooling.�p.4. Chicago: National Association of IceIndustries.

21. ibid.

22. Brandt, E. and L. Currey. 1932. TheEngineers Manual, section VII: �Increas-ing ice sales with comfort cooling.� Chi-cago: National Association of Ice Indus-tries.

23. McCandlish, F. 1931. �Recent devel-opments in comfort cooling with ice.� Iceand Refrigeration 81(August):98.

24. Anonymous. 1931. �Air cooling withice.� Ice and Refrigeration 81(Octo-ber):207�211.

25. Holske, C. 1937. �A study of office airconditioning using ice.� Heating & Ven-tilating November:31�34. n

Figure 6: Piping and controls for Knickerbocker system.

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